Unit 9 - Clinical Psychology White board Learning Target 9A: I can explain the foundational principles of research into psychological disorders and describe some current trends and debates in the field. ● Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders V (DSM-V) ○ Handbook used to diagnose psychiatric illnesses ○ Contains descriptions, symptoms, and criteria necessary for diagnosing ○ Gender most affected, age of onset, effects of treatment, treatment approaches ○ Classify patients for billing purposes ● The Three Ds ○ Deviant ■ When a person fails to follow social norms ○ Dysfunctional ■ disturbances in a person's thinking, emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects significant dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning ■ Breakdown in cognition, emotion, and/or behavior ○ Distressing or impairment ■ Suffering ■ Absence of distress deems impairment ■ Inability to engage in daily activities due to cognitive, emotional, and or behavioral issues that cause distress. ● Medical model ○ Says that all disease have physical/biological causes ○ So all biologically based interventions are best→ medication, surgery, electric stimulation ○ Strengths ■ Accurately represented the issue at the time of the models development bc largest threats at the time were bacterial and viral (such as pneumonia, influenza, and diarrhea) ■ Effective in finding research based solutions ○ weaknesses ● Biopsychosocial model ○ Concept of health is viewed as balance between biological, psychological, and social factors ○ Lifestyle changes, therapy, medication ○ Strengths ■ Includes wide spectrum of psychological conditions and social elements ■ Promotes the mind-body connection ○ Weaknesses ■ Framework is too broad & complicated ■ Elements are subjective rather than measurable ● Labeling and the Rosenhan Study ○ Labels help with dealing treating illnesses ○ Labels stick to people for a long time ○ Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion Effect) ■ Labels increase the risk of creating a self-fulfilling prophecy ○ David Rosenhan ■ Told 8 friends to feign symptoms of hearing voices and all of them were admitted to a psychiatric ward ■ Found it was easy to be misdiagnosed but difficult to get rid of the diagnosis ■ Once a label is given, everything a patient does is interpreted in accordance with that label Learning Target 9B: I can identify the symptoms and causes of several neurodevelopmental, neurocognitive, and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. ● ** NOTE! For all sections related to disorders, focus on DIAGNOSIS and CAUSES ● Neurodevelopmental Disorders (Intellectual disability, communication disorder, ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, specific learning disability) Type of Neurodevelopmental disorder Intellectual Disability diagnosis ● Deficit in intellectual functioning such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking (confirmed by intelligence testing) ● Deficits in adaptive funtioning ● Classified as mild, moderate, severe, or profound causes ● Biological factors ○ genetic ○ specific trauma ○ environmental stimuli that affect biological development ● Chromosomal variance or metabolic disorders ● Ex. phenylketonuria (PKU) → genetic variance where buildup of the phenylalanine chemical causes ID Communication Disorders ● Deficit in the development and use of language, speech, and social communication ● Abnormal brain development ● Exposure to substance/toxins before birth ● Disturbance of normal fluency and motor production of speech (repetitive sounds, stutters) ● ● ● ● Autism Spectrum Disorders ● Continuous deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts ● Deficits in social reciprocity, nonverbal communication, skills in developing, maintaining & understanding relationships ● Presence of restrictive, repetitive patters of behavior, interests, or activities ● No single cause ● Genetics ○ Genetic mutation ○ Some inherited, some spontaneous ● Environmental ○ Viral infections, medications, complications during pregnancy, air pollutants ADHD ● Disorganization, ● Hyperactivity-impulsivity→ ● Unclear ● Factors involved could be genetics, dopamine imbalance, environment problems with central nervous system overactivity, fidgeting ● inattention →Inability to focus, Cleft lip or palate Genetic factors Traumatic brain injuries Neurological disorders losing materials, inability to listen- inconsistent with age level ● Specific Learning Disability ● Inability to process or perceive information accurately/inefficiently ● Difficulties with learning foundational academic skills in reading/writing/math ● Academic level is below average for age ● Genetics & family history ● prenatal/neonatal risks → premature birth, exposure to substances before birth, low birthweight ● Psychological trauma ● Physical trauma ● Environmental exposure like Lead Neurocognitive disorders ● Neurocognitive disorders → no underlying cause other than brain disorder ● Alzheimer’s Disease ○ Caused by deficiencies in the Acetylcholine process, malfunctioning biological processes, brain-cancer related, late stage viral/bacterial infection ● Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder ○ Range of problems with cognition, behavior, and emotion ○ Signs include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, impaired ability to function ○ Causes: ■ Uncertain but combination of genetics, brain chemistry, and environment ■ Diathesis-stress model - says that psychological disorders result from interaction between inherent vulnerability & environmental stressors ● Genetic predisposition that is activated from environmental stressor ■ Problems with naturally occurring brain chemicals like dopamine ● Overacting dopamine is common in schizophrenic patients ○ Positive symptoms ■ Symptoms present during an active psychotic episode ■ Delusions ● false beliefs that are not based on reality ● Ex. A major catastrophe is about to occur ● Types of delusions ● Ideas of reference ○ The person has some real evidence to back up a claim that something is off, but is over-fixated on the idea. ○ (Your friend tells you someone said something mean about your new shoes. This haunts you indefinitely). ● Delusions of reference ○ The person believes that there are hidden messages in otherwise everyday interactions or circumstances. They become fixated on this idea that is not based on any reality. ○ (that person sitting at the table across the street is watching me, the radio is sending me hidden messages). ● Delusions of mood/atmosphere ○ The person has an uncanny feeling that “something is off here. ■ Hallucinations - seeing or hearing things that are not real ■ Disorganized thinking - disorganized speech ● Jumping from one thought to completely different one ■ disorganized/abnormal motor behavior ● Childlike silliness to unpredictable agitation ○ Negative symptoms ■ Symptoms that occur during a remission period ■ Reduced or lack of ability to function (lack emotion/neglect hygiene) Learning Target 9C: I can identify the symptoms and causes of several bipolar, depressive, and obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. ● Bipolar Disorder ○ Diagnosis: ■ Must meet the criteria for a manic episode ■ Then, manic episode must be preceded or followed by the criteria for hypomanic or depressive episode ■ Manic episodes 1. Period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased goal-directed activity or energy, lasting at least 1 week and present most of the day, nearly every day. 2. Three of the following a. Inflated self-esteem and grandiosity. b. Markedly decreased need for sleep. c. Pressured speech (talking rapidly, seems to be tripping over words, seems to need to keep speaking). d. Flight of ideas, or subjective experience of “racing” thoughts. e. Distractibility (i.e. quickly drawn to irrelevant or unimportant external stimuli). f. Increase in goal-directed activity (social, work or school, sexuality) or psychomotor agitation (purposeless, non-goaldirected behavior, e.g. “running in circles.”) g. Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g. unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, foolish business investments). 3. Is severe enough to cause distress or dysfunction ■ Hypomania - same as manic episode but lasting 4 days and is less severe ○ bipolar I - when individuals cycle through full depressive & manic episodes ○ bipolar II - individuals only experience hypomania ○ Causes ■ Uncertain but factors may be biological differences and genetics (sibling or parent with the condition) ● Major Depressive Disorder ○ Diagnosis: Must meet following criteria ■ 5 or more following symptoms must be present during same 2-week period & represent a change from previous functioning (at least 1 of the symptoms must be depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure) ● Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated either by subjective report or observation made by others ● Diminished interest or pleasure in all or most activities most of the day, nearly every day ● Significant weight loss when not dieting, or weight gain, or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. ● Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day. ● Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day, observable by others (e.g. fidgety, or “slowed down”). ● Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day. ● Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt nearly every day ● Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day. ● Recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for doing so. ○ Causes ■ Diathesis-stress model plays a role in developing depression ■ Biological causes ● Biological differences (physical changes in brains) ● Brain chemistry (low levels of serotonin may contribute) ● Inherited traits/genetics (common among people with blood relatives who have depression) ○ Individuals share 3 common patterns ■ Catastrophizing views - always assume the worst and most extreme outcome ■ Internalizers - attribute all problems and failures to their own doing ■ Stable view of the world - believe nothing they do can change their circumstances ● Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) ○ Depression symptoms that appear during late fall/early winter and go away during