SCIENCES 10
THIRD QUARTER (BIOLOGY)
PARASYMPATHETIC
calms the body and helps
the body conserve energy
NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
●
is the master controlling and
communicating system of the body
SENSORY FUNCTION
●
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
● the body’s master control unit
SPINAL CORD
BRAIN STEM
BRAIN
column of
nerves between
brain and PNS
connects brain
to spinal cord
divided into 3
major parts:
hindbrain,
midbrain,
forebrain
STIMULI: changes inside and outside
the body
SENSORY INPUT: gathered information
INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION
●
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
● the body’s link to the outside world
AUTONOMIC
SOMATIC
regulates involuntary
bodily processes (heart
rate, respiration,
digestion, pupil
contraction
carries sensory info
from sensory organs
to the CNS and relays
motor (movement)
commands to
muscles
operates automatically
without conscious
direction
SYMPATHETIC
controls voluntary
movements
prepares body for action
and stress (fight or flight)
NS uses its millions of sensory receptor
to monitor stimuli
INTEGRATION: NS process and
interprets sensory input and makes
decisions about what should be done
at each moment
MOTOR FUNCTION
●
●
NS sends info to muscles, glands,
and organs (effectors) so they can
respond correctly
such as muscular contraction or
glandular secretions
_________________________________________________
NEURONS
●
●
●
●
nerve cells (conduct impulses)
basic element of the NS
information messengers
use electrical impulses / chemical signals
to transmit information to entire NS
●
receiving sensory input from the external
world, sending motor commands to our
muscles, transforming and relaying the
electrical signals at every step in between
STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
nerve impulse is
transmitted electrically
via channel proteins
nerve impulse is
transmitted chemically
via neurotransmitters
faster speed of
transmission
slower speed of
transmission
3.5 nm distance between
pre and postsynaptic
30-50 nm distance
between pre and
postsynaptic
PRE-SYNAPTIC
● “sending” cell
POST-SYNAPTIC
● “receiving” cell
1. CELL BODY
(SOMA)
main processing center of
the cell
2. DENDRITES
thin branching extensions
of the cell body that
conduct nerve impulses
toward the cell body
3. AXON
ACTION POTENTIAL
● occurs when a neuron sends information
down an axon, away from the cell body
CHEMICAL SYNAPSE PROCESS
a single branch (in most
neurons) which conducts
nerve impulses away from
the cell body
covered by white, waxy
substance (myelin)
4. AXON
TERMINALS
5. MYELIN SHEATH
and NEURILEMMA
releases neurotransmitters
of the presynaptic cell
insulates and increases
speed at which impulses
travel (coverings)
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NEURONS
SYNAPSE
● junction between neurons
● can be electrical or chemical
● signal is carried from presynaptic neuron
(first nerve fiber) to the postsynaptic neuron
(next)
Irritability / Excitability
Conductivity
ability to respond to
stimuli
ability to transmit an
impulse
can be stimulated to
produce an impulse
(action potential) - a
tiny electrical current
able to transfer an
impulse along full
length of their axons
and then to other
neurons, muscles,
glands
THREE TYPES OF NEURONS
EFFERENT
(motor)
conveys info from the CNS to
muscle and glands
AFFERENT
(sensory)
carry info from sensory
receptors to the CNS
taste, smell, hear, see, feel
INTERNEURON
NEUROGLIA
● support, protect, connect, and remove
debris for the NS
● Astrocytes, Oligodendroglia, Microglia
_________________________________________________
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
●
●
●
Cerebrum
conscious control of actions
Diencephalon
sensation, emotions,
commands whole internal
system
Cerebellum
body movements, speech
coordination, balance
Brainstem
spinal cord to basic internal
functions and reflexes
carry and process sensory info
Two Types of Motor Neurons
1. Lower Motor Neurons
● carry signals from spinal cord to the smooth
muscles and skeletal muscles
2. Upper Motor Neurons
● carry signals between brain and spinal cord
●
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
composed of two major interconnected
organs: brain and spinal cord
responsible for higher neural functions:
memory, learning, emotion
weighs about 3 pounds (adults)
75% H2O , 20% O
contains over 100 B neurons
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
1. CEREBRUM (CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE)
● largest part of brain
● divides brain into 2 hemispheres
● The Seat of Consciousness: High
Intellectual Functions
Cerebral Cortex
● outer layer that lies on top of your cerebrum
● contains 2 hemispheres with an outer
portion
GYRI
thick folds
SULCI
shallow grooves
FISSURE
deep grooves
LONGITUDINAL
FISSURE
separates cerebral
hemispheres
Corpus Callosum
● bridge of nerve fibers that relay info
between the two hemispheres
3. Epithalamus
4. Ventral Thalamus
The left and right lobes are each divided
into four lobes or parts:
FRONTAL LOBE
motor control
problem solving
speech production
PARIETAL LOBE
touch perception
body orientation and
sensory discrimination
TEMPORAL LOBE
3. BRAINSTEM
● sends message to the rest of your body to
regulate balance, breathing, heart rate
● relays signal between brain and spinal cord
● manages basic involuntary functions
● composed of three sections (descending
order)
MIDBRAIN
crucial for regulating eye
movements
auditory processing
language comprehension
PONS
memory / info retrieval
OCCIPITAL LOBE
"Pathways of nerve impulses are crossed pathways
— the LEFT side of the brain controls the RIGHT
side of the body, and the RIGHT Side of the brain
controls the LEFT side of the body."
