IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
SLAVOJ
ZIZEK
VERSO
London • New York
First published by Verso 2008
Copyright © Slavoj Zizek 2008
All rights reserved
The moral right of the author has been asserted
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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Typeset in Cochin by Hewer Text U K Ltd, Edinburgh
Printed in^he U S A by iVlaple Vail
Alain Badiûu wiu once deated amongét the public in a room where 1 wad delivering a
talk, when hid cellphone (which, to add iiuult to injury, waj mine —I ha? lent it to
him) all of a dudden dtarled to ring. Instead of turning it off, he gently interrupted
me and adked me if I could talk more doftly, M that he could hear hut interlocutor
more clearly . . . If thUi WAi not an act of true friendship, I do not know what
friendship u. So, th'u book id dedicated to Alain Badiou.
Contents
Introduction: Causa Locuta, Roma Finita
PART I
1
T h e S t a t e of
1
Things
H a p p i n e s s a n d T o r t u r e in t h e A t o n a l W o r l d
11
Human, all too human — The jcreen of civility — Gift and
exchange — UlyMM'
rcalpoUtik— The atonal world—Serbdky
Institute, Malibu—Poland oj a ifymptoni—Happy to torture?
2
T h e F a m i l y M y t h of I d e o l o g y
52
"Capitalst realLtm "— The production of the couple in Hollywood . . .
—. . . and out—The real Hollywood Left—Hiitory
and
family in F r a n k e n s t e i n — A letter whœh d i d arnve at Ltd
destination
3
R a d i c a l I n t e l l e c t u a l s , or, W h y H e i d e g g e r T o o k the
R i g h t Step (Albeit in the W r o n g D i r e c t i o n ) in 1933
95
Hiding the tree in a forest—A domestication of Nietzsche —
Michel Foucault and the Iranian Event—The trouble with Heidegger —
Ontolagical difference—Heidegger's smoking gun?—Repetition and the
New—From Heidegger to the drive —
Heidegger's 'dwine violence"
P A R T II
•4
L e s s o n s from the
Past
R e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r f r o m R o b e s p i e r r e to M a o
"What do you want?"—Asserting the inhuman —
Tranjubstantiatiouii of ÄlarxLim — The limits of Mao s
dialectical — Cultural revolution and power
157
S t a l i n i s m R e v i s i t e d , or, H o w S t a l i n
Saved
the H u m a n i t y of M a n
211
The Stalinidt culturai counter-revolution —A letter which did not
reach its destination (and thereby perhaps saved the world) —
Krenilinology—From
objective to subjective
guilt—Shostakovich
in C a s a b l a n c a — T i é i ; StalinLil c a r n i v a l i n the films
of Sergei Eisenstein — The minimal difference
W h y P o p u l i s m Is ( S o m e t i m e s ) G o o d E n o u g h
in P r a c t i c e , b u t N o t in T h e o r y
Good enough in praetiee
264
but not good enough in
theory— The "determining role of the economy": Marx with
Freud—Drawing the line —The act —The Real—The
vacuity
of the politivé of jouissance
PART HI
7
W h a t Is to B e D o n e ?
T h e C r i s i s of D e t e r m i n a t e N e g a t i o n
The humorous superego ...—...
and its politics of
337
resistance-
"Goodbye Muter Refuting Nonmd"—Negri in Davos —Deleuze
without Negri— Governance and movements
8
A l a i n B a d i o u , or, t h e V i o l e n c e of S u b t r a c t i o n
Materialism,
381
democratic and dialectical—Responses to the
Event—Do we need a new world?—The lessons of the
Cultural Revolution —Which subtraction? —Give the
dictatorship of the proletariat a chance!
9
U n b e h a g e n in d e r N a t u r
420
Beyond Fukuyama —From fear to trembling —Ecology
against nature —The uses and misuse,* of Heidegger—
What is to be done?
Notes
463
Index
493
Introduction: Causa Locuta, Roma Finita
Roma locuta, caMa finita—t\\e
d e c i s i v e w o r d s of a u t h o r i t y t h a t s h o u l d e n d
a d i s p u t e , in a l l its v e r s i o n s , from "the C h u r c h s y n o d h a s d e c i d e d " to "the
C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e h a s p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n " a n d , w h y not, " t h e p e o p l e
h a s m a d e c l e a r i t s c h o i c e at t h e b a l l o t b o x " . . . H o w e v e r , i s not t h e w a g e r
of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t h e o p p o s i t e o n e : let t h e C a u s e i t s e l f s p e a k (or, a s
L a c a n p u t it, "I, t h e t r u t h , s p e a k " ) , a n d t h e E m p i r e (of R o m e , t h a t i s ,
c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m ) w i l l fall a p a r t ? Ab lata causa tolluntur
effectua: w h e n t h e c a u s e i s a b s e n t , t h e effects t h r i v e
{TJCS
effets ru se portent
bien qu'en absence de la cause). W h a t a b o u t t u r n i n g t h i s p r o v e r b a r o u n d ?
W h e n t h e c a u s e i n t e r v e n e s , t h e effects a r e d i s p e l l e d . . .
H o w e v e r , which C a u s e s h o u l d s p e a k ? T h i n g s l o o k b a d for g r e a t C a u s e s
today, in a "postmodern"
e r a w h e n , a l t h o u g h the ideological scene is
f r a g m e n t e d i n t o a p a n o p l y of p o s i t i o n s w h i c h s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y , t h e r e
i s a n u n d e r l y i n g c o n s e n s u s : t h e e r a of b i g e x p l a n a t i o n s i s o v e r , w e n e e d
" w e a k t h o u g h t , " o p p o s e d to a l l f o u n d a t i o n a l i s m , a t h o u g h t a t t e n t i v e to t h e
r h i z o m a t i c t e x t u r e of r e a l i t y ; in p o l i t i c s too, w e s h o u l d n o l o n g e r a i m a t a l l explaining systems a n d global e m a n c i p a t o r y projects; the violent imposi­
t i o n of g r a n d s o l u t i o n s s h o u l d l e a v e r o o m for forms of s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e
a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n . . . If t h e r e a d e r f e e l s a m i n i m u m of s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e s e
lines, she should stop r e a d i n g a n d cast aside this volume.
Even
t h o s e w h o o t h e r w i s e t e n d to d i s m i s s " F r e n c h "
postmodern
t h e o r y w i t h its " j a r g o n " a s a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of " b u l l s h i t " t e n d to s h a r e
i t s a v e r s i o n t o w a r d s " s t r o n g t h o u g h t " a n d its l a r g e - s c a l e e x p l a n a t i o n s .
T h e r e i s i n d e e d a lot of b u l l s h i t t i n g g o i n g on t h e s e d a y s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
e v e n t h o s e w h o p o p u l a r i z e d t h e notion of " b u l l s h i t , " s u c h a s
Harry
F r a n k f u r t , a r e not free from it. In t h e e n d l e s s c o m p l e x i t y of t h e c o n ­
t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , w h e r e t h i n g s , m o r e often t h a n not, a p p e a r a s t h e i r
opposites — Intolerance as tolerance, religion as rational common sense,
a n d so on a n d so forth — t h e t e m p t a t i o n is g r e a t to c u t it s h o r t w i t h a
v i o l e n t g e s t u r e of " N o b u l l s h i t ! " — a g e s t u r e w h i c h s e l d o m a m o u n t s to
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
m o r e t h a n a n Impotentpasöage à l'acte. S u c h a d e s i r e to d r a w a c l e a r l i n e of
d e m a r c a t i o n b e t w e e n s a n e truthful
talk and "bullshit" cannot but re­
p r o d u c e a s truthful t a l k t h e p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y itself. N o w o n d e r that,
for F r a n k f u r t himself, e x a m p l e s of " n o b u l l s h i t " p o l i t i c i a n s a r e H a r r y
T r u m a n , D w i g h t E i s e n h o w e r , a n d , t o d a y , J o h n M c C a i n — a s if t h e p o s e
of o u t s p o k e n p e r s o n a l s i n c e r i t y i s a g u a r a n t e e of t r u t h f u l n e s s .
T h e c o m m o n s e n s e of o u r e r a t e l l s u s t h a t , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e o l d
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n doxa ( a c c i d e n t a l / e m p i r i c a l o p m i o n , W i s d o m ) a n d
T r u t h , or, e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l l y , e m p i r i c a l p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e a n d a b s o ­
lute Faith, one should d r a w a line b e t w e e n w h a t one c a n think a n d do
t o d a y . A t t h e l e v e l of c o m m o n s e n s e , t h e f u r t h e s t o n e c a n g o i s e n ­
lightened conservative liberalism: obviously, there are no viable alter­
n a t i v e s to c a p i t a l i s m ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , left to itself, t h e c a p i t a l i s t d y n a m i c
t h r e a t e n s t o u n d e r m i n e its o w n f o u n d a t i o n s . T h i s c o n c e r n s not o n l y t h e
e c o n o m i c d y n a m i c ( t h e n e e d for a s t r o n g s t a t e a p p a r a t u s to m a i n t a i n t h e
m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n i t s e l l , a n d so o n ) , but, e v e n m o r e , t h e i d e o l o g i c o p o l i t i c a l d y n a m i c s . I n t e l l i g e n t c o n s e r v a t i v e d e m o c r a t s , from D a n i e l B e l l
to F r a n c i s F u k u y a m a , a r e a w a r e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m
t e n d s to u n d e r m i n e its o w n i d e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ( w h a t , l o n g a g o . B e l l
c a l l e d t h e " c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of c a p i t a l i s m " ) : c a p i t a l i s m c a n o n l y
t h r i v e in the c o n d i t i o n s of b a s i c s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y , of i n t a c t s y m b o l i c trust, of
i n d i v i d u a l s not o n l y a c c e p t i n g t h e i r o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e i r fate, b u t
a l s o r e l y i n g on t h e
b a s i c " f a i r n e s s " of t h e s y s t e m — t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l
b a c k g r o u n d h a s to b e s u s t a i n e d t h r o u g h a s t r o n g e d u c a t i o n a l , c u l t u r a l
a p p a r a t u s . W i t h i n this horizon, the a n s w e r is thus neither radical liberal­
i s m à la H a y e k , n o r c r u d e c o n s e r v a t i s m , still l e s s c l i n g i n g to o l d w e l f a r e s t a t e i d e a l s , b u t a b l e n d of e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m w i t h a m i n i m a l l y " a u t h o r ­
i t a r i a n " s p i r i t of c o m m u n i t y ( t h e e m p h a s i s on s o c i a l stability', " v a l u e s , "
a n d so f o r t h ) t h a t c o u n t e r a c t s t h e s y s t e m ' s e x c e s s e s — i n o t h e r
words
w h a t Third W a y social-democrats such as Blair have been developing.
T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e l i m i t of c o m m o n s e n s e . W h a t l i e s b e y o n d i n v o l v e s a
L e a p of F a i t h , faith in lost C a u s e s , C a u s e s that, from w i t h i n t h e s p a c e of
skeptical wisdom, cannot but a p p e a r as crazy. A n d the present
book
s p e a k s from w i t h i n t h i s L e a p of F a i t h — b u t w h y ? T h e p r o b l e m , of c o u r s e ,
is that, in a t i m e of c r i s i s a n d r u p t u r e s , s k e p t i c a l e m p i r i c a l w i s d o m itself,
c o n s t r a i n e d to the h o r i z o n of t h e d o m i n a n t form of c o m m o n s e n s e , c a n n o t
p r o v i d e t h e a n s w e r s , so o n e must r i s k a L e a p of F a i t h ,
T h i s shift is t h e shift from "I s p e a k the t r u t h " to " t h e t r u t h i t s e l f s p e a k s
( i n / t h r o u g h m e ) " ( a s in L a c a n ' s " m a t h e m e " of t h e a n a l y s t ' s d i s c o u r s e ,
INTRODUCTION
w h e r e t h e a g e n t s p e a k s from t h e p o s i t i o n of t r u t h ) , to t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h I
c a n s a y , h k e M e i s t e r E c k h a r t , "it i s t r u e , a n d t h e t r u t h s a y s it itself."'^ A t
t h e l e v e l of p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e , it i s , of c o u r s e , n e v e r p o s s i b l e to ( b e s u r e
t h a t w e h a v e ) a t t a i n ( e d ) t h e t r u t h — o n e c a n o n l y e n d l e s s l y a p p r o a c h it,
b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e i s u l t i m a t e l y a l w a y s s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l , t h e r e i s n o w a y to
d r a w a d e f i n i t i v e l i n e of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n s o p h i s m , s o p h i s t i c e x e r c i s e s ,
and T r u t h itself (this is Plato's p r o b l e m ) . L a c a n ' s w a g e r is h e r e the
P a s c a l e a n o n e : t h e w a g e r of T r u t h . B u t h o w ? N o t b y r u n n i n g
after
"objective" truth, b u t b y holding onto the truth about the position
from
which one speaks.
T h e r e a r e still o n l y t w o t h e o r i e s w h i c h i m p l y a n d p r a c t i c e s u c h a n
e n g a g e d n o t i o n of t r u t h : M a r x i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . T h e y a r e b o t h
s t r u g g l i n g t h e o r i e s , not o n l y t h e o r i e s a b o u t s t r u g g l e , b u t t h e o r i e s w h i c h
a r e t h e m s e l v e s e n g a g e d i n a s t r u g g l e : t h e i r h i s t o r i e s d o n o t c o n s i s t in a n
a c c u m u l a t i o n of n e u t r a l k n o w l e d g e , for t h e y a r e m a r k e d b y s c h i s m s ,
h e r e s i e s , e x p u l s i o n s . T h i s i s w h y , i n b o t h of t h e m , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between theory a n d practice is properly dialectical, in other w o r d s , that
of a n i r r e d u c i b l e t e n s i o n : t h e o r y i s n o t j u s t t h e c o n c e p t u a l g r o u n d i n g of
practice,
it s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a c c o u n t s
for w h y p r a c t i c e
is ultimately
d o o m e d to f a i l u r e —or, a s F r e u d p u t it c o n c i s e l y , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w o u l d
o n l y b e fully p o s s i b l e i n a s o c i e t y t h a t w o u l d n o l o n g e r n e e d it. A t its m o s t
r a d i c a l , t h e o r y i s t h e t h e o r y of a failed p r a c t i c e : " T h i s i s w h y t h i n g s w e n t
w r o n g . . . " O n e u s u a l l y forgets t h a t F r e u d ' s five g r e a t c l i n i c a l r e p o r t s a r e
b a s i c a l l y r e p o r t s on a p a r t i a l s u c c e s s a n d u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e ; i n t h e s a m e
w a y , t h e g r e a t e s t M a r x i s t h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t s a r e
t h e a c c o u n t s of g r e a t f a i l u r e s ( o f t h e G e r m a n
J a c o b i n s in t h e F r e n c h
Revolution,
P e a s a n t s ' W a r , of t h e
of t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e ,
O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , of t h e C h i n e s e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n
a n e x a m i n a t i o n of f a i l u r e s c o n f r o n t s
of t h e
. . . ) . Such
u s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of
h o w to r e d e e m t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l of t h e s e f a i l u r e s
fidelity:
through
a v o i d i n g t h e t w i n t r a p of n o s t a l g i c a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e p a s t a n d of a l l - t o o slick a c c o m m o d a t i o n to " n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e s . "
T h e t i m e of t h e s e t w o t h e o r i e s s e e m s o v e r . A s T o d d D u f r e s n e r e c e n t l y
p u t it, n o f i g u r e i n t h e h i s t o r y of h u m a n t h o u g h t w a s m o r e w r o n g a b o u t
all t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of h i s t h e o r y t h a n F r e u d ^ — w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of
M a r x , s o m e w o u l d a d d . A n d , i n d e e d , in l i b e r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e t w o
n o w e m e r g e a s t h e m a i n " p a r t n e r s in c r i m e ' ot t h e t w e n t i e t h
century:
p r e d i c t a b l y , m 2 0 0 5 , t h e i n f a m o u s The Black Book of Coinmunuun,
listing all
t h e C o m m u n i s t crimes,*^ w a s f o l l o w e d b y The Black Book of P.iychoanalyjLi,
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
l i s t i n g a l l t h e t h e o r e t i c a l m i s t a k e s a n d c l i n i c a l f r a u d s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s /
In t h i s n e g a t i v e w a y , at l e a s t , t h e p r o f o u n d s o l i d a r i t y of M a r x i s m a n d
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s n o w d i s p l a y e d for a l l to s e e .
There are nonetheless signs w h i c h disturb this postmodern compla­
c e n c y . C o m m e n t i n g on t h e g r o w i n g r e s o n a n c e of A l a i n B a d i o u ' s t h o u g h t ,
A l a i n F i n k e l k r a u t r e c e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d it a s " t h e m o s t v i o l e n t p h i l o ­
s o p h y , s y m p t o m a t i c of t h e r e t u r n of r a d i c a l i t y a n d of t h e c o l l a p s e of a n t i t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " — a n h o n e s t a n d s u r p r i s e d a d m i s s i o n of t h e f a i l u r e of t h e
l o n g a n d a r d u o u s w o r k of all k i n d s of " a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n s , " d e f e n d e r s of
human
rights, combatants
a g a i n s t " o l d leftist p a r a d i g m s , " from
F r e n c h nouveaux philosophes to t h e a d v o c a t e s of a " s e c o n d
the
modernity."
W h a t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n d e a d , d i s p o s e d of, t h o r o u g h l y d i s c r e d i t e d , is
r e t u r n i n g w i t h a v e n g e a n c e . O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r d e s p a i r : h o w c a n it
b e that, after h a v i n g e x p l a i n e d for d e c a d e s not o n l y i n s c h o l a r l y t r e a t i s e s ,
b u t a l s o in t h e m a s s m e d i a , to a n y o n e w h o w a n t e d to l i s t e n ( a n d to m a n y
w h o d i d n o t ) t h e d a n g e r s of t o t a l i t a r i a n " M a s t e r - T h i n k e r s , " t h i s k i n d of
p h i l o s o p h y i s r e t u r n i n g in i t s m o s t v i o l e n t f o r m ? H a v e p e o p l e not c a u g h t
on that t h e t i m e of s u c h d a n g e r o u s Utopias i s o v e r ? O r a r e w e d e a l i n g
w i t h s o m e strange i n e r a d i c a b l e b l i n d n e s s , o r a n i n n a t e
anthropological
c o n s t a n t , a t e n d e n c y to s u c c u m b to t o t a l i t a r i a n t e m p t a t i o n ? O u r p r o p o s a l
is to t u r n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e a r o u n d : a s B a d i o u h i m s e l f m i g h t p u t it in h i s
unique Platonic w a y , true ideas are eternal, they are indestructible, they
a l w a y s r e t u r n e v e r y t i m e t h e y a r e p r o c l a i m e d d e a d . It i s e n o u g h
for
B a d i o u to state t h e s e i d e a s a g a i n c l e a r l y , a n d a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n t h o u g h t
a p p e a r s in a l l its m i s e r y a s w h a t it r e a l l y i s , a w o r t h l e s s s o p h i s t i c e x e r c i s e ,
a pseudo-theorization
of t h e l o w e s t o p p o r t u n i s t s u r v i v a l i s t f e a r s a n d
i n s t i n c t s , a w a y of t h i n k i n g w h i c h i s not o n l y r e a c t i o n a r y b u t
also
p r o f o u n d l y reactive in N i e t z s c h e ' s s e n s e of t h e t e r m .
L i n k e d to t h i s is a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t r u g g l e w h i c h h a s b e e n g o i n g on
r e c e n t l y ( n o t o n l y ) a m o n g L a c a n i a n s ( n o t o n l y ) in F r a n c e . T h i s s t r u g g l e
c o n c e r n s t h e s t a t u s of t h e " O n e " a s t h e n a m e of a p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y , a
s t r u g g l e w h i c h h a s l e d to m a n y b r o k e n
personal
friendships
(say,
b e t w e e n B a d i o u a n d J e a n - C l a u d e M i l n e r ) . The i r o n y is that this s t r u g g l e
is
taking place
among
ex-Maoists
(Badiou,
Milner,
Levy,
Miller,
Regnault, F i n k e l k r a u t ) , a n d between " J e w i s h " and " n o n - J e w i s h " in­
t e l l e c t u a l s . T h e q u e s t i o n i s : is t h e n a m e of t h e O n e
t h e r e s u l t of a
c o n t i n g e n t p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , o r i s it s o m e h o w r o o t e d in a m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l
p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y ? T h e p o s i t i o n of " J e w i s h M a o i s t s " i s t h a t " J e w s " i s
s u c h a n a m e w h i c h s t a n d s for t h a t w h i c h r e s i s t s t o d a y ' s g l o b a l t r e n d to
INTRODUCTION
o v e r c o m e a l l l i m i t a t i o n s , i n c l u s i v e of t h e v e r y
finltude
of t h e h u m a n
condition, in radical capitalist "deterritorialization" a n d "fluidification"
( t h e t r e n d vv^hich r e a c h e s i t s a p o t h e o s i s in t h e g n o s t i c - d i g i t a l d r e a m of
transforming h u m a n s t h e m s e l v e s into virtual software that c a n reload
i t s e l f from o n e h a r d w a r e to a n o t h e r ) . T h e n a m e " J e w s " t h u s s t a n d s for
t h e m o s t b a s i c fidelity t o w h a t o n e i s . A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , F r a n ç o i s R e g n a u l t
c l a i m s t h a t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Left d e m a n d s of J e w s ( m u c h m o r e t h a n of
o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s ) t h a t t h e y " y i e l d w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i r n a m e " — a
r e f e r e n c e to L a c a n ' s e t h i c a l m a x i m " d o n o t y i e l d w i t h r e g a r d to y o u r
d e s i r e " . . . O n e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r h e r e t h a t t h e s a m e shift from r a d i c a l
e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s to t h e f i d e l i t y to t h e J e w i s h n a m e i s a l r e a d y
d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e fate of t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l , e s p e c i a l l y in H o r k h e i m e r ' s
later texts. J e w s here a r e the exception: in the liberal multiculturalist
perspective, all groups can assert their identity — except J e w s ,
whose
v e r y s e l f - a s s e r t i o n e q u a l s Z i o n i s t r a c i s m . . . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s a p p r o a c h ,
B a d i o u a n d o t h e r s i n s i s t on t h e f i d e l i t y to t h e O n e w h i c h e m e r g e s a n d i s
c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h t h e v e r y p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e of/for n a m i n g a n d , a s s u c h ,
cannot b e g r o u n d e d in a n y particular determinate content (such a s ethnic
o r r e l i g i o u s r o o t s ) . F r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w , f i d e l i t y to t h e n a m e " J e w s " i s
t h e o b v e r s e ( t h e s i l e n t r e c o g n i t i o n ) of t h e d e f e a t of a u t h e n t i c e m a n c i ­
p a t o r y s t r u g g l e s . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h o s e w h o d e m a n d f i d e l i t y to t h e n a m e
" J e w s " a r e a l s o t h o s e w h o w a r n u s a g a i n s t t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " d a n g e r s of
a n y radical e m a n c i p a t o r y movement. Their politics consists in accepting
the fundamental
finitude
a n d l i m i t a t i o n of o u r s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e J e w i s h
L a w i s t h e u l t i m a t e m a r k of t h i s f i n i t u d e , w h i c h is w h y , for t h e m , a l l
a t t e m p t s to o v e r c o m e L a w a n d t e n d t o w a r d s a l l - e m b r a c i n g L o v e (from
Christianity through the French J a c o b i n s to S t a l i n i s m ) must e n d u p in
t o t a l i t a r i a n t e r r o r . T o p u t it s u c c i n c t l y , t h e o n l y t r u e s o l u t i o n to t h e
J e w i s h q u e s t i o n " i s t h e "final s o l u t i o n " ( t h e i r a n n i h i l a t i o n ) , b e c a u s e
J e w s qua objet a a r e t h e u l t i m a t e o b s t a c l e to t h e "final s o l u t i o n " of H i s t o r y
itself, to t h e o v e r c o m i n g
of d i v i s i o n s i n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y a n d
flexibility.
B u t i s it n o t r a t h e r t h e c a s e that, in t h e h i s t o r y of m o d e r n E u r o p e , t h o s e
w h o stood for t h e s t r i v i n g for u n i v e r s a l i t y w e r e p r e c i s e l y a t h e i s t J e w s
from S p i n o z a to M a r x a n d F r e u d ? T h e i r o n y i s t h a t in t h e h i s t o r y of a n t i S e m i t i s m J e w s s t a n d for b o t h of t h e s e p o l e s : s o m e t i m e s t h e y s t a n d for t h e
s t u b b o r n a t t a c h m e n t to t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r life-form w h i c h p r e v e n t s
them
from b e c o m i n g full c i t i z e n s of t h e s t a t e t h e y l i v e in, s o m e t i m e s t h e y s t a n d
for a " h o m e l e s s " a n d r o o t l e s s u n i v e r s a l c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m i n d i f f e r e n t t o a l l
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
p a r t i c u l a r e t h n i c forms. T h e first t h i n g to r e c a l l i s t h u s t h a t t h i s s t r u g g l e i s
( a l s o ) inherent to J e w i s h i d e n t i t y . A n d , p e r h a p s , t h i s J e w i s h s t r u g g l e is
o u r c e n t r a l s t r u g g l e t o d a y : t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n fidelity to t h e M e s s i a n i c
i m p u l s e a n d t h e reactive (in t h e p r e c i s e N i e t z s c h e a n s e n s e ) " p o l i t i c s of
f e a r " w h i c h f o c u s e s on p r e s e r v i n g o n e ' s p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y .