sunnier days ○ Cause: unknown but factors may include ■ Your biological clock (circadian rhythm) → The reduced level of sunlight in fall and winter may cause winter-onset SAD ■ A drop in serotonin, a brain chemical that affects mood, might play a role in SAD. Reduced sunlight can cause a drop in serotonin that may trigger depression. ● ● ● ● ● ■ The change in season can disrupt the balance of the body's level of melatonin, which plays a role in sleep patterns and mood. Generalized anxiety disorder ○ Diagnostic criteria ■ Excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than not for at least 6 months ■ Individual finds it difficult to control their worries. ■ The worry is associated with three (or more) of the following six symptoms (only 1 required in children) ● Restlessness, feeling keyed up or on edge. ● Being easily fatigued. ● Difficulty concentrating, or mind going blank. ● Irritability. ● Muscle tension. ● Sleep disturbance. ■ These cause clinically significant distress or impairment. ■ The disturbance is not attributable to the use of a substance or other medical disorder Social anxiety disorder ○ If situations are feared due to threat of negative social evaluation, and are not characterized by the “free floating” anxiety of GAD Specific phobias ○ fear only occurs at the presentation or thought of specific objects of fear, e.g. snakes and the fear abates when these situations are not around, Agoraphobia ○ fear of being in public situations where escape might be difficult or that help wouldn't be available if things go wrong Panic disorder ○ Recurrent unexpected panic attacks - sudden intense fear or discomfort that reaches a peak within minutes & 4 or more of the symptoms occur) ■ Palpitations, pounding heart, accelerated heart rate ■ Sweating ■ Trembling or shaking ■ Shortness of breath, sensation of smothering ■ Feelings of choking ■ Chest pain/discomfort ■ Nausea or abdominal distress ■ Feeling dizzy. ■ Chills or heat sensations. ■ Numbness or tingling sensations. ■ Derealization or depersonalization (a sense of leaving reality or leaving one’s sense, respectively). ■ Fear of “going crazy” ■ Fear of dying ○ At least once of the attacks has been following by 1 month or more of one of both of the following: ■ Persistent concern or worry about another panic attack. ■ A significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks. ○ causes Causes Behaviorism Fear conditioning – Classical conditioning principles result in associations between stimuli and fear phobias (previous bad experiences lead to conditioned fear of stimulus). Generalization – Classical conditioning principle – fear of specific stimulus results in increasing fear anxiety presents. Social Cognitivism Observational learning – e.g. Mineka experiment – Tame monkeys in captivity do not fear snakes, bu monkeys were taught to fear snakes by elders in the monkey society. Similar observational learning Cognitivism Hyper-vigilant people – More likely to cognitively label events as stressful or dangerous, and more li anxiety (Schachter two-factor theory). E.g. “My heart is pounding. I must be scared.” This leads to an Evolution Pre-school children study – Children shown a picture were more likely to note the snakes hiding in t the rainbows and butterflies in the picture. Lends itself to the idea that we are evolutionarily predisp dangers in our environment. Behavior Genetics Temperament – Strong evidence that temperament is a genetically controlled trait. High-strung peo experience fear. It runs in families. Twin studies – Even twins reared separately have similar risk for anxiety disorders. Gene sequence links – About 17 genes have been linked to explaining anxiety. Neuroscience Glutamate overactivity – Some people have over-abundance of glutamate in the brain, the “energy so can mean that the amygdala and other brain alarm systems tend to fire needlessly (e.g. panic disord Neurotransmitters – Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, like fluoxetine, given for depression, of Neurons that fire together wire together – Repeated exposure to fear-producing events causes tighte and the hippocampus. Then, these fire together more easily in the future. The result is a predilection ● Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 1. Presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both ■ Obsessions defined by both 2. 3. 4. ○ ● Recurrent persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced as intrusive and unwanted and that in most individuals mark anxiety/distress ● The individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, urges, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or action (i.e. by performing a compulsion). ■ Compulsions defined by both ● Repetitive behaviors (e.g. hand washing) or mental acts (e.g. praying, counting) that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession. ● The behavior or acts are aimed at reducing the anxiety or distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation. The acts are not connected with what they are designed to neutralize. obsession/compulsion are time consuming or cause stress/impairment Not caused by