BRAIN LATERALIZATION
Functional Areas of the Cerebrum
1. Sensory Areas
2. Motor Areas
3. Association Areas
2. DIENCEPHALON
● deep portion of the brain containing:
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
middle portion
coordinates facial
movements, hearing, and
balance
sight
visual reception and visual
interpretation
top part of brainstem
MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
bottom part
helps regulate breathing,
heart rhythms, blood pressure,
and swallowing
4. CEREBELLUM
● coordinates musculoskeletal movement to
maintain posture, balance, muscle tone
● controls balance and movement
○ inferior to the occipital lobes of
cerebrum
○ posterior to the pons and medulla
oblongata
MEMORY
● storage and retrieval of information
2 STAGES OF MEMORY
1. Short-term memory (working memory)
● fleeting memory
● lasts secs to hours and is limited to
7-8 pieces of information
2. Long-term memory
● limitless capacity
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TRANSFER OF
MEMORY FROM STM TO LTM
EMOTIONAL STATE
happy, alert, motivated,
aroused
REHEARSAL
replaying or rehearsing
material
ASSOCIATION
associating new info with
old memories in LTM
Improve your Memory
1. Concentrate
2. Minimize Interference
3. Break down large amount of info
4. Rephrase material in own words
5. Test yourself
_________________________________________________
direct autonomic (involuntary) functions
(breathing rate, heartbeat, bowel and
bladder function)
2. Report senses to your brain
● signals from other parts of the body help
brain record/process sensation like
pressure and pain
3. Manage your reflexes
● controls some reflexes (involuntary
movements) without involving brain
● spinal cord manages patellar reflex
(involuntarily moving your leg when
someone taps your shin in a certain spot)
●
THREE MAIN PARTS
1. Cervical (neck)
2. Thoracic (chest)
3. Lumbar (lower back)
SPINAL CORD
● long, tube-like band of tissue, nerves, cells
● connects brain to lower back
● carries nerve signals from brain to body and
vice versa
● 18 inches (45 cm)
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
● protective layer of bone that covers and
protects your spinal cord
Vertebrae (vertebra)
● bones in the vertebral column
Spinal Disk
● between each pair of vertebrae
● tough outer shell and a gel-like interior
Parts of Spinal Disk
1. Annulus Fibrosus
2. Nucleus Pulposus
3. Spinal Nerve
4. Spinal Cord
FUNCTION OF SPINAL CORD
1. Control body movements and functions
● signals from your brain to other body parts
control your movements
Protected by:
1. Vertebral Column
2. Cerebrospinal Fluid
3. Meninges
Meninges
● plastic-like
● three layers of membranes that cover the
brain and spinal cord
LAYERS OF MENINGES
DURA MATER
outer layer that protects
spinal cord from injury
ARACHNOID MATER
middle layer between
epidural and subarachnoid
space
PIA MATER
inner layer that covers your
spinal cord
NERVES IN SPINAL CORD
● 31 pairs of nerves and nerve roots
Eight (8) Cervical Nerve Pairs
● neck to face/head
Twelve (12) Thoracic Nerve Pairs
● upper body to chest, upper back, abdomen
Five (5) Lumbar Nerve Pairs
● low back to legs/feet
Five (5) Sacral Nerve Pairs
● low back to pelvis
One (1) Coccygeal Nerve Pair
● coccyx (end)
CAUDA EQUINA
● the roots of the lumbar and sacral
spinal nerves
● form a bundle within the lowest part
of the spinal column
_________________________________________________
Brain
● connects perception to complex thought,
olfactory, memory, and emotion
● helps to process both memory / olfaction
WHITE MATTER
GREY MATTER
buried deep in the brain
found on brain’s surface
or cortex
made up of axons,
which connect different
parts of grey matter to
each other
contains most of the
brain’s neuronal cell
bodies (soma, dendrites,
axon terminals,
synapses)
muscle control, sensory
reception (hearing,
memory, emotions,
speech)
SENSATION & PERCEPTION PROCESSES
BRAIN
● develops from back to front
Meninges
three layers of membranes that
cover the brain and spinal cord
CSF
chambers in brain produce a
watery medium within the skull
absorbs and disperses
excessive mechanical forces
which might otherwise cause
serious injury
Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow
● clear liquid renewed 4-5 times a day
● proteins and glucose : provide energy for
brain cell function
● lymphocytes (WBC) : guard against infection
Choroid Plexus
● thin walled capillaries that produce CSF
Amygdala
● responsible for instinctive reactions (fear
and aggressive behavior)
● prominent during teenage years
● develops early, frontal cortex develops later
(responsible for reasoning and decision
making
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE BRAIN
division of nervous system
pathway of messages from brain to body
connects CNS to the organs, limbs, skin
contains all the nerves outside CNS
○ nerves extend from CNS to the
outermost area of body
○ nerve cells connected to the spinal
cord
Ganglion
● group of cell that collects info about the
visual world
●
●
●
●
SCIENCE BEHIND LOVE
Hypothalamus
● region in the brain that controls emotions
● produces dopamine, oxytocin, vasopressin
Dopamine
- a neurotransmitter in the brain's
reward system that helps people feel
pleasure
- gives focus, obsession
Oxytocin
- love drug
- facilitate childbirth
- possessiveness
Vasopressin
- bonding hormone that makes you
want to hang out with your loved one
- sense of security, wanting to see
your partner; longing
TWO MAIN SUBSYSTEMS
1. SOMATIC
● soma: greek word meaning body
● movements that can be controlled (muscles
in limbs, arms, legs)