T h e p r i v i l e g e d r o l e of J e w s in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e s p h e r e of t h e
" p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n " h i n g e s on t h e i r s u b t r a c t i o n from
e v e r y state
p o w e r — t h i s p o s i t i o n of t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " of e v e r y o r g a n i c n a t i o n s t a t e c o m m u n i t y , not t h e a b s t r a c t - u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e of t h e i r m o n o t h e i s m ,
m a k e s t h e m t h e i m m e d i a t e e m b o d i m e n t of u n i v e r s a l i t y . N o w o n d e r , t h e n ,
that, w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n - s t a t e , a n e w figure of
t h e J e w e m e r g e d : a J e w r e s i s t i n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l ,
r e f u s i n g to a c c e p t t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l a s h i s t r u e h o m e , a J e w
who
" s u b t r a c t s " h i m s e l f from t h i s s t a t e , a n d w h o i n c l u d e s t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l
a m o n g t h e s t a t e s t o w a r d s w h i c h h e i n s i s t s on m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s t a n c e ,
l i v i n g in t h e i r i n t e r s t i c e s — a n d it i s thu u n c a n n y J e w w h o i s t h e o b j e c t of
w h a t o n e c a n n o t b u t d e s i g n a t e a s " Z i o n i s t a n t i - S e m i t i s m , " a foreign
e x c e s s d i s t u r b i n g t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e J e w s , t h e " J e w s of
t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s , " w o r t h y s u c c e s s o r s of S p i n o z a , a r e t o d a y t h e o n l y
J e w s w h o c o n t i n u e to i n s i s t on t h e " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n , " r e f u s i n g to
s u b m i t t h e i r r e a s o n i n g to t h e " p r i v a t e " d o m a i n of t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e .
T h i s b o o k is u n a s h a m e d l y c o m m i t t e d to t h e " M e s s i a n i c " s t a n d p o i n t of
t h e s t r u g g l e for u n i v e r s a l e m a n c i p a t i o n . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t to t h e
p a r t i s a n s of the " p o s t m o d e r n " doxa t h e list of lost C a u s e s d e f e n d e d h e r e
m u s t a p p e a r a s a h o r r o r s h o w of t h e i r w o r s t n i g h t m a r e s e m b o d i e d , a
d e p o s i t o r y of t h e g h o s t s of t h e p a s t t h e y p u t a l l t h e i r e n e r g i e s i n t o
e x o r c i z i n g : H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c s a s t h e e x t r e m e c a s e of a
philosopher
s e d u c e d b y t o t a l i t a r i a n p o l i t i c s ; r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r from R o b e s p i e r r e to
Mao;
S t a l i n i s m ; t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . . . In e a c h c a s e , t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y not o n l y d i s m i s s e s t h e c a u s e , b u t offers a r e p l a c e ­
m e n t , a "softer" v e r s i o n of it: not t o t a l i t a r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t , b u t
i n t e l l e c t u a l s w h o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p r o b l e m s of g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d fight in t h e
p u b l i c s p h e r e for h u m a n r i g h t s a n d t o l e r a n c e , a g a i n s t r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m ;
not r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t a t e t e r r o r , b u t t h e s e l f - o r g a n i z e d d e c e n t r a l i z e d m u l t i ­
t u d e ; not t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , b u t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n a m o n g
multiple agents (civil-society initiatives, private money, state regulation
. . . ) . T h e t r u e a i m of t h e " d e f e n s e of lost c a u s e s " i s not to d e f e n d S t a l i n i s t
t e r r o r , a n d so on, a s s u c h , b u t to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e a l l - t o o - e a s y
liberal-democratic alternative. Foucault's and, especially, Heidegger's
INTRODUCTION
political commitments, w h i l e acceptable in their basic motivation, w e r e
c l e a r l y " r i g h t s t e p s in t h e w r o n g d i r e c t i o n " ; t h e m i s f o r t u n e s of t h e fate of
r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c o n f r o n t u s w i t h t h e n e e d —not to r e j e c t t e r r o r in
tote, b u t — t o r e i n v e n t it; t h e f o r t h c o m i n g e c o l o g i c a l c r i s i s s e e m s to offer a
u n i q u e c h a n c e of accepting a r e i n v e n t e d v e r s i o n of t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e
proletariat. The a r g u m e n t is thus that, w h i l e these p h e n o m e n a w e r e , each
in i t s o w n w a y , a h i s t o r i c a l f a i l u r e a n d m o n s t r o s i t y ( S t a l i n i s m w a s a
nightmare which
caused perhaps
even more
human
suffering
fascism; t h e a t t e m p t s to e n f o r c e t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e
produced
than
proletariat"
a r i d i c u l o u s t r a v e s t y of a r e g i m e in w h i c h p r e c i s e l y t h e
p r o l e t a r i a t w a s r e d u c e d to s i l e n c e , a n d so o n ) , this u not the whole truth:
t h e r e w a s in e a c h of t h e m a r e d e m p t i v e m o m e n t w h i c h g e t s lost in t h e
l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c r e j e c t i o n ^—and it is c r u c i a l to i s o l a t e t h i s m o m e n t . O n e
s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l not to t h r o w o u t t h e b a b y w i t h t h e d i r t y w a t e r —
a l t h o u g h o n e i s t e m p t e d to t u r n t h i s m e t a p h o r a r o u n d , a n d c l a i m t h a t it i s
t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e w h i c h w a n t s to d o t h i s ( s a y , t h r o w i n g o u t
t h e d i r t y w a t e r of t e r r o r , w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e p u r e b a b y of a u t h e n t i c
socialist d e m o c r a c y ) , forgetting t h e r e b y that the w a t e r w a s o r i g i n a l l y
p u r e , t h a t a l l t h e d i r t in it c o m e s from t h e b a b y . W h a t o n e s h o u l d do,
r a t h e r , i s to t h r o w o u t t h e b a b y b e f o r e it s p o i l s t h e c r y s t a l l i n e w a t e r w i t h
its e x c r e t i o n s , so that, to p a r a p h r a s e M a l l a r m é , rien que l'eau n'aura eu lieu
dans le bain de l'histoire.
Our
defense
of lost C a u s e s i s t h u s not
e n g a g e d in a n y k i n d
of
d e c o n s t r u c t i v e g a m e in t h e s t y l e of " e v e r y C a u s e first h a s to b e lost in
o r d e r to e x e r t its e f f i c i e n c y a s a C a u s e . " O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e g o a l i s to
l e a v e b e h i n d , w i t h all t h e v i o l e n c e n e c e s s a r y , w h a t L a c a n m o c k i n g l y
r e f e r r e d to a s t h e " n a r c i s s i s m of t h e lost C a u s e , " a n d to c o u r a g e o u s l y
a c c e p t t h e full a c t u a l i z a t i o n of a C a u s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n e v i t a b l e r i s k of a
catastrophic disaster. Badiou w a s right w h e n , apropos the disintegration
of t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s , h e p r o p o s e d t h e m a x i m : mieux vaut un désa,itre
qu'un désètre. B e t t e r a d i s a s t e r of f i d e l i t y to t h e E v e n t t h a n a n o n - b e i n g of
i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e E v e n t . To p a r a p h r a s e B e c k e t t ' s
memorable
p h r a s e , to w h i c h I s h a l l r e t u r n m a n y t i m e s l a t e r , after o n e fails,
one
c a n g o on a n d fail b e t t e r , w h i l e i n d i f f e r e n c e d r o w n s u s d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r
in t h e m o r a s s of i m b e c i l i c B e i n g .
A c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o . Premiere m a g a z i n e r e p o r t e d
on a n
ingenious
i n q u i r y i n t o h o w t h e m o s t f a m o u s e n d i n g s of Holl3rwood Films w e r e
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s o m e of t h e m a j o r n o n - E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e s . In J a p a n , C l a r k
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
G a b l e ' s " F r a n k l y , m y d e a r , 1 d o n ' t g i v e a d a m n ! " to V i v i e n L e i g h from
Gone With the Winà w a s r e n d e r e d a s : "T fear, m y d a r l i n g , t h a t t h e r e i s a
s l i g h t m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e t w o of u s " — a b o w to p r o v e r b i a l
J a p a n e s e c o u r t e s y a n d e t i q u e t t e . In c o n t r a s t , t h e C h i n e s e (in t h e P e o p l e ' s
R e p u b l i c of C h i n a ) r e n d e r e d t h e " T h i s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g of a b e a u t i f u l
f r i e n d s h i p ! " from Casablanca a s " T h e t w o of u s w i l l n o w c o n s t i t u t e a n e w
cell of a n t i - f a s c i s t s t r u g g l e ! " — s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e e n e m y b e i n g t h e top
p r i o r i t y , far a b o v e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s .
A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e m a y often a p p e a r to i n d u l g e in e x c e s ­
sively confrontational a n d "provocative" statements ( w h a t today can be
m o r e " p r o v o c a t i v e " t h a n d i s p l a y i n g e v e n a m i n i m a l s y m p a t h y for
or
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r ? ) , it r a t h e r p r a c t i c e s a d i s p l a c e ­
m e n t a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e e x a m p l e s q u o t e d in Premiere: w h e r e t h e t r u t h i s
that I don't give a d a m n about m y opponent, I s a y that there is a slight
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; w h e r e w h a t i s at s t a k e i s a n e w
theoretico-political
s h a r e d field of s t r u g g l e , it m a y a p p e a r t h a t I a m t a l k i n g a b o u t a c a d e m i c
friendships a n d alliances . . .
In s u c h c a s e s , it i s u p to t h e r e a d e r to
u n r a v e l t h e c l u e s w h i c h lie before h e r .
THE STATE OF THINGS
I
Happiness and Torture in the Atonal World
Human, alt too hunuin
In c o n t r a s t to t h e s i m p h s t i c o p p o s i t i o n of g o o d g u y s a n d b a d g u y s , s p y
t h r i l l e r s w i t h a r t i s t i c p r e t e n s i o n s d i s p l a y all t h e " r e a l i s t i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l
c o m p l e x i t y " of t h e c h a r a c t e r s from " o u r " s i d e . F a r from s i g n a l i n g a
balanced view, however, this "honest"
acknowledgment
of o u r
own
" d a r k s i d e " s t a n d s for its v e r y o p p o s i t e , for t h e h i d d e n a s s e r t i o n of
o u r s u p r e m a c y : w e a r e " p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c o m p l e x , " full of d o u b t s , w h i l e
the o p p o n e n t s a r e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a n a t i c a l k i l l i n g m a c h i n e s . T h e r e i n
r e s i d e s t h e lie of S p i e l b e r g ' s Munich: it w a n t s to b e " o b j e c t i v e , " p r e s e n t i n g
moral c o m p l e x i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y , psychological doubts, the problematic
n a t u r e of r e v e n g e , of t h e I s r a e l i p e r s p e c t i v e , but, w h a t its " r e a l i s m " d o e s
is r e d e e m t h e M o s s a d a g e n t s still further: "look, t h e y a r e not j u s t c o l d
k i l l e r s , b u t h u m a n b e i n g s w i t h t h e i r d o u b t s ^—they h a v e d o u b t s , w h e r e a s
the Palestinian terrorists
. . . " One
cannot
but sympathize with
the
h o s t i l i t y w i t h w h i c h the s u r v i v i n g M o s s a d a g e n t s w h o r e a l l y c a r r i e d
o u t t h e r e v e n g e k i l l i n g s r e a c t e d to t h e film ( " t h e r e w e r e n o p s y c h o l o g i c a l
d o u b t s , w e j u s t d i d w h a t w e h a d to d o " ) for t h e r e i s m u c h m o r e h o n e s t y in
their stance.'
T h e first l e s s o n t h u s s e e m s to b e t h a t t h e p r o p e r w a y to
fight
the
d e m o n i z a t i o n of t h e O t h e r is to s u b j e c t i v i z e her, to l i s t e n to h e r s t o r y , to
understand
h o w s h e p e r c e i v e s t h e s i t u a t i o n —or, a s a p a r t i s a n of t h e
M i d d l e E a s t d i a l o g u e p u t it: " A n e n e m y i s s o m e o n e w h o s e s t o r y y o u h a v e
not h e a r d . "
Practicing this noble
m o t t o of m u l t i c u l t u r a l
tolerance,
I c e l a n d ' s a u t h o r i t i e s r e c e n t l y i m p o s e d a u n i q u e form of e n a c t i n g t h i s
s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n of t h e O t h e r . In o r d e r to fight g r o w i n g x e n o p h o b i a ( t h e
r e s u l t of i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s ) , a s w e l l a s s e x u a l
intolerance, they organized w h a t they called "living libraries": members
of e t h n i c a n d s e x u a l m i n o r i t i e s ( g a y s , i m m i g r a n t E a s t E u r o p e a n s
b l a c k s ) a r e p a i d to v i s i t a n I c e l a n d i c f a m i l y a n d j u s t t a l k to
or
them.
II
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
a c q u a i n t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e i r w a y of life, t h e i r e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s , t h e i r
d r e a m s , a n d so on — in t h i s w a y , t h e e x o t i c s t r a n g e r w h o i s p e r c e i v e d a s a
t h r e a t to o u r w a y of life a p p e a r s a s s o m e b o d y w e c a n e m p a t h i z e w i t h ,
w i t h a c o m p l e x w o r l d of h e r o w n . . .
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a c l e a r l i m i t to t h i s p r o c e d u r e . C a n w e i m a g i n e
i n v i t i n g a N a z i t h u g to tell u s h i s s t o r y ? A r e w e r e a d y to affirm t h a t H i t l e r
w a s an e n e m y because his story hadn't been h e a r d ? A S e r b journalist
r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d a s t r a n g e p i e c e of n e w s from t h e p o l i t i c i a n w h o , after
l o n g p a i n f u l t a l k s , c o n v i n c e d S l o b o d a n M i l o s e v i c in h i s v i l l a to s u r r e n d e r
to t h e p o l i c e a n d let h i m s e l f b e a r r e s t e d . M i l o s e v i c s a i d y e s a n d t h e n
a s k e d to b e a l l o w e d to g o to t h e first floor of t h e v i l l a to a t t e n d to s o m e
b u s i n e s s . T h e n e g o t i a t o r , a f r a i d t h a t M i l o s e v i c w a s g o i n g to
commit
suicide, expressed his doubts, but Milosevic calmed him down, saying
t h a t h e h a d g i v e n h i s w o r d to h i s w i f e , M i r a M a r k o v i c , t h a t h e w o u l d
w a s h his hair before leaving. D o e s this personal-life detail " r e d e e m " the
h o r r o r s t h a t r e s u l t e d from M i l o s e v i c ' s r e i g n , d o e s it m a k e h i m
"more
h u m a n " ? One can well imagine Hitler washing Eva Braun's hair — and
o n e d o e s not h a v e to i m a g i n e , s i n c e w e a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t H e y d r i c h , t h e
a r c h i t e c t of t h e H o l o c a u s t , l i k e d to p l a y B e e t h o v e n ' s l a t e s t r i n g q u a r t e t s
w i t h f r i e n d s in t h e e v e n i n g s . R e c a l l t h e c o u p l e of " p e r s o n a l " l i n e s t h a t
u s u a l l y c o n c l u d e t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a w r i t e r on t h e b a c k c o v e r of a b o o k :
"In h i s free t i m e , X l i k e s to p l a y w i t h h i s c a t a n d g r o w t u l i p s . . ."—^such a
s u p p l e m e n t w h i c h " h u m a n i z e s " t h e a u t h o r i s i d e o l o g y a t its p u r e s t , t h e
s i g n t h a t h e i s " a l s o h u m a n l i k e u s . " (I w a s t e m p t e d to s u g g e s t for t h e
c o v e r of o n e m y b o o k s ; "In h i s free t i m e , Z i z e k l i k e s to s u r f t h e i n t e r n e t
for c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y a n d to t e a c h h i s s m a l l son h o w to p u l l t h e l e g s off
spiders . . . " )
O u r m o s t e l e m e n t a r y e x p e r i e n c e of s u b j e c t i v i t y is t h a t of t h e " r i c h n e s s
of m y i n n e r l i f e " : t h i s i s w h a t I " r e a l l y a m , " in c o n t r a s t to t h e s y m b o l i c
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d m a n d a t e s I a s s u m e in p u b l i c life (father,
professor,
p h i l o s o p h e r ) . T h e first l e s s o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s h e r e i s t h a t t h i s " r i c h n e s s
of o u r i n n e r l i f e " i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a (ak.e: a s c r e e n , a false d i s t a n c e , w h o s e
function
i s , a s it w e r e , to s a v e m y a p p e a r a n c e ,
to r e n d e r
palpable
( a c c e s s i b l e to m y i m a g i n a r y n a r c i s s i s m ) m y t r u e s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y .
O n e of t h e w a y s to p r a c t i c e t h e c r i t i q u e of i d e o l o g y i s t h e r e f o r e to i n v e n t
s t r a t e g i e s to u n m a s k t h i s h y p o c r i s y of " i n n e r l i f e " a n d its " s i n c e r e "
e m o t i o n s , in t h e m a n n e r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n a c t e d b y L a r s v o n T r i e r in
his
12
films:
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
M y v e r y first film, The Orchid Gardener, o p e n e d w i t h a c a p t i o n s t a t i n g
t h a t t h e film w a s d e d i c a t e d to a g i r l w h o h a d d i e d of l e u k a e m i a , g i v i n g
t h e d a t e s of h e r b i r t h a n d d e a t h . T h a t w a s e n t i r e l y f a b r i c a t e d !
And
m a n i p u l a t i v e a n d c y n i c a l , b e c a u s e I r e a l i z e d t h a t if y o u s t a r t e d a film
l i k e t h a t , t h e n t h e a u d i e n c e w o u l d t a k e it a lot m o r e s e r i o u s l y . ^
T h e r e i s m u c h m o r e t h a n m a n i p u l a t i o n a t w o r k h e r e : in h i s f e m i n i n e
t r i l o g y {Breaking the
Waves, Dancer in the Dark, Dogville), v o n
p r o v o k e s u s in o u r i n n e r m o s t b e i n g , s t i r r i n g u p a u t o m a t i c
Trier
sympathy
w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e of the v i c t i m i z e d w o m a n w h o , w i t h
h e r hecirt of g o l d , suffers p a i n . T h r o u g h h i s " m a n i p u l a t i o n , " h e d i s p l a y s
the l i e of t h i s s y m p a t h y , t h e o b s c e n e p l e a s u r e w e g a i n from s e e i n g t h e
v i c t i m suffer, a n d t h e r e b y d i s t u r b s o u r s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n . D o e s t h i s m e a n ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t m y " t r u t h " i s s i m p l y in m y s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y o b f u s c a t e d b y
m y i m a g i n a r y " i n n e r l i f e " ( a s a s i m p l i s t i c r e a d i n g of L a c a n s e e m s to
Indicate, o p p o s i n g t h e s u b j e c t of t h e s i g n i f i e r to t h e i m a g i n a r y e g o ) ?
Let u s t a k e a m a n w h o , d e e p d o w n , c u l t i v a t e s s a d i s t i c f a n t a s i e s w h i l e in
p u b l i c life h e i s p o l i t e , f o l l o w s r u l e s , a n d so forth; w h e n h e g o e s o n l i n e to
express t h o s e f a n t a s i e s in a c h a t r o o m , s a y , h e is s h o w i n g h i s t r u t h in t h e
g u i s e of a fiction. B u t i s it not the c a s e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e p o l i t e
p e r s o n a i s t h e t r u t h h e r e a n d t h e s a d i s t i c f a n t a s i e s s e r v e a s a k i n d of
d e f e n s e ? A s in a n e w v e r s i o n of t h e o l d J e w i s h j o k e : " Y o u a r e p o l i t e , so
w h y do y o u a c t a s if y o u w e r e p o l i t e ? " Is not, t h e n , t h e i n t e r n e t , w h e r e w e
s u p p o s e d l y e x p r e s s on s c r e e n o u r d e e p e s t t r u t h s , r e a l l y a site for t h e
p l a j à n g o u t of d e f e n s i v e f a n t a s i e s t h a t p r o t e c t u s from t h e b a n a l n o r m a l i t y
that i s our t r u t h ? ' '
T w o c a s e s a r e to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d h e r e . W h e n I a m a b r u t a l e x e c u t i v e
w h o , d e e p w i t h i n m y s e l f feel t h a t this i s j u s t a p u b l i c m a s k a n d t h a t m y
t r u e S e l f d i s c l o s e s itself in m y s p i r i t u a l m e d i t a t i o n s ( a n d i m a g i n e m y
friends t e l l i n g p e o p l e : " H i s b r u t a l b u s i n e s s efficiency s h o u l d n ' t d e c e i v e
y o u ~ h e i s r e a l l y a v e r y r e f i n e d a n d g e n t l e p e r s o n . . . " ) , this is not t h e
s a m e a s w h e n I a m , in r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , a polite p e r s o n w h o , on
the internet, g i v e s w a y to v i o l e n t f a n t a s i e s . T h e site of s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i ­
fication
shifts: in the i n t e r n e t c a s e , I t h i n k t h a t I r e a l l y a m a polite p e r s o n ,
a n d t h a t I a m j u s t p l a y i n g w i t h v i o l e n t fantasies, w h i l e , a s a N e w A g e
b u s i n e s s m a n , I t h i n k that I a m j u s t p l a y i n g a p u b l i c role in m y b u s i n e s s
dealings, w h i l e m y true identity is m y inner Self enlightened
through
n i e d i t a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s : in both c a s e s , t r u t h is a fiction, b u t t h i s
fiction
IS differently l o c a t e d . In t h e i n t e r n e t c a s e , it is i m a g i n a b l e that, a t s o m e
13
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
point, I w i l l " t a k e off'the m a s k " a n d e x p l o d e , t h a t i s , c a r r y out m y v i o l e n t
fantasies in r e a l life—-this e x p l o s i o n w i l l effectively e n a c t "the t r u t h of m y
Self." In t h e c a s e of t h e N e w A g e b u s i n e s s m a n , m y t r u t h i s m y p u b l i c
p e r s o n a , a n d , h e r e , " t a k i n g off t h e m a s k , " e n a c t i n g m y N e w A g e self in
r e a l i t y , n a m e l y , really a b a n d o n i n g m y b u s i n e s s m a n t r a i t s , w o u l d i n v o l v e a
r e a l shift in m y s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n . In t h e t w o c a s e s , " t a k i n g off t h e m a s k "
t h u s w o r k s d i f f e r e n t l y . In t h e i n t e r n e t c a s e , t h i s g e s t u r e is w h a t H i t l e r d i d
with actual anti-Semitic measures (realizing anti-Semitic fantasies), a
false act, w h i l e in t h e N e w A g e b u s i n e s s m a n c a s e , w o u l d b e a t r u e a c t .
In o r d e r to r e s o l v e t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n , o n e s h o u l d r e f o r m u l a t e
t h e t w o c a s e s in t h e t e r m s of L a c a n ' s t r i a d I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c - R e a l : w e
a r e not d e a l i n g w i t h t w o , b u t w i t h t h r e e e l e m e n t s . T h e d i r t y f a n t a s i e s I a m
p l a y i n g w i t h on t h e n e t d o not h a v e t h e s a m e s t a t u s a s m y " t r u e S e l f "
d i s c l o s e d in m y m e d i t a t i o n s : t h e first b e l o n g to t h e R e a l , t h e s e c o n d to t h e
I m a g i n a r y . T h e t r i a d is t h e n I—S—R. Or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , in t h e i n t e r n e t
c a s e , m y p o l i t e p u b l i c p e r s o n a i s I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c v e r s u s t h e R e a l of
m y f a n t a s i e s , w h i l e , in t h e N e w A g e e x e c u t i v e c a s e , m y p u b l i c p e r s o n a i s
Symbolic—Real v e r s u s m y I m a g i n a r y "true Self."
( A n d , to t a k e a c r u c i a l
f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l s t e p , in o r d e r for t h i s t r i a d to function, o n e h a s to a d d a
f o u r t h t e r m , n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e empt)? c o r e of s u b j e c t i v i t y : t h e L a c a n i a n
" b a r r e d s u b j e c t " ( S ) is n e i t h e r m y S y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y , n o r m y I m a g i n a r y
" t r u e S e l f , " n o r t h e o b s c e n e R e a l c o r e of m y f a n t a s i e s , b u t t h e e m p t y
container w h i c h , like a knot, ties the three dimensions together.)
It is t h i s c o m p l e x " k n o t " t h a t a c c o u n t s for a w e l l - k n o w n t r a g i c f i g u r e
from t h e C o l d W a r e r a : t h o s e W e s t e r n leftists w h o h e r o i c a l l y d e f i e d a n t i C o m m u n i s t h y s t e r i a in t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s w i t h u t m o s t s i n c e r i t y . T h e y
w e r e r e a d y e v e n to g o to p r i s o n for t h e i r C o m m u n i s t c o n v i c t i o n s a n d
t h e i r d e f e n s e of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . Is it not t h e v e r y i l l u s o r y n a t u r e of t h e i r
b e l i e f t h a t m a k e s t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e s t a n c e so t r a g i c a l l y s u b l i m e ?