physiological effects of a substance Not better explained by another mental disorder like anxiety disorder Specify if: ■ Good/fair insight – The individual recognizes the beliefs are untrue or probably not true. ■ Poor insight – The individual thinks the obsessions and related rituals are probably true. ■ Delusional – The individual is completely convinced that the beliefs are true. ○ causes Behaviorism OCD Operant conditioning principles – Reinforcement – since compulsive behaviors redu repeatedly doing the compulsions becomes reinforced and people get “locked into” d Cognitivism Thoughts are intrusive – Some explanations for whether OCD will become strengthe delusional is whether people label the intrusive thoughts as misplaced obsession or concern. Evolution Evolution “run amok?” Certain behaviors are good to do (avoid spoiled meat, wash h after exposure). This can be good, but some people may have a mal-adaptive variatio that makes these too active. Neuroscience Anterior cingulate gyrus – There is over-activity in this region in people with OCD. N of these regions with implanted electrodes alleviates the symptoms of OCD. ● Learning Target 9D: I can identify the symptoms and causes of several trauma- and stressor- related, dissociative, and somatic symptom and related disorders. ● Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) ○ Diagnostic criteria 1. Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in one (or more) of the following ways: ● Direct experience ● Witnessing the event ● Learning the event happened to a close family member or friend ● Repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the event. 2. Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusive symptoms ● Recurrent, involuntary, intrusive distressing memories of the event. ● Recurrent distressing dreams related to the event. ● Dissociative reactions (e.g. flashbacks) in which the individual feels or acts as if the event were recurring. ● Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble the event (e.g. hearing a car backfire, remembering gun fire). 3. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the event, whether real or symbolic. 4. Negative alteration in cognition or mood, as evidenced by two or more of the following ● Inability to remember a part of the event (e.g. dissociative amnesia). ● Exaggerated negative beliefs about oneself (e.g. “I am evil.”) ● Distorted cognitions about the cause leading to self-blame. ● Persistent negative emotional state (e.g. fear, horror, anger, guilt, shame). ● Feelings of detachment or estrangement. 5. Duration is more than 1 month ● Causes ○ Stressful experience ○ Inherited mental health risks such as history of anxiety/depression ○ Inherited features of personality (temperament) ○ Brain regulation in response to stress ○ ● Dissociative Amnesia ○ Diagnosis ■ memory loss more severe than normal forgetfulness ■ can be specific to events in a certain time or can involve complete loss of memory about yourself ■ dissociative fugue - travel or confused wandering away from your life ■ Usually occurs suddenly & may last minutes, hours, or rarely, months or years ○ causes ■ Develop as a way to cope with trauma ■ Often form in children ● Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality disorder) ○ “Switching” to alternate identities ○ feel the presence of two or more people talking or living inside your head ○ Each identity may have a unique name, personal history and characteristics, including obvious differences in voice, gender, mannerisms and even such physical qualities as the need for eyeglasses. ○ typically also have dissociative amnesia and often have dissociative fugue. ○ When a celebrity or public figure announces they have DID, there are increased reports of DID ● Somatic Symptom Disorder ○ Diagnosis ■ extreme focus on physical symptoms that cause major emotional distress and problems functioning. ■ think the worst about your symptoms and frequently seek medical care ■ May make it hard to function and lead to disability ■ experience significant emotional and physical distress ○ Causes ■ Genetic and biological factors, (ex. increased sensitivity to pain) ■ Family influence, which may be genetic or environmental, or both ■ Personality trait of negativity ■ Decreased awareness of or problems processing emotions, causing physical symptoms to become the focus rather than the emotional issues ■ Learned behavior — for example, the attention or other benefits gained from having an illness; or "pain behaviors" in response to symptoms, such as excessive avoidance of activity, which can increase your level of disability Learning Target 9E: I can identify the symptoms and causes of dissociative, personality, and eating disorders. ● Feeding and Eating Disorders ○ Serious conditions related to eating behaviors that negatively affect a person's physical and emotional health and their ability to function in certain areas of life ○ Causes: ■ genetics(genes increase risk) ■ Biology (brain chemicals) ■ Psychological and emotional health (low self-esteem, perfectionism) ■ Impulsive behavior ■ Social expectations ● Anorexia nervosa ○ Potentially Life threatening