● responsible for carrying sensory and motor
info to and from PNS
● transmitting sensory info and voluntary
movement
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF NEURON
AFFERENT (SENSORY)
EFFERENT (MOTOR)
nerves (sense organs)
to CNS
brain and spinal cord to
muscle fibers
Interneuron
● connects sensory and motor neuron
SENSORY-SOMATIC SYSTEM
CRANIAL NERVES
SPINAL NERVES
directly from brain
nerves branch off the
spinal cord
cerebrum and brainstem
carry info from SC to
rest of the body, then
from the body to brain
Pituitary Gland
● regulates hormones and secretes them into
the body
Amygdala
● moderates fear and stress
_________________________________________________
12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
●
Peripheral: greek word meaning around or
outside the center
I
Olfactory
smell
II
Optic
vision
III
Oculomotor
eyelid / eyeball
IV
Trochlear
eyeball muscle
V
Trigeminal
s: facial/mouth
sensation
m: chewing
VI
Abducens
eyeball movement
VII
Facial
s: taste
m: facial muscles /
salivary gland
VIII
Auditory
hearing and
balance
XI
Glossopharyngeal
s: taste
m: swallowing
X
Vagus
PNS
XI
Accessory
swallowing; moving
head and shoulder
XII
Hypoglossal
tongue muscles
DURING UNCOMFORTABLE SITUATIONS
increases heart rate,
muscle tense up
reduce heartbeat,
muscle relaxes
pupil dilates
pupil contracts
saliva secretion is
inhibited
saliva secretion
increases, digestion
increases
releases epinephrine
and norepinephrine :
accelerate heart rate
releases acetylcholine :
slows down heart rate
2. AUTONOMIC
● cannot be controlled
● regulating involuntary body functions
Digestion
Metabolism
Urination
Defecation
Blood Pressure
Sexual Response
Body Temperature
Heartbeat
Breathing Rate
Fluid Balance
TWO BRANCHES
SYMPATHETIC
PARASYMPATHETIC
thoracic and lumbar
regions of spinal cord
between spinal cord
and medulla
fight or flight :
regulates heart rate,
respiration rate,
pupillary response
rest and digest or
feed and breed :
commands glands to
balance
prepares body for
potential danger
bring body to state
of calm
_________________________________________________
DISORDERS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
● memory, thinking, and reasoning
deterioration
● as people get older, brain shrinks
● temporary memory loss
● no treatment
● cause: abnormal buildup of proteins in and
around brain cells (protein flock)
○ amyloid: deposits of which form
plaques around brain cells
○ tau: deposits of which form tangles
within brain cells
2. AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS
● Lou Gherig’s Disease
○ New York Yankees Baseball Player
○ forced to retire in 1939
● breaks down motor neurons
● loss of ability to move any muscle
● affects legs muscles first then upward
● irreversible, progressive, hereditary
● no cure, no effective treatment
● Stephen Hawking
3. CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME
● cause: compression at the wrist of the
median nerve
○ results to numbness and tingling
● frequent, repetitive, grasping movements
with the hands (sports)
● joint or bone disease (arthritis,
osteoarthritis, or rheumatoid arthritis)
● hormonal or metabolic changes
(menopause, pregnancy, thyroid imbalance)
4. EPILEPSY
● frequent seizures
● convulsion or loss of consciousness
● affects the secondary nervous system
● tonic and clonic phase
● cause: abnormalities in brain (brain tumors
or vascular malformations or AVMs or
cavernous malfunction)
5. HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE
● inherited, progressive
● uncontrollable physical movements and
mental deterioration
● chromosomal mutation
● affects basal ganglia (motor functions)
○ nerve cells located at base of
cerebrum, deep in the brain
○ gradual degeneration of parts of
basal ganglia - caudate nucleus and
putamen
● cause: mutation on a gene located on
chromosome 4
7. PARKINSON’S DISEASE
● progressive
●
●
●
cells on one of the movement control center
of the brain begin to die
loss of control over speech, head, body
movements
Substantia Nigra deteriorates
○ produces dopamine
○ in PD, not enough dopamin
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
●
controls most processes in your body
○ growth, thermoregulation,
metabolism, sexual function
GLAND
organ that secretes particular
chemical substances
hormones: for use in body /
for discharge on the
surroundings
HORMONE
chemicals that coordinate
different functions in body
carrying messages through
blood to you organs, skin,
muscles, and other tissues
Essential for life and health
These signals tell you body what to do and
when to do it
THREE TYPES OF GLANDS IN THE BODY
1. Exocrine Glands
● glands that secrete their products into the
ducts
● release through a duct than outside the
body
○ sweat gland, salivary, mammary,
stomach, liver
2. Endocrine Glands
● Glands that secrete their products directly
into the bloodstream
○ Pituitary gland, pancreas, thyroid
gland, adrenal glands
3. Heterocrine
● also known as “mixed glands”
●
glands that have both functions as
endocrine and exocrine glands
○ Pancreas and the gonads (testes
and ovaries)
3 ways Exocrine Secrete their Substances
Merocrine
process called exocytosis
where the cells aren’t damaged
at all (e.g. eccrine sweat
glands)
Apocrine
make buds of the cell
membranes that break off into
the duct causing them to lose
part of the membrane
(e.g. mammary glands)
Holocrine
2 Pituitary Lobes
Anterior
Adenohypophysis
about 75% of the gland
synthesizes and secretes
the tropic hormones
Somatropin - human
growth hormone
cell membranes burst to
release its substance (e.g.