The
m i s e r a b l e r e a l i t y of t h e S t a l i n i s t S o v i e t U n i o n r e n d e r s t h e f r a g i l e b e a u t y
of t h e i r i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n a l l t h e m o r e m a j e s t i c . T h i s l e a d s u s to a r a d i c a l
a n d u n e x p e c t e d c o n c l u s i o n : it i s not e n o u g h to s a y t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g
here with a tragically misplaced ethical conviction, with a blind trust that
a v o i d s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m i s e r a b l e , t e r r i f y i n g r e a l i t y of its e t h i c a l p o i n t of
r e f e r e n c e . W h a t if, on t h e c o n t r a r y , s u c h a b l i n d n e s s , s u c h a v i o l e n t
g e s t u r e of r e f u s i n g - t o - s e e , s u c h a d i s a v o w a l - o f - r e a l i l y , s u c h a fetishlstic
a t t i t u d e of "I k n o w v e r y w e l l t h a t t h i n g s a r e h o r r i b l e in t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,
b u t I n o n e t h e l e s s b e l i e v e in S o v i e t s o c i a l i s m , " i s t h e i n n e r m o s t
consti­
t u e n t p a r t of every e t h i c a l s t a n c e ? K a n t w a s a l r e a d y w e l l a w a r e of t h i s
14
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
p a r a d o x w h e n h e d e p l o y e d h i s n o t i o n of e n t h u s i a s m
Revolution
in h i s Conflict of Faculties
(1795). The
for t h e
French
Revolution's
true
s i g n i f i c a n c e d i d not r e s i d e in w h a t a c t u a l l y w e n t on in P a r i s — m u c h
of w h i c h w a s t e r r i f y i n g a n d i n c l u d e d o u t b u r s t s of m u r d e r o u s p a s s i o n —
b u t in t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e t h a t t h e e v e n t s in P a r i s g e n e r a t e d in t h e
eyes of s y m p a t h e t i c o b s e r v e r s all a r o u n d
Europe:
T h e r e c e n t R e v o l u t i o n of a p e o p l e w h i c h i s rich in spirit, m a y w e l l
e i t h e r fail o r s u c c e e d , a c c u m u l a t e m i s e r y a n d a t r o c i t y , it n e v e r t h e l e s s
a r o u s e s in t h e h e a r t of a l l s p e c t a t o r s ( w h o a r e not t h e m s e l v e s c a u g h t u p
in i t ) a t a k i n g of s i d e s a c c o r d i n g to d e s i r e s \eine Tcilaehmung dem
Wunsche nach^ w h i c h b o r d e r s on e n t h u s i a s m a n d w h i c h , s i n c e i t s v e r y
e x p r e s s i o n w a s not w i t h o u t d a n g e r , c a n o n l y h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y a
moral disposition within the human race.''
T h e r e a l E v e n t , t h e d i m e n s i o n of t h e R e a l , w a s not i n t h e i m m e d i a t e
r e a l i t y of t h e v i o l e n t e v e n t s in P a n s , b u t in h o w t h i s r e a l i t y a p p e a r e d to
o b s e r v e r s a n d in t h e h o p e s t h u s a w a k e n e d in t h e m . T h e r e a l i t y of w h a t
w e n t on in P a r i s b e l o n g s to t h e t e m p o r a l d i m e n s i o n of e m p i r i c a l h i s t o r y ;
t h e s u b l i m e i m a g e t h a t g e n e r a t e d e n t h u s i a s m b e l o n g s to E t e r n i t y . . .
And, mutatis mutandù», t h e s a m e a p p l i e s for t h e W e s t e r n a d m i r e r s of t h e
Soviet Union.
The
S o v i e t e x p e r i e n c e of " b u i l d i n g s o c i a l i s m in
one
c o u n t r y " c e r t a i n l y d i d " a c c u m u l a t e m i s e r y a n d a t r o c i t y , " b u t it n e v e r t h e l e s s a r o u s e d e n t h u s i a s m in t h e h e a r t of t h e s p e c t a t o r s ( w h o w e r e not
t h e m s e l v e s c a u g h t u p in i t ) .
T h e q u e s t i o n h e r e i s : d o e s every e t h i c s h a v e to r e l y on s u c h a g e s t u r e of
fetishistic d i s a v o w a l ? Is e v e n t h e m o s t u n i v e r s a l e t h i c s not o b l i g e d to
d r a w a l i n e a n d i g n o r e s o m e sort of s u f f e r i n g ? W h a t a b o u t
animals
s l a u g h t e r e d for o u r c o n s u m p t i o n ? W h o w o u l d b e a b l e to c o n t i n u e e a t i n g
p o r k c h o p s after v i s i t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l f a r m in w h i c h p i g s a r e h a l f b l i n d
and c a n n o t e v e n p r o p e r l y w a l k , b u t a r e j u s t f a t t e n e d to b e k i l l e d ? A n d
w h a t a b o u t , s a y , t h e t o r t u r e a n d s u f f e r i n g of m i l l i o n s a b o u t w h i c h w e
k n o w b u t c h o o s e to i g n o r e ? I m a g i n e t h e effect on o n e of u s if w e w e r e
forced to w a t c h o n e s i n g l e s n u f f m o v i e of w h a t g o e s on t h o u s a n d s of t i m e s
a d a y a r o u n d t h e e a r t h — b r u t a l t o r t u r e ( p l u c k i n g o u t of e y e s , c r u s h i n g of
t e s t i c l e s , for e x a m p l e ) ? W o u l d w e c o n t i n u e to g o on l i v i n g a s u s u a l ?
Y e s — i f w e w e r e a b l e to s o m e h o w f o r g e t ( s u s p e n d t h e s y m b o l i c effic i e n c y ) of w h a t w e h a d w i t n e s s e d .
S o , a g a i n , d o e s not ^ t w y e t h i c s h a v e to r e l y on s u c h a g e s t u r e of fetishistic
IS
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
d i s a v o w a l ? ' ' Y e s , e v e r y e t h i c s — with the exception of the ethics ofpàychoanalysL»
w h i c h is a k i n d of a n t i - e t h i c s : it f o c u s e s p r e c i s e l y o n w h a t t h e s t a n d a r d
ethical enthusiasm excludes, on the traumatic Thing that o u r J u d e o Christian tradition calls the "Neighbor."
his reluctance to endorse
the injunction
F r e u d h a d g o o d r e a s o n s for
"Love thy
neighbor!"—the
t e m p t a t i o n to b e r e s i s t e d h e r e i s t h e e t h i c a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r .
T h i s is w h a t E m m a n u e l L e v i n a s d i d w i t h h i s notion of t h e N e i g h b o r a s t h e
a b y s s a l p o i n t from w h i c h t h e c a l l of e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y e m a n a t e s : h e
t h e r e b y o b f u s c a t e d t h e m o n s t r o s i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r , t h e m o n s t r o s i t y on
a c c o u n t of w h i c h L a c a n a p p l i e d t o t h e n e i g h b o r t h e t e r m T h i n g {da>> Ding),
u s e d b y F r e u d t o d e s i g n a t e t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t of o u r d e s i r e s i n i t s
u n b e a r a b l e i n t e n s i t y a n d i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y . O n e s h o u l d h e a r in t h i s t e r m
a l l t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s of h o r r o r fiction: t h e N e i g h b o r i s t h e ( E v i l ) T h i n g
w h i c h p o t e n t i a l l y l u r k s b e n e a t h e v e r y h o m e l y h u m a n face, l i k e t h e h e r o of
S t e p h e n K i n g ' s The Shining, a g e n t l e f a i l e d w r i t e r , w h o g r a d u a l l y t u r n s i n t o
a k i l l i n g b e a s t a n d , w i t h a n e v i l g r i n , g o e s on to s l a u g h t e r h i s e n t i r e f a m i l y .
W h e n F r e u d a n d L a c a n i n s i s t o n t h e p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e b a s i c
J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n i n j u n c t i o n to " l o v e t h y n e i g h b o r , " t h e y a r e t h u s n o t j u s t
m a k i n g t h e s t a n d a r d c r i t i c o - i d e o l o g i c a l p o i n t a b o u t h o w e v e r y n o t i o n of
universality is colored b y our particular values and thus implies secret
exclusions. They are making a much stronger point about the incompat­
i b i l i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r w i t h t h e v e r y d i m e n s i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y ' . W h a t
r e s i s t s u n i v e r s a l i t y i s t h e p r o p e r l y inhuman d i m e n s i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r .
T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k t o t h e k e y q u e s t i o n : d o e s every u n i v e r s a l i s t e t h i c s h a v e
to r e l y o n s u c h a g e s t u r e of f e t i s h i s t i c d i s a v o w a l ? T h e a n s w e r i s : e v e r y
e t h i c s t h a t r e m a i n s " h u m a n i s t " ( i n t h e s e n s e of a v o i d i n g t h e i n h u m a n c o r e
of b e i n g - h u m a n ) , t h a t d i s a v o w s t h e a b y s s a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r .
" M a n , " " h u m a n p e r s o n , " is a m a s k t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e p u r e s u b j e c t i v i t y of
the
Neighbor.
Consequently, w h e n one asserts the Neighbor as the impenetrable
" T h i n g " that eludes a n y attempt at gentrification, at its transformation
i n t o a c o z y f e l l o w m a n , t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n of
ethics is deference towards this unfathomable Otherness that subverts
any encompassing
universality. Following Alain Badiou, one should
a s s e r t that, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , only a n " i n h u m a n " e t h i c s , a n e t h i c s a d d r e s ­
sing a n i n h u m a n subject, not a fellow person, c a n sustain true u n i v e r s a h t y . T h e most difficult t h i n g for c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s to g r a s p t h i s
s p e c u l a t i v e - d i a l e c t i c a l r e v e r s a l of t h e s i n g u l a r i t y of t h e s u b j e c t qua
Neighbor-Thing
16
into universality, not s t a n d a r d " g e n e r a l " universality.
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
but universal singularity, the universality g r o u n d e d
in t h e
subjective
s i n g u l a r i t y e x t r a c t e d from all p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s , a k i n d of d i r e c t s h o r t
circuit b e t w e e n the s i n g u l a r a n d the universal, b y p a s s i n g the particular.
W e s h o u l d c e l e b r a t e t h e g e n i u s of W a l t e r B e n j a m i n w h i c h
shines
t h r o u g h in t h e v e r y title of h i s e a r l y w o r k : On Language in General and
Human Language in Particular. T h e p o i n t h e r e is not t h a t h u m a n l a n g u a g e
is a s p e c i e s of s o m e u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e " a s s u c h " w h i c h c o m p r i s e s a l s o
o t h e r s p e c i e s ( t h e l a n g u a g e of g o d s a n d a n g e l s ? A n i m a l l a n g u a g e ? T h e
l a n g u a g e of s o m e o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n t b e i n g s o u t t h e r e in s p a c e ? C o m p u t e r
l a n g u a g e ? T h e l a n g u a g e of D N A ? ) : t h e r e i s n o a c t u a l l y - e x i s t i n g l a n g u a g e
o t h e r t h a n h u m a n l a n g u a g e — b u t , m o r d e r to c o m p r e h e n d t h i s " p a r t i ­
c u l a r " l a n g u a g e , o n e has to i n t r o d u c e a m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e , c o n c e i v i n g it
w i t h r e g a r d to t h e g a p w h i c h s e p a r a t e s it from l a n g u a g e " a s s u c h " ( t h e
p u r e s t r u c t u r e of l a n g u a g e d e p r i v e d of t h e i n s i g n i a of t h e h u m a n f i n i t u d e ,
of e r o t i c p a s s i o n s a n d m o r t a l i t y , of t h e s t r u g g l e s for d o m i n a t i o n a n d t h e
o b s c e n i t y of p o w e r ) . ^ T h i s m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n h u m a n l a n ­
g u a g e a n d h u m a n l a n g u a g e i s c l e a r l y a P l a t o n i c o n e . W h a t if, t h e n , w e
h a v e to t u r n t h e s t a n d a r d r e l a t i o n s h i p a r o u n d : t h e o b v e r s e of t h e fact that,
in C h r i s t , G o d i s f u l l y h u m a n , i s t h a t we, humans, are not. G.K.
Chesterton
b e g a n The Napoleon of Nothing Hill w i t h : " T h e h u m a n r a c e , to w h i c h so
m a n y of m y r e a d e r s b e l o n g . . . " — w h i c h , of c o u r s e , d o e s not m e a n t h a t
s o m e of u s a r e n o t h u m a n , b u t t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n h u m a n c o r e in a l l of u s ,
or, t h a t w e a r e " n o t - a l l
human."
The screen of civility
T h e p r e d o m i n a n t w a y of m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e " i n h u m a n "
N e i g h b o r ' s i n t r u s i v e p r o x i m i t y i s politeness—^but w h a t is p o l i t e n e s s ?
T h e r e i s a g e n t l e v u l g a r s t o r y t h a t p l a y s on t h e i n n u e n d o s of s e d u c t i o n : A
b o y a n d a g i r l a r e s a y i n g g o o d b y e l a t e in t h e e v e n i n g , in front of h e r
h o u s e ; h e s i t a n t l y , h e s a y s : " W o u l d y o u m i n d if I c o m e in w i t h y o u for a
c o f f e e ? " , to w h i c h s h e r e p l i e s : " S o r r y , n o t t o n i g h t , I h a v e m y p e r i o d . . . "
A p o l i t e v e r s i o n w o u l d b e t h e o n e in w h i c h t h e g i r l s a y s : " G o o d n e w s , m y
p e r i o d i s o v e r — c o m e u p to m y p l a c e ! " , to w h i c h t h e b o y r e p l i e s : " S o r r y , I
^
not in a m o o d for a c u p of coffee r i g h t n o w . . . " T h i s , h o w e v e r ,
immediately confronts
unmistakable
u s w i t h t h e a m b i g u i t y of p o l i t e n e s s : t h e r e i s a n
dimension
answer—as John
Lennon
of h u m i l i a t i n g b r u t a l i t y in t h e b o y ' s
p u t it in h i s " W o r k i n g C l a s s H e r o " :
polite
"you
ö i u s t l e a r n h o w to s m i l e a s y o u k i l l . "
17
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
The
a m b i g u i t y of p o h t e n e s s
is best
rendered
in
Henry
James's
m a s t e r p i e c e s : in t h i s u n i v e r s e w h e r e tact r e i g n s s u p r e m e , w h e r e t h e o p e n
e x p l o s i o n of o n e ' s e m o t i o n s is c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e u t m o s t v u l g a r i t y , e v e r y ­
thing is said, the most painful decisions are m a d e , the most delicate
m e s s a g e s a r e p a s s e d o v e r — h o w e v e r , it a l l t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e g u i s e of a
f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n . E v e n w h e n I b l a c k m a i l m y p a r t n e r , I d o it w i t h a
p o l i t e s m i l e , offering h e r t e a a n d c a k e s . . . Is it, t h e n , that, w h i l e t h e
b r u t a l d i r e c t a p p r o a c h m i s s e s t h e O t h e r ' s k e r n e l , a tactful d a n c e c a n
r e a c h i t ? In h i s /Minima Aloralia,
A d o r n o pointed out the utter a m b i g u i t y
of t a c t c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e a l r e a d y in H e n r y J a m e s : t h e r e s p e c t f u l
s i d e r a t i o n for t h e o t h e r ' s s e n s i t i v i t y , t h e c o n c e r n
con­
not to v i o l a t e h e r
i n t i m a c y , c a n e a s i l y p a s s o v e r i n t o t h e b r u t a l i n s e n s i t i v i l y for t h e o t h e r ' s
p a i n . T h e s a m e spirit, e l e v a t e d to t h e l e v e l of a b s u r d i t y , w a s d i s p l a y e d b y
F i e l d M a r s h a l l v o n K l u g e , t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e A r m y G r o u p C e n t r e on
t h e R u s s i a n front. In J a n u a r y 1 9 4 3 , a g r o u p of G e r m a n
officers in
S m o l e n s k , w h e r e t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e a r m y g r o u p w a s b a s e d , w a s
p l a n n i n g to k i l l H i t l e r d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s v i s i t ; t h e i d e a w a s t h a t , d u r i n g a
m e a l in t h e m e s s , s o m e t w o d o z e n officers w o u l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d r a w
their pistols and shoot him, thus r e n d e r i n g the responsibility collective,
a n d a l s o m a k i n g s u r e t h a t H i t l e r ' s b o d y g u a r d s w o u l d not b e a b l e to
p r e v e n t a t l e a s t s o m e of the b u l l e t s h i t t i n g t h e i r t a r g e t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , v o n
K l u g e v e t o e d the plan, a l t h o u g h he w a s anti-Nazi a n d w a n t e d Hitler
d e a d . H i s a r g u m e n t w a s that, b y t h e t e n e t s of t h e G e r m a n Officer C o r p s ,
"it i s not s e e m l y to s h o o t a m a n at l u n c h . " ^ ^
A s s u c h , p o l i t e n e s s c o m e s c l o s e to c i v i l i t y . In a s c e n e from Break Up, t h e
nervous Vince V a u g h n angrily reproaches
Jennifer Anniston;
"You
w a n t e d m e to w a s h t h e d i s h e s , a n d I'll w a s h t h e d i s h e s — w h a t ' s t h e
p r o b l e m ? " S h e r e p l i e s : "I d o n ' t w a n t y o u to w a s h t h e d i s h e s — I w a n t y o u
to want to w a s h t h e d i s h e s ! " T h i s is t h e m i n i m a l r e f l e x i v i t y of d e s i r e , its
" t e r r o r i s t " d e m a n d : I w a n t y o u n o t o n l y to d o w h a t I w a n t , b u t to d o it a s
if y o u r e a l l y w a n t to d o it —I w a n t to r e g u l a t e not o n l y w h a t y o u do, b u t
a l s o y o u r d e s i r e s . T h e w o r s t t h i n g y o u c a n d o , e v e n w o r s e t h a n not d o i n g
w h a t I w a n t y o u to do, is to d o w h a t I w a n t y o u to d o w i t h o u t w a n t i n g to
d o i t . . . A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s to c i v i l i t y : a n a c t of c i v i l i t y i s p r e c i s e l y to feign
t h a t I w a n t to d o w h a t t h e o t h e r a s k s m e to do, so t h a t m y c o m p l i a n c e
w i t h t h e o t h e r ' s w i s h d o e s not e x e r t p r e s s u r e on h e r . T h e m o v i e Borat is at
its m o s t s u b v e r s i v e not w h e n t h e h e r o i s s i m p l y r u d e a n d offensive (for
o u r W e s t e r n e y e s a n d e a r s , at l e a s t ) , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , w h e n
he
d e s p e r a t e l y t r i e s to b e p o l i t e . D u r i n g a d i n n e r p a r t y in a n u p p e r - c l a s s
18
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
house, he a s k s w h e r e the toilet is, w h e n c e he then r e t u r n s w i t h his
e x c r e m e n t c a r e f u l l y w r a p p e d in a p l a s t i c b a g , a n d a s k s h i s h o s t e s s in a
h u s h e d v o i c e w h e r e h e s h o u l d p u t it. T h i s is a m o d e l m e t a p h o r of a t r u l y
s u b v e r s i v e p o l i t i c a l g e s t u r e : b r i n g i n g t h o s e in p o w e r a b a g of e x c r e m e n t
a n d p o l i t e l y a s k i n g t h e m h o w to g e t r i d of it.
In a p e r s p i c u o u s s h o r t e s s a y on c i v i l i t y , R o b e r t P i p p i n e l a b o r a t e s t h e
e n i g m a t i c i n - b e t w e e n s t a t u s of t h i s n o t i o n w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s a l l t h e a c t s
t h a t d i s p l a y t h e b a s i c s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e of r e s p e c t for o t h e r s a s free a n d
a u t o n o m o u s a g e n t s , e q u a l to u s , t h e b e n e v o l e n t a t t i t u d e of t r a n s c e n d i n g
t h e strict u t i l i t a r i a n or " r a t i o n a l " c a l c u l a t i o n of c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s in
relations with others
and
e n g a g i n g in t r u s t i n g
h u m i l i a t e t h e m , a n d so forth.
them,
t r y i n g not
to
A l t h o u g h , m e a s u r e d b y t h e d e g r e e of
i t s o b l i g a t o r y c h a r a c t e r , it i s m o r e t h a n k i n d n e s s o r g e n e r o s i t y
(one
c a n n o t o b l i g e p e o p l e to b e g e n e r o u s ) , b u t d i s t i n c t l y l e s s t h a n a m o r a l o r
l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n . T h i s is w h a t i s w r o n g in p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t a t t e m p t s to
m o r a l i z e o r e v e n d i r e c t l y p e n a l i z e m o d e s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h b a s i c a l l y
p e r t a i n to c i v i l i t y ( l i k e h u r t i n g o t h e r s w i t h v u l g a r o b s c e n i t i e s of s p e e c h ,
a n d so o n ) : t h e y p o t e n t i a l l y u n d e r m i n e t h e p r e c i o u s " m i d d l e g r o u n d " of
civility, m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n uncontrolled private fantasies a n d the strictly
r e g u l a t e d forms of i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e b e h a v i o r . In m o r e H e g e l i a n t e r m s ,
w h a t g e t s lost in t h e p e n a l i z a t i o n of u n - c i v i l i t y is " e t h i c a l s u b s t a n c e " a s
s u c h : in c o n t r a s t to l a w s a n d e x p l i c i t n o r m a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n s , c i v i l i t y i s , b y
definition, " s u b s t a n t i a l , " s o m e t h i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a s a l w a y s - a l r e a d y g i v e n ,
never imposed/instituted as such.
W h i c h i s w h y c i v i l i t y p a r t i c i p a t e s in
all t h e p a r a d o x e s of t h e " s t a t e s - t h a t - a r e - e s s e n t i a l l y - b y - p r o d u c t s " : it c a n ­
not b e p u r p o s e f u l l y e n a c t e d — i f it i s , w e h a v e t h e full r i g h t to s a y t h a t it i s
f a k e c i v i l i t y , n o t a t r u e form. P i p p i n i s r i g h t to l i n k t h e c r u c i a l r o l e of
c i v i l i t y in m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s to t h e r i s e of t h e a u t o n o m o u s free i n d i v i d u a l —
not o n l y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t c i v i l i t y is a p r a c t i c e of t r e a t i n g o t h e r s a s e q u a l ,
free, a n d a u t o n o m o u s
s u b j e c t s , b u t in a m u c h m o r e r e f i n e d w a y : t h e
fragile w e b of c i v i l i t y is t h e " s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e " of free
independent
i n d i v i d u a l s , it i s t h e i r v e r y m o d e of ( i n t e r ) d e p e n d e n c e . If t h i s s u b s t a n c e
d i s i n t e g r a t e s , t h e v e r y social s p a c e of I n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m i s f o r e c l o s e d .
T h e p r o p e r l y M a r x i s t n o t i o n of t h e
superstructure")
should
not
" b a s e " (in c o n t r a s t
be understood
with
as a foundation
d e t e r m i n e s a n d t h u s c o n s t r a i n s t h e s c o p e of o u r f r e e d o m
the
which
("we think
w e a r e free, b u t w e a r e r e a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e b a s e " ) ; o n e s h o u l d r a t h e r
c o n c e i v e it a s t h e v e r y b a s e ( f r a m e , t e r r a i n , s p a c e ) of anà for o u r f r e e d o m .
The
b a s e " is a s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e w h i c h s u s t a i n s o u r f r e e d o m —in t h i s
19
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s e n s e , t h e r u l e s of c i v i l i t y d o not c o n s t r a i n o u r f r e e d o m , b u t p r o v i d e t h e
only space within w h i c h our freedom can thrive; the legal order enforced
by
s t a t e a p p a r a t u s e s i s t h e b a s e for o u r f r e e - m a r k e t e x c h a n g e s ; t h e
g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s a r e t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e b a s e for o u r free t h o u g h t
(in
o r d e r to " t h i n k f r e e l y , " w e h a v e to p r a c t i c e t h e s e r u l e s b l i n d l y ) ; h a b i t a s
o u r " s e c o n d n a t u r e " i s t h e b a s e for c u l t u r e ; t h e c o l l e c t i v e of b e l i e v e r s i s
t h e b a s e , t h e o n l y t e r r a i n , w i t h i n w h i c h a C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t c a n b e free,
a n d so on. T h i s i s a l s o h o w o n e s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f a m o u s M a r x i s t
p l e a tor " c o n c r e t e , r e a l f r e e d o m " a s o p p o s e d to t h e b o u r g e o i s " a b s t r a c t ,
m e r e l y formal f r e e d o m " : t h i s " c o n c r e t e f r e e d o m " d o e s not c o n s t r a i n the
possible content
( " y o u c a n o n l y b e t r u l y free
if y o u
support
our.
C o m m u n i s t , s i d e " ) ; the question is, rather, w h a t " b a s e " s h o u l d be s e c u r e d
for f r e e d o m . F o r e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h w o r k e r s in c a p i t a l i s m a r e f o r m a l l y
free, t h e r e i s n o " b a s e " t h a t w o u l d a l l o w t h e m to a c t u a l i z e t h e i r f r e e d o m
a s p r o d u c e r s ; a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s " f o r m a l " f r e e d o m of s p e e c h , o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
a n d so forth, t h e b a s e of t h i s f r e e d o m i s c o n s t r a i n e d .