eating disorder characterized by low body weight, fear of gaining weight, and distorted perception of weight or shape ○ People use extreme efforts to control their weight & shape, affecting their health and life ○ People excessively limit calories or use other methods to lose weight (excessive exercise, diet, vomiting after eating) ● Bulimia nervosa ○ eating disorder where a person has episodes of binging and purging that involve lack of control over eating ○ Many restrict their eating during day, leading to more binge eating and purging ○ Eating large amounts of food in a short time and then getting rid of the calories in an unhealthy way due to guilt and shame ● Binge-eating disorder ○ Regularly eat too much and have a lack of control over eating ○ Don’t compensate with exercise or other methods Personality Disorders ○ psychological disorders characterized by rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking ○ Causes ■ Genese ● Certain personality traits are passed down from parents (called temperament) ■ Environment ● The environment a person grew up in, events that occurred, and relationships with family members & others ● Cluster A disorders - including paranoid & schizotypal personality ○ Odd, eccentric thinking/behavior ○ Paranoid personality disorder ■ Patterns of distrust & suspiciousness ○ Schizoid ○ Schizotypal ■ Disorganized speech ■ Not in touch with reality ■ No paranoia, delusions, hallucinations ● Cluster B disorders - including antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic ○ Dramatic, overly emotional, or unpredictable thinking or behavior ○ Antisocial personality ■ Pattern of disregard and violation of the rights of others ■ Pursuit of self-interest regardless of cost and little empathy or concern for others ○ borderline personality disorder ■ Pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, impulsivity ○ Histrionic personality disorder ■ Pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking behavior ○ narcissistic personality disorder ■ Pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy ● Cluster C disorders - including avoidant and dependent ○ Pattern of anxious and fearful thinking or behavior ○ Avoidant personality disorder ■ Pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation ○ Dependent personality disorder ■ Pattern of submissive & clingy behavior related to excessive need to be taken care of ● Learning Target 9F: I can explain several different psychotherapeutic approaches to treating mental health disorders. Psychotherapy (talk therapy) ● Choosing a Modality ○ Individual Therapy ■ individual is involved in the therapeutic process with at least one therapist ■ Advantages ● Confidentiality ● One-on-one attention → understanding therapist & individual approach ● Much more intense and comprehensive in individual therapy ○ Group Therapy ■ Group sessions to instruct individuals ■ benefited the members emotionally due to supporting one another in shared experience ■ cheaper Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud (not used) ○ First psychological therapies ● Psychoanalytic theory ○ Aimed to bring patients repressed feelings into conscious awareness ○ Giving insight into the origins of their disorders ○ Emphasizes how childhood experiences mold adults ○ Free association ■ Freud provided a word, phrase, or starting point and patient begins to speak about the places these phrases took the patient in their mind ■ Resistance ● Hint that anxiety lurks and you are defending yourself against sensitive material ● Interpretation ○ Interpretation of your resistance bring up underlying wishes, feelings, and conflicts you're avoiding ■ Transference ● when you project feelings about someone onto someone else. Neo-Psychoanalytic Theory ● Psychodynamic Approach ○ Try to help people understand their current symptoms ○ Focus on themes across relationships such as childhood experiences ○ Face to face meetings ○ Seek to reveal the source of the issues ○ Insight ■ Sudden realization of the solution to a problem Humanistic Approaches ● Aims to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in self-awareness and acceptance ● Carl Rogers ○ Developed client centered therapy ○ Client-centered therapy ■ Focuses on a person's conscious self-perceptions ■ Expects problems to diminish when people get in touch with their feelings ■ Therapist listens without judging or interpreting ■ Rogers encouraged exhibiting genuineness, acceptance, and empathy ■ Active listening ● Echoing, restating, and seeing clarification of what a person said & acknowledges feelings ■ Unconditional positive regard ● A non Judgemental environment may help people accept their traits and feel valued Behavioral Approaches ● The applications of learning principles can eliminate problems ● Counterconditioning ○ Pairs trigger the stimulus with a new response relaxation ○ Exposure therapies (Mary Cover Jones) ■ Experiment: Associate fear-evoking rabbit with pleasurable, relaxed response associated with eating (slowly) ■ Systematic desensitization (Joseph Wolpe) (and use of progressive relaxation in this technique) ● If you can repeatedly relax when facing anxiety - provoking stimuli, you can gradually eliminate your anxiety. ● Progressive relaxation ○ Therapist trains you to relax one muscle group after another until you achieve complete relaxation ○ Aversive Conditioning ■ Pairing a negative consequence w/ behaviors you're trying to eliminate ■ Substitute a negative response for a positive response to harmful stimulus ■ Nausea from alcohol ■ Nail biting → paint fingernail with bad tasting polish ○ Behavior modification with token economies ■ reinforcing desired behaviors, and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors ■ Token economy ● When people display appropriate behavior, such as dressing, eating, they receive a token or plastic coin as a positive reinforcer. Later, they can exchange their accumulated tokens for various rewards, such as candy, TV time, trips to town, or better living quarters. Cognitive Therapies ● Negative patterns of thought about the self and the world are challenged in order to alter unwanted behavior patterns or treat mood disorder ● Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) (Albert Ellis) ○ Change people's thinking by revealing the absurdity of their ideas and enable healthier behaviors ○ Ellis believed role of a therapist was to confront negative thinking in a direct and harsh way. ● Aaron Beck’s Depression Therapy ○ believes that changing people’s thinking can change their functioning, though he has a gentler approach. ○ Gentle questioning seeks to reveal irrational thinking, and then to persuade people to remove the dark glasses through which they view life. ● Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies ○ Aims to alter the way people tink and the way they act ○ Seeks to make people aware of their irrational beliefs, replace it with new ways of thinking, and practice positive approach ○ trains people to replace their catastrophizing thinking with more realistic appraisals, and, as homework, practice behaviors that are incompatible with their problem Sociocultural Considerations in Therapy ● looks at you, your behaviors, and your symptoms in the context of your culture and background ● ethnic minorities are less likely to access mental health services (barriers: lack of insurance, transportation, and time; cultural views that mental illness is a stigma; fears about treatment; and language barriers) ● Cultural Competence ○ Mental health professionals must understand and address issues of race, culture, and ethnicity ○ must develop strategies to effectively address the needs of various populations Effectiveness of Therapy ● Therapies have been shown, in some cases, to be as effective as medicine at resolving mental health disorders ● Considerations ○ only effective when the approach is well-suited to the problem ○ Clients generally note that they like their therapists. ○ more effective if the client is “bought in” to the process Learning Target 9G: I can explain how the biomedical model approaches therapy. ● Biomedical therapy ○ physically changing the brain’s functioning by altering its chemistry with drugs, or affecting its circuitry with electroconvulsive shock, magnetic impulses, or psychosurgery. ○ Psychopharmacology (drug therapies) ■ the study of drug effects on mind and behavior ○ Antipsychotic Drugs ■ dampened responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli ■ Help schizophrenic patients in reducing positive symptoms ■ Act as antagonists for dopamine ● Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) and Risperidone ● Risperidone has fewer side effects ● Tardive dyskinesia ○ Side effect of long term use of antipsychotics which causes involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs ○ Anti-Anxiety Drugs ■ Depress central nervous system activity ■ Work as agonists for GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter) ■ Used in combination with psychotherapy ■ Examples : Xanax and Ativan ○ Anti-Depressant Drugs ■ Increase the ability of norepinephrine or serotonin ■ Selective-Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, SSRIs) ● Partially blocks the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses ■ Examples: Fluoxetine (Prozac), Zoloft, and Paxil ○ Mood Stabilizers ■ For those suffering from emotional highs and lows of bipolar disorder ■ Lithium ● Simple salt that is an effective mood stabilizer ● Noncompliance (concern) ○ When individual stops taking a drug or doesnt take it as instructed by their doctor ○ Patients level of anxiety, motivation to recover, attitudes towards their illness, the drug and the doctor, & attitudes/beliefs of significant others influence patients compliance ● Electroconvulsive Therapies (ECT) ○ Effective in treating severe depression ○ A patient receives general anesthetic & muscle relaxant, 30-60 seconds of electrical current, and wakes up 30 minutes later ● Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (RTMS) ○ When repeated pulses serge through a magnetic coil held close to a person's skull ○ Painless and has no serious side effects ● Lobotomy ○ Cutting nerves connecting frontal loves with the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brian calmed violent and uncontrollable patients