sebaceous glands)
Prolactin (PRL) - regulates
the development of the
breasts and lactation
Main Glands that produce hormones
● Pituitary
● Hypothalamus
● Thyroid
● Parathyroid
● Adrenal
● Pineal
● Pancreas
● Ovaries
● Testes
Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH) regulates ovarian follicle
growth in women and
spermatogenesis in men
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- causes ovulation and
yellow body formation in
women and the release of
testosterone in men
Pituitary Gland
● also known as hypophysis and the master
gland of the body
● a pea-sized body attached to the base of the
brain
● help regulate the functions of the other
endocrine glands
○ sends signals to the pituitary to
release or inhibit pituitary hormone
production
Thyroid Hormone (TSH)stimulates the function of
the thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)stimulates the production
of hormones in the
adrenal gland
Posterior
Neurohypophysis
about 25% of the gland
Vasopressin - antidiuretic
hormone, stimulates the
absorption of water in the
curved kidney tubules,
resulting in primary urine
thickening, and
constricting blood
vessels, resulting in
increased blood pressure
Oxytocin - acts on the
smooth muscles of the
uterus, stimulates their
contraction
Hypothalamus
● main link between the endocrine system
and the nervous system
○ receives chemical messages from
nerve cells in the brain (PNS), which
is responding to signals outside
● acts as the body’s smart control
coordinating center
● main function is to keep the body in a stable
state called homeostasis
○ body temperature
○ blood pressure
○ hunger and thirst
○ sense of fullness when eating
○ mood
○ sex drive
○ sleep
● makes some hormones itself that are stored
elsewhere (in posterior pituitary)
● sends signals (hormones) to the pituitary
which releases;
○ hormones that directly affect a body
part
○ another hormone to a different gland
Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary
Hypothalamu
s- releasing
hormone
Hormone
in
anterior
Effect
Growth
Hormone
Releasing
Hormone
(GHRH)
GH
goes directly into
the long bones
and big muscles
for growth
Gonadotropinreleasing
hormone
(GnRH)
FSH and
LH
travels to gonads
In males:
LH - causes the
testosterone
production
FSH - controls
sperm production
In females:
LH & FSH - control
the menstrual
cycle and trigger
ovulation
Corticotropin
releasing
hormone
(CRH)
ACTH
Travels to the
adrenal glands
causes the
release of cortisol
and regulate
metabolism and
immune response
Thyrotropin-rel TSH
easing
hormone
(TRH)
Travels to the
thyroid gland
Dopamine
Goes directly to
breast tissue to
produce breast
milk
PRL
causes the thyroid
to release
thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine
(T3)
Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin
assists in the birthing process
and lactation
plays a role in human bonding,
sexual arousal, trust,
recognition, sleep cycle and
feelings of well-being
Vasopressin
Thyroid Hormones
Thyroxine (T4)
also called as antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
once thyroid releases T4
into your bloodstream, it can
convert to T3 (deiodination)
regulates control of the body’s
water/urine volume and blood
pressure
Dopamine
the “feel good” hormone which
gives the sense of pleasure
and motivation to do
something
Triiodothyronin
e (T3)
prevents the secretion of
several other hormones,
including GH, TSH,
cholocystokinin and insulin
Thyroid Gland
● a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at
the front of your neck under the skin
● control the speed of metabolism (metabolic
rate)
T3 are produced lesser than
T4, but it has a greater
effect on metabolism
stimulates the nervous
system to increase
wakefulness, alertness, and
responsiveness to external
stimuli.
signals the pituitary to stop
releasing prolactin
Somatostatin
is responsible for your
metabolism, mood, and
body temperature
Reverse
triiodothyronine
(RT3)
are in very small amounts of
Calcitonin
helps regulate the
amount of calcium in your
blood.
reverses the effects of T3.
●
●
When T3 and T4 levels are low in the blood,
the pituitary gland releases more TSH to tell
the thyroid gland to produce more thyroid
hormones.
● If T3 and T4 levels are high, the pituitary
gland releases less TSH to the thyroid gland
to slow production of these hormones.
helps in heart’s pumping cycle
Adrenal Gland
● also known as suprarenal glands
● are small, triangle-shaped glands that are
located on top of each of your two kidneys.
● help regulate several important bodily
functions including:
○ Metabolism Immune system.
○ Blood pressure.
○ Response to stress.
○ Development of sexual
characteristics.
Parathyroid Gland
● small pea-sized glands located in the neck
just behind the butterfly-shaped thyroid
gland
● releases Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Adrenal Hormones
Cortisol
helps control body’s use of
fats, proteins and
carbohydrates
suppresses inflammation,
regulates blood pressure,
increases blood sugar,
helps control sleep-wake
cycle
released during times of
stress to help the body get
an energy boost and better
handle the situation
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Controls phosphorus and vitamin D levels
Controls calcium level in the blood
● helps nerves work
● helps in muscle contraction
● helps in blood clotting
Aldosterone
plays a central role in
regulating blood pressure
and levels of sodium and
potassium (electrolytes) in
your blood
helps regulate the blood pH
by controlling the levels of
electrolytes in the blood
DHEA and
androgenic
steroids
are weak male hormones
converted into female
hormones (estrogen) in the
ovaries into male hormones
(androgens) in the testes
androgens are both
produced naturally in males
and females
Adrenaline
(epinephrine)
Noradrenaline
(norepinephrine)
known as “fight or flight”
hormones
(catecholamines)
capable of increasing your
heart rate and the force of
heart contraction,
increasing blood flow to
muscles and brain, and
assisting in glucose
metabolism
Pineal Hormones
Melatonin
helps with the timing of circadian
rhythm (body’s 24-hour internal
clock) and with sleep
control vasoconstriction
which helps in maintaining
blood pressure
released during physically
and emotionally stressful
situations
Pineal Gland
● also called as the pineal body or epiphysis
cerebri
● a tiny gland in the brain that’s located
beneath the back part of the corpus
callosum
● secretes melatonin
produced in response into
darkness
helps in regulating menstrual
cycles and also protect against
neurodegeneration
Pancreas Gland
● an organ in the back of the abdomen (belly)
● Exocrine Function - produces enzymes that
help with digestion
● Endocrine - sends out hormones that
control the amount of sugar in the blood
●
Head: wider part of the pancreas that sits in
the curve of duodenum
●
●
●
Neck: short part of the pancreas extending
from the head
Body: the middle part of the pancreas
between the head and neck, which extends
upward
Tail: thinnest part of the pancreas located
near the spleen
Pancreas Hormones
Lipase
works with bile (a fluid produced
by the liver) to break down fats
Amylase
breaks down carbohydrates for
energy
Protease
breaks down proteins
Insulin
reduces high blood sugar levels
Glucagon
increases low blood sugar levels
●
fertilized egg implants and grows outside
the main cavity of the uterus
Testes/Testicles
● an oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 cm
in diameter
● a tough, white fibrous connective tissue
capsule, the tunica albuginea, surrounds
each testis and extends inward to form
septa that partition the organ into lobules.
