Managerial Economics UNIT – 1 : Introduction O. S. Suguna Sheela Meaning O Managerial economics is economics applied in decision making. O It connects theory and practice O It is based on economic analysis for identifying problem, organizing information and evaluating alternatives Meaning O Goal oriented O Prescriptive O Maximum achievement of objective O Selecting best alternative choice Definition O Spencer and Siegelman : “Managerial economics is the integration of economic theory with business practice for the purpose of facilitating decision making and forward planning by management” O Mc Nair and Meriam : “Managerial Economics is the use of economic modes of thought to analyze business situation” O Watson : “ME is price theory in the service of business executives” Feature O Concerned O O O O with decision making of economic nature Goal oriented and prescriptive Pragmatic Conceptual and metrical Link between traditional economics and decision sciences Decision Problem Traditional Economics Managerial Economics Optimal Solution to Business Problems Decision Sciences Nature of managerial economics O O O O O O O O O Microeconomic in nature Work with given macro economic condition Pragmatic Goal Oriented Prescriptive Normative Science Conceptual and metrical Helps in decision making and forward planning Integration of economic theory and business practice Scope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1. DEMAND ANALYSIS & DEMAND FORECASTING 2. PRODUCTION POLICY AND COST ANALYSIS 3. SUPPLYPOLICY 4. PRICING AND PRICE POLICY 5. RELATION OF PRICE ANDOUTPUT 6. SALES PROMOTION 7. MARKET STRUCTURE, COMPETITION AND STRATEGY 8. PROFIT MANAGEMENT AND MAXIMISATION 9. INPUT – OUTPUT ANALYSIS 10.INVENTORY CONTRIBUTION 11. INVESTMENT&CAPITAL BUDGETING 12. OBJECTIVES OF FIRM 13. GOAL SETTING AND STRATEGIC PLANNING 14. RESOURCE ALLOCATION 15. TRADITIONAL ECONOMICS 16.ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS Significance Tools in Managerial Economics Opportunity cost principle Incremental principle Time perspective Discount Principle Equi-Marginal Principle Contribution Risk and Uncertainty Negotiation Principle Opportunity cost principle: O Benham : “The opportunity cost of anything is the best alternative which could be produced instead by the same factors or by an equivalent group of factors, costing the same amount of money”. O W. W. Haynes : “Opportunity cost of a decision means the sacrifice of alternatives required by that decision “. O Adam Smith has explained opportunity cost like this –If a hunter finds a bear and a dear while hunting, if he kills bear, dear is the opportunity cost & vice versa. Incremental principle: O We can say incremental principle is an extension of marginal principle. O In the incremental concept, managerial economists use incremental cost and incremental revenue more. Time perspective: O Traditional Economists divide the time element into four as very short run, short run, long run & very long run. The demarcations of short run and long run is done based on the fixed and variable input. But Managerial economist is interested in division of time element into two-Short run and Long run, because he is interested in making policies for the immediate future (short run) or remote future (long run). Definitely, effect of short run & long run on revenue, cost, production, decision about the plant size, etc. makes a lot of difference to him. Time distinction is very essential in making essential decision, particularly in deciding about size of the plant, knowing about the stage of law of production, pricing the full cost according to time, etc. Discounting principle: O Discounting principle is a continuation of time perspective & we can say it is a corollary of time perspective. O The old proverb “A bird in hand is better than two in the bush” is a representative of this discounting principle. The worth of a rupee receivable tomorrow is less than that of a rupee receivable today. Since the future is unknown & incalculable, also there is a lot of risk & uncertainty about the future. If the return is same for now & future, then definitely present return will be given importance. So the future must be discounted both for the elements of waiting & risk of the future. Even if one is certain that he will get some income in the future, it is essential to make a discount in the income because he has to wait for the future, which involves sacrifice. Moreover inflation may reduce the purchasing power. For making a decision regarding investment which will yield a return over a period of time, it is important to find its net present worth. To know the returns over a period of years to decide over an alternative investment, it is necessary to use discounting principle. Discounting principle: O Suppose the bank fixed rate is 7% per annum. A person who is O O O O O O O having 1000 rupees this year can get 1070/- rupees along with the returns. We can say 1070/- next year is worth 1000/today. This is the net present value. We can find this by using the formula. Present value or discounted value V = R/(1+i) Where, i is the interest rate V is the present value R represents the returns i.e. Present value + interest So we can determine the amount we have to invest now in order to get particular amount after certain years. The sum of present value of returns for n years would be V = R1 / (1+i) + R2 / (1+i) 2 + ……… +R n / (1+i)n = n R / (1+I )k ∑ k Equi- Marginal principle : O O O O O O To make optimum allocation of resources, a firm can use equi-marginal principle. Equi-marginal principle can be applied to the allocation of the resources between their alternative uses with a view to maximize their profit in case a firm carries out more than one business activity. Equi-marginal Principle States that an input must be allocated between various uses in such a way that the value added by the last unit of the input is the same in all its uses. To understand the principle, let us assume a simple example. Suppose a firm produces two products A & B and market price of both the product is the same. Suppose the last unit of the labor used for production of A gives rise to a marginal product of 20 units and the last unit of the labour used in producing B gives rise to a marginal product of 30 units, then the firm must shift the labor from production of A to B. Firm should relocate the laborers till the Marginal product of A = Marginal product of B of the last labourer used in both production. When prices are different, then MPA / PA = MPB /PB It can be generalised as MPA / P A = MPB /P B = MPC / PC =… ………=MPN / PN Concept of contribution: O O O This concept takes help from both the principles of incremental reasoning and opportunity cost. The concept of contribution tells us about the contribution of a unit of output to overheads and profit. It helps in determining the best product mix when allocation of scarce resources is involved. It also indicates whether it is advantageous or not to accept a fresh order, to introduce a new product, to shut down, to continue with the existing plant, to make or to outsource etc. Unit contribution is the per unit difference between incremental revenue from incremental cost. In case of a firm with excess capacity, a new product can be introduced easily as it is likely to contribute very little to cost but significantly to Revenue. And some contribution is better to none. On the other hand, if the firm has a backlog of orders for the existing products, then the new product, if introduced, will have to compete for the use of the same production facilities which the existing products are using. In such a case the choice between clearing the backlog orders of the existing product and introduction of a new product will depend upon their respective contributions. Production facilities will be allocated on the basis of which of these products can contribute more. If the firm has only a single source which is scarce, say, the machine time availability and rest of the resources are abundantly available should look at contributions per machine-hour. Firm will produce that product which uses less machine-hour. Risk & uncertainty: Economic theory of the firm generally assumes that the firm has perfect knowledge of its cost and demand relationships and of its environment. Uncertainty is not allowed to influence the decisions of the firm. O Yet, we know that in the real world uncertainty influences the estimation of costs and revenues, and hence the decisions of the firm. Since future conditions are not perfectly predictable, there is always a sense of risk and uncertainty about the outcome of such decisions. The major problem therefore remains how to measure the uncertainty. The Economists have tried to take an account of uncertainty with the help of subjective probability. It is assumed that profit expected from the adoption of any action may assume any value within a certain range of values, each value having an associated probability of being realized. This requires formulation of definite subjective expectations about the cost, revenue and the environment which is very difficult. O The Negotiation principle: O Everything in real commercial world is negotiable such as prices, terms and conditions of payment, commissions, payment to labourers, etc. If the negotiation is successful both the parties will be happy. It leads to win win situation which is good for the flourishment of an industry. O Apart from this, it uses many tools like slope, differentiation, functions, econometric modules, etc. Responsibility of Managerial Economists O First and the foremost important responsibility of a O O O O O Managerial Economist is to make profit on the invested capital. Set the objectives and goal according to the situations prevailing inside the firm and type of the firm. Make proper decision making policies, programs and plans for the proper working of the firm. Make correct forecast about the future and plan for the forward planning Minimize the risk because business means risk and uncertainty Be vigilant Role of Managerial Economist: O Making decision and processing information are two primary tasks of managers O In order to make intelligent decisions, managers must be able to obtain, process and use information O The purpose of learning economic theory is to help managers know what information should be obtained and how to process and use the information QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT I ESSAY QUESTIONS 1) Bring out the nature of managerial economics. 2) Bring out the SCOPE of managerial economics. 3) Explain the major economic tools applicable in managerial economics. 4) What are the characteristic features of managerial economics? SHORT QUESTIONS 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Define managerial economics Discounting principle TIME ELEMENT OPPORTUNITY COST Forward planning and goal setting Managerial Economics UNIT – 2 : Demand & Supply Analysis O. S. Suguna Sheela Syllabus O Meaning of Demand, Demand Function, Curves, Individual and Market Demand, determinants of demand-Types of Demand. Elasticity of Demand - Types of Elasticity, its measurement and business uses. O Meaning of supply-supply function-supply curve-determinants of supply –law of supply Demand - Definition O According to Prof. Hibson, “Demand means the various quantities of goods that would be purchased per time period at different prices in a given market. “ thus three things are necessary for the demand to exist; O (1) Desire for the commodity, O 2) ability to purchase the commodity and O 3) willingness to pay the price of the commodity. O Benham - “The demand for a commodity refers to the amount of it which will be brought per unit of a time at a particular price”. Demand - Function O The functional relationship between the demand for a commodity and its various determinants may be expressed mathematically in terms of a Demand Function. Dx = f(Px,Py,M,T,A,U) O Dx = Quantity demanded for commodity X O Px = Price of commodity X O Py = Price of substitutes and complementary goods O M = Money income of the consumer O T = Taste of the consumer O A = Advertisement effects O U = Unknown variables or influence. Determinants of Demand O Individual Demand O Market Demand Determinants of individual Demand O Price O Income O Price of related goods O Taste and habit O Price expectation O Income expectation O Climatic condition Determinants of market Demand O Price O Distribution of Income & wealth O Price of other related goods in market O Scale of preference O Future Price expectation O General standard of living & spending habit O No. of buyers in the market & population growth Determinants of market Demand O Age structure & sex ratio of population O Tax O Fashion & custom O Climatic & weather condition O Advertisement & sales propoganda O Inventions & innovations Individual Demand Schedule O Demand schedule expresses the relationship between price and demand of an individual PRICE DEMAND 26 1 18 2 12 3 10 4 Demand Curve O A demand curve is a graphical representation of a demand schedule when price quantity information is plotted on a graph. Thus, demand curve depicts a picture of a data contained in the demand schedule. Individual Demand Curve Market Demand Schedule PRICE per Quintal (Rs) Amount Amount Total Market Demanded by Demanded by DEMAND Buyer A Buyer B 50 5 10 15 40 15 20 35 30 25 30 55 Market Demand Curve Law of Demand Other things remaining constant, people will buy more at less price and buy less at high price – Samuelson In Fergusons’s words, “According to the law of demand, the quantity demanded varies inversely with price”. Statement of Law O Marshall states the law of demand as: “The amount demanded rises with a fall in price and diminishes with a rise in price.” O The law can also be stated as “other things being equal, higher the price of a commodity, the smaller is the quantity demanded and lower the price, larger is the quantity demanded.” Assumptions of the law O Consumers income should remain same. O There should not be any change in tastes and preferences of consumers. O The price of related goods should remain unchanged. O There should not be any change in fashions, weather conditions, populations, etc. O The consumer should also not expect the prices to change in the future. Explanation of the law O The law of demand can be illustrated through a demand schedule and through a demand curve. O Following is a demand schedule that shows an inverse relationship between price and quantity of a product. Price Quantity Demanded 12 10 10 20 8 30 6 40 4 50 2 60 O Write & explain individual demand schedule O Draw and explain individual demand curve O Write & explain market demand schedule O Draw and explain market demand curve Why does the demand curve slope downwards O Law of diminishing M.U. O SUBSTITUTION EFFECT O INCOME EFFECT O PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT O NEW BUYER O MULTIPLE USE Exceptions to the law of demand O Giffen paradox-inferior good O Veblen effect-snob appeal good O Expectation about future price O Speculation O Expectation of future income O Demonstration effect O Market ignorance O Price illusion- high priced product –quality Exceptions to the law of demand O Price ignorance O Off season & fashion O Lottery,acquiring property,,,, Importance of demand O Sales forecasting O Product decisions O Pricing policy O Market decisions O Financial decisions O Government policy Types of demand O Price demand O Income demand O Cross demand O Individual demand O Market demand O Autonomous demand& derived demand O Company demand & industry demand O Short run &long run demand Types of demand O Joint demand and composite demand O Demand for perishable good & durable goods O Demand for consumer good &producer good Income demand O According to Prof. Hibdon, “ income Demand means the various quantities of goods that would be purchased per time period at different income in a given market. “ O D=f(Y) Income Demand Schedule O Demand schedule expresses the relationship between income and demand of an individual income demand 10,000 10 20,000 20 30,000 30 40,000 40 Cross demand O Demand is of two types of goods……related O O O O and unrelated. Cross demand deals only with related goods Related goods is of two types--1)substitutes 2)complementary Cross demand O In price demand, price & demand of the same product is considered O But in cross demand , price of one product and demand of another related product is studied Cross demand for substitute goods O Eg of substitute goods O Tea or coffee O Htc or apple