T h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t of c i v i l i t y i s t h u s t h a t free s u b j e c t i v i t y h a s to b e
s u s t a i n e d b y f e i g n i n g . C o n t r a r y to w h a t w e m i g h t e x p e c t , h o w e v e r , t h i s i s
not f e i g n i n g to p e r f o r m a free a c t w h e n o n e i s s i m p l y d o i n g w h a t o n e i s
u n d e r p r e s s u r e o r o b l i g e d to d o ( t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y form of it is, of
c o u r s e , t h e r i t u a l of " p o t l a t c h , " e x c h a n g e of gifts, in " p r i m i t i v e " s o c i e ­
t i e s ) , f i o w , t h e n , d o e s c i v i l i t y r e l a t e to t h e set of u n w r i t t e n r u l e s w h i c h de
facto c o n s t r a i n m y f r e e d o m
w h i l e s u s t a i n i n g its a p p e a r a n c e ? I^et u s
i m a g i n e a s c e n e in w h i c h , to b e p o l i t e a n d not to h u m i l i a t e t h e o t h e r ,
I f o r m u l a t e m y o r d e r to h i m ( s i n c e I a m in t h e p o s i t i o n of a u t h o r i t y
t o w a r d s h i m , so t h a t h e h a s to o b e y m y o r d e r s ) a s a k i n d r e q u e s t : " C o u l d
y o u p e r h a p s b e so k i n d a s to . . . " ( A l o n g t h e s a m e l i n e s , w h e n p o w e r f u l
o r f a m o u s p e o p l e r e c e i v e a n u n k n o w n i n d i v i d u a l , o n e of t h e p o l i t e f o r m s
is to p r e t e n d t h a t it i s t h e u n k n o w n i n d i v i d u a l w h o is d o i n g t h e m a f a v o r
b y v i s i t i n g t h e m — " T h a n k y o u for b e i n g so k i n d a s to p a y m e a v i s i t . . . " )
T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t r u e c i v i l i t y : c i v i l i t y is n o t s i m p l y o b l i g a t l o n - f e i g n e d a s - f r e e - a c t ; it i s r a t h e r its e x a c t o p p o s i t e : a free act feigned ad an obligation.
B a c k to o u r e x a m p l e : t h e t r u e a c t of c i v i l i t y from s o m e o n e in p o w e r
w o u l d b e for h i m to feign t h a t h e i s s i m p l y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g h e h a s to d o
w h e n , in r e a l i t y , it i s a n a c t of g e n e r o s i t y on h i s p a r t . F r e e d o m i s t h u s
s u s t a i n e d b y a p a r a d o x t h a t t u r n s a r o u n d t h e S p i n o z a n d e f i n i t i o n of
f r e e d o m a s c o n c e i v e d n e c e s s i t y : it i s f r e e d o m w h i c h is f e i g n e d n e c e s s i t y .
T o p u t it in f l e g e l i a n t e r m s , f r e e d o m
is s u s t a i n e d b y the ethical
s u b s t a n c e of o u r b e i n g . In a g i v e n s o c i e t y , c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , a t t i t u d e s ,
20
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
a n d n o r m s of life a r e n o l o n g e r p e r c e i v e d a s i d e o l o g i c a l l y m a r k e d , t h e y
a p p e a r a s " n e u t r a l , " a s t h e n o n - i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m o n - s e n s e form of life;
i d e o l o g y is the e x p l i c i t l y posited
( " m a r k e d " in t h e s e m i o t i c s e n s e )
position w h i c h stands out from/against this b a c k g r o u n d (like e x t r e m e
religious zeal, dedication
to
some
political orientation,
etc.).
H e g e l i a n p o i n t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h a t it i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s
t r a l i z a t i o n of s o m e f e a t u r e s i n t o t h e s p o n t a n e o u s l y a c c e p t e d
The
neu­
back­
g r o u n d w h i c h i s i d e o l o g y par excellence ( a n d at its m o s t e f f e c t i v e ) — t h i s
is the d i a l e c t i c a l " c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e o p p o s i t e s " : t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of a
notion ( i d e o l o g y , in t h i s c a s e ) a t i t s c o i n c i d e s w i t h (or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y ,
a p p e a r s a s ) i t s o p p o s i t e ( a s n o n - i d e o l o g y ) . A n d , inutati) mutandis, t h e
s a m e g o e s for v i o l e n c e : s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c v i o l e n c e u n a d u l t e r a t e d a p p e a r s
as its o p p o s i t e , a s t h e s p o n t a n e i t y of t h e m i l i e u in w h i c h w e d w e l l , of
the a i r t h a t w e b r e a t h e .
T h i s notion of c i v i l i t y i s at t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e i m p a s s e s of m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m . A c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o , t h e r e w a s a d e b a t e i n G e r m a n y a b o u t
Leäkultur
(the
dominant
culture): against abstract
multiculturalism,
c o n s e r v a t i v e s i n s i s t e d t h a t e v e r y s t a t e i s b a s e d on a p r e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l
s p a c e w h i c h t h e m e m b e r s of o t h e r c u l t u r e s w h o l i v e in t h e s a m e s p a c e
s h o u l d r e s p e c t . A l t h o u g h l i b e r a l leftists a t t a c k e d t h i s notion a s c o v e r t
r a c i s m , o n e s h o u l d a d m i t t h a t , if n o t h i n g e l s e , it offers a n a d e q u a t e
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e facts. R e s p e c t of i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m s a n d r i g h t s , e v e n if
a t the e x p e n s e of g r o u p r i g h t s , full e m a n c i p a t i o n of w o m e n , f r e e d o m of
r e l i g i o n ( a n d of a t h e i s m ) a n d s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , f r e e d o m to p u b l i c l y
a t t a c k a n y o n e a n d a n y t h i n g , a r e c e n t r a l c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s of W e s t e r n
l i b e r a l Leitkultur,
a n d t h i s c a n b e u s e d to r e s p o n d t o t h o s e M u s l i m
t h e o l o g i a n s in W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s w h o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i r
treatment,
w h i l e a c c e p t i n g it a s n o r m a l t h a t in, s a y , S a u d i A r a b i a , it i s p r o h i b i t e d to
practice publicly religions other than Islam. T h e y should accept that the
s a m e Leitkultur w h i c h a l l o w s t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m i n t h e W e s t , d e ­
m a n d s of t h e m a r e s p e c t for all o t h e r f r e e d o m s . T o p u t it s u c c i n c t l y :
freedom
for M u s l i m s i s p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h e f r e e d o m
for S a l m a n
R u s h d i e to w r i t e w h a t h e w a n t s — y o u c a n n o t c h o o s e t h e p a r t of W e s t e r n
freedom
w h i c h s u i t s y o u . T h e a n s w e r to t h e s t a n d a r d c r i t i c a l a r g u m e n t
t h a t W e s t e r n m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m i s not t r u l y n e u t r a l , t h a t it p r i v i l e g e s
specific v a l u e s , i s t h a t o n e s h o u l d s h a m e l e s s l y a c c e p t t h i s
paradox:
Universal o p e n n e s s i t s e l f i s r o o t e d in W e s t e r n m o d e r n i t y .
A n d , to a v o i d a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e s a m e a p p l i e s to C h r i s t i a n i t y
Itself. O n M a y 2, 2 0 0 7 , LVdJermtore
Romano, t h e V a t i c a n ' s official n e w s 2!
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
p a p e r , a c c u s e d A n d r e a R i v e r a , a n I t a l i a n c o m e d i a n , of " t e r r o r i s m " for
c r i t i c i z i n g t h e p o p e . A s a p r e s e n t e r of a t e l e v i s e d M a y D a y r o c k c o n c e r t ,
R i v e r a a t t a c k e d t h e p o p e ' s p o s i t i o n on e v o l u t i o n ( " T h e p o p e s a y s h e
d o e s n ' t b e l i e v e in e v o l u t i o n .
I a g r e e , in fact t h e C h u r c h
has
never
e v o l v e d . " ) H e a l s o c r i t i c i z e d t h e C h u r c h for r e f u s i n g to g i v e a C a t h o l i c
funeral
to P i e r g i o r g i o W e l b y , a v i c t i m of m u s c u l a r d y s t r o p h y
who
c a m p a i g n e d for e u t h a n a s i a a n d d i e d in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 6 after a d o c t o r
a g r e e d to u n p l u g h i s r e s p i r a t o r ("I c a n ' t s t a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e V a t i c a n
r e f u s e d a f u n e r a l for W e l b y b u t t h a t w a s n ' t t h e c a s e for P i n o c h e t
or
F r a n c o " ) . H e r e is t h e V a t i c a n ' s r e a c t i o n : " T h i s , too, i s t e r r o r i s m .
It's
t e r r o r i s m to l a u n c h a t t a c k s on t h e C h u r c h . It's t e r r o r i s m to s t o k e b l i n d
a n d i r r a t i o n a l r a g e a g a i n s t s o m e o n e w h o a l w a y s s p e a k s in t h e n a m e of
l o v e , l o v e for hfe a n d l o v e for m a n . " It is t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n of
intellectual critique with physical terrorist attacks w h i c h brutally violates
t h e W e s t E u r o p e a n Leäkullur, w h i c h i n s i s t s on t h e u n i v e r s a l s p h e r e of t h e
" p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n , " w h e r e o n e c a n c r i t i c i z e a n d p r o b l e m a t i z e e v e r y ­
t h i n g — i n t h e e y e s of o u r s h a r e d Tjeitkaltur, R i v e r a ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e t o t a l l y
acceptable.
C i v i l i t y is c r u c i a l h e r e : m u l t i c u l t u r a l f r e e d o m a l s o f u n c t i o n s o n l y w h e n
it is s u s t a i n e d b y t h e r u l e s of c i v i l i t y , w h i c h a r e n e v e r a b s t r a c t , b u t a l w a y s
e m b e d d e d w i t h i n a Leitkidtur. W i t h i n o u r Leltkultur, it i s not R i v e r a b u t
L'OMervatore Roimino w h i c h i s " t e r r o r i s t i c " w i t h i t s d i s m i s s a l of R i v e r a ' s
s i m p l e a n d r e a s o n a b l e o b j e c t i o n s a s e x p r e s s i o n s of " b h n d a n d i r r a t i o n a l
r a g e . " F r e e d o m of s p e e c h f u n c t i o n s w h e n a l l p a r t i e s follow t h e
same
u n w r i t t e n r u l e s of c i v i l i t y t e l l i n g u s w h a t k i n d of a t t a c k s a r e i m p r o p e r ,
a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e not l e g a l l y p r o h i b i t e d ; c i v i l i t y t e l l s u s w h i c h f e a t u r e s of
a s p e c i f i c e t h n i c o r r e l i g i o u s " w a y of l i f e " a r e a c c e p t a b l e a n d w h i c h a r e
not a c c e p t a b l e . If a l l s i d e s d o not s h a r e o r r e s p e c t t h e s a m e c i v i l i t y , t h e n
m u l t i c u l t u r a l l s m t u r n s into l e g a l l y r e g u l a t e d m u t u a l i g n o r a n c e or hatred.
O n e of the L a c a n i a n n a m e s for t h i s c i v i l i t y is t h e " M a s t e r - S i g n i f l e r , "
t h e set of r u l e s g r o u n d e d o n l y in t h e m s e l v e s ("it is so b e c a u s e it i s so,
b e c a u s e it is o u r c u s t o m " ) — a n d
it is this d i m e n s i o n of t h e
Master-
S l g n i f i e r w h i c h i s m o r e a n d m o r e t h r e a t e n e d in o u r s o c i e t i e s .
Gift and exchange
S o w h a t i s a A l a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r ? A p r o p o s school e x a m s , L a c a n p o i n t e d o u t
a s t r a n g e fact: t h e r e m u s t b e a m i n i m a l g a p , d e l a y , b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e d u r e
of m e a s u r i n g m y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d t h e a c t of a n n o u n c i n g t h e
22
result
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
( g r a d e s ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , e v e n if I k n o w t h a t I p r o v i d e d p e r f e c t a n s w e r s
to t h e e x a m q u e s t i o n s , t h e r e r e m a i n s a m i n i m u m e l e m e n t of i n s e c u r i t y , of
c h a n c e , till t h e r e s u l t s a r e a n n o u n c e d — t h i s g a p i s t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e
c o n s t a t i v e a n d t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e , b e t w e e n measuring t h e r e s u l t s a n d taking
note of t h e m ( r e g i s t e r i n g t h e m ) in t h e full s e n s e of t h e s y m b o l i c a c t . T h e
w h o l e m y s t i q u e of b u r e a u c r a c y at its m o s t s u b l i m e h i n g e s on t h i s g a p :
y o u k n o w t h e facts, b u t y o u c a n n e v e r b e q u i t e s u r e of h o w t h e s e facts
v^rill be r e g i s t e r e d b y b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e s a m e h o l d s for e l e c t i o n s : in t h e
e l e c t o r a l p r o c e s s t h e m o m e n t of c o n t i n g e n c y , of h a z a r d , of a " l o t t e r y , " i s
c r u c i a l . F u l l y " r a t i o n a l " e l e c t i o n s w o u l d not b e e l e c t i o n s at all, b u t a
transparent objectivized process.
Traditional (pre-modern) societies resolved this problem b y invoking a
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s o u r c e w h i c h " v e r i f i e d " t h e result, c o n f e r r i n g a u t h o r i t y on
it (God, K i n g . . . ) . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e p r o b l e m of m o d e r n i t y : m o d e r n
societies p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s a u t o n o m o u s , s e l f - r e g u l a t e d ; t h a t i s , t h e y
can no l o n g e r r e l y on a n e x t e r n a l ( t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ) s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y . B u t ,
n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e m o m e n t of h a z a r d h a s to r e m a i n o p e r a t i v e in t h e e l e c t o r a l
process, w h i c h i s w h y c o m m e n t a t o r s l i k e to d w e l l on t h e " i r r a t i o n a l i t y " of
votes (one n e v e r k n o w s w h i c h w a y v o t e s w i l l s w i n g in t h e last d a y s before
elections . . . ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , d e m o c r a c y w o u l d not w o r k if it w e r e
reduced to p e r m a n e n t o p i n i o n - p o l l i n g — f u l l y m e c h a n i z e d a n d q u a n t i f i e d ,
deprived of its " p e r f o r m a t i v e " c h a r a c t e r . A s C l a u d e Lefort p o i n t e d
out,
voting h a s to r e m a i n a ( s a c r i f i c i a l ) r i t u a l , a r i t u a l i s t i c s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n a n d
rebirth of s o c i e t y .
T h e r e a s o n i s t h a t t h i s h a z a r d itself s h o u l d not b e
t r a n s p a r e n t , it s h o u l d b e m i n i m a l l y e x t e r n a l i z e d / r e i f i e d : t h e " p e o p l e ' s w i l l "
IS our e q u i v a l e n t of w h a t t h e A n c i e n t s p e r c e i v e d a s t h e i m p o n d e r a b l e wUl
of God o r t h e h a n d s of F a t e . W h a t p e o p l e c a n n o t a c c e p t a s t h e i r d i r e c t
arbitrary c h o i c e , t h e r e s u l t of a p u r e c o n t i n g e n c y , t h e y c a n d o if this h a z a r d
18 r e f e r r e d to a m i n i m u m of t h e " r e a l " — H e g e l k n e w t h i s l o n g a g o , t h i s i s
t h e e n t i r e p o i n t of h i s d e f e n s e of m o n a r c h y . A n d , l a s t b u t not least, t h e
same g o e s for l o v e : t h e r e s h o u l d b e a n e l e m e n t of t h e " a n s w e r of t h e R e a l "
m it ( w e w e r e f o r e v e r m e a n t for e a c h o t h e r " ) , I c a n n o t r e a l l y a c c e p t t h a t
m y falling in l o v e h i n g e s on a p u r e l y a l e a t o r y p r o c e s s . ' ^
It is o n l y a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e c a n p r o p e r l y l o c a t e t h e
function of t h e M a s t e r . T h e M a s t e r is t h e o n e w h o r e c e i v e s gifts in s u c h a
^ a y that h i s a c c e p t a n c e of a gift i s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e s u b j e c t w h o p r o v i d e d
*ne gift a s i t s o w n r e w a r d . A s s u c h , t h e M a s t e r is t h u s c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e
s u b j e c t c a u g h t in t h e d o u b l e m o v e m e n t of w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d Vertagung
( r e n u n c i a t i o n ) : t h e g e s t u r e b y m e a n s of w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t g i v e s w h a t i s
23
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m a n d , i n e x c h a n g e , is h i m s e l f t u r n e d m t o a n o b j e c t of
e x c h a n g e , is c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e g e s t u r e of g i v i n g in t h e v e r y a c t of
r e c e i v i n g . T h e M a s t e r ' s r e f u s a l of e x c h a n g e i s c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e
re­
doubled,
ex­
s e l f - r e f l e c t e d , e x c h a n g e on t h e s i d e of t h e s u b j e c t w h o
c h a n g e s ( g i v e s w h a t i s m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m ) a n d Is e x c h a n g e d .
T h e t r i c k of c a p i t a l i s m , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h i s a s y m m e t r y Is c o n c e a l e d in
the
ideological a p p e a r a n c e
of e q u i v a l e n t e x c h a n g e : the d o u b l e
non-
e x c h a n g e i s m a s k e d a s free e x c h a n g e . T h i s i s w h y , a s w a s c l e a r to
L a c a n , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s —not o n l y a s a t h e o r y , b u t a b o v e a l l a s a s p e c i f i c
i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e p r a c t i c e , a s a u n i q u e form of s o c i a l l i n k — c o u l d h a v e
emerged only within capitalist society w h e r e intersubjective relations are
m e d i a t e d b y m o n e y . M o n e y — p a y i n g t h e a n a l y s t — i s n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r
to k e e p h i m o u t of c i r c u l a t i o n , to a v o i d g e t t i n g h i m i n v o l v e d in t h e
i m b r o g l i o of p a s s i o n s w h i c h g e n e r a t e d t h e p a t i e n t ' s p a t h o l o g y . T h i s i s
why
a p s y c h o a n a l y s t i s not
a Master-figure, but,
rather,
a kind
of
" p r o s t i t u t e of t h e m i n d , " h a v i n g r e c o u r s e to m o n e y for the s a m e r e a s o n
s o m e p r o s t i t u t e s l i k e to b e p a i d so t h a t t h e y c a n h a v e s e x w i t h o u t p e r s o n a l
involvement, maintaining their distance —here, w e encounter the
func­
tion of m o n e y a t i t s p u r e s t .
There are similarities between analytic treatment
a n d t h e r i t u a l of
p o t l a t c h . M a r c e l M a u s s , in h i s " E s s a i s u r le don,"^'^ first d e s c r i b e d t h e
p a r a d o x i c a l l o g i c of p o t l a t c h , of t h e r e c i p r o c a l e x c h a n g e of gifts. Gift a n d
e x c h a n g e a r e , of c o u r s e , o p p o s e d in t h e i r i m m a n e n t l o g i c : a t r u e gift i s b y
d e f i n i t i o n a n a c t of g e n e r o s i t y , g i v e n w i t h o u t e x p e c t i n g s o m e t h i n g
return,
while exchange
is n e c e s s a r i l y reciprocal — I g i v e
in
something,
e x p e c t i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e in e x c h a n g e . P o t l a t c h i s a s h o r t - c i r c u i t
(inter­
s e c t i o n ) of t h e t w o s e t s : a n e x c h a n g e i n t h e form of its o p p o s i t e , of t w o
a c t s of v o l u n t a r y g i f t - g i v i n g ( a n d t h e p o i n t i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t s u c h a c t s a r e
n o t s e c o n d a r y w i t h r e g a r d to e x c h a n g e , b u t p r e c e d e a n d g r o u n d i t ) . T h e
s a m e h o l d s for p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r e a t m e n t , in w h i c h t h e a n a l y s t i s not p a i d
for t h e w o r k h e d o e s in a set of e q u i v a l e n t e x c h a n g e s ( s o m u c h for a n
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a d r e a m , s o m u c h for t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of a s y m p t o m , etc.,
w i t h t h e Ironic p r o s p e c t of offering a s p e c i a l d i s c o u n t : " b u y t h r e e d r e a m
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d g e t o n e for free . . . " ) — t h e m o m e n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
s t a r t s to function l i k e t h i s , w e a r e no l o n g e r in t h e a n a l y s t ' s d i s c o u r s e
(social l i n k ) . B u t neither is the a n a l y s t restoring the patient's
mental
h e a l t h o u t of t h e g o o d n e s s of h i s h e a r t , for free: t h e a n a l y s t ' s a c t s h a v e
nothing
to d o w i t h g o o d n e s s ,
with helping a neighbor— again,
the
m o m e n t t h e p a t i e n t p e r c e i v e s t h e a n a l y s t a s a c t i n g o u t of g o o d n e s s , this
24
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
can l e a d e v e n to a p s y c h o t i c c r i s i s , a n d t r i g g e r a p a r a n o i d o u t b u r s t . S o , a s
in p o t l a c h , t h e e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n
the a n a l y s t a n d t h e a n a l y s a n d i s
b e t w e e n t w o i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e e x c e s s e s : t h e a n a l y s t is p a i d l o r n o t h i n g ,
as a gift, h i s p r i c e is a l w a y s e x o r b i t a n t ( t y p i c a l l y , t h e p a t i e n t s o s c i l l a t e
b e t w e e n c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e p r i c e i s too h i g h a n d b o u t s of e x c e s s i v e
g r a t i t u d e ^—"how c a n I e v e r r e p a y y o u for w h a t y o u d i d . . . " ) , and t h e
p a t i e n t g e t s s o m e h e l p , a n i m p r o v e m e n t in h i s c o n d i t i o n , a s a n u n i n tended b y - p r o d u c t . A s L a c a n m a k e s c l e a r , t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m h e r e is
h o w to d e t e r m i n e t h e p r i c e of t h a t w h i c h h a s n o p r i c e .
How, t h e n , a r e w e to r e s o l v e t h e e n i g m a of p o t l a t c h ? M a u s s ' s s o l u t i o n
is a m y s t i c a l X w h i c h c i r c u l a t e s i n e x c h a n g e . C l a u d e L é v i - S t r a u s s
reduced t h e m y s t i q u e to i t s " r a t i o n a l c o r e " : r e c i p r o c i t y , e x c h a n g e a s
s u c h — t h e m e a n i n g of r e c i p r o c a l e x c h a n g e of gifts i s exchange itdetf a.s t h e
e n a c t m e n t of social l i n k .
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g in t h i s
L é v i - S t r a u s s i a n solution;
it w a s P i e r r e B o u r d i e u
crucial " M a r x i s t " question
Economy
as to w h y
w h o a s k e d here the
(in M a r x ' s w o r d s )
"Political
has indeed analyzed, however incompletely, value and
its
m a g n i t u d e , a n d h a s d i s c o v e r e d w h a t l i e s b e n e a t h t h e s e forms. B u t it
has n e v e r o n c e a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n w h y l a b o r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y the v a l u e
of i t s p r o d u c t a n d l a b o r - t i m e b y t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h a t v a l u e . " ' ^ If t h e
secret core
of p o t l a t c h
is the
r e c i p r o c i t y of e x c h a n g e , w h y i s t h i s
r e c i p r o c i t y not a s s e r t e d d i r e c t l y , w h y d o e s it a s s u m e t h e " m y s t i f i e d "
form of t w o c o n s e c u t i v e a c t s e a c h of w h i c h i s s t a g e d a s a free v o l u n t a r y
d i s p l a y of g e n e r o s i t y ? H e r e w e e n c o u n t e r t h e p a r a d o x e s of f o r c e d c h o i c e ,
of f r e e d o m to d o w h a t is n e c e s s a r y , a t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y : I h a v e to d o
freely w h a t I a m e x p e c t e d to d o . (If, u p o n r e c e i v i n g a gift, I i m m e d i a t e l y
return it to t h e g i v e r , t h i s d i r e c t c i r c u l a t i o n w o u l d a m o u n t to a n e x t r e m e l y
a g g r e s s i v e g e s t u r e of h u m i l i a t i o n , it w o u l d s i g n a l t h a t I refused t h e o t h e r ' s
gift—recall those e m b a r r a s s i n g m o m e n t s w h e n e l d e r l y people forget a n d
g i v e us l a s t y e a r ' s p r e s e n t o n c e a g a i n . . . ) H o w e v e r , B o u r d i e u ' s s o l u t i o n
r e m a i n s a l l too v u l g a r M a r x i s t : h e e v o k e s h i d d e n e c o n o m i c " i n t e r e s t s . " It
was M a r s h a l l S a h l i n s w h o p r o p o s e d a different, m o r e p e r t i n e n t , s o l u t i o n :
the r e c i p r o c i t y of e x c h a n g e i s in i t s e l f t h o r o u g h l y a m b i g u o u s ; at its m o s t
frindamental,
it is deétnœtwe of t h e social b o n d , it i s t h e l o g i c of r e v e n g e , tit
for tat.^"^ T o c o v e r t h i s a s p e c t of e x c h a n g e , to m a k e it b e n e v o l e n t a n d
pacific, o n e h a s to pretend t h a t e a c h p e r s o n ' s gift i s free a n d s t a n d s on its
own. T h i s b r i n g s u s to p o t l a t c h a s t h e " p r e - e c o n o m y of t h e e c o n o m y , " its
zero-level, t h a t i s , e x c h a n g e a s t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n of t w o
p r o d u c t i v e e x p e n d i t u r e s . If t h e gift b e l o n g s to M a s t e r a n d
non-
exchange
2S
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
to t h e S e r v a n t , p o t l a t c h i s t h e p a r a d o x i c a l e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n M a s t e r s .