● are responsible for making sperm and are
also involved in producing testosterone
Ovaries
● are small, oval-shaped glands located on
either side of the uterus
● produce and store eggs (ovum) and make
hormones that control the menstrual cycle
and pregnancy
Testes Hormones
Testosterone
causes people to have
deeper voices, stronger
muscles and body hair
also makes the following
hormones
Inhibin B
serum levels of this protein
are related to testicular
volume and sperm counts in
adults
Insulin-like
factor 3
helps testicles descend into
the scrotum from the
abdomen and to continue to
develop the scrotum
Anti-Mullerian
Hormone
important in the development
of the internal male
reproductive organs
Estradiol
important in making sperm
Ovary Hormones
Estrogen
regulates the growth
development and physiology
of the human reproductive
system
Progesterone
prepares the endometrium
(lining of the uterus) for a
fertilized egg to implant and
grow
Ectopic Pregnancy
DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Dwarfism and Gigantism
● are conditions caused by abnormal (too
little or too much) amounts of growth
hormone in the body.
2. Hyperthyroidism
● caused by high levels of T3 and T4
hormones
● symptoms include:
○ anxiety
○ irritability or moodiness
○ nervousness, hyperactivity
○ sweating or sensitivity to high
temperatures
○ hand trembling (shaking)
○ hair loss
○ missed or light menstrual periods
3. Hypothyroidism
● caused by low amounts of T3 and T4
hormones
● symptoms include:
○ trouble sleeping
○ tiredness and fatigue
○ difficulty concentrating
○ dry skin and hair
○ depression
○ sensitivity to cold temperature
○ frequent, heavy periods
○ joint and muscle pain
4. Hypercalcemia
● caused by high levels of calcium in blood
● can weaken your bones, create kidney
stones, and interfere with how your heart
and brain work
5. Hypophosphatemia
● caused by low levels of phosphorus in blood
● can cause health challenges including
muscle weakness, respiratory or heart
failure, seizures, or comas
6. Hirsutism (Excessive Hair Growth)
●
due to high levels of androgen that causes
women and people assigned female at birth
(AFAB) develop excessive hair growth
7. Addison’s disease (primary adrenal
insufficiency)
● rare autoimmune disease that causes
adrenal glands to produce low levels of
cortisol and aldosterone
8. Cushing’s Syndrome
● happens when adrenal glands produce too
much cortisol usually caused by a tumor or
certain medications
9. Diabetes
● Type 1: when pancreas doesn’t produce
insulin
● Type 2: when body makes insulin but
doesn’t use it correctly
10. Hyperglycemia
● happens when body produces too much
glucagon
● high blood sugar levels
11. Hypoglycemia
● occurs when body produces too much
insulin
● low blood sugar levels
12. Pancreatitis
● happens when enzymes start to work in the
pancreas before they reach the duodenum
● may result from gallstones or excessive
alcohol
● can be temporary or chronic
13. Pancreatic Cancer
● cancerous cells in the pancreas
● can be difficult to detect and treat
14. Hypogonadism
● testicles doesn’t produce enough hormones
needed
15. Klinefelter syndrome
●
genetic condition that happens when a
person is born with two copies of the X
chromosome and one copy of Y
chromosome (XXY)
16. Infertility
● refers to being unable to impregnate a
partner
● may not produce or release any or enough
sperm
when the penis erects, the flow of
urine is blocked from the urethra,
allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm
*parts of penis
Scrotum
climate control system of the male
reproductive system
- temp should slightly be
hughes that body temp to
allow perm production
- high temp: sags
- low temp: acts like blanket.
17. Cryptorchidism
● also called undescended testicles where
testicles don’t drop into the scrotum when
they should
Testicles
oval organs about the size of very
large olive inside the scrotum
spermatic cord - structure that
secures the testes at either end of
the testicles
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions:
● produce, maintain, and transport sperm and
semen
● discharge sperm into the female
reproductive tract
● produce and secrete male sex hormones
is the loose pouch-like sac of skin
that hangs behind penis
responsible for making sperm
involved in producing testosterone
Testes
inside the testes are seminiferous
tubules - responsible for producing
sperm cells through
spermatogenesis
- production: seminiferous
tubules
- maturation: epididymis
PARTS OF PENIS
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
Penis
male organ for sexual intercourse
ROOT
connects the penis to the lower
abdomen
BODY /
SHAFT
free part of the penis between the
root and glans
GLANS
head
FRENULUM
most sensitive flap of skin
located below the head of the
penis
a lot of nerve endings are
connected to the spinal cord
Late Ejaculation
● semen comes out even if not engaged in
sexual act (even if penis is not erect)
● caused by: stress, depression, underlying
problem
Climax
● peak of sexual act
● ejaculation of male and female
When penis erect, the flow of urine is blocked from
the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated
(orgasm)
●
makes fructose - provides
sperm with a source of energy
and helps sperm’s motility
Prostate Gland
contributes additional fluid to
ejaculate and help nourish the
sperm
Bulbourethral
Gland
(Cowper’s
Gland)
Retrograde Ejaculation (Dry Orgasm)
● semen goes to urinary bladder
produce a clear, slippery fluid
that empties directly into the
urethra
produces fluid that serves to
lubricate the urethra and
neutralize any acidity (residual
drops of urine in urethra)
sperm will die if they go out at the same
time (urine i acidic)
Average Ejaculation: 30 mins
*supplements are taken to prolong this
Walnut-sized structure located
below the urinary bladder in
front of rectum
Ejaculatory
Duct
formed by the fusion of vas
deferens and seminal vesicle
REGULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE
SECRETION IN MALES
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Passageways
Vas Deferens
is a long muscular tube
travels from epididymis into
the pelvic cavity, to just behind
the bladder
transports mature sperm to
urethra in preparation for
ejaculation
Urethra
tube that carries urine from
bladder to outside the body
Glands
Seminal
Vesicles
sac-like pouches attached to
vas deferens near the bladder
base
Negative feedback occurs to reduce the change or
output: the result of a reaction is reduced to bring
the system back to a stable state.