phone Cross demand for substitute goods O When the price of coffee goes up, coffee will O O O O become dearer & so the consumer will substitute a cheaper product tea. With that demand for tea will go up substitutes have a positive cross demand. i.e.when p of C RISE, D for T rise Table graph Cross demand for complementary goods O When the price of ink goes up, demand for pen goes down O Complementary goods have a negative cross demand. O i.e.when p of INK RISE, D for fall O Table O graph increase decrease ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O According to Marshall, “Elasticity or responsiveness of demand in a market is great or small according, as the amount demanded increases much or little for a given fall in the price and diminishes much or little for a given rise in price.” O . Stonier and Hague deifned Elasticity of demand as a technical term used by the eocnomist to describe the degree of responsiveness of the demand for a commodity to a change in its price. https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/elasti city-of-demand/5-types-of-price-elasticity-ofdemand-explained/3509 ELASTIC DEMAND CURVE P S Q T INELASTIC DEMND CURVE P S Q T DETERMINANTS OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O 1)Nature of the commodity O Necessary-inelastic O Luxury –ela O 2) availability of substitutes O Yes- ela O No –inela O 3)uses O Multiple-ela O Single -inela DETERMINANTS OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O 4)Postponment of consumption O no -inelastic O Yes –ela O 5) price of product O Low & medium - ela O High –inela O 6) time O long run -ela O Short run -inela DETERMINANTS OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O 7)Percentage of expenditure O low -inelastic O High –ela O 8) knowledge of the market O Yes - ela O No –inela Types of price elasticity of demand O Running note I sem poe O table Uses of elasticity of demand O Useful to businessmen –elastic-decrese in O O O O O O O price will benefit, inelastic-increase in price Monopoly Discriminating momopoly Poverty in the midst of plenty Devaluation Trade union Finance minister Joint product METHODS TO MEASURE THE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZWwOE kb0iOM O https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVeJVIJ uaUI O https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/economi cs/elasticity-as-demand/4-most-importantmethods-of-measuring-price-elasticity-ofdemand/10672 METHODS TO MEASURE THE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND O PERCENTAGE METHOD O POINT METHOD O TOTAL EXPENDITURE METHOD O ARC METHOD O SLOPE METHOD O REVENUE METHOD PERCENTAGE METHOD O Known as proportionate method or Arithmetic method or ratio method O Same as in eg--- formula Income elasticity of demand O In economics, the income elasticity of demand is the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for a good to a change in consumer income. It is measured as the ratio of the percentage change in quantity demanded to the percentage change in income. O Income Elasticity of Demand (YED) = % change in quantity demanded / % change in income O As income rises, qty dd rise-----positive slope Income elasticity of demand Ey O Similar table to price elasticity O E=0, per.inela---- SALT , MEDICINE O E<1, rel inela---necessary O E =1, unitary ela.---- comfort O E>1 , rel ela-------- luxury O E=infinite X BUT E WILL BE NEGATIVE for inferior goods Cross elasticity of demand Exy O cross elasticity of demand, is measurement of percentage change in the quantity demanded by the percentage change in the price of the related good O Related good can be substitutes or complementary goods O Sub---when of coke rise, dd for pepsi rise---+slope upwards Cross elasticity of demand Exy O complementary goods--- -ve- slope downwards--O Table O Substitutes----e=0unrelated e>1 better sub E=infin----per sub SUPPLY MEANING The term supply refers to the amount of a good or service that the producers are willing and able to offer to the market at various prices during a period of time. DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY / FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY 1. Price of the Product 2. Price of Related Goods 3. Prices of Factors of Production 4. Availability & quality of raw M. 5. Technology 6. Government Policy 7. Future Expectation about Price 8. Other Factors SUPPLY FUNCTION S = f (P, Pr, Pf, T, G, E, O) 1. P - Price of the Product 2. Pr - Price of Related Goods 3. Pf - Prices of Factors of Production 4. T - Technology 5. G - Government Policy 6. E - Future Expectation about Price 7. O - Other Factors DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY / FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY Price of the Product (P): When price increases then supply increases and when price decreases then supply also decreases. There is a positive relation between price and supply. Price of Related Goods (Pr): The supply of a commodity depends upon the prices of all other commodities. If prices of related commodities (substitutes or complements) rise, they will become relatively more attractive to produce and the supply of that commodity rises. But supply of another commodity will fall. So there is an inverse relation. DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY / FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY Prices of Factors of Production (Pf) – Cost of Production: A rise in prices of factors of production of a commodity will make the production of that commodity less profitable, so supply will decrease. If costs of production decreases then supply will increase. There is an inverse relation between supply and cost of production. Technology (T): Technology advances based on new discoveries and innovations reduce the cost of production and results in more and more supply of the commodity. With the traditional technology, supply cannot be increased. DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY / FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY Government Policy (G): The government policy may affect the supply by imposing taxes and providing subsidy. If government policies are favourable (decrease in taxes and increase in subsidy) then supply will increase and if government policies are unfavourable (increase in taxes and decrease in subsidy) then supply will fall. Future Expectations about Prices (E): If there is future expectation about rise in price then supplier will not increase the supply at present and if there is future expectation about fall in price then supplier will increase his supply. DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY / FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY Other Factors: The supply of product also depends upon natural factors, government’s industrial and foreign policies, infrastructure facilities, time,objectives of the firm, applicability of law of returns to scale, market structure and production capacity. LAW OF SUPPLY “Ceteris Paribus, the quantity supplied of a commodity tends to rise with the rise in its price, conversely, the quantity supplied of a commodity tends to fall with a fall in its price.” Assumptions: No change in the prices of factors of production. No change in Technology. No change in Government Policy. No change in the future expectation about prices. No change in Price of related goods. No change in the business environment. SUPPLY SCHEDULE & CURVE INDIVIDUAL SUPPLY SCHEDULE & CURVE MARKET SUPPLY SCHEDULE & CURVE INDIVIDUAL SUPPLY SCHEDULE & CURVE Price (Rs.) Quantity Supplied (Units) 1 10 2 20 3 30 4 40 5 50 MARKET SUPPLY SCHEDULE & CURVE Price QS by QS by QS by Total Seller Seller Seller (Mar 1 2 3 ket) 1 1 2 3 1+2+3 =6 2 2 3 4 9 3 3 4 5 12 4 4 5 6 15 5 5 6 7 18 MOVEMENT IN SUPPLY CURVE (CHANGE IN QUANTITY SUPPLIED) When supplied quantity due to change in only PRICE, it is called MOVEMENT. MOVEMENT are two types: Expansion in Supply – Rise in supply due to rise in its price is called “Expansion in Supply”. Contraction in Supply – Fall in supply due to fall in its price is called “Contraction in Supply”. MOVEMENT IN SUPPLY CURVE (CHANGE IN QUANTITY SUPPLIED) SHIFT IN SUPPLY CURVE (CHANGE IN SUPPLY) When supply of a commodity changes due to change in factors OTHER THAN PRICE i.e., Pr, Pf, T, G, E, O. Following are the factors that can shift a supply curve: Changes in the price of related goods. Change in factor price (cost of production) Change in Technology Change in Govt. Policy. Future Expectations about prices Other INCREASE IN SUPPLY Reasons for Increase in Supply: Decrease in price of related goods. Decrease in cost of production. Advanced Technology. Favourable Govt. Policy Future Expectation about decrease in price. Others DECREASE IN SUPPLY Reasons for Decrease in Supply: Increase in price of related goods. Increase in cost of production. Traditional Technology. Unfavourable Govt. Policy Future Expectation about increase in price. Others Exceptions to the Law of Supply Backward sloping supply of Labour Auction Rare Collections Agricultural Output in the Short Run Need for hard cash of the entrepreneur Share Market Leaving the industries or closing the industry. Expectation of the future prices. QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT II Essay 1) LAW OF DEMAND 2) DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND 3) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND? 4) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND ? 5) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURES TO MEASURE THE ELASTICITY OF PRICE DEMAND ? 6) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEMAND ? 7) LAW OF SUPPLY SHORT QUESTIONS 1) DEMAND FUNCTION 2) DETERMINANTS 3) INCOME OR CROSS DEMAND 4) ELASTICITY OF DEMAND 5) METHOD 6) DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY 7) EXCEPTIONS OF DEMAND 8) EXCEPTIONS OF SUPPLY 9) USES OF ELASTICITY 10) DEMAND CURVE SYLLABUS –III UNIT Unit III: Production Function • Meaning of Production Function, Production function with one variable input, Law of Variable Proportions, Single output Isoquants, Optimal Combination of Factor inputs, and returns to scale. Cobb Douglas Production Function. PRODUCTION • Production is an activity carried out under the control and responsibility of an institutional unit that uses inputs of land, labour, capital, and organisation to produce outputs of goods or services. • Changing the input into output with the use of some technology • Not only goods-even services –agricultural harvesting--> production PRODUCTION FUNCTION • The production function is expressed in a functional form as Q = f( L,k, P,O,T,G,I,R,…) • The simplest production function is: • Q = f(L, K) Types of production function long run production function Q=f(L,K) Short run production function Q=f(K), L or Q=f(L), K LINEAR & NON LINEAR PRODUCTION FUNCTION • The production function is expressed in a functional form as Q = f( L,k, P,O,T,G,I,R,…) • The simplest production function is: • Q = f(L, K) PRODUCTION FUNCTION • • • • • Short run production function can be Q= a+bl ----linear Q=a+bL-c𝐿2 ----quadratic Q=a+bL-c𝐿2 +d𝐿3 -----cubic Q=a+b𝐿𝛼 ----- power function Types of production function • • • • • • Cobb-Douglas production function Q = ALαKβ Aconstant, 𝛼, 𝛽 are parameters Leontief production function Constant elasticity of substitution p.f. Variable elasticity of substitution p.f. Linear programming p.f. BASIC CONCEPTS DEFINITION OF law of variable proportion • According to Sammuel son “An increase in some input related to other comparitively fixed inputs will cause output to increase. But after a point the extra output resulting from the same additions of inputs will become les and less. This falling off of extra returns is a consequence of the fact that the new doeses of the varying resources will have less and less of the constant resources to work with. DEFINITION OF law of variable proportion • This law is applicable in the short run. • the studies about the output or returns when the variable inputs are changed, keeping the fixed input as consant. • This law proves that output changes in 3 stages. DEFINITION OF law of variable proportion • In the first stage when the variable input increases, the marginal output increases. • In the 2nd stage, when the variable input increases in the same proportion, the marginal output decreases. • In the 3rd stage even though variable input is increased in the same proportion the output becomes negative. Assumptions OF law of variable proportion • This technique of production remains constant. • This law is applicable in the short run. • All the variable inputs are homogenous. • The ratio of variable inputs to the fixed input remains constant • The price of the inptus are given and remains constant TOTAL NO.OF WORKERS TOTAL PRODUCT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 20 36 48 55 60 60 56 M.P A.P LIMITATIONS • Technology changes often in this modern world • The prices of input changes • The proportion of variable input to fixed input may not be suitable with the change in technology. • The law will not be applicable if it is newly cultivated land. • The labour and capital are in less than the optimal proportion to land i.e. the output may be increased with the increase in the proportion of labour and capital . Importance • • • • • • Malthus population theory Ricardian rent theory Optimal production point can be known Helpuful to industrialist Disguised unemployment Secular stagnation in developed cty.---rate of growth decrease—new K dimin. R OF k, --inventions to absorb new K Law of Returns of Scale • When all the inputs are increased in the same proportion in the long run,The marginal output will increase initially. Then, it will become constant and finally the marginal output will diminish, even though the input is increased in the same proportion. • The responsiveness of output to a given proportionate change in the quantities of all inputs is called returns to scale. Assumptions • The law is applicable in long run. • The price of inputs are given and remains constant. • The inputs are homogenous. • We will be able to calculate the marginal output continuously • All the inputs are increased in the same proportion i.e. the proportion of various inputs increased are kept constant. Explanation Input 2K+5L 4K+10L 6K+15L Marginal output 8 9 10 stage 8K+20L 10K+25L 11 11 CONSTANT 12K+30L 14K+35L 16K+40L 10 9 8 DIMINISHING INCREASING Reasons for increasing returns to scale • • • • • Specialisation Use of special machinery Economies of large scale production Full capacity utilisation of indivisible factors Dimensional economies Reasons for diminishing returns to scale • • • • • Diseconomies of large scale production overutilization of indivisible factors Management & coordinaton becomes difficult Higher factor price Exhaustible natural resources ISOQUANT • Production function using 2 variable inputs • Greek word iso means equal and Latin word qunatus meaning ‘quantity’.Isoquant is therefore called as the “Equal Product Curve” • As isoquant curve can be defined as the locus of points representing various combinations of two inputs yielding the same output. • An isoproduct curve is a curve along which the maximum achievable rate of production is constant Definition of ISOQUANT • According to Ferguson, "An isoquant is a curve showing all possible combinations of inputs physically capable of producing a given level of output“ • In the words of Peterson, "An isoquant curve may be defined as a curve showing the possible combinations of two variable factors that can be used to produce the same total product" Example ISOQUANT SCHEDULE COMBINATION UNITS OF CAPITAL UNITS OF LABOUR TOTAL OUTPUT A 9 5 100 B 6 10 100 C 4 15 100 D 3 20 100 • GRAPH IN JAM BOARD PROPERTIES OF ISOQUANT • 1) isoquants are negatively iNCLINED--if any other shape input increases but output will not increase • Jam board • 2)an isoquant lying above & to the right of another represents a higher output level • graph PROPERTIES OF ISOQUANT • 3) no two isoquants can intersect each other • 4) isoquants need not be parallel to each other-----rate of subtitution need not be same in all Iso. Sch. • 5) in between two isoquants there can be any number of isoquants representing different levels of outputs PROPERTIES OF ISOQUANT • 6) units of output shown on isoquant are arbitrary • 7) no isoquant can touch either axis • Graph • 8)each isoquant curve is convex to the origin------MRTS diminishes • 9) Each isoquant is oval shaped • graph MRTS COMBINATION UNITS OF CAPITAL UNITS OF LABOUR MRTSOF TOTAL OUTPUT L FOR C A 9 5 100 … B 6 10 100 3:5 C 4 15 100 2:5 D 3 20 100 1:5 https://www.youtube.c om/watch?v=8W4Qab BsW0A ISOCOST CURVE • Isocost line shows various combinations of inputs that a firm can purchase or hire at a given cost • IT IS ALSO CALLED AS PRODUCER’S OUTLAY LINE The firm’s cost equation: TC = rK + wL K Example: Isocost Lines TC2/r Direction of increase in total cost TC1/r Slope = -w/r TC0/r TC0/w TC1/w TC2/w L 43 • WHEN COST OF THE LABOUR FALLS---ISO COST CURVE WILL BECOME • …………….JAM BOARD • WHEN COST OF KAPITAL FALLS…… OPTIMAL COMBINATION • Producer can maximise profit when he is in equilibrium where optimal factor combination is done or least cost combination of factors is done. OPTIMAL COMBINATION • The two conditions of optimal combination are • 1) the slope of the isocost line must be equal to the slope of the isoquant curves • The slope of isocost line is w/r • the slope of the isoquant curve is MRTS Expansion path • Expansion path is the combination of equilibrium points • jam board • It shows how the firm can expand or when it expands what is the path it has to take Expansion path & returns to scale • When the distance between the equilibrium point decreases----increasing r.t.s.