P o t l a t c h i s t h u s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e z e r o - l e v e l of c i v i l i t y , t h e p a r a d o x i c a l
point at w h i c h restrained civility and obscene consumption overlap, t h e
p o i n t a t w h i c h it i s p o l i t e t o b e h a v e i m p o l i t e l y .
UlyMCii ' reaipoiitlk
T h e o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e t h a t h a u n t s t h e d i g n i t y of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r
from its v e r y i n c e p t i o n , o r t h e s e c r e t a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i g n i t y of t h e
L a w a n d i t s o b s c e n e t r a n s g r e s s i o n , w a s first c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d b y S h a k e ­
s p e a r e i n TroUud and CreMida, h i s m o s t
uncanny
play, effectively a
p o s t m o d e r n w o r k amnt la lettre. In h i s i n f l u e n t i a l Shakespearean Tragedy,
w h i c h s e t t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c a d e m i c r e a d i n g of S h a k e ­
speare, A . C . B r a d l e y , t h e g r e a t English Hegelian, s p e a k s of
a c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n , a p a r t i a l s u p p r e s s i o n of t h a t e l e m e n t i n S h a k e ­
speare's mind which unites him with the mystical poets a n d with the
g r e a t m u s i c i a n s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s . In o n e o r t w o of h i s p l a y s , n o t a b l y in
Trolluà and Cre^s'ida, w e a r e a l m o s t p a i n f u l l y c o n s c i o u s of t h i s s u p p r e s ­
sion; w e feel a n i n t e n s e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a
c e r t a i n c o l d n e s s a n d h a r d n e s s , a s t h o u g h s o m e p o w e r i n h i s soul, a t
o n c e t h e h i g h e s t a n d t h e s w e e t e s t , w e r e for a t i m e i n a b e y a n c e . I n o t h e r
p l a y s , n o t a b l y i n The Tempest, w e a r e c o n s t a n t l y a w a r e of t h e p r e s e n c e
of t h i s power.'^^
T h e r e i s t r u t h i n t h i s p e r c e p t i o n : it i s a s if, i n TroiluA, t h e r e i s n o p l a c e for
the r e d e m p t i v e qualify of m e t a p h y s i c a l pathos a n d bliss w h i c h s o m e h o w
c a n c e l s t h e h o r r i b l e a n d r i d i c u l o u s e v e n t s t h a t t o o k p l a c e . T h e first
d i f f i c u l t y i s h o w t o c a t e g o r i z e Trodiu: a l t h o u g h a r g u a b l y t h e b l e a k e s t of
S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y s , i t i s often l i s t e d a s a c o m e d y — c o r r e c t l y , s i n c e i t
lacks dignified tragic pathos.
I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f Troiliu i s a c o m e d y , t h e n
it Is for t h e s a m e r e a s o n t h a t a l l g o o d films a b o u t t h e H o l o c a u s t a l s o a r e
c o m e d i e s : it i s a b l a s p h e m y t o c l a i m t h a t t h e p r e d i c a m e n t of p r i s o n e r s i n a
concentration c a m p w a s t r a g i c —their p r e d i c a m e n t w a s so terrifying that
t h e y w e r e d e p r i v e d of t h e v e r y p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i s p l a y i n g t r a g i c g r a n d e u r .
Tro'diu p l a y s t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l r o l e i n S h a k e s p e a r e ' s o p u s a s Coslfan
tutte a m o n g M o z a r t ' s o p e r a s : i t s d e s p a i r i s s o t h o r o u g h g o i n g t h a t t h e o n l y
way
t o o v e r c o m e it i s t h r o u g h
t h e r e t r e a t i n t o f a i r y - t a l e m a g i c (The
Tempest a n d o t h e r l a t e S h a k e s p e a r e p l a y s ; M o z a r t ' s Magic Flute).
16
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
M a n y of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y s r e t e l l a n a l r e a d y w e l l - k n o w n g r e a t s t o r y
(of J u l i u s C a e s a r , of E n g l i s h k i n g s ) ; w h a t m a k e s Trollus t h e e x c e p t i o n i s
that, i n r e t e l l i n g t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y , it shifts t h e a c c e n t t o w h a t w e r e i n
t h e o r i g i n a l m i n o r a n d m a r g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s : Troiliu i s n o t p r i m a r i l y a b o u t
Achilles a n d Hector, P r i a m a n d A g a m e m n o n ; its love couple is not H e l e n
a n d P r i a m , b u t C r e s s i d a a n d T r o i l u s . In t h i s s e n s e , Troäus c a n b e s a i d t o
p r e f i g u r e o n e of t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c p o s t m o d e r n p r o c e d u r e s , t h a t of r e ­
t e l l i n g a w e l l - k n o w n c l a s s i c a l s t o r y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of a m a r g i n a l
c h a r a c t e r . T o m S t o p p a r d ' s Rodencranz and Gildendtcrn Are Dead d o e s it w i t h
Hamlet, w h i l e h e r e , S h a k e s p e a r e h i m s e l f c a r r i e s o u t t h e m o v e .
This
displacement also undermines Shakespeare's standard procedure,
from
h i s r o y a l c h r o n i c l e s , of s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e " b i g " r o y a l s c e n e s s t a g e d i n a
dignified w a y with scenes
figuring
common people w h o introduce
a
c o m i c c o m m o n - s e n s e p e r s p e c t i v e . In t h e r o y a l c h r o n i c l e s , t h e s e c o m i c
i n t e r l u d e s s t r e n g t h e n t h e n o b l e s c e n e s t h r o u g h t h e i r c o n t r a s t to t h e m ; in
Troduà, e v e r y b o d y , e v e n t h e n o b l e s t of w a r r i o r s , is " c o n t a m i n a t e d " b y t h e
ridiculing perspective w h i c h m a k e s us see them either a s blind a n d
s t u p i d l y p a t h e t i c o r a s i n v o l v e d i n r u t h l e s s i n t r i g u e s . T h e " o p e r a t o r " of
t h i s u n d o i n g of t h e t r a g i c d i m e n s i o n , t h e s i n g l e a g e n t w h o s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s
systematically undermine
tragic pathos,
is Ulysses—this m a y sound
s u r p r i s i n g in v i e w of U l y s s e s ' first inter-vention, a t t h e G r e e k w a r c o u n c i l
in A c t I w h e r e t h e G r e e k ( o r " G r e c i a n , " a s S h a k e s p e a r e p u t it, in w h a t
n o w m a y b e c a l l e d " B u s h m o d e " ) g e n e r a l s t r y to a c c o u n t for t h e i r f a i l u r e
to o c c u p y a n d d e s t r o y T r o y after e i g h t y e a r s of
fighting.
U l y s s e s inter­
v e n e s from a t r a d i t i o n a l " o l d v a l u e s " p o s i t i o n , l o c a t i n g t h e t r u e c a u s e of
t h e G r e e k s ' f a i l u r e i n t h e i r n e g l e c t of t h e c e n t r a l i z e d h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r
w h e r e e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l is i n h i s p r o p e r p l a c e :
T h e s p e c i a l t y of r u l e h a t h b e e n n e g l e c t e d .
A n d look h o w m a n y Grecian tents do stand
Hollow upon this plain: so m a n y hollow factions.
[. . . ] O w h e n d e g r e e i s s h a k e d .
W h i c h i s t h e l a d d e r to a l l h i g h d e s i g n s ,
Then enterprise is sick. H o w could communities,
D e g r e e s in s c h o o l s a n d b r o t h e r h o o d s i n c i t i e s .
P e a c e f u l c o m m e r c e from d i v i d a b l e s h o r e s .
T h e p r i m o g e n i t y a n d d u e of b i r t h ,
P r e r o g a t i v e of a g e , c r o w n s , s c e p t r e s , l a u r e l s .
B u t b y d e g r e e s t a n d in a u t h e n t i c p l a c e ?
27
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
T a k e but degree a w a y , untune that string,
And, hark, w h a t discord follows. Each thing meets
In m e r e o p p u g n a n c y . T h e b o u n d e d w a t e r s
S h o u l d lift t h e i r b o s o m s h i g h e r t h a n t h e s h o r e s
A n d m a k e a s o p of a l l t h i s s o l i d g l o b e ;
S t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e l o r d of i m b e c i l i t y ,
A n d the r u d e son should strike his father d e a d .
F o r c e s h o u l d b e r i g h t —or r a t h e r , r i g h t a n d w r o n g .
Between whose endless jar justice resides,
S h o u l d lose t h e i r n a m e s , a n d so s h o u l d j u s t i c e too.
T h e n e v e r y t h i n g i n c l u d e s itself in p o w e r [. . . ]
(I, 3 )
W h a t , t h e n , c a u s e s t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n w h i c h e n d s u p in t h e d e m o c r a t i c
h o r r o r of e v e r y o n e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n p o w e r ? L a t e r in t h e p l a y ,
when
U l y s s e s w a n t s to c o n v i n c e A c h i l l e s to r e j o i n t h e b a t t l e , h e m o b i l i z e s t h e
m e t a p h o r of t i m e a s t h e d e s t r u c t i v e force t h a t g r a d u a l l y u n d e r m i n e s t h e
n a t u r a l h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r : in t h e c o u r s e of t i m e , y o u r old h e r o i c d e e d s
w i l l s o o n b e forgotten, y o u r g l o r y w i l l b e e c l i p s e d b y t h e n e w h e r o e s — so
if y o u w a n t to c o n t i n u e s h i n i n g in y o u r w a r r i o r g l o r y , r e j o i n t h e b a t t l e :
T i m e hath, m y lord,
A w a l l e t at his back,
w h e r e i n he puts
A l m s for o b l i v i o n ,
a great-sized monster
Of ingratitudes.
Those scraps are good d e e d s past,
W h i c h are devoured
a s fast a s t h e y a r e m a d e .
Forgot as soon
As done. Perseverance, dear m y lord,
K e e p s h o n o u r b r i g h t . T o h a v e d o n e is to h a n g
Q u i t e o u t of fashion, l i k e a r u s t y m a i l
In m o n u m e n t a l m o c k ' i y . [. . . ]
O, l e t n o t v i r t u e s e e k
R e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e t h i n g it w a s ;
F"or b e a u t y , w i t .
H i g h b i r t h , v i g o u r of b o n e , d e s e r t in s e r v i c e ,
28
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
Ix>ve, f r i e n d s h i p , c h a r i t y , a r e s u b j e c t s all
To envious a n d calumniating time.
(Ill,
3)
U l y s s e s ' s t r a t e g y h e r e is p r o f o u n d l y a m b i g u o u s . In a first a p p r o a c h , h e
merely restates his argumentation
about
the
n e c e s s i t y of
"degrees"
( o r d e r e d social h i e r a r c h y ) , and p o r t r a y s time as the corrosive
force
w h i c h u n d e r m i n e s old t r u e v a l u e s — a n a r c h - c o n s e r v a t i v e motif.
How­
e v e r , on a c l o s e r r e a d i n g , it b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t U l y s s e s g i v e s to h i s
a r g u m e n t a t i o n a s i n g u l a r c y n i c a l t w i s t : h o w a r e w e to fight a g a i n s t t i m e ,
to k e e p old v a l u e s alive? Not
b y directly sticking to them, but
by
s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e o b s c e n e r e a l p o l i t i k of c r u e l m a n i p u l a t i o n ,
of c h e a t i n g , of p l a y i n g o n e h e r o a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r . It i s o n l y t h i s d i r t y
underside, this hidden disharmony, that can sustain harmony (Ulysses
p l a y s w i t h A c h i l l e s ' e n v y , h e r e f e r s to e m u l a t i o n — t h e v e r y a t t i t u d e s t h a t
w o r k t o d e s t a b i l i z e the h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r , s i n c e t h e y s i g n a l t h a t o n e i s n o t
satisfied b y o n e ' s s u b o r d i n a t e
p l a c e w i t h i n t h e social b o d y ) . S e c r e t
m a n i p u l a t i o n of e n v y — t h a t i s , t h e v i o l a t i o n of t h e v e r y r u l e s a n d v a l u e s
U l y s s e s c e l e b r a t e s in h i s first speech—^is n e e d e d to c o u n t e r a c t t h e effects
o f t i m e a n d s u s t a i n t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r of " d e g r e e s . " T h i s w o u l d b e
U l y s s e s ' v e r s i o n of H a m l e t ' s f a m o u s " T h e t i m e i s o u t of joint; O c u r s e d
spite, / T h a t e v e r I w a s b o r n to set it r i g h t ! " — t h e o n l y w a y to " s e t it r i g h t "
is t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of O l d O r d e r w i t h its inherent tranögres/wn, w i t h c r i m e s e c r e t l y c o m m i t t e d to s e r v e t h e O r d e r . T h e p r i c e w e p a y
f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e O r d e r w h i c h t h u s s u r v i v e s is a m o c k e r y of itself, a
b l a s p h e m o u s i m i t a t i o n of O r d e r .
T h i s i s w h y i d e o l o g y i s not s i m p l y a n o p e r a t i o n of c l o s u r e , d r a w i n g t h e
line b e t w e e n w h a t is i n c l u d e d a n d w h a t is excluded/prohibited, but the
o n g o i n g r e g u l a t i o n of n o n - c l o s u r e . In t h e c a s e of m a r r i a g e , i d e o l o g y not
o n l y p r o h i b i t s e x t r a m a r i t a l affairs; its c r u c i a l o p e r a t i o n i s to r e g u l a t e s u c h
i n e v i t a b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s ( s a y , t h e p r o v e r b i a l C a t h o l i c p r i e s t ' s a d v i c e to a
p r o m i s c u o u s h u s b a n d ; if y o u r e a l l y h a v e n e e d s t h a t y o u r w i f e
cannot
satisfy, v i s i t a p r o s t i t u t e d i s c r e e t l y , f o r n i c a t e a n d t h e n r e p e n t , a s l o n g a s
y o u d o not d i v o r c e ) . In t h i s w a y , a n i d e o l o g y a l w a y s a d m i t s t h e f a i l u r e of
c l o s u r e , a n d t h e n g o e s on to r e g u l a t e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e e x c h a n g e
"With its o u t s i d e .
T o d a y , h o w e v e r , in o u r " p o s t m o d e r n " w o r l d , t h i s d i a l e c t i c of the L a w
a n d its i n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s g i v e n a n a d d i t i o n a l t w i s t : t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s
"flore a n d m o r e d i r e c t l y e n j o i n e d b y t h e L a w i t s e l f
29
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
The atonal world
W h y d o e s p o t l a t c h a p p e a r s o m y s t e r i o u s o r m e a n i n g l e s s to u s ? T h e b a s i c
f e a t u r e of o u r " p o s t m o d e r n " w o r l d i s t h a t it t r i e s to d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e
a g e n c y of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r : t h e " c o m p l e x i t y " of t h e w o r l d s h o u l d b e
a s s e r t e d u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y , e v e r y M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r m e a n t to i m p o s e s o m e
o r d e r on it s h o u l d b e " d e c o n s t r u c t e d , " d i s p e r s e d , " d i s s e m i n a t e d " : " T h e
m o d e r n a p o l o g y for t h e ' c o m p l e x i t y ' of t h e w o r l d [. . . ] i s r e a l l y n o t h i n g
b u t a g e n e r a l i z e d d e s i r e for a t o n a l i t y . "^'^ B a d i o u ' s p e r s p i c u o u s e x a m p l e of
s u c h a n " a t o n a l " w o r l d i s t h e p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t v i s i o n of s e x u a l i t y , a s
p r o m o t e d b y g e n d e r s t u d i e s , w i t h its o b s e s s i v e r e j e c t i o n of " b i n a r y l o g i c " :
t h i s w o r l d i s a n u a n c e d , r a m i f i e d w o r l d of m u l t i p l e s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h
t o l e r a t e s n o d e c i s i o n , n o i n s t a n c e of t h e T w o , n o e v a l u a t i o n (in t h e s t r o n g
Nietzschean s e n s e ) . This suspension of the M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r leaves a s the
o n l y a g e n c y of i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p e l l a t i o n t h e " u n n a m e a b l e " a b y s s of
jouLtdance: t h e u l t i m a t e i n j u n c t i o n t h a t r e g u l a t e s o u r l i v e s in " p o s t m o d e r n i t y " i s " E n j o y ! " — r e a l i z e y o u r p o t e n t i a l , e n j o y in a l l m a n n e r of w a y s ,
from i n t e n s e s e x u a l p l e a s u r e s t h r o u g h
s o c i a l s u c c e s s to s p i r i t u a l self-
fulfilment.
However,
far from
l i b e r a t i n g u s from
t h e p r e s s u r e of g u i l t , s u c h
dispensing w i t h the M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r comes at a price, the price signaled
b y L a c a n ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e s u p e r e g o c o m m a n d :
"Nothing
forces
a n y o n e to e n j o y e x c e p t t h e s u p e r e g o . T h e s u p e r e g o i s t h e i m p e r a t i v e
of y^wwa/zce — E n j o y 1"'^^ In s h o r t , t h e d e c l i n e of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r
e x p o s e s t h e s u b j e c t to a l l t h e t r a p s a n d d o u b l e - t a l k of t h e s u p e r e g o : t h e
v e r y i n j u n c t i o n to e n j o y , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e (often i m p e r c e p t i b l e ) shift
from
t h e p e r m i s s i o n to e n j o y to t h e I n j u n c t i o n
sabotages enjoyment,
superego command,
( o b l i g a t i o n ) to
enjoy
so t h a t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e m o r e o n e o b e y s t h e
the more one feels guilty. This same a m b i g u i t y
affects t h e v e r y b a s i s of a " p e r m i s s i v e " a n d " t o l e r a n t " s o c i e t y : " w e s e e
from d a y to d a y h o w t h i s t o l e r a n c e i s n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n a f a n a t i c i s m , s i n c e
it t o l e r a t e s o n l y its o w n v a c u i t y . "
A n d , effectively, e v e r y decision, e v e r y
d e t e r m i n a t e e n g a g e m e n t , is potentially "intolerant" t o w a r d s all others.
In h i s Logiqiieé Bej mondes, B a d i o u d e v e l o p s t h e n o t i o n
worlds
(monde atone),'^^ w o r l d s l a c k i n g a
"point,"
in
of " a t o n a l "
Lacanese:
the
" q u i l t i n g p o i n t " (point de capiton), t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of a M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r
t h a t i m p o s e s a p r i n c i p l e of " o r d e r i n g " i n t o t h e w o r l d , t h e p o i n t of a s i m p l e
d e c i s i o n ( " y e s o r n o " ) in w h i c h t h e c o n f u s e d
multiplicity is violently
r e d u c e d to a " m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e . " N o n e o t h e r t h a n J o h n F. K e n n e d y
30
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
p r o v i d e d a c o n c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s point: " T h e e s s e n c e of u l t i m a t e
d e c i s i o n r e m a i n s i m p e n e t r a b l e to t h e o b s e r v e r —often,
i n d e e d , to
the
decider h i m s e l f " This g e s t u r e w h i c h can n e v e r be fully g r o u n d e d
r e a s o n s , i s t h a t of a M a s t e r —or,
a s G.K.
Chesterton
put
in
it i n h i s
i n i m i t a b l e m a n n e r : " T h e p u r p o s e of an o p e n m i n d , l i k e h a v i n g a n o p e n
m o u t h , i s to c l o s e it u p o n s o m e t h i n g s o l i d . "
If t h e fight a g a i n s t a w o r l d p r o c e e d s b y w a y of u n d e r m i n i n g its " p o i n t , "
t h e f e a t u r e t h a t s u t u r e s it i n t o a s t a b l e t o t a l i t y , h o w a r e w e to p r o c e e d
w h e n ( a s i s t h e c a s e t o d a y ) w e d w e l l in a n a t o n a l w o r l d , a w o r l d of
m u l t i p l i c i t i e s l a c k i n g a d e t e r m i n a t e t o n a l i t y ? T h e a n s w e r i s : o n e h a s to
o p p o s e it in s u c h a w a y t h a t o n e c o m p e l s it to " t o n a l i z e " i t s e l f to o p e n l y
admit t h e secret tone that sustains its atonality. For e x a m p l e , w h e n one
confronts
a w o r l d w h i c h presents itself a s tolerant a n d pluralist, dis­
s e m i n a t e d , w i t h n o c e n t e r , o n e h a s to a t t a c k t h e u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r i n g
p r i n c i p l e w h i c h s u s t a i n s t h i s a t o n a l i t y — s a y , t h e s e c r e t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of
"tolerance" w h i c h e x c l u d e s a s "intolerant" certain critical questions, or
t h e s e c r e t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h e x c l u d e a s a " t h r e a t to f r e e d o m " q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t t h e l i m i t s of t h e e x i s t i n g f r e e d o m s .
T h e p a r a d o x , t h e s i g n of h i d d e n c o m p l i c i t y b e t w e e n t o d a y ' s r e l i g i o u s
fundamentalisms
and the "postmodern"
ciously, is that fundamentalism
u n i v e r s e t h e y r e j e c t so fero­
a l s o b e l o n g s to t h e " a t o n a l w o r l d " —
w h i c h i s w h y a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t d o e s not believe, h e knows d i r e c t l y . T o p u t it
' in a n o t h e r w a y , b o t h l i b e r a l - s k e p t i c a l c y n i c i s m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m t h u s
s h a r e a b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g f e a t u r e : t h e l o s s of t h e a b i l i t y to b e l i e v e i n t h e
p r o p e r s e n s e of t h e t e r m . F o r b o t h of t h e m , r e l i g i o u s s t a t e m e n t s a r e q u a s i e m p i r i c a l s t a t e m e n t s of d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e : f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s a c c e p t t h e m a s
s u c h , w h i l e s k e p t i c a l c y n i c s m o c k t h e m . W h a t is u n t h i n k a b l e for t h e m i s
t h e " a b s u r d " a c t of a d e c i s i o n w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e s e v e r y a u t h e n t i c belief, a
d e c i s i o n w h i c h c a n n o t b e g r o u n d e d in t h e c h a i n of " r e a s o n s , ' in p o s i t i v e
k n o w l e d g e : t h e " s i n c e r e h y p o c r i s j ' " of s o m e b o d y l i k e A n n e F r a n k w h o ,
i n t h e face of t h e t e r r i f y i n g d e p r a v i t y of t h e N a z i s , in a t r u e a c t of credo qua
ohsurdum a s s e r t e d h e r b e l i e f in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g o o d n e s s of a l l h u m a n s .
No w o n d e r t h e n t h a t r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s
are among
the
most
p a s s i o n a t e d i g i t a l h a c k e r s , a n d a l w a y s p r o n e to c o m b i n e t h e i r r e l i g i o n
""^^th t h e l a t e s t
findings
of s c i e n c e : for t h e m , r e l i g i o u s s t a t e m e n t s
and
Scientific s t a t e m e n t s b e l o n g to t h e s a m e m o d a l i t y of p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e .
(In t h i s s e n s e , t h e s t a t u s of " u n i v e r s a l h u m a n r i g h t s " i s a l s o t h a t of a p u r e
belief: t h e y c a n n o t b e g r o u n d e d in o u r k n o w l e d g e of h u m a n n a t u r e , t h e y
are an axiom posited b y our decision.) The occurrence
of t h e
term
31
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
" s c i e n c e " in t h e v e r y n a m e of s o m e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a U s t s e c t s ( C h r i s t i a n
Science,
S c i e n t o l o g y ) is not j u s t a n
obscene
joke, but
signals this
r e d u c t i o n of b e l i e f to p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e . T h e c a s e of t h e T u r i n s h r o u d
is h e r e s y m p t o m a l : i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y w o u l d b e a w f u l for e v e r y t r u e b e l i e v e r
( t h e first t h i n g to d o t h e n w o u l d b e to a n a l y z e t h e D N A of t h e b l o o d
s t a i n s a n d t h u s s o l v e e m p i r i c a l l y t h e q u e s t i o n of w h o J e s u s ' f a t h e r w a s
. . . ) , w h i l e a t r u e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t w o u l d r e j o i c e in t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y .
W e find t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in s o m e f o r m s of c o n t e m p o r a r y I s l a m :
h u n d r e d s of b o o k s b y s c i e n t i s t s " d e m o n s t r a t e " h o w t h e l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c
a d v a n c e s c o n f i r m t h e i n s i g h t s a n d i n j u n c t i o n s of t h e Koran—^the d i v i n e
p r o h i b i t i o n of i n c e s t i s c o n f i r m e d b y r e c e n t g e n e t i c k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e
d e f e c t i v e c h i l d r e n b o r n of i n c e s t u o u s c o p u l a t i o n , a n d so on a n d so forth.