Erectile Dysfunction (ED - Impotence)
● impotence
● difficulty getting and keeping an erection
●
characterized by the regular and repeated
inability of a sexually mature individual to
obtain or maintain erection
Vagina - canal that joins the
lower part of the uterus to
outside the body
Prostate Cancer
● prostate gland is affected
Testicular Cancer
● lump in the testes
Urethra - tube that carries pee
from bladder to outside the body
Clitoris
small, sensitive protrusion
comparable to mens’ penis
STD in Men
1. Chlamydia - lice in genitals
2. Gonorrhea - itchy genitals
3. Tricomoniasis
4. Hepatitis A & B
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
6. Herpes
7. Syphilis
8. HIV - not treatable
prepuce - fold that covers clitoris
Vaginal Opening
allows menstrual blood and
babies exit the body
tampons, fingers, sex toys,
penises can go inside vaginal
opening
Hymen
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
piece of tissue covering or
surrounding part of vaginal
opening
formed during development and
present during birth
Functions:
● produce gametes (egg cell)
● secrete sex hormones (progesterone,
estrogen)
● gestating a fetus if fertilization occurs
● giving birth and breastfeeding (prolactin)
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
Labia Majora
“large lips”
enclose and protect other
external reproductive organs
Labia Minora
“small lips”
lie just inside labia majora, and
surround opening to vagina and
urethra
Vagina
muscular canal that joins the cervix to
outside the body
Cervix
lowest part of uterus
a hole in the middle allows sperm to
enter and menstrual blood to exit
open during ovulation/labor
opens 50x for its fetus
Uterus
hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds
a fetus during pregnancy
two parts: cervix and corpus
- corpus expands during
pregnancy
Endometrium (Uterus Lining) thickens to accommodate fetus
Ovaries
small, oval-shaped glands, located on
either sides of the uterus
produce eggs and hormones
Fallopian
tubes
narrow tubes attached to the upper
part of uterus
serves as pathways for egg (ovum) to
travel from ovaries to uterus
GYNECOLOGICAL CANCERS
Cervical
cervix
lower, narrow end of
uterus
Ovarian
ovaries
each side of uterus
Uterine
uterus
pear-shaped organ in
pelvis (where
baby grows)
Vaginal
vagina
hollow tube-like channel
(bottom of uterus to
outside the body)
Vulvar
vulva
outer part of female
genital organs
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
● happens when a woman’s ovaries or adrenal
glands produce more male hormones than
usual
Symptoms:
1. Infertility
2. Pelvic pain
3. Excess hair growth on face, chest,
thumbs, toes
4. Baldness or thinning of hair
5. Acne, oily skin, dandruff
6. Patches of thickened dark brown or
black skin
HORMONAL REGULATION (MENSTRUATION,
PREGNANCY, LABOR, BREASTFEEDING)
Menstruation
● periodic shedding of uterine lining when
pregnancy doesn’t occur that cycle
● process in which blood and other tissues
are shed from the uterus and leave the body
through the vagina
Menarche
● first menstruation
● normally occurs between ages 11-15
Menopause
● last period or when period stops
● no more egg cell left in ovary
● little to no estrogen / progesterone
● normally occurs between ages 45-55
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
● usually 28 days
● may be regular or irregular (hormones or
disorders)
1. Menstruation Phase (Day 1-5)
● endometrium is
shed
● follicle grow in
ovary
●
○ 3-5 follicles, 1-2 are mature
low levels of estrogen and progesterone
2. Follicular Phase (Day 6-13)
● follicles grow and mature
● secrete estrogen
○ endometrium thickens
○ stimulates LH
3. Ovulation Phase (Day 14)
● LH peaks, thus secondary oocyte (mature
cell) burst from the follicle in the ovary to
oviduct (fallopian tube)
● cervix will starts to open
● white mens = higher sex drive
Fimbriae
● finger-like structure located at the
end of fallopian tube
● pull egg cell from the follicle to
oviduct
4. Luteal Phase (Day 15-28)
● corpus luteum develop from follicle
because of LH
● corpus luteum secretes estrogen and
progesterone
○ endometrium thickens and maintain
(progesterone prevents contraction)
○ inhibits LH and FSH
● egg: fertilized of not
# of Eggs
Fetal development
At birth
Puberty
6M
1M
300k
The number of eggs you have continues to decline
as you age and menstruate each cycle
●
fertility also declines with age due to the
decreasing number and quality of your
remaining eggs
HOW REPRODUCTION WORKS
Note: FSH remains low, prevents new
follicles from maturing
Placenta
● will secrete pregnancy hormones to
help mother accommodate fetus
while corpus luteum deteriorates
and is absorbed by the overy
Corpus Luteum
● empty follicle
● secrete estrogen / progesterone
EGG CELL
SPERM CELL
X chromosome
X or Y chromosome
BOY
XY
GIRL
XX
The Main Characters
Progesterone
facilitate the implantation
of fertilized egg
IN THE BRAIN
FRATERNAL TWINS
IDENTICAL TWINS
different egg cells
same egg cells
Parts of Sperm and Egg Cell
LH
facilitates ovulation
FSH
stimulates follicular
production
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
● hormone that helps regulate levels of the
pro-pregnancy hormones (estrogen and