---graph • When the distance between the equilibrium point increases----diminishing r.t.s.---graph • When the distance between the equilibrium points is equal in the expansion path ---constant r.t.s.---graph COBB-DOUGLAS PRODUCTION FUNCTION • Cobb–Douglas production function is one more type of linear production function. It represents the technological relationship between the amounts of two inputs (i.e.physical capital and labor) and the amount of output that can be produced by those inputs. During 1927–1947, Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas introduced Cobb– Douglas production function. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZ3dQdjD yHQ Cobb–Douglas production function • Cobb–Douglas production function is • Q=ALα Kβ • where Q is output and L is labour and С is capital respectively. A, α and β are positive parameters where α> O, β > O. Properties of Cobb–Douglas production function • first Cobb–Douglas production function was introduced for constant returns to scale • i.e.α+β=1 • Later on it was extended to increasing returns to scale & diminishing returns to scale • When α+β>1 –increasing r.t.s • When α+β<1 –decreasing r.t.s Properties of Cobb–Douglas production function • the marginal rate of technical substitution MRSLC=α/β XC/L • it represents the factor intensity i.e. if α is more it will be labour intensive………. • Represents the efficiency of production---A • Multiplicative function---- i.e. if L or K IS zero, then output is zero • α,β --output elasticity w r t L & C QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT III Essay questions 1. Law of variable proportion 2. Properties of isoquant curves 3. Reasons for increasing returns to scale & diminishing returns to scale Short question 1. Law of returns to scale 2. Cobb- douglas production function 3. Types of production function 4. Producers equilibrium or optimal combination of factor inputs 5. Explain isoquant & iso cost curve 6. Expansion path 7. How expansion path related to returns to scale COST ANALYSIS UNIT IV COST FUNCTION Cost function refers to the mathematical relation between cost of production of a product and the various determinants of costs. In cost function, the dependent variable is unit cost or total cost and the independent variables are the price of a factor, size of the output or any other relevant phenomenon which have a bearing on cost. C = f(O,S,T,P, G, I, EX,Q,T,…) C is Cost O is the level of output S is the size of the plant T is the time under consideration P is the prices of the factors of production MONEY COST MONEY COST –money cost is the amount of money spent by the firm in producing a particular product. It includes the money spent on pruchase of raw mateials,rent, wages, interest, normal profit,etc Real cost – the effort and the pain taken by the entrepreneur & labourers to produce a commodity is called as real cost OPPORTUNITY COST According to Leftwitch, “Opportunity cost of a particular product is the value of the forgone alternative product that resources used in its production could have produced”. Opportunity cost is concerned with the cost of foregone opportunity. It involves comparison between the policy that was chosen and the policy that was rejected. Example- The cost of lending capital and using the capital for its own purpose Opportunity cost are not recorded in the books of account. Next best alternative foregone e.g. adamsmith----hunter OUTLAY COSTS Outlay Costs involve actual outlay (spending) of funds on, say, wages, materials, rent, interest etc. Similar to money cost It involves financial expenditure at sometime and are thus recorded in the books of account. INCREMENTAL COSTS Incremental costs are the added costs resulting from a change in the level of business activity i.e adding a new machinery, adding a new product etc. In other words Incremental cost is variation in cost caused by change in business activity. INSTEAD OF ONE MORE P. IN M.C. -----FEW Sunk Costs- The cost which is incurred once and will not be altered by the change in business activity is described as sunk cost. It is irrelevant with regard to the business decisions of the future. Eg- – It is the Cost of producing an additional output EXPLICIT COST Explicit or Out of Pocket Cost Explicit cost are direct contractual monetary payment incurred through market transactions. It refers to actual money outlay or out of pocket expenditure of the firm to hire productive resources required in the process of production. They are actual monetary expenditure of the firm Examples- 1. Cost of raw materials 2. Wages and salaries 3. Interest on capital invested 4. Insurance premium 5. Rent 6. Taxes like property tax, license fee IMPLICIT COST Implicit cost is called as Book cost or Computed cost. Implicit costs are payments which are not directly or actually paid out by the firm. Such cost arises when the owner or entrepreneur uses the products which are owned by him. Example- The implicit money cost are 1. The wages of labor rendered by entrepreneur himself. 2. Interest on capital supplied him. 3. Rent of land or premises belonging to the entrepreneur himself and used in his production. 4. Normal returns (profits) of entrepreneurs, compensation needed for his management and organizational activities. SOCIAL COST the amount of money spent by the society to overcome the pollution & other hazardous factors caused by firm is callled as social cost CSR HISTORICAL COST It is the original price of plant and material incurred by the firm. In accounting books the value of the asset of the firm is recorded at their historical past. They are of the past REPLACEMENT COST It is the price for the same plant and material currently prevalent in the market. The historical cost needs to be readjusted with replacement cost for sound business decision making and for measurement of true profits. SHORT RUN COST Short run or operating cost are associated with the change in output along with the fixed plant size. In short run, we have the fixed factor inputs and variable factor inputs. In Short run, cost varies in relation to only the variable inputs. LONG RUN They are the operating cost due to the change in the scale of output and the alterations in the size of plant. In long run factor inputs are variable. FIXED COST Fixed cost are those cost that are incurred as a result of the use of fixed factor inputs. They remain fixed at any level of output in the short run. They remain fixed because the firm does not change its size and amount of fixed factors employed. Fixed cost are also called as supplementary cost or overhead cost 1. Payment of rent for the building 2. Interest paid on capital. 3. Insurance premium. 4. Depreciation & maintenance allowance. 5. Administrative expenses like salaries of managerial and office staff 6. Property & business taxes, license fees etc. Fixed cost are of two types: (a) Recurrent cost : recurrent costs are those which give rise to cash output like rent, interest on capital, general insurance premiums, salaries of permanent irreducible staff etc. (b) allocable cost : implicit money cost like depreciation which do not have any direct cash outlay but have to recognize with the passage of time rather than usage. VARIABLE COST Variable costs are those costs which are incurred by the firm as a result of the use of variable factors inputs. They are dependent upon the level of output. They are also called as direct costs or primary cost. They are regarded as avoidable contractual cost, when the output is nil. SHORT RUN VARIABLE COST Short run variable cost include : (i) Prices of raw material (ii) Wages of labour. (iii) Fuel & power charges. (iv) Excise duties, sales tax (v) Transport expenditure etc. Variable costs are of two types; 1. Fully variable cost: they change more or less with the change in output. Ex. Cost of raw material, power etc. 2. Semi variable cost: these do not change with output, but eliminated with nil output. FIXED COST SUPPLEMENTARY COST,GEN.,INDIRECT , OVERHEAD C e/g/ land , machinery It will not vary with output Expenditure will not increase with increase O A.F.C. decrease continously VARIABLE C Prime c, special c, direct c Rawmaterial ,wages Vary with output Increase with increase in output A.V.C. INACREASES first, then becomes constant, then decrease AVC—U SHAPE AFC—rectangular hyberbola Fixed cost remain only IN THE L.R. all costs are in S.R. variable costs BEHAVIORAL COSTS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 1. Total cost: total cost is the total of expenditure incurred by the firm in producing a given level of output. Total cost is measured in relationship to the production function by multiplying the factor prices with their quantities. If the production function is: Q = f(a,b,c…..n), then the total cost is; TC = F(Q) which means total cost varies with output. For measuring the total cost of a given level of output we have to aggregate the product of factor quantities multiplied by their respective prices. TC=TFC+TVC TOTAL FIXED COST 2. Total Fixed Cost corresponds to fixed inputs in the short run production function. It is obtained by summing the product of quantities of the fixed factors multiplied by their respective unit prices. TFC remains same at all levels of output in the short run. TFC WILL NOT VARY WITH THE OUTPUT PRODUCED TOTAL VARIABLE COST 3. Total Variable Cost corresponds to variable inputs in the short run production. It is obtained by summing up the product of quantities of input multiplied by their prices. All costs are variable costs in the long run 4. Average Fixed CostAverage fixed cost is total fixed cost divided by total units of output. Thus AFC = TFC/Q Where Q stands for Number of units of the product 5. Average Variable Cost – AVC is the total variable cost divided by the total units of output. Thus AVC = TVC/Q Thus AVC is variable cost per unit of output. 6. Average Total Cost – cost of production per unit of outpupt produced ATC or Average cost is total cost divided by total units of output. Thus ATC = TC/Q in the short run Since TC = TFC +TVC Therefore ATC = TC/Q which is equal to (TFC+TVC)/Q Hence ATC can be computed by adding AFC and AVC at each level of output AC= AFC+AVC 7. Marginal Cost- Marginal cost is the addition made to the total cost by producing one more unit of output. MCn = TCn – TCn-1 This means marginal cost of the nth unit of output is the total cost of producing n units minus the total cost of producing n-1 units of output. M.C. is the additional cost incurred by the firm to produce one more unit of the output SHORT-RUN TOTAL COST SCHEDULE OF A FIRM A cost schedule is a statement of variations in cost resulting from variations in the level of output. It shows the response of costs of changes in output. Cost schedules depend upon the length of the time interval. So they vary from short period to long period. Short-run total cost: to examine the cost behavior in the short run, we may begin our analysis with the consideration of the following three total cost concepts: 1. Total fixed cost 2. Total variable cost 3. Total cost ASSUMPTION 1. Labour and capital are the 2 factor inputs. 2. Labour is the variable factor. 3. Capital is the fixed factor. TP TVC TC 0 100 0 100 1 100 25 125 2 100 40 140 3 100 50 150 4 100 60 160 5 100 80 180 6 100 110 210 7 100 150 250 8 100 300 400 9 100 500 600 10 100 900 1000 Behavior of Total Cost- 1. TFC remains constant at all levels of output. It remains same when there is nil output. 2. TVC varies with output nil when no output, VC is direct costs of output. 3. TVC does not change in the same proportion. Initially decreases at a decreasing rate. This is due to Law of Variable proportions, which suggests that initially to obtain a given amount of output relatively, variations in factors are needed in less proportion, after a point when the diminishing phase operates, variable factors are to be employed in a greater proportion to increase in the same level of output. 4. TC varies in the same proportion as the TVC EXPLANATION OF THE GRAPH: 1. TFC is the curve of total fixed cost. It is a horizontal straight line parallel to X-axis. 2. TVC represents total variable cost; it rises initially; eventually becomes steeper denoting a sharp rise in TVC. The upward rising TVC are related to the size of output. 3. The curve TC represents total cost. It is derived by vertically adding up TVC & TFC curves. It is easy to see that the shape of TC is largely influenced by the shape of TVC. When two curves become steeper, TC also becomes steeper., distance between TVC & TC is amount of fixed factors. (Schedule given in class) From the schedule the following points have been observed regarding per unit cost of a firm • AFC declines as output increases, Since TFC remains same AFC declines continuously. This is because of spreading overhead cost over more units • AVC first declines and then increases as output increases • ATC decreases initially, it remains constant for a while then goes on increasing as output increases • Marginal cost decreases initially, then increases as output is increased • Marginal cost is determined by the rate of increase in total variable cost • When AC is minimum MC = AC OUTPU T (Q) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TFC TVC TC MC AFC AVC AC 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 100 50 50 100 120 170 8 300 1100 1400 210 37.5 9 300 1350 1650 250 33.3 0 300 200 150 125 120 120 127. 2 137. 5 150 10 300 2000 2300 750 30 0 300 400 450 500 600 720 890 300 600 700 750 800 900 1020 1190 300 300 150 100 75 60 50 42.8 300 600 350 250 200 180 170 170 175 183. 3 200 230 BEHAVIOR OF SHORT RUN AVERAGE COST CURVES The graph depicts a generalized form of behavior of cost in short run 1. AFC Curve (Average Fixed Cost Curve) As the output increases, the TFC gets spread over a larger output and therefore the AFC goes on progressively declining. As a result the AFC curve slopes downwards from left to right throughout it entire stretch. The AFC curve approaches both the axes but never touches either axes 2. AVC Curve (Average Variable Cost Curve) The AVC generally declines in the initial stages as the firm expand and approaches the optimum level of output. After the plant output capacity is reached, the AVC curve begins to rise sharply. Thus AVC curve is decreasing initially reaches minimum and Then goes on rising The AVC curve is slightly U shaped indicating that as the output increases, initially the AVC is declining then remains constant for a while and again starts increasing 3. Average Total Cost Curve (ATC) ATC curve is a summation of AFC and AVC curves. ATC is derived by superimposition of AVC curve over the AFC curve. As such the ATC curve is a U shaped Curve Explanation of U shaped ATC curve The economic reason underlying the U shaped of The average cost curve is that, there is a greater importance of FC in any firm, till the normal capacity is exhausted and the point of least combination of various factors is reached. The average cost therefore declines in the beginning. Once the normal output of the plant is reached, more and more variable factors are to be employed due to diminishing returns so the variable cost rises sharply to the increase in the output This outweighs the effect of AFC so the ATC starts moving with AVC cost 4. Marginal Cost Curve The MC curve assumes U shape indicating that in the beginning MC declines as output expands. Thereafter it remains constant for a while and then starts rising upwards. MC is the rate of change in total cost, When output is increased by one unit the MCC reflects the law of diminishing returns. In short run MC is independent to the FC and is directly related to VC. MC can be derived from TVC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AVERAGE COST AND MARGINAL COST • When AC is minimum, MC=AC, Thus MC curve must intersect at the minimum point of ATC curve. • When AC is falling MC is also falling initially, after a point MC starts rising, AC continues to fall but MC is less than AC, MC reaches minimum and then starts rising, MC < AC • When MC=AC, then with an increase in output, AC starts rising and MC continues to rise, but MC is greater than AC, MC is above AC (MC>AC) • Both M.C & A.C ARE U SHAPED • BOTH A.C & M.C CAN BE CALCULATED FROM T.C. LONG RUN COSTS The long run period is long enough to enable a firm to vary all its factor its inputs. In the long run, a firm is not tied to a particular plant capacity. The firm can expand its plant in order to meet the long term increase in demand or reduce plant capacity if there is a drop in demand. In long run, there are only variable cost or direct cost. FEATURES OF LAC CURVE 1. TANGENT CURVE : by joining the LAC of various plant curves of the different short run phase, we get a LAC curve drawn tangent. LAC curve is the locus of all the short run average cost curves which have taken place in the firm by small changes in the capacity of the firm. 2. ENVELOPE CURVE: since it is an envelope of group of short run average cost curves of different levels of output, it is called an envelope curve. 