( S o m e e v e n g o so far a s to c l a i m t h a t w h a t t h e K o r a n offers a s a n a r t i c l e of
faith to b e a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e of i t s d i v i n e o r i g i n i s not
finally
demonstrated
a s s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e K o r a n Itself to a n i n f e r i o r m y t h i c
v e r s i o n of w h a t h a s a c q u i r e d i t s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m u l a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y
science.)^'^ T h e s a m e g o e s a l s o for B u d d h i s m , w h e r e m a n y s c i e n t i s t s v a r y
the m o t i f of t h e " T a o of m o d e r n p h y s i c s , " t h a t i s , of h o w t h e
contem­
p o r a r y s c i e n t i f i c v i s i o n of r e a l i t y a s a d e s u b s t a n t i a l i z e d flux of o s c i l l a t i n g
events
finally
c o n f i r m e d t h e old B u d d h i s t o n t o l o g y . . .
O n e is t h u s
c o m p e l l e d to d r a w t h e p a r a d o x i c a l c o n c l u s i o n : in t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n
traditional secular humanists and religious fundamentalists,
it i s t h e
h u m a n i s t s w h o s t a n d for b e l i e f w h i l e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s s t a n d for k n o w l ­
e d g e — in short, t h e t r u e d a n g e r of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m d o e s not r e s i d e in t h e
fact t h a t it p o s e s a t h r e a t to s e c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , b u t in t h e fact
t h a t it p o s e s a t h r e a t to a u t h e n t i c b e l i e f itself.
W h a t w e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d h e r e is h o w t h e o p p o s i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e
a n d faith e c h o e s t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t a t i v e a n d t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e :
faith (or, r a t h e r , t r u s t ) i s t h e b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t of s p e e c h a s t h e m e d i u m of
s o c i a l b o n d , of t h e s u b j e c t ' s e n g a g e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s b o n d , w h i l e
s c i e n c e — e x e m p l a r l l y in its f o r m a l i z a t i o n — r e d u c e s l a n g u a g e to n e u t r a l
r e g i s t r a t i o n . L e t u s n o t forget t h a t s c i e n c e h a s , for L a c a n , t h e s t a t u s of t h e
" k n o w l e d g e i n t h e r e a l " : t h e l a n g u a g e of s c i e n c e i s not t h e l a n g u a g e of
s u b j e c t i v e e n g a g e m e n t , b u t t h e l a n g u a g e d e p r i v e d of Its
performative
dimension, desubjectivized language. The predominance
of s c i e n t i f i c
d i s c o u r s e t h u s e n t a i l s t h e r e t r e a t , t h e p o t e n t i a l s u s p e n s i o n , of t h e v e r y
s y m b o l i c function a s t h e m e t a p h o r c o n s t i t u t i v e of h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y .
P a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y is i r r e d u c i b l y b a s e d on faith, on t r u s t a s to t h e i d e n t i t y
of t h e f a t h e r : w e h a v e f a t h e r s ( a s s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n s , a s t h e
32
Name-of-the-
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
F a t h e r , t h e p a t e r n a l m e t a p h o r ) , b e c a u s e w e d o not d i r e c t l y know w h o o u r
f a t h e r i s , w e h a v e t o t a k e h i m at hit word a n d tnuit h i m . T o p u t it p o i n t e d l y ,
the m o m e n t I k n o w w i t h s c i e n t i f i c c e r t a i n t y w h o m y f a t h e r i s , f a t h e r h o o d
ceases to be the function w h i c h g r o u n d s social-symbolic Trust. In the
scientific u n i v e r s e , t h e r e is n o n e e d for s u c h faith, t r u t h c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d
t h r o u g h D N A a n a l y s i s . . . T h e h e g e m o n y of t h e s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e t h u s
p o t e n t i î i l l y s u s p e n d s t h e e n t i r e n e t w o r k of s y m b o l i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t s u s ­
t a i n s t h e s u b j e c t ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e shift i s from
Power
g r o u n d e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y to b i o p o l i t i c s .
T h e " w o r l d l e s s " c h a r a c t e r of c a p i t a l i s m i s l i n k e d to t h i s h e g e m o n i c r o l e
of s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e i n m o d e r n i t y , a f e a t u r e c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d a l r e a d y b y
H e g e l w h o w r o t e that, for u s m o d e r n s , a r t a n d r e l i g i o n n o l o n g e r o b e y
a b s o l u t e r e s p e c t : w e c a n a d m i r e t h e m , b u t w e n o l o n g e r k n e e l d o w n in
front of t h e m , o u r h e a r t i s n o t r e a l l y w i t h t h e m — t o d a y , o n l y s c i e n c e
(conceptual k n o w l e d g e ) deserves this respect. "Postmodernity" as the
" e n d of g r a n d n a r r a t i v e s " i s o n e of t h e n a m e s for t h i s p r e d i c a m e n t i n
w h i c h t h e m u l t i t u d e of l o c a l fictions t h r i v e s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of
scientific d i s c o u r s e a s t h e o n l y r e m a i n i n g u n i v e r s a l i t y d e p r i v e d of s e n s e .
W h i c h i s w h y t h e p o l i t i c s a d v o c a t e d b y m a n y a leftist t o d a y , t h a t of
c o u n t e r i n g t h e d e v a s t a t i n g w o r l d - d i s s o l v i n g effect of c a p i t a l i s t m o d e r ­
nization b y inventing n e w
fictions,
imagining " n e w w o r l d s " (like the
P o r t o A l e g r e s l o g a n " A n o t h e r w o r l d i s p o s s i b l e ! " ) , i s i n a d e q u a t e or, a t
least, p r o f o u n d l y a m b i g u o u s : it a l l d e p e n d s on h o w t h e s e fictions r e l a t e to
t h e u n d e r l y i n g R e a l of c a p i t j J i s m — d o t h e y j u s t dupplement it w i t h t h e
i m a g i n a r y m u l t i t u d e , a s t h e p o s t m o d e r n " l o c a l n a r r a t i v e s " d o , or d o t h e y
disturb i t s f u n c t i o n i n g ? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t a s k is to p r o d u c e a dymhoLic
fiction (a truth) that intervenes into the Real, t h a t c a u s e s a c h a n g e w i t h i n it.^^
It i s o n l y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t h a t c a n d i s c l o s e t h e full c o n t o u r s of t h e
s h a t t e r i n g i m p a c t of m o d e r n i t y ( i n i t s t w o a s p e c t s : t h e h e g e m o n y of
scientific d i s c o u r s e a n d c a p i t a l i s m ) on t h e w a y o u r i d e n t i t y is p e r f o r m a t i v e l y g r o u n d e d i n s y m b o l i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , o n t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e
S y m b o l i c o r d e r i s c o u n t e d o n to p r o v i d e t h e h o r i z o n t h a t a l l o w s u s t o
l o c a t e e v e r y e x p e r i e n c e in a m e a n i n g f u l t o t a l i t y . T h e n e c e s s a r y o b v e r s e o f
m o d e r n i t y i s t h e " c r i s i s of m e a n i n g , " t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e l i n k —
i d e n t i t y e v e n — b e t w e e n T r u t h a n d M e a n i n g . S i n c e , in E u r o p e , m o d e r ­
n i z a t i o n w a s s p r e a d o v e r c e n t u r i e s , w e h a d t h e t i m e t o a c c o m m o d a t e to
t h i s b r e a k , t o soften i t s s h a t t e r i n g i m p a c t , t h r o u g h Kulturarbeit,
through
t h e f o r m a t i o n of n e w s o c i a l n a r r a t i v e s a n d m y t h s , w h i l e s o m e
other
s o c i e t i e s — e x e m p l a r i l y t h e M u s l i m o n e s — w e r e e x p o s e d to t h i s i m p a c t
33
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
d i r e c t l y , w i t h o u t a p r o t e c t i v e s c r e e n o r t e m p o r a l d e l a y , so t h e i r s y m b o l i c
u n i v e r s e w a s p e r t u r b e d m u c h m o r e b r u t a l l y , t h e y lost t h e i r ( s y m b o l i c )
g r o u n d w i t h n o t i m e left to e s t a b l i s h a n e w ( s y m b o l i c ) b a l a n c e .
No
w o n d e r , then, t h a t t h e o n l y w a y for s o m e of t h e s e s o c i e t i e s to a v o i d total
b r e a k d o w n w a s to e r e c t in p a n i c t h e s h i e l d of " f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , "
p s y c h o t i c - d e l i r i o u s - i n c e s t u o u s r e a s s e r t i o n of r e l i g i o n a s d i r e c t
the
insight
into the divine R e a l , w i t h all the terrifying c o n s e q u e n c e s that such a
r e a s s e r t i o n e n t a i l s , u p to t h e r e t u r n w i t h a v e n g e a n c e of t h e
superego divinity demanding
sacrifices. The
obscene
r i s e of t h e s u p e r e g o
another feature that postmodern permissiveness and the n e w
is
fundament­
a l i s m s h a r e ; w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m i s t h e site of t h e e n j o y m e n t
de­
m a n d e d : o u r o w n in p e r m i s s i v e n e s s , G o d ' s o w n in f u n d a m e n t a l i s m .
F r o m a l l s i d e s . R i g h t a n d Left, c o m p l a i n t s a b o u n d t o d a y a b o u t h o w , in
o u r p o s t m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s c o m p o s e d of h e d o n i s t i c s o l i p s i s t s , s o c i a l b o n d s
a r e p r o g r e s s i v e l y d i s i n t e g r a t i n g ; w e a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e d u c e d to s o c i a l
a t o m s , a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e l o n e i n d i v i d u a l h o o k e d on t h e
computer
s c r e e n , p r e f e r r i n g v i r t u a l e x c h a n g e s to c o n t a c t s w i t h o t h e r
flesh-and-
blood p e r s o n s , p r e f e r r i n g
However,
c y b e r s e x to b o d i l y c o n t a c t , a n d so
forth.
this v e r y e x a m p l e r e n d e r s visible w h a t is w r o n g w i t h
the
d i î i g n o s i s on s u s p e n d e d s o c i a l ties: in o r d e r for a n i n d i v i d u a l to i m m e r s e
h e r s e l f in t h e v i r t u a l s p a c e , t h e b i g O t h e r h a s to b e t h e r e , m o r e p o w e r f u l
t h a n e v e r in t h e g u i s e of c y b e r s p a c e itself, t h i s d i r e c t l y u n i v e r s a l i z e d form
of s o c i a l i t y w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e w o r l d w h i l e
s i t t i n g a l o n e in front of a s c r e e n .
It m a y s e e m t h a t L a c a n ' s doxa " t h e r e i s no b i g O t h e r " h a s t o d a y lost its
subversive edge and turned
into a g l o b a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d
common­
p l a c e — e v e r y b o d y s e e m s to k n o w t h a t t h e r e is n o " b i g O t h e r " in t h e
s e n s e of a s u b s t a n t i a l s h a r e d s e t of c u s t o m s a n d v a l u e s , t h a t w h a t H e g e l
c a l l e d " o b j e c t i v e S p i r i t " ( t h e s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e of m o r e s ) i s d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
i n t o p a r t i c u l a r " w o r l d s " ( o r life s t y l e s ) w h o s e c o o r d i n a t i o n i s r e g u l a t e d b y
p u r e l y f o r m a l r u l e s . T h i s i s w h y not o n l y c o m m u n i t a r i a n s b u t e v e n l i b e r a l
leftists a d v o c a t e t h e n e e d to e s t a b l i s h n e w t i e s of s o l i d a r i t y a n d
other
s h a r e d v a l u e s . H o w e v e r , t h e e x a m p l e of c y b e r s p a c e c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s
h o w the b i g O t h e r i s p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n e v e r : s o c i a l a t o m i s m c a n o n l y
function w h e n it i s r e g u l a t e d b y s o m e ( a p p a r e n t l y ) n e u t r a l m e c h a n i s m —
d i g i t a l s o l i p s i s t s n e e d a v e r y c o m p l e x g l o b a l m a c h i n e r y to b e a b l e to
p e r s e v e r e in t h e i r s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n .
W a s not R i c h a r d R o r t y t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r of s u c h a n O t h e r
w i t h o u t a p r i v i l e g e d l i n k to o t h e r s ? H i s b i g O t h e r is t h e set of n e u t r a l
34
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
p u b l i c r u l e s w h i c h e n a b l e e a c h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s to "tell h e r o w n s t o r y " of
d r e a m s a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e s e r u l e s g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e " p r i v a t e " s p a c e of
p e r s o n a l i d i o s y n c r a s i e s , i m p e r f e c t i o n s , v i o l e n t f a n t a s i e s , a n d so on, w i l l
n o t spill o v e r i n t o a d i r e c t d o m i n a t i o n of o t h e r s . R e c a l l o n e of t h e l a t e s t
u p s h o t s of s e x u a l l i b e r a t i o n : t h e " m a s t u r b a t e - a - t h o n , " a c o l l e c t i v e e v e n t
in w h i c h h u n d r e d s of m e n a n d w o m e n p l e a s u r e t h e m s e l v e s for c h a r i t y ,
r a i s i n g m o n e y for s e x u a l - a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e - h e a l t h a g e n c i e s , a n d — a s t h e
o r g a n i z e r s p u t it — r a i s i n g a w a r e n e s s a n d d i s p e l l i n g t h e s h a m e a n d t a b o o s
t h a t p e r s i s t a r o u n d t h i s m o s t c o m m o n p l a c e , n a t u r a l , a n d safe form of
sexual activity. The ideological stance u n d e r l y i n g the notion
masturbathon
of
the
i s m a r k e d b y a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n its form a n d c o n t e n t : it
b u i l d s a c o l l e c t i v e o u t of i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e r e a d y to share w i t h o t h e r s
t h e s o l i p s i s t i c e g o t i s m of t h e i r s t u p i d p l e a s u r e . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
how­
ever, is more a p p a r e n t than real. F r e u d a l r e a d y k n e w a b o u t the
con­
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n n a r c i s s i s m a n d i m m e r s i o n in a c r o w d , b e s t
rendered
p r e c i s e l y b y t h e C a l i f o r n i a n p h r a s e " s h a r i n g a n e x p e r i e n c e . " A n d w h a t is
crucial is the u n d e r l y i n g s y m b o l i c pact w h i c h e n a b l e s the
assembled
m a s t u r b a t o r s to " s h a r e a s p a c e " w i t h o u t i n t r u d i n g on e a c h o t h e r ' s s p a c e .
T h e m o r e o n e w a n t s to b e a n a t o m i s t , t h e m o r e s o m e figure of t h e b i g
O t h e r i s n e e d e d to r e g u l a t e o n e ' s d i s t a n c e from o t h e r s . P e r h a p s
this
a c c o u n t s for t h e s t r a n g e , b u t a d e q u a t e , i m p r e s s i o n it i s difficult to a v o i d
w h e n o n e e n c o u n t e r s a t r u e h e d o n i s t solipsist: i n s p i t e of h e r
uncon­
strained i n d u l g e n c e in personal idiosyncrasies, she strikes us as w e i r d l y
i m p e r s o n a l — w h a t s h e l a c k s i s t h e v e r y s e n s e of t h e " d e p t h " o l a p e r s o n .
W h a t , t h e n , i s m i s s i n g in t o d a y ' s social b o n d , if it i s not t h e
big
Other?^^ The a n s w e r is clear: a small other w h i c h w o u l d e m b o d y , stand
in f o r , t h e b i g O t h e r — a p e r s o n w h o is not s i m p l y " l i k e t h e o t h e r s , " b u t
w h o d i r e c t l y e m b o d i e s a u t h o r i t y . In o u r p o s t m o d e r n
universe, every
s m a l l o t h e r i s " f i n i t i z e d " ( p e r c e i v e d a s fallible, i m p e r f e c t , " m e r e l y h u ­
m a n , ' r i d i c u l o u s ) , i n a d e q u a t e to g i v e b o d y to a b i g O t h e r — a n d , in t h i s
w a y , p r e s e r v e s t h e p u r i t y of t h e b i g O t h e r u n b l e m i s h e d b y its f a i l i n g s .
W h e n , in a d e c a d e o r so, m o n e y w i l l finally b e c o m e a p u r e l y v i r t u a l p o i n t
o f r e f e r e n c e , n o l o n g e r m a t e r i a l i z e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r object, t h i s d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n w i l l r e n d e r its fetishistic p o w e r a b s o l u t e : its v e r y i n v i s i b i l i t y w i l l
r e n d e r it a l l - p o w e r f u l a n d o m n i p r e s e n t . T h e t a s k of r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s i s
t h e r e f o r e n o t to d e n o u n c e t h e i n a d e q u a c y of e v e r y s m a l l o t h e r to s t a n d in
for the big O t h e r (such a " c r i t i q u e " only reinforces the big O t h e r ' s hold
o v e r u s ) , b u t to u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y b i g O t h e r a n d , in t h i s w a y , to u n t i e
the social bond the big O t h e r sustains. Today, w h e n e v e r y o n e complains
35
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
about dissolving social ties ( a n d t h e r e b y obfuscating their hold over us,
w h i c h i s s t r o n g e r t h a n e v e r ) , t h e t r u e j o b of u n t y i n g t h e m is still a h e a d of
us, m o r e u r g e n t t h a n e v e r .
Lyacan's s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of a n x i e t y is that, a s t h e o n l y affect t h a t d o e s
not l i e , it b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e R e a l , to t h e i n e x i s t e n c e of
t h e b i g O t h e r ; s u c h a n x i e t y h a s to b e c o n f r o n t e d b y c o u r a g e , it s h o u l d
l e a d to a n a c t p r o p e r w h i c h , a s it w e r e , c u t s i n t o t h e r e a l of a s i t u a t i o n .
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r m o d e of a n x i e t y w h i c h p r e d o m i n a t e s t o d a y :
t h e a n x i e t y c a u s e d b y t h e c l a u s t r o p h o b i a of t h e a t o n a l w o r l d w h i c h l a c k s
any
s t r u c t u r i n g " p o i n t , " t h e a n x i e t y of t h e " p a t h o l o g i c a l N a r c i s s u s "
frustrated
b y t h e fact t h a t h e i s c a u g h t in t h e e n d l e s s
m i r r o r i n g of h i s f e l l o w m e n
competitive
( a - a ' - a " - a " ' . . . ) , of t h e s e r i e s of " s m a l l
o t h e r s " n o n e of w h i c h f u n c t i o n s a s t h e s t a n d - i n for t h e " b i g O t h e r . " ^ ' T h e
r o o t of t h i s c l a u s t r o p h o b i a i s t h a t t h e l a c k of e m b o d i e d s t a n d - i n s for t h e
b i g O t h e r , i n s t e a d of o p e n i n g u p t h e s o c i a l s p a c e , d e p r i v i n g it of a n y
Master-figures, r e n d e r s the invisible "big O t h e r , " the m e c h a n i s m that
r e g u l a t e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of " s m a l l o t h e r s , " a l l t h e m o r e a l l - p e r v a s i v e .
Serhdky Itutitute, Malibu
With
t h i s shift
towards
the
"atonal w o r l d , " the
obscene
solidarity
b e t w e e n t h e L a w a n d its s u p e r e g o u n d e r s i d e is s u p p l a n t e d b y t h e h i d d e n
solidarity between tolerant permissiveness a n d religious fundamentalism.
A r e c e n t s c a n d a l in M a l i b u not o n l y d i s p l a y e d t h e o b s c e n e p a c t b e t w e e n
t h e biopoUtlcal " t h e r a p e u t i c " a p p r o a c h a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e a c t i o n
to it, b u t a l s o t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c e t h i c a l p r i c e w e h a v e to p a y for t h i s p a c t .
In g o o d o l d S o v i e t t i m e s , t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e in M o s c o w w a s t h e
p s y c h i a t r i c f l a g s h i p for p u n i t i v e p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l ; its p s y c h i a t r i s t s d e v e l ­
o p e d p a i n f u l d r u g m e t h o d s to m a k e d e t a i n e e s t a l k a n d e x t r a c t t e s t i m o n y
for u s e in n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . U n d e r p i n n i n g t h e a b i l i t y of
p s y c h i a t r i s t s to i n c a r c e r a t e p e o p l e w a s a n i n v e n t e d p o l i t i c a l m e n t a l
d i s o r d e r k n o w n a s ( " s l u g g i s h viiotekujhchaia
schizophrenia"). Psychia­
trists described symptoms thus: a person might a p p e a r quite normal most
of t h e t i m e b u t w o u l d b r e a k o u t w i t h a s e v e r e c a s e of " i n f l e x i b i l i t y of
c o n v i c t i o n s , " or " n e r v o u s e x h a u s t i o n b r o u g h t on b y h i s o r h e r s e a r c h for
j u s t i c e , " o r " a t e n d e n c y to l i t i g a t i o n " o r " r e f o r m i s t
delusions." The
t r e a t m e n t i n v o l v e d i n t r a v e n o u s i n j e c t i o n s of p s y c h o t r o p i c d r u g s t h a t
w e r e so p a i n f u l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d t h a t p a t i e n t s b e c a m e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e
o v e r r i d i n g belief w a s t h a t a p e r s o n h a d to b e ituane to be o p p o s e d
36
to
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
Communism.
Is t h i s p s y c h i a t r i c a p p r o a c h
to p o h t i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c
p o s i t i o n s a t h i n g of t h e p a s t ? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no: not o n l y is t h e S e r b s k y
I n s t i t u t e t o d a y h a p p i l y t h r i v i n g in P u t i n ' s R u s s i a , b u t , a s a r e c e n t i n c i d e n t
•with M e l G i b s o n i n d i c a t e s , it w i l l soon o p e n a b r a n c h in M a l i b u ! F l e r e i s
G i b s o n ' s o w n d e s c r i p t i o n of w h a t h a p p e n e d to h i m on F r i d a y , J u l y 2 8 ,
2006:
I d r o v e a c a r w h e n 1 s h o u l d not h a v e , a n d w a s s t o p p e d b y t h e L A
C o u n t y S h e r i f f s . T h e a r r e s t i n g officer w a s j u s t d o i n g h i s j o b a n d I feel
f o r t u n a t e t h a t I w a s a p p r e h e n d e d b e f o r e I c a u s e d i n j u r y to a n y o t h e r
p e r s o n . I a c t e d l i k e a p e r s o n c o m p l e t e l y out of c o n t r o l w h e n 1 w a s
a r r e s t e d , a n d s a i d t h i n g s t h a t I d o not b e l i e v e to b e t r u e a n d w h i c h a r e
despicable.
It i s r e p o r t e d
that
Gibson
said, "F
Jews
. . . The
Jews
are
r e s p o n s i b l e for a l l t h e w a r s in t h e w o r l d , " a n d a s k e d a d e p u t y , " A r e
y o u a J e w ? " Gibson apologized, but his apology w a s rejected b y the
A n t i - D e f a m a t i o n L e a g u e . H e r e i s w h a t A b r a h a m F o x m a n , d i r e c t o r of t h e
League, wrote:
M e l Gibson's a p o l o g y is unremorseful
a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t . It's n o t
a
p r o p e r a p o l o g y b e c a u s e it d o e s not g o to t h e e s s e n c e of h i s b i g o t r y
a n d h i s a n t i - S e m i t i s m . H i s t i r a d e finally r e v e a l s h i s t r u e self a n d s h o w s
t h a t h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e d e b a t e o v e r h i s film The Peusion of the
Christ, t h a t h e i s s u c h a t o l e r a n t , l o v i n g p e r s o n , w e r e a s h a m .
L a t e r , G i b s o n offered a m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l a p o l o g y , a n n o u n c i n g t h r o u g h
a s p o k e s m a n t h a t h e w o u l d u n d e r g o r e h a b i l i t a t i o n for a l c o h o l a b u s e . H e
a d d e d : " H a t r e d of a n y k i n d g o e s a g a i n s t m y faith. I'm not j u s t a s k i n g for
f o r g i v e n e s s . I w o u l d l i k e to t a k e it o n e s t e p f u r t h e r , a n d m e e t w i t h l e a d e r s
•in t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , w i t h w h o m I c a n h a v e a o n e - o n - o n e d i s c u s s i o n
to d i s c e r n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p a t h for h e a l i n g . " G i b s o n s a i d h e i s " i n t h e
p r o c e s s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e r e t h o s e v i c i o u s w o r d s c a m e from d u r i n g
that d r u n k e n
display." This time, Foxman
accepted his apology as
sincere:
T w o y e a r s a g o , I w a s t o l d b y h i s p u b l i c i s t t h a t h e w a n t s to m e e t w i t h
nie a n d h a v e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I'm still w a i t i n g . T h e r e i s no c o u r s e ,
t h e r e i s n o c u r r i c u l u m . W e n e e d i n - d e p t h c o n v e r s a t i o n . It's t h e r a p y —
37
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t e p in a n y t h e r a p y i s to a d m i t t h a t y o u h a v e a
problem, w h i c h is a step he's a l r e a d y t a k e n .
Why
w a s t e p r e c i o u s t i m e on s u c h a v u l g a r i n c i d e n t ? F o r a n o b s e r v e r of
t h e i d e o l o g i c a l t r e n d s in t h e U S , t h e s e e v e n t s d i s p l a y a
nightmarish
d i m e n s i o n : t h e m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g h y p o c r i s y of t h e t w o s i d e s , t h e a n t i Semitic Christian fundamentalists
and the
Zionists,
is
breathtaking.