progesterone)
○ passes thru blood to ovaries
● released when an egg is fertilized
○ egg travels through FRT and
implants to the womb around 9 days
after fertilization
● enters maternal circulation and allows
mother to recognize embryo and begin to
change her body to support pregnancy
● continues to be produced in large quantities
during pregnancy
● used as an indicator in most OTC PT
● partly responsible for frequent urination in
the first trimester
○ higher HCG = more blood flow to
pelvic area and kidneys
○ kidneys eliminate waste quicker
Progesterone During Pregnancy
1st Trimester
Ovary
● follicle containing immature egg cell
● 1 follicle = 1 egg cell
● egg cells mature when FSH and LH are
produced
● fertilized egg = corpus luteum will continue
producing estrogen and progesterone
HORMONES OF PREGNANCY AND LABOR
IN THE OVARIES
Estrogen
sexual and reproductive
development
high levels of
progesterone
are required
throughout
pregnancy
in the first few
weeks, corpus
luteum
produces this
hormone
increase blood flow to womb by
stimulating growth of existing
blood vessels
stimulating glands in
endometrium to produce
nutrients to sustain embryo
stimulating endometrium to
grow and thicken and allow
implantation of embryo
- produce decidua: unique
organ that supports the
attachment of placenta
help establish placenta
2nd
important for correct fetal
Trimester
placenta
takes over in
progesterone
production
development
prevent muscle of womb from
contracting until labor starts
prevent lactation until after
pregnancy
strengthen muscle of pelvic wall
for labor preparation
Estrogen During Pregnancy
● stimulates progesterone production by
placenta
● initially produced by corpus luteum, then by
placenta
○ as pregnancy develops, adrenal
glands produce androgens that are
passed to the placenta
● maintain, control, stimulate production of
other pregnancy hormones
● ensure correct development of many fetal
organs (lungs, liver, kidneys)
● stimulate growth and correct placenta
function
● promote growth of maternal breast tissue
and prepare mother for lactation
Side-effects of Pregnancy Hormones
1. Morning Sickness
2. Mood Swings
SAFE SEX PRACTICES
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health
Act of 2012 (RH Bill) - RA 10354
● Philippine law that provided universal
access to methods on contraception,
fertility control, sexual education, and
maternal care in the Philippines
Types of Contraceptives in the Philippines
1. Condoms
MALE
FEMALE
worn by women to
prevent sperm from
getting into her body
HUMAN PLACENTAL
LACTOGEN (HPL)
CORTICOTROPINRELEASING HORMONE
worn over penis and
keeps semes from
getting into woman’s
vagina
promote growth of
mammary glands
regulate duration of
pregnancy and fetal
maturation
worn when erected
immediately before the
act
worn 5 hours before
the act
DOH: 13% failure rate
(thin, abrasion, rip)
DOH: 13% failure rate
Other Hormones
Dotted Condoms
● for female sexual arousal
○ provides more fluid for lubrication
Disadvantages
1. No natural satisfaction
2. Depression (no skin-to-skin contact)
2. Pills
COMBINED ORAL
CONTRACEPTIVES
PROGESTIN-ONLY PILL
(POP)
“the pill”
“mini pill”
contain estrogen and
progestin hormones
contain progestin
hormone only
must be taken daily at
the same time
needs to be taken every
day to work
keep you from ovulating
(keep ovaries from
releasing an egg)
thickens mucus in
cervix to stop sperm
reaching an egg
also cause changes on
cervix and endometrium
can also stop
ovulation
3. Implant (Nexplanon)
● low-maintenance contraceptive
● thin, small rod that release hormones into
body
● implanted in upper arm
● releases a low steady dose of progestin
● can last a long time (3-5 years)
●
withdrawal of penis from vagina upon
ejaculation
2. Rhythm / Calendar Method
● tracking menstrual patterns, counting the
days of fertility and infertility in a month
● only having intercourse on the days infertile
days
● safe days: 3-4 days before and after period
3. Vasectomy
● male sterilization
● surgical procedure to cut or seal the tubes
that carry a man’s sperm (vas deferens) to
prevent pregnancy permanently
● sperm can’t get into the semen or out the
body
○ semen is still produced, but doesn’t
contain sperm
Disadvantages
1. Prone to HIV and STDs
4. Injectable (Depo-Provera)
● injection of progestin (upper arm or
buttocks)
● good for 3 months
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD)
● small T-shaped
device implanted
uterus
● releases copper
prevent
pregnancy
● protects against
pregnancy for
5-10 years
Natural Family Planning Methods
1. Withdrawal
● pullout method
4. Tubal Ligation
● female sterilization
● surgical procedure in which the fallopian
tubes are permanently blocked, clipped, or
removed
● prevents fertilization of eggs by sperm
in
to
RNA VS DNA
Nucleic Acid
● naturally occurring chemical compound
● primary info carrying molecule in cell
● makeup genetic material
NItrogenous Base Pairs
● consists of 1 purine and 1 pyrimidine
Nucleotides
● organic molecule
● building blocks of DNA and RNA
PURINE
PYRIMIDINE
2 rings
1 ring
adenine, guanine
thymine, uracil,
cytosine
3 Parts of a Nucleotide
DNA
AT
CG
RNA
AU
CG
DNA and RNA differ in their bases and sugar.