3. PLANNING CURVE: LAC is a planning device, as it denotes the least unit cost of producing each possible level of output. The entrepreneur determines his course of expansion of output and the size of plant in relation to the LAC curve. The optimum size is that plant size at which SAC is tangent to LAC. 4. MINIMUM COST COMBINATION: since LAC is derived as tangent to various SAC curves, the cost levels represented by LAC curve at different costs of output reflect, minimum cost combination of resource inputs adopted by the firm at each long run level of output. 5. FLATTER U-SHAPED: in the beginning it gradually slopes downwards, then after a certain point gradually slopes upwards. In long run, the long run average cost declines, then remains constant and then rises. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAC AND LMC • When LAC curve decreases, LMC also decreases (LAC>LMC) • At a certain stage LMC rises, but LAC continues to fall but LMC<LAC • When LAC is minimum LMC=LAC, Thus LMC intersects at the minimum point of LAC. • LMC and LAC slope upwards (LMC>LAC Economies Of Scale • When a firm expands its scale of production, the economies (advantages), which accrue to this firm, are known as internal economies. • According to Cairncross, “Internal economies are those which are open to a single factory or a single firm independently of the action of other firms. • They result from an increase in the scale of output of the firm, and cannot be achieved unless output increases. They are not the result of inventions of any kind, but are due to the use of known methods of production which a small firm does not find worthwhile.” Internal Economies • Technical economies are those, which accrue to a firm from the use of better machines and techniques of production. As a result, production increases and cost per unit of production decreases. • Following Prof. Cairncross, we may classify the various kinds of technical economies as follows: Technical Economies • Certain technical economies may arise because of increased dimensions. For example, a double decker bus is more economical than a single decker. One driver and one conductor may be needed, whether it is a double decker or a single decker bus. Economies of Increased Dimensions • As a firm increases its scale of operations, it can properly be linked to various production processes more efficiently. • After the work is finished in one section it can be sent automatically to next section by conveyor belt • backward link in getting the raw material & foward link in marketing the product can be done in largescale production • In the words of Prof. Cairncross, “There is generally a saving in time and a saving in transport costs, when the two departments of the same factory are brought closer together than two separate factories.” Economies of Linked Processes • A large firm is in a better position to utilize the byproducts efficiently and attempt to produce another new product. For example, in a large sugar factory, the molasses left over after the manufacturing of sugar can be used for producing alcohol, cardboard etc by installing a small plant • Eg..processing of crude oil Economies of the Use of By-products • Large sized machines without continuous running are often more economical than small sized machines running continuously in respect of power consumption. For example, a big boiler consumes more or less the same power as that of a small boiler but gives more heat. Economies in Power • A large firm can divide the work into various subprocesses. Therefore, division of labor and specialization become possible. At one stroke, all the advantages of division of labor can be achieved. • Eg corporate hospitals have specialised doctors….cornea ..lazy eyes Economies of Increased Specialization • A large firm can afford to research • When research is done , they can go for innovation, new technology, finding new raw material etc Economies of research • We generally observe that when the scale of the firm increases it tries to go for diversification of production • By this same excess capacity can be utilised • Fixed factors can be utilized • The loss in one product can be compensated in other products Economies of diversification • Technical economy is also realized due to al long-run continuation of the production process. For example, composing and printing of 1000 copies may cost $200; but if we increase the number of copies to 2000 it may cost only $250, because the same sheet plate which has been composed previously can be utilized for the increased number of copies also. • Jaquard design 2. Economies of Continuation • A large firm employs a large number of laborers. Therefore, each person can be employed in the job to which he is most suited. Moreover, a large firm is in a better position to attract specialized experts into the industry. Likewise, specialization saves time and encourages new inventions. All these advantages result in lower costs of production 3. Labour Economies • Economies are achieved by a large firm both in buying raw materials as also in selling its finished products. Since the large firm purchases its requirements in bulk, it can bargain on its purchases on favorable terms. It can ensure continuous supply of raw materials. It is eligible for preferential treatment. The special treatment may be in the form of freight concessions from transport companies, adequate credit from banks and other financial treatments etc. • In terms of advertisements also, it is better placed than the smaller firms. Better-trained and efficient sales persons can be appointed for promoting sales. 4. Marketing Economies • The credit requirements of the big firms can be met from banks and other financial institutions easily. A large firm is able to mobilize much credit at cheaper rates. Firstly, investors have more confidence in investing money in the well-established large firms. Secondly, the shares and debentures of a large firm can be disbursed or sold easily and quickly in the share market. 5. Financial Economies • On the managerial side also, economies can be achieved; when output increases, specialists can be more fully employed. A large firm can divide its big departments into various sub-departments and each department may be placed under the control of an expert. A brilliant organizer can devote himself wholly to the work of organizing while the routine jobs can be left to relatively low paid workers 6. Managerial Economies • The larger the size of a firm, the more likely are its losses to be spread among its various activities according to the law of averages. • A big firm produces a large number of items and of different varieties so that the loss in one can be counter balanced by the gain in another. For example, a branch bank can spread its risk by diversification of its investment portfolio rather than a unit bank. Suppose a bank in a particular locality is facing a run on the bank, it can recall its resources from other branches, and can easily overcome the critical situation. Thus, diversification avoids “putting all its eggs in one basket.” 7. Risk Bearing Economies • A large sized firm can spend more money on its research activities. It can spend huge sums of money in order to innovate varieties of products or improve the quality of the existing products. In cases of innovation, it will become an asset of the firm. Innovations or new methods of producing a product may help to reduce its average cost. 8. Economies of Research • External economies refer to gains accruing to all the firms in an industry due to the growth of that industry. All the firms in the industry irrespective of their size can enjoy external economies. The emergence of external economies is due to localization. • Geographical specialication External Economies • When a number of firms are located in one place, all the member firms reap some common economies. Firstly, skilled and trained labor becomes available to all the firms. • Secondly, banks and other financial institutions may set up their branches, so that all the firms in the area can obtain liberal credit facilities easily. Thirdly, the transport and communication facilities may get improved considerably. Further, the power requirements can be easily met by the electricity boards. Lastly, supplementary industries may emerge to assist the main industry • Social economic overheads 1. Economies of Concentration • Many firms when located together can provide welfare facilities to its employees such as quaters, hospitals,, subsidized canteens, crèches for the infants of women worker, recreation facilities etc.; all these measures have an indirect effect on increasing production and at reducing the costs. 2. Economies of Welfare • The economies of information may arise because of the collective efforts of the various firms. Firstly, an individual firm may not be in a position to spend enormous amounts on research. However, by pooling all their resources new inventions may become possible. The fruits of the invention can be shared by all the member firms. Secondly, publication of statistical, technical and marketing information will be of vital importance to increase output at lower costs. 3. Economies of Information • When the industry grows, it becomes possible to split up production into several processes and leave some of the processes to be carried out more efficiently by specialized firms. This makes specialization possible and profitable. For example, in the cotton textile industry, some firms may specialize in manufacturing thread,, some in knitting briefs, some in weaving t-shirts etc. The disintegration may be horizontal or vertical. Both will help the industry in avoiding duplication, and in saving time materials. 4. Economies of Disintegration • When many industries of same type are located nearby they share the physical .factors • Eg. Dying facilities by textile industry • Pumping out water by mining 5. Economies of physical factor • • • • • • • • • • Difficulties of management Difficulties of coordination Difficulties of decision making Difficulties of increased risk Labour diseconomies Scarcity of factor supply & increase in the cost of poroduction Marketing diseconomies Financial diseconomies Technical limits Exhausting natural resources Diseconomies of scale • An economy of scope means that the production of one good reduces the cost of producing another related good. Economies of scope occur when producing a wider variety of goods or services in tandem is more cost effective for a firm than producing less of a variety, or producing each good independently. In such a case, the long-run average and marginal cost of a company, organization, or economy decreases due to the production of complementary goods and services. • While economies of scope are characterized by efficiencies formed by variety, economies of scale are instead characterized by volume. The latter refers to a reduction in marginal cost by producing additional units. Economies of scale, for instance, helped drive corporate growth in the 20th century through assembly line production. Economies of scope • Economies of scope exist when the cost of producing two or more goods together is less than the cost of producing each good separately. Economies of scope can result if two or more products share the same production facilities. For example, General Motors produces different car models that use the same engines and transmissions. • For eg in distribution unilever is having economies of scope Economies of scope https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zWgIW5n5 sMA • Economies of scope are determined with the following formula • In the formula, C(qa) is the cost of producing the quantity qa of good a separately, and C(qb) is the cost of producing the quantity qb of good b separately. The term C(qa + qb) is the cost of producing the same quantities of good a and good b together. • Example Formula for findingEconomies of scope Question bank for IV UNIT ESSAY 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) RELATION BETWEEN COST & OUTPUT BEHOVIOURIAL COST OR RELATION OF VRIOUS COST----S.R. INTERNAL ECONOMIES EXTERNAL ECONOMIES TYPES COST SHORT QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. COST FUNCTION DISECONOMIES OF SCALE ECONOMIES OF SCOPE ANY FEW TYPES OF COST RELATION BETWEEN S.R. & L.R. A.C .CURVES RELATION BETWEEN M.C. & A.C. FEATURES OF L.A.C. WHY A.C. CURVE IS ‘U’ SHAPED Unit V Definition of market The word market was derived from the Latin word ''mercatus" meaning “to trade". Many economists have defined market in their own words. According to Benham market is “any area over which buyers and sellers are in close touch with one another, either directly or through dealers, ,that the price obtainable is one part of the market affects the price paid in other parts” In economic sense, a market is a system in which the buyer and the seller bargain for the price of a product, they come to an agreement about the price and quantity of goods and services to be sold and purchased, i.e., the act of buying and selling is decided by this system .it can be a physical market place like olden days, where people come together to exchange goods and services in person or through telephone or computer or a virtual market like( online shopping ) where they contact by some medium of communication which helps them in buying and selling the goods , what we have to notice here is ,by the wide and easy communication facility, the price decided in one part of a region, affect the price decided in other parts of the region .Market is a system where a common market price is fixed according to aggregate demand and aggregate supply . Market can be a common commodity market or specialised market like cotton market, money market etc. Classification of Market can be studied based on various factor like area , time , competition function etc. Classification of market 1. Based on area Based on area, market can be classified as local, regional, national and international market. If the buying and selling is confined to a particular village, town or city, we call it as local market. If it is confined to regional, national and international market then it is called as regional, national and international market. The confinement depends on nature of the product, transportation, durability, storage facility etc. 2. Based on competition Based on competition market structure can be divided as Perfect competition and imperfect competition. Imperfect competition is divided into monopoly, duopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition. The major factors which influence the type of competition are number of sellers, number of buyers, nature of product and entry conditions. Type of competition Nature of the Product Number of sellers Number of Buyers Entry Perfect competition Homogenous Large Large Monopoly Unique products Different from all other products Can be homogenous Or differentiated Can be homogenous Or differentiated One Many Free entry and free exit Ban on entry of other firms Two Many Barrier on entry Few Many Barrier on entry Duopoly Oligopoly Monopolistic competition Or differentiated 3. Based on time Many Large Free entry and free exit When economists had divided opinion about the influence of demand and supply on the market price, Alfred Marshall came out with time element to explain that. According to Marshall, market structure can be divided according to the time element into very short period, short period, long period and very long period. In the very short run period, even the variable input can't be changed. So supply will be perfectly inelastic and market price will be determined according to changes in demand. In the short period variable input can be changed. supply cannot be adjusted to demand and here also demand will be influence market price but not strong as in the case of very short period .In the long run , all input can be varied and supply will influence the price . In very long period, technology taste and preferences will change and prediction is very difficult. 