Politically, the reconciliation b e t w e e n Gibson a n d F o x m a n signals an
obscene pact between anti-Semitic Christian fundamentalists and ag­
gressive
Zionists,
whose
expression
is the
g r o w i n g s u p p o r t of
the
f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s for t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l ( r e c a l l P a t R o b e r t s o n ' s c l a i m t h a t
S h a r o n ' s h e a r t a t t a c k w a s d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n for t h e e v a c u a t i o n of G a z a ) .
T h e J e w i s h p e o p l e w i l l p a y d e a r l y for s u c h p a c t s w i t h t h e d e v i l — c a n o n e
i m a g i n e w h a t a b o o s t a n t i - S e m i t i s m w i l l r e c e i v e from F o x m a n ' s
offer?
" S o if I n o w s a y s o m e t h i n g c r i t i c a l a b o u t J e w s , I w i l l be f o r c e d to s u b m i t
to p s y c h i a t r i c t h e r a p y
..."
W h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e final r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i s , o b v i o u s l y , a n o b s c e n e q u i d
p r o q u o . F o x m a n ' s r e a c t i o n to G i b s o n ' s o u t b u r s t w a s n o t e x c e s s i v e l y
s e v e r e a n d d e m a n d i n g ; on the c o n t r a r y , it let G i b s o n a l l too e a s i l y off t h e
h o o k . It a c c e p t e d G i b s o n ' s r e f u s a l to t a k e full p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for
his w o r d s ( h i s a n t i - S e m i t i c r e m a r k s ) : t h e y w e r e not r e a l l y h i s o w n , it w a s
p a t h o l o g y , s o m e u n k n o w n force t h a t t o o k o v e r u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of
a l c o h o l . H o w e v e r , t h e a n s w e r to G i b s o n ' s q u e s t i o n " W h e r e d i d t h o s e
vicious w o r d s come f r o m ? " is r i d i c u l o u s l y simple: t h e y a r e p a r t
and
p a r c e l of h i s i d e o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y , f o r m e d ( a s far a s o n e c a n t e l l ) to a l a r g e
e x t e n t b y h i s father. W h a t s u s t a i n e d G i b s o n ' s r e m a r k s w a s not m a d n e s s ,
but a w e l l - k n o w n ideology' ( a n t i - S e m i t i s m ) .
In o u r d a i l y life, r a c i s m w o r k s a s a s p o n t a n e o u s d i s p o s i t i o n l u r k i n g
b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e a n d w a i t i n g for a " r e m a i n d e r of t h e d a y " to w h i c h it
c a n a t t a c h itself a n d c o l o r it in i t s o w n w a y . I r e c e n t l y read Man Li Wolf lo
Man,
Janusz
Bardach's
(a Polish
J e w ) memoirs
of h i s
miraculous
s u r v i v a l in K o l y m a , t h e w o r s t S t a l i n i s t c a m p , in t h e w o r s t of t i m e s w h e n
c o n d i t i o n s w e r e e s p e c i a l l y d e s p e r a t e ( d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I ) .''^ In e a r l y
1945, a s t h e r e s u l t of a n a m n e s t y to c e l e b r a t e t h e v i c t o r y o v e r G e r m a n y ,
h e w a s freed b u t not y e t a b l e to l e a v e t h e r e g i o n . S o , m o r d e r to p a s s t h e
t i m e a n d e a r n s o m e m o n e y , h e a c c e p t e d a p o s t in a h o s p i t a l . T h e r e , on t h e
a d v i c e of a c o l l e a g u e , a d o c t o r , h e o r g a n i z e d a d e s p e r a t e m e t h o d
providing
the
sick and
starving prisoners
with
some
vitamins
of
and
n u t r i t i o u s foodstuffs. T h e c a m p h o s p i t a l h a d too l a r g e a s t o c k of h u m a n
38
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
b l o o d for t r a n s f u s i o n s w h i c h it w a s p l a n n i n g to d i s c a r d ; B a r d a c h r e ­
p r o c e s s e d it, e n r i c h e d it w i t h v i t a m i n s from l o c a l h e r b s , a n d sold it b a c k
to t h e h o s p i t a l . W h e n t h e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s l e a r n e d a b o u t t h i s , h e w a s
a l m o s t r e a r r e s t e d ; t h e y b a n n e d h i m from p r a c t i c i n g w h a t t h e y d e s i g n a t e d
a s " o r g a n i z e d c a n n i b a l i s m . " B u t h e f o u n d a w a y out, r e p l a c i n g h u m a n
b l o o d w i t h t h e b l o o d of t h e d e e r k i l l e d b y t h e I n u i t l i v i n g n e a r b y , a n d
soon d e v e l o p e d a s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s . . . M y i m m e d i a t e r a c i s t a s s o c i a t i o n
w a s , of c o u r s e : " T y p i c a l J e w s ! E v e n in t h e w o r s t g u l a g , t h e m o m e n t t h e y
a r e g i v e n a m i n i m u m of f r e e d o m a n d s p a c e for m a n e u v e r , t h e y s t a r t
trading —in h u m a n
blood!"
The s t a k e s are m u c h h i g h e r w h e n this obscene u n d e r s i d e is institu­
t i o n a l i z e d , a s in the c a s e of t h e C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s ' p e d o p h i l i a , a p h e n o m ­
e n o n t h a t i s i n s c r i b e d i n t o t h e v e r y f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e C h u r c h a s a s o c i o S3mibolic i n s t i t u t i o n . It i s t h e r e f o r e not a m a t t e r of t h e " p r i v a t e " u n c o n ­
s c i o u s of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t r a t h e r of t h e " u n c o n s c i o u s " of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n
itself; not s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s b e c a u s e t h e C h u r c h h a s to a c c o m ­
m o d a t e i t s e l f to t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t i e s of l i b i d i n a l life in o r d e r
to
s u r v i v e , b u t r a t h e r a n i n h e r e n t p a r t of t h e w a y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n r e p r o d u c e s
i t s e l f . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a n y k i n d of
J u n g i a n "collective unconscious," a spiritual substance that encompasses
i n d i v i d u a l s ; its s t a t u s i s t h o r o u g h l y n o n - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s t r i c t l y d i s c u r s i v e ,
c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e
"big Other" as the
" r e i f i e d " s y s t e m of s y m b o l i c
c o o r d i n a t e s . It i s t h e set of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d e x c l u s i o n s i m p l i e d b y
t h e p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s p o n s e to t h e C h u r c h ' s r e l u c ­
t a n c e to a c k n o w l e d g e i t s c r i m e s s h o u l d b e t h a t t h e s e a r e i n d e e d c r i m e s
a n d that, if it d o e s n o t fully p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e C h u r c h
is a n a c c o m p l i c e after t h e fact; m o r e o v e r , t h e C h u r c h as duch, a s a n
institution, m u s t b e m a d e to r e c o g n i z e t h e w a y s it s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c r e a t e s
the conditions
for
such
c r i m e s to t a k e p l a c e . N o
wonder
that,
in
c o n t e m p o r a r y I r e l a n d , w h e n s m a l l c h i l d r e n h a v e to g o o u t a l o n e , it i s
becoming standard
for
their mothers
to
supplement
the
traditional
w a r n i n g " D o n ' t t a l k to s t r a n g e r s ! " w i t h a n e w a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c o n e ,
• • . a n d d o n ' t t a l k to p r i e s t s ! "
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h a t G i b s o n n e e d s i s not t h e r a p y ; it i s not e n o u g h for
b i m to s i m p l y a d m i t t h a t " h e h a s a p r o b l e m " so l o n g a s h e fails to a c c e p t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for h i s r e m a r k s , a s k i n g h i m s e l f in w h a t w a y h i s o u t b u r s t i s
l i n k e d to h i s C a t h o l i c i s m a n d f u n c t i o n s a s its o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e . W h e n
Foxman
offered
to t r e a t
Gibson's
o u t b u r s t a s a c a s e of i n d i v i d u a l
p a t h o l o g y w h i c h n e e d s a t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h , h e not o n l y c o m m i t t e d
39
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t h e s a m e e r r o r a s t h o s e w h o w a n t to r e d u c e c a s e s of p e d o p h i h a
to
i n d i v i d u a l p a t h o l o g i e s ; m u c h w o r s e , h e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e r e v i v a l of t h e
S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e ' s m a n n e r of d e a l i n g w i t h p r o b l e m a t i c p o l i t i c a l a n d
i d e o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s a s p h e n o m e n a t h a t c a l l for p s y c h i a t r i c i n t e r v e n t i o n .
In t h e s a m e w a y t h a t t h e o v e r r i d i n g b e l i e f u n d e r l y i n g t h e
Serbsky
I n s t i t u t e ' s m e a s u r e s w a s t h a t a p e r s o n h a d to b e ituane to b e a g a i n s t
C o m m u n i s m , so F o x m a n ' s offer i m p l i e s t h a t a p e r s o n h a s to b e i n s a n e to
b e a n t i - S e m i t i c . T h i s e a s y w a y o u t e n a b l e s u s to a v o i d t h e k e y i s s u e : that,
p r e c i s e l y , a n t i - S e m i t i s m in o u r W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s w a s — a n d i s —not a n
i d e o l o g y d i s p l a y e d b y t h e d e r a n g e d , b u t a n i n g r e d i e n t of
spontaneous
i d e o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s of p e r f e c t l y sane p e o p l e , of o u r i d e o l o g i c a l sanity
itself. T h i s , t h e n , i s w h e r e w e s t a n d t o d a y : a s a d c h o i c e b e t w e e n G i b s o n
a n d F o x m a n , b e t w e e n t h e o b s c e n e b i g o t r y of f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b e l i e f s a n d
t h e n o l e s s o b s c e n e d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n of p r o b l e m a t i c b e l i e f s a s c a s e s of
mentîd illness that require therapy.
Poland Otf a symptom
This h i d d e n complicity b e t w e e n the postmodern "atonal w o r l d " a n d the
f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e a c t i o n to it e x p l o d e s w h e n a s o c i e t y e n t e r s a c r i s i s of its
s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y . A s c a n d a l r i p p e d P o l a n d a p a r t in M a r c h 2 0 0 7 , t h e soc a l l e d " O l e k s y - g a t e , " w h e n a t a p e of a p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s m a d e
p u b l i c . J o s e f O l e k s y , t h e f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r a n d o n e of t h e D e m o ­
c r a t i c Left A l l i a n c e ' s ( S L D , e x - C o m m u n l s t s ) l e a d i n g f i g u r e s , w a s r e ­
v e a l e d to h a v e m a d e d i s p a r a g i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e S L D p o l i t i c i a n s ,
c a l l i n g t h e m " a b u n c h of l o s e r s a n d s w i n d l e r s , " c y n i c a l l y b o a s t i n g t h a t t h e
S L D h a d really introduced capitalism into Poland, a n d claiming that the
S L D leaders cared nothing about
Poland, but just about their
own
s u r v i v a l a n d w e a l t h . T h e t r u l y s h o c k i n g f e a t u r e of t h e s e t a p e s i s a c e r t a i n
coincidence: O l e k s y used e x a c t l y the same w o r d s as the rightist antiC o m m u n i s t o p p o n e n t s of t h e S L D w h o r e f u s e d to a d m i t i t s l e g i t i m a c y ,
c l a i m i n g t h a t it w a s a p a r t y w i t h o u t a p r o p e r p r o g r a m , j u s t a n e t w o r k of
ex-nomenklatura
s w i n d l e r s l o o k i n g after t h e i r o w n b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s —
this harsh external characterization w a s n o w confirmed as the
inner
c y n i c a l s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e S L D i t s e l f . . . a s u r e s i g n t h a t t h e first t a s k
of the n e w Left in p o s t - C o m m u n i s t s t a t e s i s to r e j e c t all l i n k s w i t h t h e e x C o m m u n i s t "left" p a r t i e s w h i c h , a s a r u l e , a r e t h e p a r t i e s of b i g c a p i t a l .
The
counterpart
to t h i s s c a n d a l is t h e
fact t h a t P o l a n d
has
the
d i s t i n c t i o n of b e i n g the first W e s t e r n c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t
40
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
b a c k l a s h h a s w o n , e f f e c t i v e l y e m e r g i n g a s a h e g e m o n i c force; c a l l s for t h e
total b a n on a b o r t i o n ,
anti-Communist
" l u s t r a t i o n , " t h e e x c l u s i o n of
D a r w i n i s m from p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , u p to t h e b i z a r r e
i d e a of a b o l i s h i n g t h e p o s t of t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e R e p u b l i c a n d p r o c l a i m ­
i n g J e s u s C h r i s t t h e E t e r n a l K i n g of P o l a n d , a n d so forth, a r e c o m i n g
t o g e t h e r i n t o a n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g p r o p o s a l to e n a c t a c l e a r b r e a k a n d
constitute a n e w Polish republic u n a m b i g u o u s l y b a s e d on anti-modernist
C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s b a c k l a s h r e a l l y so d a n g e r o u s t h a t t h e
Left s h o u l d a c c e p t t h e l i b e r a l b l a c k m a i l : " t h e t i m e h a s c o m e for a l l of u s to
u n i t e forces, t h w a r t t h i s t h r e a t a n d r e a s s e r t l i b e r a l - s e c u l a r m o d e r n i z a ­
t i o n " ? ( S o m e t h i n g , i n c i d e n t a l l y , w h i c h c a n n o t b u t r e c a l l t h e m e m o r y of
S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c e v o l u t i o n i s t s w h o c l a i m e d that, in n o t y e t fully d e v e l ­
o p e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e Left s h o u l d first s u p p o r t t h e b o u r g e o i s p r o j e c t of t h e
m o d e r n d e m o c r a t i c state, a n d o n l y in t h e " s e c o n d p h a s e " s h o u l d it m o v e
on to r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s p r o p e r , to t h e
overcoming
bourgeois democracy
to r e m e m b e r
thoroughly opposed
...
It i s g o o d
to t h i s " s t a g e i s t " a p p r o a c h ,
of c a p i t a l i s m
that Lenin
and
was
r e i n s t i t u t e d in l a t e r
Stalinism w i t h its scholastic distinction b e t w e e n the " l o w e r " a n d
the
" h i g h e r " s t a g e s of C o m m u n i s m . )
T h e t a s k of t h e Left i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , m o r e t h a n e v e r to " s u b t r a c t "
itself from t h e e n t i r e field of t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n l i b e r a l m o d e r n i z a t i o n
a n d t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t b a c k l a s h . I n s p i t e of t h e i r z e a l o u s p u r s u i t of a
p o s i t i v e p r o j e c t of i n s t a l l i n g s t a b l e C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s i n t o s o c i a l life, o n e
s h o u l d n e v e r forget t h a t t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b a c k l a s h i s a
p r o f o u n d l y reactive p h e n o m e n o n (in t h e N i e t z s c h e a n s e n s e ) : a t i t s c o r e ,
t h e r e i s not a p o s i t i v e p o l i t i c s , a c t i v e l y p u r s u i n g a n e w s o c i a l project, b u t a
p o l i t i c s of f e a r w h o s e m o t i v a t i n g force i s d e f e n s e a g a i n s t a p e r c e i v e d
t h r e a t . H e r e , r e d u c e d to its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y c o n t o u r s , i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e
v i e w of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t , w h o s e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e is t h a t " s e c u l a r - p r o g r e s ­
sive c u l t u r e h a s s w e p t a w a y t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s " :
T o r e p l a c e t h i s loss of s p i r i t u a l i t y , m i l l i o n s of E u r o p e a n s h a v e e m b r a c e d
t h e s e c u l a r c o n c e p t of " r e l a t i v i s m . " A c c o r d i n g to t h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g ,
there is no absolute truth, no certain right a n d wrong. Everything is
r e l a t r v e . " W h a t i s w r o n g in m y e y e s m i g h t not b e w r o n g in y o u r e y e s .
B y this logic, e v e n h e i n o u s a c t s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d , so t h e y s h o u l d not — i n
fact, t h e y c a n n o t — b e c o n d e m n e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , no definite j u d g ­
ments
about
behavror
should
be
made
because there
are
always
e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to j u s t i f y not t a k i n g a s t a n d .
41
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
The wide acceptance
confused,
of r e l a t i v i s m h a s r e n d e r e d
Europe
weak,
a n d chaotic. Socialist or quasi-socialist governments
now
p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of life to t h e i r c i t i z e n s , a l l o w i n g m a n y E u r o p e a n s
to live e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . W h e n t h a t h a p p e n s to a p e r s o n , it i s
h a r d to r a l l y h i m or h e r to a g r e a t e r c a u s e . T h u s , n o t h i n g is w o r t h
f i g h t i n g for o u t s i d e of o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e w e l l - b e i n g . T h e o n l y c r e e d i s a
b e l i e f in p e r s o n a l gratification.^^
H o w a r e w e to u n i t e t h i s o p p o s i t i o n
(of t r a d i t i o n a l i s m v e r s u s s e c u l a r
r e l a t i v i s m ) w i t h the o t h e r g r e a t i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o s i t i o n on w h i c h t h e e n t i r e
l e g i t i m a c y of t h e W e s t a n d its " W a r on T e r r o r " r e l i e s : t h e
opposition
b e t w e e n l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c i n d i v i d u a l rights a n d r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l ­
ism e m b o d i e d p r i m a r i l y in " I s l a m o - f a s c i s m " ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e s y m p ­
t o m a t i c I n c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e U S n e o c o n s e r v a t i v e s : w h i l e , in
domestic
p o l i t i c s , t h e y p r i v i l e g e t h e fight a g a i n s t l i b e r a l s e c u l a r i s m ( a b o r t i o n , g a y
m a r r i a g e s , a n d so o n ) , t h a t is, t h e i r s t r u g g l e i s t h e s o - c a l l e d " c u l t u r e of
l i f e " a g a i n s t t h e " c u l t u r e of d e a t h , " in f o r e i g n affairs, t h e y p r i v i l e g e t h e
v e r y o p p o s i t e v a l u e s of t h e l i b e r a l " c u l t u r e of d e a t h . " O n e w a y to r e s o l v e
this d i l e m m a is the h a r d l i n e C h r i s t i a n fundamentalist solution, a r t i c u l a t e d
in t h e w o r k s of T i m L a H a y e et coiuortes: to u n a m b i g u o u s l y s u b o r d i n a t e
t h e s e c o n d o p p o s i t i o n to t h e first o n e . T h e title of o n e of L a H a y e ' s l a t e s t
n o v e l s p o i n t s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n : The Europa Conspiracy. In t h i s a c c o u n t , t h e
t r u e e n e m y of t h e U S i s not M u s l i m t e r r o r i s m , t h e l a t t e r i s m e r e l y a
p u p p e t secretly m a n i p u l a t e d b y European secularists, w h o are the true
f o r c e s of t h e A n t i c h r i s t i n t e n t on w e a k e n i n g t h e U S a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e
N e w W o r l d O r d e r u n d e r the d o m i n a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s .
Op­
p o s e d to t h i s m i n o r i t y v i e w i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c v i e w
w h i c h s e e s t h e p r i n c i p a l e n e m y in a l l k i n d s of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m s ,
perceives U S Christian fundamentalism
as a deplorable
and
homegrown
v e r s i o n of " I s l a m o - f a s c i s m . "
T h e r e a c t i v e n a t u r e of r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m i s d i s c e r n i b l e In Its
h i d d e n r e f l e x i v e p o s i t i o n . L e t u s t a k e a l o o k a t t h i s r e f l e x i v i t y a t its
( a r t i s t i c ) h i g h e s t , in t h e w o r k of A n d r e i T a r k o v s k y . T a r k o v s k y himself,
a n d not o n l y t h e h e r o e s of h i s ( l a t e )
films,
s t a n d s for t h e
regained
i m m e d i a c y of a u t h e n t i c belief, a s o p p o s e d to t h e W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s
d o u b t a n d s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e d i s t a n c e . B u t w h a t if t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s m o r e
c o m p l e x ? T h e u l t i m a t e figure of t h i s d i r e c t b e l i e f i s Stalker—^to q u o t e
T a r k o v s k y himself:
42
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
I a m often a s k e d w h a t t h i s Z o n e s t a n d s for. T h e r e i s o n l y o n e p o s s i b l e
answer: the Zone doesn't exist. S t a l k e r himself invented his Zone. H e
c r e a t e d it, so t h a t h e w a s a b l e to b r i n g t h e r e s o m e v e r y u n h a p p y
p e r s o n s a n d i m p o s e on t h e m t h e i d e a of h o p e . T h e r o o m o l d e s i r e s is
e q u a l l y S t a l k e r ' s c r e a t i o n , y e t a n o t h e r p r o v o c a t i o n in t h e f a c e of t h e
m a t e r i a l w o r l d . T h i s p r o v o c a t i o n , f o r m e d in S t a l k e r ' s m i n d ,
corre­
s p o n d s to a n a c t of faith."
W h a t , h o w e v e r , if w e t a k e t h e c l a i m t h a t S t a l k e r i n v e n t e d t h e
Zone
l i t e r a l l y ? W h a t if S t a l k e r , far from d i r e c t l y b e l i e v i n g , m a n i p u l a t e s , f e i g n s
belief, i n o r d e r to f a s c i n a t e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s h e b r i n g s to t h e
Zone,
a r o u s i n g in t h e m t h e p r o s p e c t of b e l i e f ? W h a t i f far from b e i n g a d i r e c t
b e l i e v e r , h e a s s u m e s t h e r o l e of a s u b j e c t s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e for t h e e y e s
of t h e d e c a d e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l o b s e r v e r s ? W l i a t if t h e t r u l y n a i v e p o s i t i o n i s
t h a t of t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s p e c t a t o r , of h i s f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h S t a l k e r ' s n a i v e
b e l i e f ? A n d w h a t if t h e s a m e g o e s for T a r k o v s k y himself, w h o — f a r from
b e i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c O r t h o d o x b e l i e v e r in c o n t r a s t to W e s t e r n s k e p t i ­
c i s m — a c t s o u t t h i s r o l e in o r d e r to f a s c i n a t e the W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l
public?
J o h n G r a y i s t h e r e f o r e r i g h t to s a y t h a t " R e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n ­
t a l i s t s s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g r e m e d i e s for t h e m a l a d i e s of t h e m o d e r n
w o r l d . In r e a l i t y t h e y a r e s y m p t o m s of t h e d i s e a s e t h e y p r e t e n d
to
..38
cure.
T o p u t it in N i e t z s c h e ' s t e r m s : t h e y a r e t h e u l t i m a t e n i h i l i s t s , s i n c e t h e
v e r y form of t h e i r a c t i v i t y ( s p e c t a c u l a r m e d i a t i c m o b i l i z a t i o n , a n d
so
f o r t h ) u n d e r m i n e s t h e i r m e s s a g e . O n e of t h e first e x p o n e n t s of e a r l y
litereuy modernism, L a u t r é a m o n t (Isidore D u c a s s e ) , followed his pro­
v o c a t i v e Chanta of Maldoror w i t h Poédied, a w e i r d r e a s s e r t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l
m o r a l i t y . A t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of a r t i s t i c m o d e r n i t y , h e t h u s s t a g e s its
final
p a r a d o x i c a l r e v e r s a l : w h e n a l l s o u r c e s of t r a n s g r e s s i o n a r e e x ­
h a u s t e d , t h e o n l y w a y to b r e a k o u t of t h e s u f f o c a t i n g w e a r i n e s s of t h e
L a s t M e n i s to p r o p o s e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e u l t i m a t e
t r a n s g r e s s i o n . A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for o u r p o p u l a r c u l t u r e :
W h a t w i l l h a p p e n w h e n w e r u n o u t of n e w v i c e s ? H o w w i l l s a t i e t y a n d
i d l e n e s s b e s t a v e d off w h e n d e s i g n e r s e x , d r u g s a n d v i o l e n c e n o l o n g e r
s e l l ? A t t h a t point, w e m a y b e s u r e , m o r a l i t y w i l l c o m e b a c k i n t o
fashion. W e m a y not b e far from a t i m e w h e n " m o r a l i t y " i s m a r k e t e d a s
a n e w b r a n d of t r a n s g r e s s i o n . " ' ' '
43
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y p r e c i s e h e r e ; t h i s r e v e r s a l i s not t h e s a m e a s t h e o n e ,
d e s c r i b e d b y C h e s t e r t o n , in w h i c h m o r a l i t y i t s e l f a p p e a r s a s t h e g r e a t e s t
transgression, or l a w - a n d - o r d e r a s the greatest ( u n i v e r s a l i z e d ) crime.
H e r e , in c o n t r a s t to C h e s t e r t o n ' s m o d e l , t h e e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y is not
t h a t of c r i m e , b u t t h a t of t h e l a w : it i s not m o r a l i t y w h i c h i s t h e g r e a t e s t
transgression,
it i s t r a n s g r e s s i o n
which
is the
fundamental
"moral"
i n j u n c t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . T h e t r u e r e v e r s a l s h o u l d t h u s o c c u r
within this s p e c u l a t i v e i d e n t i t y of o p p o s i t e s , of m o r a l i t y a n d its t r a n s g r e s ­
sion: a l l o n e h a s to d o i s to shift t h e e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y of t h e s e t w o t e r m s
from m o r a l i t y to t r a n s g r e s s i o n . A n d , s i n c e t h i s e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y h a s to
a p p e a r a s its o p p o s i t e , w e t h u s h a v e to a c c o m p l i s h a shift from a s o c i e t y m
w h i c h t h e L a w r u l e s — i n the g u i s e of a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n — t o a
s o c i e t y in w h i c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n r u l e s — i n t h e g u i s e of a n e w L a w .