Sugars
● DNA lacks 1 oxygen
DNA
RNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
ribonucleic acid
double stranded
single stranded
deoxyribose
ribose
found only in nucleus
found in nucleus and
cytoplasm
Bases
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
●
describes the flow of
genetic info in cells
from DNA to
messenger RNA to protein
○ DNA is a cookbook (a guide / has
the instructions to make the proteins
needed)
○ RNA delivers the recipe for proteins
Protein Synthesis
● process of making proteins
Proteins
● executor of cell life activities
● made up of amino acids
1. Replication Fork Formation
● “unzipping” of double strand molecule into
two single strands
TYPES OF RNA
mRNA
messenger
rRNA
ribosomal
tRNA
transfer
carries genetic
codes from
DNA to
ribosomes
80% of total
RNA in body
(found in
ribosomes)
transfer amino
acids during
protein
synthesis
nucleus,
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
ribosome
Helicase
unzips/separates the
double helix by breaking
hydrogen bonds
Topoisomerase
relaxes supercoiled DNA,
removes the helical twist
Single strand,
binding proteins
holds single strand of
DNA, prevents rewinding
of strand
2. Primer Binding (Replication Begins)
● after DNA strands have been separated,
primer binds to the 3’ end of the strand
Primer
starting point of
replication, generated by
DNA primase
DNA Polymerase
can only synthesize new
strands in 5’ to 3’ direction
DNA Primase
(RNA Polymerase)
synthesizes short RNA
sequences (primers)
RNA Primer
short nucleic acid
sequence, provides
starting point for DNA
synthesis
3. Elongation
DNA REPLICATION (NUCLEUS)
● DNA molecules separate into two
complementary strands
DNA Polymerases
creating new strand by
elongation
Okazaki Fragment
added to the lagging strand
in the 5’ to 3’ direction
DNA REPLICATION
● genes DNA sequence is copied to make an
RNA molecule
○ PROKARYOTES: cytoplasm
○ EUKARYOTES: nucleus
4. Termination
Exonuclease
removes all RNA primers
from the original strand
DNA Ligase
joins Okazaki fragments,
forming a single unified
strand
Semiconservative
● resulting DNA = 1 old and 1 new
strand
Base painting is maintained
● AT, CG pairs up
Proofreading of DNA Polymerase
● helps prevent mistakes in replication
● helps prevent errors in DNA strand copying
1. Initiation (RNA Polymerase Binds to DNA)
● RNA Polymerase binds to a promoter
sequence near the beginning of a gene
(directly or through helper proteins)
2. Elongation
3. Termination
● depends on sequences in the RNA, which
signal that the transcript is finished
RNA Polymerase
binds to DNA,
separating the DNA
strands
uses only one strand of
DNA as a template to
create mRN
promoters
specific sequences in
DNA nucleotides
RNA Processing
Genetic Code Chart
● language of instruction in the mRNA
● read using a combination of only 3 letters at
a time
-
RNA splicing
5’ cap adding
Adding poly ‘A tail
Pre mRNA
TRANSLATION
● occurs in ribosome (cytoplasm)
● message is carried by the mRNA will be
decoded into a protein
● basic components: types of RNA produced,
proteins, enzymes
Codon
● 3 letter combination in mRNA
● 63 CODONS or amino acids
DNA MUTATION
Mutations
● change in the DNA sequence of an
organism
● can either be gene or chromosomal
when changes in chromosomes structure
occur
Gene mutation
● change to a gene's DNA sequence that
produces
○ something different or
○ permanent change
Point
Mutation
Changes occur in the single
base or nucleotide in the
nucleotide sequence and
change its complementary base
(substitution)
Less hazardous
Happens in the DNA sequence
itself
Frameshift
Mutation
Deletion
loss or absence of
chromosome
Duplication
extra copy of chromosome
Inversion
reverses direction of the
chromosome
Translocation
a part of a chromosome
attaches to another
chromosome
Human Karyotype
● the complete set of the organism’s
chromosomes
insertions or deletions of more
than one base pair in the
nucleotide sequence
Make drastic changes
Changes the whole protein code
Mutations
1. Cri du chat (Cat’s cry) syndrome
● is caused by the deletion of part of
the short arm of chromosome 5
2. Down’s syndrome
● usually caused by an extra copy of
chromosome 21(trisomy 21)
3. Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY)
● is where boys or men are born with
an extra X chromosome
4. Turner’s syndrome (X instead of XX)
● condition that affects only females,
results when one of the X
chromosomes (sex chromosomes)
is missing or partially missing.
Chromosomal mutation
● Occurs when the number of chromosomes
increases or decreases in a genome or
Numerical abnormalities of the
sex chromosomes
482
Structural abnormality of sex
chromosome
48
Autosomal numerical
abnormality
4051
Autosomal structural
abnormality
536
Distribution of chromosomal abnormalities seen at the
Cytogenetics Laboratory, IHG‐NIH (1991–2015)
Cerebellum
body movements, speech
coordination, balance
Brainstem
spinal cord to basic internal
functions and reflexes
CHEAT SHEET
LOBES OF CEREBRUM
NEURONS
CELL BODY (SOMA)
main processing center
DENDRITES
nerve impulses toward the
cell body
AXON
*AXON HILLOCK
conducts nerve impulses
away from the cell body
AXON TERMINALS
releases neurotransmitters
of the presynaptic cell
MYELIN SHEATH /
NEURILEMMA
insulates and increases
speed at which impulses
travel (coverings)
FRONTAL LOBE
motor control, problem
solving, speech production
PARIETAL LOBE
touch perception, body
orientation and sensory
discrimination
TEMPORAL
LOBE
auditory processing,
language comprehension,
memory/info retrieval
OCCIPITAL LOBE
sight, visual reception and
visual interpretation
BRAINSTEM (DESCENDING)
MIDBRAIN
PONS
regulating eye movements
facial movements, hearing, and
balance
MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
regulate breathing, heart
rhythms, blood pressure, and
swallowing
LAYERS OF MENINGES
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
Cerebrum
conscious control of actions
Diencephalon
sensation, emotions, commands
whole internal system
DURA MATER (outer)
protects spinal cord
from injury
ARACHNOID MATER
(middle)
between epidural and
subarachnoid space
PIA MATER (inner)
covers your spinal cord
31 PAIRS OF SPINAL NERVES
8
Cervical
neck
12
Thoracic
chest
5
Lumbar
low back to legs
5
Sacral
low back to pelvis
1
Coccygeal
cauda equina
12 PAIRS OF CRANIAL NERVES
I
Olfactory
smell
II
Optic
vision
III
Oculomotor
eyelid / eyeball
IV
Trochlear
eyeball muscle
ALZHEIMER’S
DISEASE
V
Trigeminal
s: facial/mouth
sensation
m: chewing
AMYOTROPHIC
LATERAL SCLEROSIS
VI
Abducens
eyeball movement
Facial
s: taste
m: facial muscles /
salivary gland
VII
VIII
Auditory
(Vestibulocochlear)
hearing and
balance
XI
Glossopharyngeal
s: taste
m: swallowing
X
Vagus
PNS
XI
Accessory
swallowing; moving
head and shoulder
XII
Hypoglossal
tongue muscles
DISORDERS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CARPAL TUNNEL
SYNDROME
EPILEPSY
HUNTINGTON’S
DISEASE
PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
TOURETTE’S
SYNDROME (TICS)
memory, thinking, and
reasoning deterioration
loss of ability to move
any muscle
compression at the wrist
of the median nerve =
numbness / tingling
frequent seizures
uncontrollable physical
movements and mental
deterioration
loss of control over
speech, head, body
movements
(involuntary) sudden
twitches, movements, or
sound over and over
again (repetitive)