4. Based on volume of business The market can be grouped as whole sale market and retail market. 5. Based on nature of transaction Market can be classified as spot market and future market. In the spot market, goods and services will be sold and purchased on the spot. In the future market, agreement is made to make future transaction. 6. Based on regulation Market can be classified as regulated or unregulated market. When government regulates the price and quantity sold in the market , it is called as regulated market if not unregulated. market. 7. Based on status of seller Market can be divided as primary, secondary and territory primary market consists of manufacturer secondary market consist of wholesale sellers and territory market consist of retailers. 8. According to function Market can be classified as mixed, specialized , sample, and grading. Mixed market means variety of goods will be sold.In specialized market a particular type of goods are bought and sold like share market and vegetable market etc. In the sample market,,firms sell their product to the agent and wholesalers through the sample they send. Market by grade means the dealing done by means of grades. For e.g.: cement, iron rod etc. 9. According to the commodity- it can be divided as product, stock, bullion. 10. on the basis of legality-the market can be classified as legal and illegal. FIRM Firm refers to an business enterprise engaged in the production of commodity , firm is a productive unit . it changes the input into output a firm maybe owned .operated and controlled by a single person or contolling body such as the board of director in the case of joint stock companies.A firm maybe a small one a large one, An industry refers to the group of firms producing similar products for eg: Tata motors is a firm. automoblies industry including all the firm producing cars like Honda, tata , maruti etc,. EQUILIBRIUM equlibrium is a state of rest. It is a state of no change. at equilibrium, a firm has no tendency either to expand or contract its output. according to a Hanson, " a firm will be in equilibrium when iot is of no advantage to increase or decrease its advantage ". so at equilibrium , a firm will try to stick to the same position at equilibrium firms wont like to change the market price , it will maintain the same price. Similarly the amount of goods produced and supplied to the market also . it will maintain the same amount of output. the price determined at equilbrium price and output produced and sold as equilibrium output.A rational firm would always like to maximise the profit always but in the short t run a firm can have super normal profit, normal profit or loss. Incase of a loss the firm will try to minimise the loss but in the long run the firm will have normal profit if it has chronical loss in long run then the firm has to close in long run . Even in the short run the firm has to close down because of loss if the market price is less than short run variable cost. Equilibrium of the firm can be studied by two method 1.Marginal cost , marginal revenue approach 2.Total cost , total revenue approach 1. MR MC APPROACH EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION OF THE FIRM A firm will be in equilibrium when it satisfies two conditions 1. MC=MR 2. MC curve cuts MR curve from below For monopoly or duopoly firms MC curve can cut MR curve from below , from side or from above but for easiness for the student to understand same conditions is accepted for all the types of competition MC cuts MR curve from below.MR is a marginal revenue which is additional revenue received by the firm by selling one more unit of the product.MC means marginal cost which is the additional cost incurred by the firm to produce one more unit of the product. The first condition says that the additional revenue they receive should be equal to the additional cost they incur. Fulfilling the second condition is also essential for equilibrium we will understand this through a group. In the y axis we represent MR, MC and in x axis we represent the amount of output produced .(a) perfect competition Under perfect competition MR curve is a straight line parallel to x axis because a firm under perfect competition is a price taker and whatever amount of output he sells in the market will not make any difference, The additional revenue of the firm received will be the same, which makes the MR curve a straight line (.Unlike imperfect competition , where they have to decrease the price to sell more ), MC curve is of U-Shape. Because in the initial stage due to the law of increasing returns to scale , it slopes down, then becomes constant and then increases due to diminishing returns to scale. C D Q In the graph at point a MC curve cuts the MR curve from above and the output produced by firm is OM if the firm consider that as equilibrium point and stops production then the firm will lose the cup of profit between ADB , suppose the firm produces OQ amount of output, then the firm’s MR is QC & MC is QD. When firm is producing OQ output, it will have an profit of CD per unit. Profit =MR-MC so the firm will continue producing after OM output also and when it stop at M1 , where MC=MR that will be considered as equilibrium point..if it is forcing to produce more than this, then MC>MR which will lead to loss. So B is the equilibrium when MR=MC or MC cuts MR curve from below here the profit will be maximum. (b) Imperfect competition Under imperfect competition, the MR curveslope downward because the firm will be able to sell more when the firm reduces price. MC curve is of U shape but for easiness tick mark shape is considered. MC P O E MR Q Here 'E' is the equilibrium point when MC cuts the MR curve from below. Equilibrium price is OP and OQ is equilibrium quantity of output. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION OF AN INDUSTRY An industry will be in equilibrium state when all the firms are in equilibrium in the long run. i.e. industry doesn’t want any change in the output or price or usage of input or technology or employment etc. There should not be any entry or exit of firms. if it has to happen then all the firm must have normal profit in the long run (except monopoly) if the firms in the industry have super normal profit , then new firms will enter the industry , attracted by the profit . If some firms have loss, it will close and exit the industry by which the supply will decrease and the price will rise and the firms in the industry will have normal profit. The industry will be in equilibrium when aggregate demand will be equal to aggregate supply. So the equilibrium condition of an industry is:1. All the firms must be in equilibrium (a) MC=MR (b)MC cuts MR from below. 2. All the firm must earn normal profit in the long run (super normal profit in the case of monopoly and duopoly when both the firm syndicate) AC=AR= MC=MR=price. Will exists in equilibrium. TR -TC approach (a)Equilibrium of a firm under perfect competition TR (total revenue ) of a firm rises continuously as the firm sells goods at the same price in the market. TC (total cost) curve fall at first and then rise taking the 'U' shape due to the law of variable proportion. According to the TR-TC approach the firm will be in equilibrium when it makes maximum profit The profit will be maximum when the difference between total revenue and total cost is maximum so for equilibrium the firm should satisfy two condition i.e 1. The difference between TR and TC is positively maximised PERFECT COMPETITION According to Joan Robinson “perfect competition prevails when the demand for the output of each producer is perfectly elastic. This entails that the number of seller is large so that the output of any one seller is negligible small proportion of the total output of the commodity and 2nd that the buyer are alike in respect of their choice of rival sellers , so that the market is perfect” for e.g.- agriculture product , mud diya, plane glass bangle etc huge amount of commodity is sold in the market nobody can recognise in the market that this is produced by a particular farmer etc( no brands, all can sell at the price decided by the industry ) Assumption or condition or characteristic feature of firm 1There is large no. of small unorganized sellers. The firm under perfect competition will be very small. the output produced and sold by a single firm form a small part of the total amount of goods supplied by the industry for e.g. even if a farmer produces 10000 bags of food grains, he sells very small amount because the Indian agriculture industry produces and sells 300 million tons of food grains. The sellers are not only small but unorganised because if they are organised then they can manipulate the price. 2. There will be large number of small unorganised buyers. It is not like monopsony (single buyer ) or oligopsony, there will be large number of buyers, the number of buyers are so many in the market that an individual buyer can't influence the price. The buyers don’t have any cooperation or organisation among themselves so that they can influence the market price. 3There will be freedom of entry and exit there won’t be any natural or artificial restriction on the firm to enter or leave the industry, if the firms have super normal profit i.e. when AR>AC, new firms will enter the industry if certain firms have loss then the firm making loss will leave the industry 4. The product produced by all the firm should be homogenous .All the products available in the market should be very similar the buyer should not be in a position to discriminate between the product produced by different producers. Brand names are not used in perfect competition for eg - plane glass bangles sold in the market cannot be discriminated from each other When all this four conditions are satisfied it is called as pure competition by economists 5. There will be perfect knowledge about the market among buyers and the sellers. The buyer is aware of prevailing market price so that if the seller charges higher price than others, nobody will buy from him. so he will be forced to charge the same price as charged by other sellers.the buyer are aware of the quality available in the market if any seller sells a product which is of less quality buyer will not buy from him. so seller has to maintain similar quality maintained by competitors 6. There will be perfect mobility of factors of production and goods. When the factors of production move freely production can be done wherever it is needed. If the factors of production and goods doesn’t move freely then there will be price difference in different area. When they move freely there will be same price in the entire market. 7. Absence of transportation cost. This will bring same price in all market. If the transport price is prevalent then price difference occurs. Transport cost will be added to price. if the same price has to prevail the transport cost should be absent 8. There will be absence of selling cost because all the goods available in the market are similar. Even if a particular firm gives an advertisement it will benefit the entire industry ,not the particular firm which gives advertisement. So it is a waste on the part of firm to give advertisement or some other selling cost practices. 9. All the firms under perfect competition are price takers & they charge the same price. Since the products produced by all the firms are homogeneous, consumer doesn’t have preference of one firm’s product over the other. So no firm can have a price policy of its own. The market price is determined by the industry based on the aggregate demand and supply in the market.. since each firm forms a small part of the market industry & supply a small part of the market demand, they take up the price decided by the industry. 10. AR curve and MR curve coincide with each other & they are parallel to X axis. AR, average revenue is nothing but market price or aggregate demand curve. It is the revenue per unit of output sold. The firm can sell as many units as it wants in the market at a given price. So the AR curve becomes perfectly elastic i.e. it becomes parallel to X axis. Unlike imperfect competition, the firm can sell its additional product in the market without reducing the price that is at the same price & so the MR curve is also parallel to X axis. Equilibrium of a firm under perfect competition in the short run The firm will be in equilibrium when SMC=SMR and SMC cuts SMR curve from below in the short run , a firm can have super normal profit, normal profit or loss [Key point In order to the graph easily & find out the equilibrium point ) Equilibrium output, Equilibrium price, loss, profit etc., Some easy steps which can be followed is given. 1. Draw the A.R curve 2. Then draw M.R curve 3. Then draw the tick mark shaped M.C curve 4. Now mark the equilibrium point E, where MC is cutting MR. 5. After marking point E, draw a line through E called equilibrium line, parallel to Y-axis. 6. Let it touch the X-axis & mark that point as M& from the origin to that point M represents equilibrium output produced. 7. Find out where this equilibrium line cuts AR curve & from that point, draw a line (parallel to x-axis) to y-axis. Mark the point as P & OP in the Y-axis represents the equilibrium price. 8. Now along the equilibrium line, we have to look where the AC curve is going to cut. So the drawing of the AC curve is very important. If the firm having normal profit, then AC curve must touch ( or tangents to ) AR curve. If the firm is having super normal profit, then AC curve must cut the equilibrium line below AR curve. If the firm is having loss, then the AC curve must touch the equilibrium line above AR curve. 