1 BIOTECHNOLOGY VOCABULARY Steve Zhu Chock Student, Oxford International School Biology T. Caridad Chang 23/04/2023 2 Biotechnology: Biotechnology can be defined as the controlled and deliberate manipulation of biological systems (whether living cells or cell components) for the efficient manufacture or processing of useful products. What Is Biotechnology? | School of Biotechnology, n.d.) Traditional biotechnology: Traditional biotechnology refers to ancient ways of using living organisms to make new products or modify existing ones. An example of traditional biotechnology is what human beings have been doing for centuries: cloning plants. (Mp, 2017) Early examples of biotechnology include breeding animals and crops, and using microorganisms to make cheese, yoghurt, bread, beer and wine. Cheese and wine, made by fermentation, are early examples of biotechnology. (Ancient Biotechnology, n.d.) Modern biotechnology: Modern biotechnologies involve making useful products from whole organisms or parts of organisms, such as molecules, cells, tissues and organs. Recent developments in biotechnology include genetically modified plants and animals, cell therapies and nanotechnology. Key applications of biotechnology include: DNA profiling, DNA cloning, transgenesis, genome analysis, stem cells, tissue engineering, xenotransplantation, and protein crystallization. (Modern Biotechnology, n.d.) Cloning: Cloning describes the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone. The most famous clone was a Scottish sheep named Dolly. (National Library of Medicine, n.d.) 3 There are three different types of cloning: Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope to use these cells to grow healthy tissue to replace injured or diseased tissues in the human body.(National Library of Medicine, n.d.) Fermentation: Fermentation is an enzyme catalysed, metabolic process whereby organisms convert starch or sugar to alcohol or an acid anaerobically releasing energy. (Admin, 2022) Antibiotics: Antibiotics are medicines that fight infections caused by bacteria in humans and animals by either killing the bacteria or making it difficult for the bacteria to grow and multiply. Bacteria are germs. (What You Should Know About Antibiotics, 2022) Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the effects of antibiotics, a type of drug - such as penicillin or ciprofloxacin - that kills or stops the growth of bacteria. (Antibiotic Resistance, n.d.) Pathogen: A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with the severity of the disease symptoms referred to as virulence. Pathogens are taxonomically widely diverse and comprise viruses and bacteria as well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes. (Balloux & Van Dorp, 2017) 4 Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA or adding a new segment of DNA. (Genetic Engineering, n.d.) Plasmid: Plasmid refers to the separated DNA molecule from chromosomal DNA, which has the ability to replicate on its own. Plasmids are known to be small, circular molecules of DNA that have the ability to replicate independently, as they do not depend on the organism's chromosomal DNA for replication. (Admin, 2020) Vector: A vector is a living organism that transmits an infectious agent from an infected animal to a human or another animal. Vectors are frequently arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, flies, fleas and lice. (European Food Safety Authority, 2022) Restriction enzyme: A restriction enzyme is a protein isolated from bacteria that cleaves DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known sequence at each end. The use of restriction enzymes is critical to certain laboratory methods, including recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering. (Restriction Enzyme, n.d.) 5 Bacteriophage: A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria. They enter bacterial cells and use the cellular machinery to make many copies of themselves. They cannot reproduce independently. (Byju’s, 2022) Polymerase chain reaction: Polymerase chain reaction (abbreviated PCR) is a laboratory technique for rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in greater detail. (Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), n.d.) Transgenic animals: A transgenic animal is one whose genome has been altered by the transfer of a gene or genes from another species or breed. (Transgenic Animals Have Genes From Other Species Inserted Into Their Genomes, n.d.) Transgenic animals are specially designed to study the role of genes in the development of certain diseases. Moreover, in order to devise a cure for these diseases, the transgenic animals are used as model organisms. These transgenic models are used in research for the development of medicines. (Admin, 2020a) DNA microinjection: DNA microinjection is the dominating technique leading to random integration of a transgene via the introduction of DNA into the pronucleus of a developing zygote. (DNA Microinjection - Creative Biolabs, n.d.) Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer: Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer is a powerful tool that can be used to understand gene functions. We have developed a variety of retrovirus vectors and 6 efficient packaging cell lines that have facilitated the development of efficient functional expression cloning methods. (Retrovirus-mediated Gene Transfer and Expression Cloning: Powerful Tools in Functional Genomics, 2003) Reverse transcriptase: The process in cells by which an enzyme makes a copy of DNA from RNA. The enzyme that makes the DNA copy is called reverse transcriptase and is found in retroviruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). (NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms, n.d.) Embryonic stem cells: These stem cells come from embryos that are 3 to 5 days old. At this stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150 cells. These are pluripotent (ploo-RIPuh-tunt) stem cells, meaning they can divide into more stem cells or can become any type of cell in the body. This versatility allows embryonic stem cells to be used to regenerate or repair diseased tissue and organs. (Stem Cells: What They Are and What They Do, 2022) Stem cell: Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body. They serve as a repair system for the body. There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. (National Library of Medicine, n.d.-b) Pluripotent cell: In biology, the term “pluripotent” means capable of developing into differentiated cells. Pluripotent cells are the embryonic stem cells that have the unlimited 7 capacity to divide, self-renew and differentiate into cells of early primary germ cell layers, namely mesoderm, endoderm, and ectoderm. (Biology Online, 2022) Hematopoietic cell: An immature cell that can develop into all types of blood cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Hematopoietic stem cells are found in the peripheral blood and the bone marrow. Also called blood stem cell. (NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms, n.d.-b) Therapeutic cloning: Therapeutic cloning involves creating a cloned embryo for the sole purpose of producing embryonic stem cells with the same DNA as the donor cell. These stem cells can be used in experiments aimed at understanding disease and developing new treatments for disease. (Nhgri, 2019) Cord blood stem cells: Cord blood contains cells called hematopoietic stem cells. These cells can turn into any kind of blood cell and can be used for transplants that can cure diseases such as blood disorders, immune deficiencies, metabolic diseases, and some kinds of cancers. Research is revealing more and more ways it can save lives. (McCarthy, 2020b) Virus: A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. A virus cannot replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and use components of the host cell to make copies of itself. (Virus, n.d.) 8 Polymerase: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of new DNA and RNA from an existing strand of DNA or RNA.An enzyme promoting the joining together of nucleic acids with one another. (Biology Online, 2021) 9 References Admin. (2022). Types of Fermentation: Definition, Process, Advantages. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/neet/types-of-fermentation/ Admin. (2020). Plasmid Definition: Discover the meaning of plasmids, its types and its functions. 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Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/pluripotent Byju’s. (2022). Which of the following statements correctly describe a bacteriophage-. byjus.com. https://byjus.com/question-answer/which-of-the-following-statementscorrectly-describe-a-bacteriophage-7/ 10 DNA Microinjection - Creative Biolabs. (n.d.). https://www.creative-biolabs.com/drugdiscovery/therapeutics/dna-microinjection.htm European Food Safety Authority. (2022). Vector-borne diseases. European Food Safety Authority. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/vector-borne-diseases Genetic Engineering. (n.d.). Genome.gov. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/GeneticEngineering McCarthy, C., MD. (2020b). Why parents should save their baby’s cord blood — and give it away. Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/why-parents-should-savetheir-babys-cord-blood-and-give-it-away-201710312518 Modern biotechnology. (n.d.). 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