9. In order to find out total loss or profit, draw a line from AC to Y-axis (parallel to xaxis) the difference between AR & AC box will give profit or loss. 10. For Normal profit, since AR=AC, no box will come.] (a) Super normal profit: The firm which are efficient advanced in technology and which moves towards least cost combination can gain supernormal profit in the short run . The industry determines the price according to the aggregate market and market supply. The firms under perfect competition are price takers is the firm can sell any amount of output at the given market price.so the short run average revenue curve is a straight line parallel to X-Axis showing whatever maybe the output sold, the market price will be the same. Since the firm can sell the additional goods to whatever is its capacity, at the same price, short run marginal revenue curve coincides with AR curve and is parallel to X-Axis .the average cost curve is an U shaped curve. Due to law of returns to scale MC curve is also U shaped but for easiness tick mark is considered. Let us explain the super normal profit of a firm with the help of a graph Let quantity of output produced and sold be represented in the X-Axis and price, SMR SAR ,SMC ,SAC be represented in the Y-Axis. SAR=SMR=Price line or market demand curve for the firm. Equilibrium condition is represented at that situation where MC=MR and MC cuts MR curve from below. In the graph E1 is the equilibrium point, where profit can be maximized. If a line is dropped from the equilibrium point to the X-Axis, it cuts the X-Axis at Q1 and OQ1 represents the equilibrium output and when a line is drawn from equilibrium point to Y-Axis, which represents price, PP is the equilibrium price. When Q1th output is produced, SAR is E1Q1 ,whereas SQ1 is AC . here AR>AC which gives abnormal or super normal profit. For OQ amount of output produced total revenue will be OQ1E1P and total cost will be OQ1ST ( = OQ1 X OP ) so the total profit will be TR-TC i.e OQ1E1P- OQ1ST which is equal to TSE1P. (b) Normal profit: under perfect competition, some firms can have normal profits. Normal profit is a situation where AR=AC and TR=TC. Normal profit is the minimum amount of profit which an entrepreneur receives. It is equal to opportunity cost of the entrepreneur .if the entrepreneur cannot get minimum amount for the work he does,then he will close the firm and start other work for survival. So economist suggested that minimum amount of remuneration for the entrepreneur (factor payment) must be included in the cost of production itself. Here the firm will work at the minimum point of AC curve. In this graph,MC cuts the MR curve at E point. When extended to X-axis, it gives the equilibrium output OQ1 and on Y-axis gives the equilibrium price OP. In this situation, SAC(short run average cost curve) coincides with equilibrium point, which is equal to SAR. here SAC=SMC=SMR=SAR= market price Normal profit = TR-TC=OQ1EP1-OQ1EP1. Here TR=TC (C) Loss : In the short run , a firm under perfect competition can even undergo loss. The firm can be in equilibrium even in this situation. It will try to minimize the loss. This is the Best it can do. Here, AC>AR and TC>TR In the graph, let Short run AR=Short run MR, which is parallel to X-Axis and let E be the equilibrium point where MC=MR and MC cuts MR curve from below. Here the SAC curve is lying above the SAR curve, showing its inefficiency in bringing down the cost of production when the firm is producing OQ1 output. When the firm is producing Q1th output, AR is Q1E and AC is Q1G. Here AC is greater than AR and GE is the loss per unit. Since OQ1 output is produced at equilibrium OQ1 X Q1E = OQ1EP = AR X Q = PR. OQ1 X Q2G = OQ1GF which is equal to AC X Q = TC. Loss = TR-TC = PEGF NORMAL PROFIT---TR=TC SUPER NORMAL PROFIT----TR GREATER TC LOSS----TR LESS TC Equilibrium of a firm under prefect competition in long run In the short run, the firm even with loss managed to produce. The firms adjusted production with the existing plant capacity is fixed input remain constant and variable inputs only will be changed. but in the long run, the plant capacity can be changed. All the inputs are variable inputs in the long run. If the firms are having super normal profits then many new firms will be attracted to the industry and with the new firms the price will come down, market supply will increase which will bring normal profit in the long run. In the long run, the firms which are having loss will exit the industry. the firms in the industry will observe the firms which are having losses they will also improve their techniques of production and try to decrease their cost of production All the firms in long run will improve their efficiency, try to produce the optimum output to the minimum point of LAC curve, where the cost of production is minimum .so all the firms will have scope in long run .this can be shown with the help of graph Here, market price=AR=AC=MC=MR Here we see that AR=AC,where the firm is having normal profit.the firm is working at the optimum level, that is there is no idle capacity of the firm. It works at the minimum point of AC curve. Because of prefect competition the firms with a higher cost of production cannot survive in the industry they have to quit the industry because they will have lose .that is why economists say that perfect competition benefits both the economy and the consumer. Influence of Equilibrium of an industry on firms in short run The industry will be in equilibrium when all the firms are in equilibrium, where it doesn’t want any change. The industries equilibrium price and output is determined where aggregate market demand is equal to aggregate market supply .aggregate market supply is attained by the summation of goods supplied by all the firms in the short run ,even though the firms are in equilibrium they can have normal profits, super normal profits or loss. This depends upon the cost of production of the firms. Here the firms under perfect competition have to take the price decided by the industry, so the firms whose cost of production is very high will have loss whose cost of production is less will have super normal profits. We can understand this through a graph In the graph we have depicted the equilibrium of the industry where AD=AS. The meeting point of demand and supply forms equilibrium price and output and equilibrium price OP is taken by the firms. According to the cost condition of the firm, we see that the firm is having super normal profit or loss or normal profit. We observe from figure 1, equilibrium price of industry OP is decided. In figure 2 the cost of production of the firm is less so it is earning super normal profits. In figure 3 we observe that the cost of production of this firm is very high and so it’s earning loss in the short run. Assuming that different firms have different cost of production, in this short run the firms can have super normal profit, normal profit or loss. But all the firms have to take price decided by the industry by aggregate demand curve and aggregate supply. Influence of equilibrium of the Industry on firms in the Long Run: In Long run the industry will be in equilibrium, where all the firms will be in equilibrium and all the firms will be making Normal profits. Let us explain this with the help of the graph assuming all the firms will be having similar cost conditions. Suppose D is the original aggregate demand for the industry & S is the original aggregate supply for the industry. Then E is the equilibrium and OP is the equilibrium price by the industry. The firms under perfect competition take this price & E is the equilibrium conditions for all the firms existing in the industry. All the firms are earning Normal profits. This is the long run equilibrium of the firm. Now let us explain the situation with another graph where if the demand in the market increases by some reason, the market price will increase and due to this increase in price, firms will start earning super normal profit. Attracted by his super normal profit many firms will enter the industry and by this the market supply will increase and so once again the price will come down and firms will start earning only normal profits. Suppose due to some reasons like depression, fall in the purchasing power the market demand falls, then the market price will fall. With the fall in the price, firms will start earning loss. The most efficient firms or small firms cannot withstand loss for long & start exiting the industry, which will decrease the supply & so the price will increase & so the firms will start earning normal profit. E a) Suppose D is the original demand curve of the industry & S is the original supply curve of the industry. E will be the equilibrium point, where demand =supply. Here OP is determined as the equilibrium price..This equilibrium price op is taken by all the firms, where they are in equilibrium at E, where Market price=AR=MR=MC=AC. Here all the firms will have normal profit. b) In the market, due to some reason when the demand rises, the demand curve move upwards from D to D1,because of this the price also will move from OP to OP1 .When the firm accepts this price, AR curve becomes AR1 and the equilibrium E becomes E1 . Now the firms will start earning super normal profits P1E1ST. Attracted by this abnormal profit, new firms will enter the industry & the supply of the industry increases to S1 . With the increased aggregate supply in the market, the price once again falls to OP.by this in the long run they will once again start earning normal profit. c) Due to some reason now let the market demand fall from D to D2 . Now the market price will fall to OP2 . When the firm takes up this price , the AR curve will become AR2. The equilibrium will become E2 . and the firms will start having loss of P2 E2 LT. unable to withstand the loss some of the firms exit the industry & so the aggregate supply of the industry falls to S2 from S1 .because of this the price will rise from OP2 to OP1 and the firms will start earning normal profit. Thus in the L.R. both the industry and the firm will have normal profit. Time element and price determined under prefect competition Marshall introduced the time element in order to explain that whether demand is more important in determining the price or supply is important in determining the price. In order to explain the influence of time element of price, Marshall has divided the time period into 4 they are: (1)Very short time period (2) Short time period (3)Long period (4) Very long time period 1. Very short time period: It is also called as market period. In this time period, even the variable input cannot be changed. The supply cannot be increased so whatever stock is available can only be brought to the market .In this time period , the supply remains perfectly inelastic. So in this time period, demand is very important in determining the price .As the demand increases the price also increases. The influence of price can be studied with the help of a graph for the perishable commodity In this case of perishable goods,if the market price is less than the cost of production, then also the firm will supply to the market because the goods will be spoiled. Due to this, we will observe that supply curve is straight line parallel to Y-Axis. When the demand curve is D, the equilibrium price will be OP. Suppose the demand increases to D1, price also increases to OP1 and when the demand decreases to D2, price also decreases to OP2. When the good is non-perishable, and if the market price is less than cost of production then producer will keep a stock of the commodity instead of selling it into the market. They will start supplying it to the market when the price = cost of production which is called as the reserve price . when the market price increases above , the supply in the market will going on increasing and entire stock will be brought to the market. If the demand is increasing further after all the stocks are brought to the market , the price will be increasing with increase in demand. So, we conclude that in the very short run period the price is influenced by the demand 2. Short Run Period : In this period also the demand is important in determining the price but not as influential as in the case of very short run period. In the short run, the production of output can be increased to some extent by increasing the variable input .if the increase in demand can be taken care by the increase in supply, then there wont be any increase in the price. In the short run, if increase in the demand is greater than increase in supply, there will be increase in price. This is clearly explained with the help of a graph In the X-Axis we represent quantity demanded and supplied. In the Y-Axis we represent the price. Let S be the short run relatively inelastic supply curve and D be the initial demand curve. E is the equilibrium condition which determines OP as the market price and OQ as the market equilibrium output demanded and sold. In case the demand increases to D2 then the price increases to OP2. If the demand decreases to D1 then the price also decreases to OP1 3. Long Run Period : the price determined under long run period is called as normal price. In the long run supply of the firm is more important in determining the price because the supply to the market can be increased according to the increase in the demand in the long run. In this period the output can be increased by increasing all the inputs. The market price is purely decided by the cost of production of the firm. If the firm is having constant returns to scale then the market price remains constant whatever may be increase in the demand. If the firm is undergoing increasing returns to scale, Then the firm will have diminishing cost of production with increase in output. Under this circumstance with the increase in supply to the market, The market price will decrease, If the firm will have diminishing returns to scale, Then with the increase in supply to the market the market price will increase. Let us represent the long run equilibrium of the firm having constant returns to scale, Let us represent through a graph Let us suppose the long run supply curve is LRS which is perfectly elastic because of constant returns to scale. Initially let D1 be the original demand curve. Here the equilibrium will be E1, where Demand=Supply. Here the equilibrium price is OP and equilibrium quantity demanded and supplied be OQ1. Suppose the demand increases to D2 then the equilibrium will shift to E2. The quantity demanded and supplied will increase to OQ2 but the price will remain constant as OP. Similarly if the demand falls to OD, the equilibrium will shift to E. The quantity supplied and demanded will become OQ now where as the price will remain constant as OP. 4. Very Long Run Period: it is also called as secular period. In this period, demand , technology, taste and preferences etc changes. So, economists say that predicting about price or output will be very difficult in this situation, so case study about this time period is not possible. MONOPOLY: Monopoly is originated from a Latin word. ‘Mono’ means single and ‘poly’ means seller. According to professor Braff A.J “Under pure monopoly there is a single seller in the market. The monopolist’s demand is the market demand. The monopolist is the price maker. Pure monopoly suggests no substitute situation“ As on today monopoly is a situation which is very difficult to find in practice. Indian railways can be considered as an example for monopoly. Monopoly and the perfect competition are the two extreme situation of market based on competition. Economists like Schumpeter says that when a new product is introduced in a market it will be monopoly, because it has no close substitutes in the beginning . after sometime some sellers will start entering the market and it will become duopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic and it will go to perfect competition due to competition. For e.g. Euroclean was a monopoly in selling vacumn cleaner for a long time. Because the sales was very less , once the sales picked up many competitors joined the industry. FEATURES: 1) No. of sellers: There is single seller who controls the whole supply of the commodity, Since there is single seller in the market, the market demand is the firm’s demand. Here there won’t be any difference between firm and an industry. Firm is equal to industry under Monopoly. 2) Buyers: Like perfect competition here also there will be large number of buyers, small in size in market demand, they will also be unorganized. 3) The product produced by the monopolist will not have any close substitute in the market. The product will be unique in its own way and will be different from all the other products available in the market.this gives the decision making power to monopoly independently & makes him king in the market.in the case of pure monopoly, cross elasticity of demand will be zero. 4) In a Monopoly market there is a strict barrier on the entry of new firms. No new firms will be allowed to enter the industry. Monopolists face no competition. If there is monopoly, then nobody should be allowed to produce similar products. 5) Goods and factors of production will not move freely from one region to another region like perfect competition particularly in the case of discriminating monopoly. Movement of factors of production and goods should be restricted. 6) Producer will have perfect knowledge of the market where as the consumer will not have proper knowledge of the market particularly in the case of discriminating monopoly. 7) If the price charged by monopoly becomes very high & when the product is a necessary product Government may intervene to stop the exploitation. In order to save the citizens government may take over the industry or bring a price ceiling. 8) There is no selling cost under monopoly. Because there are no competitors, no counteraction by them, he has the liberty to charge any price, selling cost is a waste. But initially when the product is introduced in the market, informative selling cost must be incurred by the firm. the consumer should come to know about the availability of the product & its use. So information about the product should be advertised in various media, so that consumers will come to know about the product. After some time it can be withdrawn because by ‘demonstration effect’ & ‘word of mouth’ consumers will start knowing about the product. 9) The firm and the industry is the same. Monopoly is the ‘price maker’. Firm can decide the price, but the quantity demanded is decided by the consumer. When the price charged is very high then quantity demanded will be less. Price can be decided by the monopoly according to the elasticity of demand for the product. Since the price charged by monopoly is highest, sales will be less .so the monopoly may not use full capacity of the plant installed. 10) AR & MR curve slopes downwards. AR slopes downwards to the right in monopoly indicating that the monopoly is required to reduce the price in order to sell more. Geometrically MR curve also slopes downwards but below AR. In pure monopoly,AR will be a rectangular hyberbola and MR will merge with X axis. Determination of equilibrium price and output of a firm under monopoly Monopoly is a form of imperfect competition. It is the market system where a single producer controls the whole supply of commodity which has no substitutes. Assumptions 1. there is a single seller who controls the whole supply of commodity 2. the products produced by the firm doesn’t have any substitutes in the market 3. there will be so many consumers who will be unorganized 4. There will be strong barriers on the entry of the other firms. 5. Consumers will not have proper knowledge of the market whereas sellers will have perfect knowledge of the market 6. The factors of production and the goods will not be allowed to freely move from one place to another 7. Except introductory cost there won’t be any selling cost 8. Monopoly can determine only price or output. Generally monopoly chooses the price. 9. Under monopoly firm=industry 10. AR & MR curve will slope downwards 11. Firm under monopoly will be a price maker Short run equilibrium: AR and MR curve are different since, monopoly can sell more by decreasing price. The AR slopes downwards which lies above the MR. So, AR and MR slopes downwards from left to right. The rate at which MR falls is greater than that of AR. AC and MC curves are also “U” shaped. The equilibrium of the monopoly is determined at the point whereI. MC=MR and II. MC cuts the MR curve from below (or) Above (or) from side but, for easiness we are considering MC cuts MR from below. The equilibrium price is determined at that point from where vertical line of equilibrium point cuts AR curve. The firm will have super normal profits if AR>AC and the normal profit is attained when AC = AR and the loss when AC> AR. In the short run the monopoly firm can have loss or super normal profit or normal profit. But in long run equilibrium it can have super normal profit. The main goal of monopoly will be profit maximization. He can attain very easily because there are no competitors under monopoly. We can explain the equilibrium price and output under monopoly. Super normal profits The super normal profit is earned when the price charged by the monopolists is very high. E is the equilibrium point, where MC cuts MR curve from below. From the equilibrium point E, we draw a straight line parallel to Y axis. From the point where the equilibrium line touches AR, we draw a line parallel to X axis from AR to Y axis, which is a representating price, we get OP (AQ) as equilibrium price. E From the point where equilibrium line touches the AC curve ,we draw a line from AC to Y axis we get OC (OQ) as average cost. Here AR >AC Since the equilibrium price is OP & equilibrium output is OQ, TR=OPAQ, TC =OCBQ. super normal profit =OPAQ-OCBQ =ABCP. OR it can be calculated like this also. Difference between AR and AC is AB , AB XOQ =ABCP . Normal Profit E is the equilibrium, OM is the output produced and OP is the equilibrium price. So AC=AR and TC=TR .Here the firm earns normal profit. E E is the equilibrium point. OQ is the equilibrium output and OP is the equilibrium price. When equilibrium output OQ is produced, AC=AR, where the firm makes normal profit. Loss: In the Short Run even in monopoly there can be loss. The firm can survive in the market expecting that in the future it will be able to overcome the hurdles and make profit in the long run. When the cost of production of the firm is greater than the revenue, (i.e. AC > AR) the firm will have loss. In the graph AR is the average revenue curve and MR is the marginal revenue curve lying below AR curve. AC is the average cost curve . LONG RUN EQUILIBRIUM: Since there is no competition in the market, even if the cost of production is high that can be shifted on the buyers and high price can be charged from them. More than utilizing the plant capacity to maximum extent and working towards attaining the minimum point of LAC and producing at least cost combination, the monopolist will be interested in making supernormal profit. Monopolist may also try to adjust the inputs, technology and other factors so that he can reduce cost. In long run he will have sufficient time to adjust this but his ultimate aim will be to maximize profit than concentrating on sales max, etc. Figure 3 represents a situation of supernormal profit. Here AR>AC & the firm reaps a super normal profit of ABCP. Of course the firm will be in equilibrium when MR=MC. With a very high price, if the firm is able to sell only very less quantity of output. Due to expansion of production when monopoly firm can reap economies of scale it can reduce the price in the market, increase production and sales .But here also monopoly should be able to maximize total revenue and profits. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOPOLY EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPETETIVE EQUILIBRIUM Perfect Competition Monopoly 1.Under perfect competition there will be large number of small unorganized sellers 1.The monopoly will be a single organized seller 2.In pure competition, there are large number of sellers, selling homogeneous product. 2.Monopoly is the sole producer, the commodity produced by the monopoly will have no close substitutes and it will be unique in market 3.There will be free entry & exit of firms. 4.The firm under perfect competition is a price taker 3.Entry of new firms will be cpmpletly banned 4. the firm will be a price maker because it is a single firm. 5. A single seller can’t affect the market price by changing its supply. The demand curve is perfectly elastic, i.e a horizontal straight line. Hence AR=MR=Price. 5. The demand curve is relatively inelastic it slopes downwards showing that only when price is reduced monopoly can sell more.MR curve lies below AR curve. 6.The demand curve is perfectly elastic, and hence the seller can only determine the output as the price is fixed, he can sell as many output as he wants at a given price. 6.The monopolist can determine his output or price but not both, If one is decided the other is simultaneously determined by the consumer. 7. Firm under perfect competition attains equilibrium when MC=MR and MC cuts the MR curve from below, hence MC curve should be rising. Since price is given, AR=MR.So, the at equilibrium position P=MC=AR=MR 7. Under monopoly the essential equilibrium conditions are MC=MR and MC cuts MR curve from below or from side or from above , according to the applicability of the law of returns to scale 8.In long run only normal profits are earned by the firms 8.In the long run ,firm will earn super normal profit. 9.Price is low and output that can be sold is infinite. Price will be the same in the entire market. Price =AR=MR 10.Firm forms small part of industry 9.price will be very high when comparing to perfect competition. Monopoly charges different price in different markets under discriminating monopoly.price >MR 10.FIrm=Industry Monopolistic Competition: Introduction: Monopolistic competition is an important part of imperfect competition. It is the combination of monopoly and perfect competition. Professor Chamberlin in his book “Theory of monopolistic competition” & Professor Joan Robinson in his book “Economics of imperfect competition” brought out a synthesis of monopoly and perfect competition as monopolistic competition. As on today, both monopoly and perfect competition have become myth. Monopolistic competition is the most practical type of competition one can see in the market. For e.g. Monopolistic competition can be in retail sector, banking, cosmetics, automobile industry, soaps, textile companies, etc. In those days when an entrepreneur found some formula or a new product, it was difficult for others to find out the secret of that product, so they remained as monopoly for long time in market. But nowadays due to advancement of technology, communication, availability of information, literacy, research facility. Within no time a similar product is found and competitors appear in market and rivals take monopoly to monopolistic competition. Perfect competition is also very difficult to find. They try (now brand names and advertisements are helping these firms) to distinguish their products from other company’s product & try to have their own price policy unaffected by other products available in the market. We find different brands of rice bags available in the shelves of super markets. Even if you take the case of Mud Diya’s, they put some design on it and call it as designer wear diyas and price is changed for them in many folds higher than the ordinary mud diyas. According to Joe S. bain, “Monopolistic competition is found in the industry where there is a large number of small sellers, selling differentiated but close substitute products”. H.H.Liebhofsky definition says, “Monopolistic Competition has today come to mean a state of affairs in which there is a large number of sellers selling non-homogenous or slightly differentiated products and in which freedom of entry exists”. Features of Monopolistic Competition: 1. There will be many sellers in the market. The number of sellers are many but not as many as in case of perfect competition. Each seller forms only a small part of the market. But the interdependency on other firms will not be there. As there are large numbers of firms, the impact of one firm’s action upon the other will tend to be too insignificant to cause any reaction among rivals. 2. There will be large number of buyers. Each buyer has a preference for a specific brand of product unlike perfect competition, here buying is by choice and not by chance. 3. There will be free entry and exist of the firms. This makes competition stiff because of close substitutes produced by the new entrants with their own brand names. 4. Products produced are heterogeneous. It can be real or artificial. Each firm’s product is differentiated from other firm’s product by brand names and other factors, which we will discuss in detail later. 5. The buyers will not have proper information about the market as in the case of perfect competition. But he will have some knowledge unlike monopoly. The special feature is the buyer will be covered by a veil created by the firm’s, through advertisement. 6. There will be movement of product from one place to another but the firms can have control over it at anytime. 7. Selling cost is very important. There are different types of selling cost. (We will discuss in detail.) But what we have to know here is every firm has to spend lot of money on selling cost. It becomes important for the survival of the firms to spend on selling cost. 8. Along with price competition, non-price competition also plays a very important role. 9. Even though there are large number of firms, each firm will have its own price policy i.e they will be price makers than price takers. Each firm will have it’s own bunch of consumers, where there will be brand loyalty.(As we are seeing for patanjali products now) 10. Chamberlin has said that instead of industry we have to use the word ‘group' because the firms do not produce identical products. Group includes the firms which produce similar products but not identical products. 11. The demand curve i.e. the average revenue curve slopes downwards. However that is much more elastic than that of the firm under monopoly. Because there are large number of competitors selling similar products as close substitutes. MR curve is below AR curve and it can be calculated from AR curve. The downward sloping AR & MR curve indicates that the firm can sell more of its commodity by reducing the price. Price determination under Monopolistic Competition: Monopolistic competition is a situation where there will be many sellers but not many as in the case of perfect competition. But not less as in case of oligopoly also. The price determination under monopoly & monopolistic competition will become similar if product differentiation, selling cost &freedom of entry is kept away. Monopolistic Competition is based on following assumptions: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) There will be many sellers in the market. There will be large number of buyers. The products produced by the firms are differentiated from each other. There will be free entry and exit of the firms. There will be imperfect knowledge among the buyers. Selling cost is very important. There is an existence of non-price competition or importance is given to non-price also. In most of the monopolistic competition firms there will be excess capacity and price charged by them will be greater than the price charged by firms under perfect competition. This is because of the selling cost spent by the firms. In the short run, the monopolistic firms can have super normal profit or normal profit or loss. But in the long run, all the firms will have normal profit. But, some economist has opined that in the long run also the monopolistic firms can have “Super normal profit”. Price determination in the short run In the short run, the firm will try to maximize the profit or minimize the loss in equilibrium. In the short run, the firm can have super normal profit or normal profit or even loss. In the case of loss, it will try to make it into profit or expect to make it in the long run and try to run the firm even with the loss in the short run. The chronic loss making firms will close in the long run. The firm will be in equilibrium where MC=MR & MC cuts the MR curve from below. The AR & MR curve slopes downward. i.e. the firms can sell more when they reduce the price. I. Super Normal Profit: Let us show a situation of super normal profit through a graph. FIGURE 1 In the graph, equilibrium point is where MC=MR & MC cuts MR from below which helps us to derive equilibrium output sold i.e. OQ is the equilibrium output and OP is the equilibrium price. Since, the AC curve is below the AR curve at the equilibrium point, BC is profit per unit & the firm reaps the super normal profit PBCD. II. NORMAL PROFIT: In the short run, the firm can have Normal profit, which is shown through the graph FIGURE. 2 Here, where MC curve cuts MR curve, that point is known as E1which is known as Equilibrium point. When we draw a line from E1, it touches the AR curve. At that point only, AC=AR. i.e. average revenue will be equal to average cost, which leads to normal profit. Here OQ is the equilibrium output & OP is the equilibrium price. III. LOSS: When the cost of he production of the firm is greater than the revenue, (i.e. AC > AR) the firm will have loss. In the graph AR is the average revenue curve and MR is the marginal revenue curve lying below AR curve. FIGURE. 3 In the graph, E is the equilibrium point. Since, AC is greater than AR, when the firm is producing ON equilibrium output. For the Nth output, loss per unit is AH. Since the firm is producing ON output, the total loss is ON X AH i.e. GTAH, which is the total loss of the firm. Or it can be explained like this. When the firm produces ON amount of output, total cost is ONHG = ON X NH (A.C.) & T.R. = ONAT =ON X NA (A.R.) loss = T.C.-T.R.=ONHG – ONAT = GTAHNA=OT=Market price, NH=OG=Cost of production LONG RUN EQUILIBRIUM: In the long run the monopolistic firm will have normal profit. in the short run, the firms can have loss or supernormal profit. The firms which are having loss in the long run will quit the industry. So the supply will decrease and the price will increase in long run and normal profit will be attained. If the firms have super normal profit in the short run, they will attract more firms into the group & so the supply for the market will increase and the price will fall, which will bring normal profit in the long run. The long run normal profit situation is explained in Figure.2. AR will be equal to AC. Equilibrium price is OP & equilibrium output is OQ. Equilibrium of the industry ( group) : Eminent economist Chamberlin suggested that instead of industry, group of firms will be a better explanation under monopolistic competition. Even though Chamberlin used only AC curve to explain the equilibrium, here the MR, MC approach is utilized to make it easier. In the long run when some firms have super normal profits, then it will attract more and more number of firms into group or market and the inelastic AR curve will become elastic and number of firms entering will stop till the price is reduced and comes to normal profit, because with the increase in supply in the market, price will decrease and it will reduce the super normal profit to normal profit. When some firm have loss, then certain firms will exit from the group, which decreases supply in the market and price will increase, which will eradicate loss and lead to normal profit. This can be expressed by solution which is shown in figure.2. The graph will be in equilibrium when OP1is the equilibrium price &OQ1 is the equilibrium output. Special problems in analyzing the equilibrium of the firm and the group: 1. The foremost difficulty in the monopolistic competition is identifying the industry. In case of perfect competition, all the firms produce similar products. So we easily say the supply curve of the industry, can be derived by the summation of the supply curves of all the firms. But in case of monopolistic competition, it is difficult to identify the industry and also to get supply curve of industry. Firms produce different products which are not complete substitutes for each other. For example, for body wash, different kinds of soaps, like winter soaps with or without moisturizer, baby soaps, beauty soaps, hand wash, face wash. In addition to that, you have liquid soap which is very different. It is very difficult to define or group them into industry. To avoid this, Chamberlin introduced the concept called group in place of industry. A group is a cluster of firms producing goods having a high cross elasticity of demand. 2. Chamberlin brought out the importance of non-price competition (product differentiation & selling cost) in monopolistic competition, which plays a very important key role. Chamberlin explained the equilibrium, with help of price and AC curves. He did not use the usual MR MC approach which made his explanations very difficult to digest for many economists. 3. Chamberlin theory gave basically S.R theory of the firms. L.R theory was given in an informal way. 4. According to Professor Chamberlin, in order to maximize profit, a monopolistic firm has to adjust its price policy or product policy or selling cost policy or the adjustments in all policies together. We can discuss these three situations a little bit elaborately. I. Product variation or product differentiation Equilibrium: When a market price is in trend and when the all firms try to stick to it, then the firms find it beneficial to differentiate their products from other products available in the market and try to charge higher price. They try to show that their product is very different from all the other products in the market and superior to all & try to attract customers towards them. This is non-price competition and called as product quality variation. The retailer may try to change presentation, place of sale, method of sale (instead of permanent sales, he may go for exhibitions, online sales) or even change location, etc. A manufacturer may bring “product differentiation “by changing the quality of product, color, design, workmanship, packing, maintenance, service, brand names, etc. It may be real or artificial. When product variation is done, there will be variation in cost of production. In order to make maximum profit, the firm has to analyze about the changes made in the cost of production & changes made in total revenue the firm will acquire after this changes in product variation. It has to consider the changes in the market due to the product variation. The firm has to choose that product which bring largest difference between total revenue and total cost that gives maximum profit. For example, if a car making firms introduce cars with auto lock system, it has to see what is the change in the cost of production and if it gets more profit, then it should go for it. Various theories of oligopoly: Various economists like Paul Sweezy, Cournot, Bertrand, stakleberg, Shapiro has given their own theories. Because of its special feature, it is difficult to find a standardized price-output equilibrium theory. Under oligopoly we find various types of price-output equilibrium theories which are shown in a tree diagram below. Oligopoly theories t Paulsweezy model Collusive perfect models Differentiated product model CARTELS Collusive imperfect M imperfect mmodemodels PRICE LEADERSHIP Joint profit maximizing centralized cartel Low cost price leadership Market sharing cartel Barometric wise Mgt. P. L. Paul sweezy model of Oligopoly Nash equilibrium game theory Market share dominant P. L. Aggressive price leadership There are so many models in oligopoly. But paul sweezy model is the most familiar model. The kinked demand curve and sticky price makes the model very familiar. Paul sweezy model is based on certain assumptions. Assumption There are few sellers in the market. There will be many buyers in the market. In Sweezy model, we assume the product are homogeneous & the products produced by one firm can be substituted by other firm’s product. The firm in the industry are inter-dependent on each other i.e., the changes made in the prices, cost, etc of one firm will affect the other firms. The product produced by oligopolies will have high cross elasticity of demand. i.e. one firm’s product can be easily substituted by other firms product. There will be free entry & exit of firms. Generally, advertisements are important in oligopoly but in sweezy model there is no advertisement expenditure. There will be constant struggle among the firms. There may be lack of uniformity in size. The decrease in the price by one firm is followed by other firms, whereas, the increase in the price is not followed. The average revenue curve in the Sweezy Model is a kinked demand curve. The M.R curve is a dis-continuous curve. The M.C curve passes though the gap in M.R curve. The price will be rigid for long time. Explanation :The AR curve i.e., the market demand curve is having (bend) in it, here the current price & the output is determined. For ex:- Let dED be the AR curve & there is a Kink at point E where a price rigidity is maintained under Oligopoly. For example , when the firm decrease the price from OP to P, it Expects that the sales will increase from OQ to OM but it increase only to OL, Because all the firms also decreases the price. The firm under Oligopoly thinks that the demand curve is dEd where the firm can benefit by decreasing the price .When the firm decreases the price, it cannot increase the sales to a greater extent as it expected .But the firm will be able to increase the sales a little bit because the decrease in the price is followed by all the firms in the market which is making the elastic demand curve into inelastic demand curve So, instead of dEd, the demand curve becomes dED. Now, if the firms assumes its curve as inelastic demand curve & increases the price, then no, firms follows it& the curve becomes elastic L M .Because of this, there is a kink at E , where the price OP is kept constant for long time, To avoid unnecessary loss by increase or decrease in price , price rigidity is maintained in Oligopoly. Because of kinded demand curve, MR curve under Oligopoly will have a discontinuity. The MR curve is represented as MR, where there is a gap AB which is shown in a graph . The discontinuity of MR curve must be drawn below the kink. The MC curve cuts the MR curve in the gap, where the equilibrium price and output is determined. If the cost of production increases, MC curve will move up in the gap & when the cost of production decreases MC curve will move down in the gap.Paul swezy has opines that the MC curve will cut the MR curve in the gap only. He has not favored increase in the price.& has not explained how rigid price has been arrived at, where all the firms are satisfied 2. Pricing under Perfect collusion model; a) In the model of centralized cartel or perfect cartel the firms in an industry reach with an agreement which maximises joint profits .So the cartel can act as an monopolist since the firms in the cartel are assumed to produce homogenous product. The market demand for the product is cartel’s demand .It is also assumed that the cartel management knows the demand at each possible price. The output of the cartel is shared between the firms on the basis of efficiency of the firms. b) In the case of market sharing cartel the firm agree to share the market & fix the quotas. All the firms will sell at the same price but sells within the given region. Here price is fixed in such a way that all the firms get super normal profit. Here the cost of production of all the firms is assumed to be similar & products produced by them are assumed to be homogenous. 3. Pricing under imperfect collusion in price leadership; a) In the low cost price leadership model, an oligopolistic firm having lower costs than the other firms sets a lower price which the other firms have to follow. This will maximize the profit of low cost firm but not the other firms. The other firms will not dare to increase the price because it will lose its buyers to low coat firm & it will start incurring loss. If the low cost firm charges very less price so that all the firms will quit, then it will become monopoly. b)Dominant price leadership occurs when there is one large dominant firm and the others are small firms in the industry .The large dominant firm can derive out its rival by price war. To avoid such possibility, tactic collusion may be arrived at between the dominant firm & the small firms. By this collusion ,small firms become price token & can sell any amount of output they want. They behave similar to perfect competition firms. the dominant firm supplies to the remaining market which is not satisfied by the small firms. Even though the dominant firm in the price leader, it is quantity follower..It sells at a high price. C) The barometric leadership is very different from the other types of price leadership. Here following the leadership doesn’t come due to low cost, high market share or aggression. The group accepts that firms as a leader who can take wisest management decision. This firm’s management acts like a barometer in forecasting changes in cost, changes in demand, changes in the technology, changes in economic conditions etc. The firms in industry (or group) accept this firms as leader, on the basis of formal or informal agreement & follow it in making price changes for the product. This leader could have been chosen based on the expertise it has shown in the overcoming the difficult times like depression, global competition, bad business weather etc. They may be following this business leader due to cut throat competition, bitter price war, inexperience in forecasting perfectly like this barometric leader. d) In the aggressive price leadership, one organization establishes its supremacy by threatening the other firms to follow its leadership. It establishes aggressive price policies and forces other firms to follow the price set by it. iii) In the differentiated product model each firm (e.g. cell phone) produces & makes it’s product to look different from other products in the market. When the firm produce differentiated product, if all the firm go for collusion it can act like a monopoly, If they don’t go for collusion they may act like monopolistic competition. IV) Game theory is concerned with predicting the outcome of a game with different strategy in which the participants have incomplete information about the others’ intention. The classic example of game theory is the prisoner’s dilemma, a situation where two prisoners are being questioned over guilt or innocence of a crime separately. Nash equilibrium is an important idea in game theory which describe an situation where all the participants in a game are pursuing their best possible strategy, guessing others’ strategies but don’t know how they will react in reality. when the firms have no collusion they will not have control over the rivals. But they closely watch their rivals. They decide the price-output policy keeping in view the reaction of the rival’s firm in the industry. Each firm will be having price control due to product differentiation and the firm’s price will be near to monopoly price. If price war breaks out between the rivals then they may charge a price at the competitive level. 5th unit M.E. QUESTION BANK ESSAY 1) EQUILIBRIUM price & output determination of a firm under perfect 2) 3) 4) 5) competition-----L.R. & S.R. EQUILIBRIUM price & output determination of a firm under MONOPOLY competition-----L.R. & S.R. EQUILIBRIUM price & output determination of a firm under MONOPOLISTIC competition-----L.R. & S.R. EXPLAIN paul sweezy model of oligopoly. Explain various types pricing policy Short 1) 1 . characteristic features of perfect competition 2) characteristic features of monopoly 3) characteristic features of monopolistic competition 4) product differentiation 5) sales promotion 6) kinked demand curve 7) price rigidity 8) all 5 types ---of pricing St.Josephs Degree & PG College B.Com (IF&A)(CBCS) Semester-III Managerial Economics (w.e.f 2019 -20) Scheme of Instruction Scheme of Examination Total duration :60Hrs Max Marks :100 Hours / Week :5 Internal Examination :30 Credits :5 Skill Based Test :10 Instruction Mode : Lecture External SemesterExam:60 Course Code : BC.05.101.18T Exam Duration :3Hrs Course Objective: To make students aware of economic concept and to make them understand the importance and practicability of the subject. Course Outcomes – CO 1: Apply the tools of economics to practice and facilitate the decision making prcoess of the firm. CO 2: Apply the theories of law of demand and supply in practice . CO 3: Examine the various types of production function and its applicability to optimize the output . CO 4: evaluate the various types of competitions and frame strategies to reduce cost and maximize revenues and profits. CO 5: Analyze the economies and diseconomies of large scale production. KL Unit I: Introduction to Managerial Economics: 12 Hrs Meaning of managerial economics-nature and Scope, Basic tools in Managerial Economics – Opportunity cost principle, Incremental principle, Principle of time perspective, discounting principle. . UnitII:Demand&supplyAnalysis: 12 Hrs Meaning of Demand, Demand Function, Curves, Individual and Market Demand, determinants of demand-Types of Demand. Elasticity of Demand - Types of Elasticity, its measurement and business uses. Meaning of supply-supply function-supply curve-determinants of supply –law of supply Unit III: Production Function: 12 Hrs Meaning of Production Function, Production function with one variable input, Law of Variable Proportions, Single output Isoquants, Optimal Combination of Factor inputs, and returns to scale. Cobb Douglas Production Function. Unit IV: Cost Function: 12 Hrs Cost concepts, Relevant Costs in decision making, Cost-Output relationship in the short and the long run, Economies and Diseconomies of scale. Economies of scope. Unit V: Market Structure: 12 Hrs Kinds of competitive situations-Perfect competition, Monopoly, Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly-features. Equilibrium output determination of a firm under perfect competition in the short run and long run. Equilibrium Price and out put determination of a firm under a) monopoly b) Monopolistic Competition in the short run and long run. Paul Sweezy’s kinked demand curve model of oligopoly. -incremental and full cost pricing, loss leader pricing, skimming and penetration pricing policy. Reference Books: 1 Business Economics: Mithani & Murthy- Himalaya Publishing House, Revised 2009 2 Business Economics: P.N. Chopra,- Kalyani Publishers, Edition 1998, Reprint 2011 3 Business Economics : A.V. Ranganadhachary, V. Surender, J. Girija Sastry-Kalyani Publishers, Revised 2003 4 Business Economics :I.C.Dhingra 5 Business Economics: KPM Sundharam & E.N Sundharam, Sultan Chand & Sons