Happy to torture?
T h i s e l e v a t i o n of t r a n s g r e s s i o n Itself Into a m o r a l i n j u n c t i o n h a s a p r e c i s e
n a m e ; happineé.i as the supreme duty. N o w o n d e r t h a t , o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e ,
t h e s t u d y of h a p p i n e s s e m e r g e d a s a scientific d i s c i p l i n e of i t s o w n ; t h e r e
are now
"professors
of h a p p i n e s s " a t u n i v e r s i t i e s , " q u a l i t y of
life"
i n s t i t u t e s a t t a c h e d to t h e m , a n d n u m e r o u s r e s e a r c h p a p e r s ; t h e r e i s e v e n
t h e Journal
of Happiness Studies. R u u t V e e n h o v e n ,
its
editor-in-chief,
wrote:
W e c a n n o w s h o w w h i c h b e h a v i o r s a r e r i s k y a s far a s h a p p i n e s s g o e s ,
in t h e s a m e w a y m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n u s w h a t i s b a d for o u r
h e a l t h . W e s h o u l d e v e n t u a l l y b e a b l e to s h o w w h a t k i n d of l i f e s t y l e
s u i t s w h a t k i n d of p e r s o n .
This n e w discipline has t w o b r a n c h e s . On the one hand, there is a more
s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , b a s e d on d a t a g a t h e r e d from h u n d r e d s of s u r v e y s
m e a s u r i n g h a p p i n e s s a c r o s s different
social a n d economic
for
cultural
groups. One
cultures, professions,
cannot reproach
b i a s : t h e y a r e w e l l a w a r e of h o w
constitutes happiness depends
the
these
religions,
researches
notion
on t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t
of
what
(It i s o n l y in
individualistic W e s t e r n countries that h a p p i n e s s is seen a s a reflection
of p e r s o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t ) . O n e a l s o c a n n o t d e n y t h a t t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d
a r e often i n t e r e s t i n g : h a p p i n e s s Is n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g a s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h
o n e ' s life ( s e v e r a l n a t i o n s t h a t r e p o r t l o w or a v e r a g e lite s a t i s f a c t i o n a t t h e
44
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
s a m e t i m e r e p o r t h i g h p e r c e n t a g e s of v e r y h a p p y p e o p l e ) ; t h e h a p p i e s t
nations —mostly W e s t e r n and individualistic ones—tend
to h a v e
the
h i g h e s t l e v e l s of s u i c i d e ; a n d , of c o u r s e , t h e k e y r o l e of e n v y — w h a t
c o u n t s i s not w h a t y o u h a v e so m u c h a s w h a t o t h e r s h a v e ( t h e m i d d l e
c l a s s e s a r e far l e s s s a t i s f i e d t h a n the p o o r , for t h e y t a k e a s t h e i r r e f e r e n c e
point the v e r y w e a l t h y , w h o s e income a n d status t h e y will be h a r d p u s h e d to m a t c h ; t h e p o o r , m e a n w h i l e , t a k e a s t h e i r r e f e r e n c e p o i n t t h e
middle earners, w h o are more within their reach).
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e i s a m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l (or, r a t h e r , b r a i n sciences) a p p r o a c h , c o m b i n i n g cognitivist scientific r e s e a r c h w i t h occas i o n a l i n c u r s i o n s into N e w A g e m e d i t a t i o n w i s d o m : t h e e x a c t m e a s u r i n g
of b r a i n p r o c e s s e s t h a t a c c o m p a n y f e e l i n g s of h a p p i n e s s a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
etc. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of c o g n i t i v e s c i e n c e a n d B u d d h i s m ( w h i c h i s not
n e w — i t s last g r e a t p r o p o n e n t w a s F r a n c i s c o V a r e l a ) is here g i v e n an
e t h i c a l t w i s t : w h a t i s offered i n t h e g u i s e of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h is a n e w
m o r a l i t y t h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l hiomoraUty—Ûie t r u e c o u n t e r p a r t to
t o d a y ' s b i o p o l i t i c s . A n d i n d e e d , w a s it not t h e D a l a i L a m a h i m s e l f w h o
w r o t e : " T h e p u r p o s e of life is to b e h a p p y "
—this L) not true for pdycho-
anatydù), o n e s h o u l d a d d . In K a n t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , e t h i c a l d u t y f u n c t i o n s l i k e
a f o r e i g n t r a u m a t i c i n t r u d e r t h a t from t h e o u t s i d e d i s t u r b s t h e s u b j e c t ' s
h o m e o s t a t i c b a l a n c e , its u n b e a r a b l e p r e s s u r e f o r c i n g the s u b j e c t to a c t
" b e y o n d t h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e , " i g n o r i n g t h e p u r s u i t of p l e a s u r e s . F o r
L a c a n , e x a c t l y t h e s a m e d e s c r i p t i o n h o l d s for d e s i r e , w h i c h i s w h y
enjo3nnent i s n o t s o m e t h i n g t h a t c o m e s n a t u r a l l y to t h e s u b j e c t , a s a
r e a l i z a t i o n of h e r i n n e r p o t e n t i a l , b u t i s t h e c o n t e n t of a t r a u m a t i c
• -
. 4 3
superego injunction.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , if o n e s t i c k s to t h e e n d to t h e " p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e , " it i s
difficult
to
abandon
a radical conclusion.
The artificial-intelligence
p h i l o s o p h e r T h o m a s M e t z i n g e r c o n s i d e r s artificial s u b j e c t i v i t y p o s s i b l e ,
e s p e c i a l l y in t h e d i r e c t i o n of h y b r i d b i o r o b o t i c s , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , an
e m p i r i c a l , n o t p h i l o s o p h i c a l " issue.'^'* H e e m p h a s i z e s its e t h i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c c h a r a c t e r : "it i s n o t
at a l l c l e a r if t h e
b i o l o g i c a l form
of
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a s so far b r o u g h t a b o u t b y e v o l u t i o n on o u r p l a n e t , is
a desirable form of e x p e r i e n c e , a n a c t u a l good in itself.""^^ T h i s p r o b l e m a t i c
f e a t u r e c o n c e r n s c o n s c i o u s p a i n a n d suffering: e v o l u t i o n
h a s c r e a t e d a n e x p a n d i n g o c e a n of s u f f e r i n g a n d confusion
where
t h e r e p r e v i o u s l y w a s n o n e . A s not o n l y t h e s i m p l e n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s s u b j e c t s b u t a l s o t h e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y of t h e i r p h e n o m 45
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
enal state s p a c e s is c o n t i n u o u s l y increasing, this ocean is also deepen46
ing.
A n d it i s r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t t h a t n e w a r t i f i c i a l l y g e n e r a t e d f o r m s of
a w a r e n e s s w i l l c r e a t e n e w " d e e p e r " f o r m s of s u f f e r i n g . . . O n e s h o u l d b e
c a r e f u l to n o t e h o w t h i s e t h i c a l t h e s i s i s not a n i d i o s y n c r a s y of M e t z i n g e r
a s a p r i v a t e p e r s o n , b u t i s a c o n s i s t e n t i m p l i c a t i o n of h i s t h e o r e t i c a l
f r a m e w o r k : t h e m o m e n t o n e e n d o r s e s t h e full n a t u r a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n
s u b j e c t i v i t y , t h e a v o i d a n c e of p a i n a n d s u f f e r i n g c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s t h e
u l t i m a t e e t h i c a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e . T h e o n l y t h i n g o n e s h o u l d a d d to t h i s
is t h a t , if o n e f o l l o w s t h i s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g to t h e e n d , d r a w i n g a l l t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s from t h e fact t h a t e v o l u t i o n " h a s c r e a t e d a n e x p a n d i n g
o c e a n of s u f f e r i n g a n d c o n f u s i o n w h e r e t h e r e p r e v i o u s l y w a s n o n e , " t h e n
o n e s h o u l d a l s o r e n o u n c e h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y itself: w e w o u l d h a v e h a d
m u c h l e s s s u f f e r i n g if w e h a d r e m a i n e d a n i m a l s . . . a n d , to p u s h it y e t
f u r t h e r . If a n i m a l s h a d r e m a i n e d p l a n t s , if p l a n t s h a d r e m a i n e d s i n g l e
c e l l s , if c e l l s h a d r e m a i n e d m i n e r a l s .
O n e of t h e g r e a t i r o n i e s of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t i s t h a t t h i s s a m e b i o m o r a l i t y , f o c u s e d on h a p p i n e s s a n d on p r e v e n t i n g suffering, i s t o d a y i n v o k e d
a s t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e for t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n of t o r t u r e : w e s h o u l d
t o r t u r e — i m p o s e p a i n a n d s u f f e r i n g — i n o r d e r to p r e v e n t m o r e s u f f e r i n g .
O n e i s t r u l y t e m p t e d to p a r a p h r a s e D e Q u i n c e y y e t a g a i n : "ITow m a n y
p e o p l e b e g a n w i t h c o m m i t t i n g a l i t t l e a c t of t o r t u r e ,
e m b r a c i n g as their cause the
fight
and ended
up
against pain and suffering!" This
d e f i n i t e l y h o l d s for S a m f i a r r i s w h o s e d e f e n s e of t o r t u r e in The End of
Faith is b a s e d on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o u r i m m e d i a t e s t a t e of b e i n g
I m p r e s s e d b y t h e s u f f e r i n g of o t h e r s a n d o u r a b s t r a c t n o t i o n of o t h e r s '
s u f f e r i n g : it i s m u c h m o r e difficult for u s to t o r t u r e a s i n g l e p e r s o n t h a n to
d r o p a b o m b from a g r e a t d i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d c a u s e t h e m o r e p a i n f u l
d e a t h of t h o u s a n d s . W e a r e t h u s a l l c a u g h t in a k i n d of e t h i c a l i l l u s i o n ,
p a r a l l e l to p e r c e p t u a l i l l u s i o n s . T h e u l t i m a t e c a u s e of t h e s e i l l u s i o n s Is
t h a t , a l t h o u g h o u r p o w e r of a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g h a s d e v e l o p e d i m m e n s e l y ,
our emotional-ethical responses remain conditioned
b y millennia-old
i n s t i n c t u a l r e a c t i o n s of s y m p a t h y to s u f f e r i n g a n d p a i n t h a t i s d i r e c t l y
w i t n e s s e d . T h i s is w h y s h o o t i n g s o m e o n e p o i n t - b l a n k i s , for m o s t of u s ,
m u c h m o r e r e p u l s i v e t h a n p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n t h a t w i l l kill a t h o u s a n d
absent persons:
G i v e n w h a t m a n y of u s b e l i e v e a b o u t t h e e x i g e n c i e s of o u r w a r on
46
HAPPINESS AND TORTURE
t e r r o r i s m , t h e p r a c t i c e of t o r t u r e , in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w o u l d s e e m
to b e not o n l y p e r m i s s i b l e b u t n e c e s s a r y . S t i l l , it d o e s n o t s e e m a n y
m o r e a c c e p t a b l e , in e t h i c a l t e r m s , t h a n it d i d b e f o r e . T h e r e a s o n s for
t h i s a r e , I t r u s t , e v e r y bit a s n e u r o l o g i c a l a s t h o s e t h a t g i v e r i s e to t h e
m o o n i l l u s i o n . . . . It m a y b e t i m e to t a k e o u t o u r r u l e r s a n d h o l d t h e m
u p to t h e s k y .
N o w o n d e r t h a t H a r r i s r e f e r s to A l a n D e r s c h o w i t z a n d h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n
of torture.^^ In o r d e r to s u s p e n d t h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n e d
vulner­
a b i l i t y to t h e p h y s i c a l d i s p l a y of o t h e r s ' suffering, H a r r i s i m a g i n e s a n
i d e a l " t r u t h p i l l , " a n effective t o r t u r e e q u i v a l e n t to d e c a f f e i n a t e d coffee o r
diet coke:
a d r u g t h a t w o u l d d e l i v e r b o t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of t o r t u r e a n d
the
i n s t r u m e n t of t h e i r u t t e r c o n c e a l m e n t . T h e a c t i o n of t h e pill w o u l d b e
to p r o d u c e t r a n s i t o r y p a r a l y s i s a n d t r a n s i t o r y m i s e r y of a k i n d t h a t n o
h u m a n b e i n g w o u l d w i l l i n g l y s u b m i t to a s e c o n d t i m e . I m a g i n e h o w w e
t o r t u r e r s w o u l d feel if, after g i v i n g t h i s pill to c a p t i v e t e r r o r i s t s , e a c h
l a y d o w n for w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e a n h o u r ' s n a p o n l y to a r i s e a n d
i m m e d i a t e l y c o n f e s s e v e r y t h i n g h e k n o w s a b o u t t h e w o r k i n g s of h i s
o r g a n i z a t i o n . M i g h t w e not b e t e m p t e d to c a l l it a " t r u t h p i l l " in t h e
endr
T h e v e r y first l i n e s — " a d r u g t h a t w o u l d d e l i v e r b o t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of
t o r t u r e a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e i r u t t e r c o n c e a l m e n t " — i n t r o d u c e s
the
t y p i c a l l y p o s t m o d e r n l o g i c of t h e c h o c o l a t e l a x a t i v e : t h e t o r t u r e i m a g i n e d
h e r e i s l i k e d e c a f c o f f e e — w e g e t t h e r e s u l t w i t h o u t h a v i n g to
suffer
u n p l e a s a n t s i d e effects. A t t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e in M o s c o w , t h e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d p s y c h i a t r i c o u t l e t of t h e K G B , t h e y d i d i n v e n t j u s t s u c h a d r u g
w i t h w h i c h to t o r t u r e d i s s i d e n t s : a n i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e p r i s o n e r ' s
heart
Zone w h i c h s l o w e d d o w n h i s h e a r t b e a t a n d c a u s e d t e r r i f y i n g a n x i e t y .
V i e w e d from t h e o u t s i d e , t h e p r i s o n e r s e e m e d j u s t to b e d o z i n g , w h i l e in
fact h e w a s l i v i n g a n i g h t m a r e .
There is, h o w e v e r , a m u c h more d i s q u i e t i n g prospect at w o r k here: the
proximity (ol the tortured subject) w h i c h c a u s e s s y m p a t h y and m a k e s
t o r t u r e u n a c c e p t a b l e i s not h i s m e r e p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y , but, a t i t s m o s t
f u n d a m e n t a l , t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r , w i t h all t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n - F r e u d i a n w e i g h t of t h i s t e r m , t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e T h i n g w h i c h , no
" l a t t e r h o w far a w a y it is p h y s i c a l l y , i s a l w a y s b y d e f i n i t i o n "too c l o s e . "
47
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
W h a t H a r r i s i s a i m i n g at w i t h h i s i m a g i n e d " t r u t h p i l l " i s n o t h i n g l e s s
t h a n the aboiit'wn of the diinetulon of the Neighbor. T h e t o r t u r e d s u b j e c t is no
l o n g e r a N e i g h b o r , b u t a n o b j e c t w h o s e p a i n i s n e u t r a l i z e d , r e d u c e d to a
p r o p e r t y t h a t h a s to b e d e a l t w i t h in a r a t i o n a l u t i l i t a r i a n c a l c u l u s (so
m u c h p a i n i s t o l e r a b l e if it p r e v e n t s a m u c h g r e a t e r a m o u n t of p a i n ) .
W h a t d i s a p p e a r s h e r e is t h e a b y s s of t h e i n f i n i t y t h a t p e r t a i n s to a s u b j e c t .
It is t h u s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e b o o k w h i c h a r g u e s for t o r t u r e is a l s o a b o o k
e n t i t l e d The End of Faith —not in t h e o b v i o u s s e n s e of " Y o u s e e , it is o n l y
o u r b e l i e f in G o d ,
the divine injunction
to l o v e y o u r n e i g h b o r ,
that
u l t i m a t e l y p r e v e n t s u s from t o r t u r i n g p e o p l e ! " b u t i n a m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l
s e n s e . A n o t h e r s u b j e c t ( a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e s u b j e c t a s s u c h ) is for L a c a n
not s o m e t h i n g d i r e c t l y g i v e n , b u t a " p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , " something presumed,
an object of belief—\\o^
c a n I e v e r be s u r e t h a t w h a t I s e e in front of m e is
a n o t h e r s u b j e c t , not a b i o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e l a c k i n g a n y d e p t h ?
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a p o p u l a r a n d s e e m i n g l y c o n v i n c i n g r e p l y to t h o s e
w h o w o r r y a b o u t t h e r e c e n t U S p r a c t i c e of t o r t u r i n g s u s p e c t e d t e r r o r i s t
p r i s o n e r s . It i s : " W h a t ' s a l l t h e fuss a b o u t ? T h e U S a r e n o w o n l y ( h a l f )
o p e n l y a d m i t t i n g w h a t not o n l y t h e y w e r e d o i n g a l l the t i m e , b u t w h a t a l l
o t h e r s t a t e s a r e a n d w e r e d o i n g a l l t h e time^—if a n y t h i n g , w e h a v e l e s s
h y p o c r i s y n o w . . . " To this, one should retort w i t h a simple counterq u e s t i o n : "If t h e s e n i o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e U S m e a n o n l y t h i s , why,
then, are they telling luf this? W h y d o n ' t t h e y j u s t s i l e n t l y g o on d o i n g it, a s
t h e y d i d u p u n t i l n o w ? " T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t is p r o p e r to h u m a n s p e e c h i s
the
irreducible gap between
enunciation:
"You
the
s a y this, but
enunciated
content and
w h y are y o u
telling me
its a c t
it
of
openly
n o w ? " Let us imagine a wife a n d h u s b a n d w h o coexist w i t h a tacit
a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e y c a n l e a d d i s c r e e t e x t r a - m a r i t a l affairs; if, a l l of a
s u d d e n , t h e h u s b a n d o p e n l y t e l l s h i s w i f e a b o u t a n o n g o i n g affair, she w i l l
h a v e g o o d r e a s o n to b e in p a n i c : "If it i s j u s t a n affair, w h y a r e y o u t e l l i n g
m e t h i s ? It m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g more!"^** T h e a c t of p u b l i c l y r e p o r t i n g on
s o m e t h i n g i s n e v e r n e u t r a l , it affects t h e r e p o r t e d c o n t e n t itself.
A n d the
s a m e g o e s for t h e
recent open
a d m i s s i o n of t o r t u r e :
in
N o v e m b e r 2005, Vice-President Dick C h e n e y said that defeating terror­
ists m e a n t t h a t " w e a l s o h a v e to w o r k . . . sort of t h e d a r k s i d e . . . A lot of
w h a t n e e d s to b e d o n e h e r e w i l l h a v e to b e d o n e q u i e t l y , w i t h o u t a n y
d i s c u s s i o n " — w a s h e not t a l k i n g l i k e a r e b o r n K u r t z ? S o w h e n w e h e a r
people like Dick C h e n e y m a k i n g their obscene statements about
the
n e c e s s i t y of t o r t u r e , w e s h o u l d a s k t h e m : "If y o u j u s t w a n t to t o r t u r e
s e c r e t l y s o m e s u s p e c t e d t e r r o r i s t s , t h e n w h y a r e y o u s a y i n g it p u b l i c l y ? "
48
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
T h a t i s to s a y , t h e q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d i s : w h a t m o r e is t h e r e h i d i n g in
this statement that m a d e the s p e a k e r e n u n c i a t e it?
W e c o u l d n o t e ( m o r e t h a n ) a h i n t of w h a t t h e r e i s w h e n , in t h e m i d d l e
of M a r c h 2 0 0 7 , K h a l i d S h e i k h M o h a m m e d ' s c o n f e s s i o n d o m i n a t e d t h e
h e a d l i n e s of o u r m e d i a . M o r a l o u t r a g e a t t h e e x t e n t of h i s c r i m e s w a s
m i x e d w i t h d o u b t s . C a n h i s c o n f e s s i o n b e t r u s t e d ? W h a t if h e c o n f e s s e d
e v e n m o r e t h a n h e d i d , e i t h e r b e c a u s e of a v a i n d e s i r e to b e r e m e m b e r e d
a s t h e b i g t e r r o r i s t M a s t e r m i n d , o r b e c a u s e h e w a s r e a d y to
confess
a n j ^ h i n g in o r d e r to s t o p b e i n g s u b j e c t e d to w a t e r - b o a r d i n g a n d o t h e r
"enhanced interrogation techniques"? W h a t attracted m u c h less atten­
tion w a s t h e s i m p l e fact t h a t , for t h e first t i m e , t o r t u r e w a s normalized,
p r e s e n t e d a s s o m e t h i n g a c c e p t a b l e . T h e e t h i c a l a n d l e g a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of
it a r e s o m e t h i n g to t h i n k a b o u t .
W i t h a l l t h e o u t c r y a b o u t t h e h o r r o r of M o h a m m e d ' s c r i m e s , v e r y little
w a s h e a r d a b o u t the fate o u r s o c i e t i e s r e s e r v e for t h e h a r d e s t c r i m i n a l s —
to b e j u d g e d a n d s e v e r e l y p u n i s h e d . It is a s if, b y t h e n a t u r e of h i s a c t s
(and b y t h e n a t u r e of t h e t r e a t m e n t to w h i c h h e w a s s u b m i t t e d b y t h e U S
a u t h o r i t i e s ) , M o h a m m e d i s not e n t i t l e d to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t a s e v e n the
most d e p r a v e d m u r d e r e r of c h i l d r e n , n a m e l y to b e t r i e d a n d p u n i s h e d
a c c o r d i n g l y . It i s a s if not only the terrorbtd thenuebeö, but aUo fight agairut
them hoj to proceed in a grey zone of legality, using illegal means. W e t h u s de
facto h a v e " l e g a l " a n d " i l l e g a l " c r i m i n a l s : t h o s e w h o a r e to b e t r e a t e d w i t h
legcJ p r o c e d u r e s (using l a w y e r s etc.), a n d those w h o a r e outside legality.
M o h a m m e d ' s legal trial and punishment are now rendered
meaning­
l e s s — n o c o u r t w h i c h o p e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e s of o u r l e g a l s y s t e m c a n
d e a l w i t h i l l e g a l d e t e n t i o n s , c o n f e s s i o n s o b t a i n e d b y t o r t u r e , a n d so on.
T h i s fact s a y s m o r e t h a n it i n t e n d s . It p u t s M o h a m m e d a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y
into t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e l i v i n g d e a d , o c c u p y i n g t h e p l a c e of w h a t t h e
I t a l i a n p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r G i o r g i o A g a m b e n c a l l s homo éacer. l e g a l l y
d e a d ( d e p r i v e d of a d e t e r m i n a t e l e g a l s t a t u s ) w h i l e b i o l o g i c a l l y still
a l i v e — a n d t h e U S a u t h o r i t i e s w h i c h t r e a t t h e m in t h i s w a y a r e a l s o of
a n i n - b e t w e e n s t a t u s w h i c h f o r m s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t to homo ,iacer: a c t i n g a s
a l e g a l p o w e r , t h e i r a c t s a r e no l o n g e r c o v e r e d a n d c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e
l a w — t h e y o p e r a t e in a n e m p t y s p a c e t h a t i s s u s t a i n e d b y the l a w , a n d y e t
not r e g u l a t e d b y t h e r u l e of l a w .
S o , b a c k to t h e " r e a l i s t i c " c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t : t h e " W a r on T e r r o r " Li
d i r t y , o n e i s p u t in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e l i v e s of t h o u s a n d s d e p e n d
on
i n f o r m a t i o n w e c a n g e t from o u r p r i s o n e r s . ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , the t o r t u r i n g of
- M o h a m m e d w a s not a c a s e of t h e " t i c k i n g - c l o c k " s i t u a t i o n e v o k e d b y t h e
49
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
a d v o c a t e s of t o r t u r e a s t h e r e a s o n for its l e g i t i m i z a t i o n : M o h a m m e d ' s
c o n f e s s i o n s a v e d no l i v e s . ) A g a i n s t t h i s k i n d of " h o n e s t y , " o n e s h o u l d
s t i c k to t h e a p p a r e n t h y p o c r i s y . I c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t , in a v e i y specific
s i t u a t i o n , I w o u l d r e s o r t to t o r t u r e ^ — h o w e v e r , in s u c h a c a s e , it i s c r u c i a l
t h a t I d o not e l e v a t e t h i s d e s p e r a t e c h o i c e i n t o a u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e .
F o l l o w i n g t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b r u t a l u r g e n c y of t h e m o m e n t , 1 s h o u l d s i m p l y
do it. O n l y in t h i s w a y , in t h e v e r y i m p o s s i b i l i t y of e l e v a t i n g w h a t I h a d to
d o i n t o a u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e , d o I r e t a i n t h e p r o p e r s e n s e of t h e h o r r o r of
w h a t I did.
In a w a y , t h o s e w h o , w i t h o u t o u t r i g h t l y a d v o c a t i n g t o r t u r e , a c c e p t It a s
a l e g i t i m a t e t o p i c of d e b a t e , a r e in a w a y m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h o s e w h o
explicitly endorse
it. M o r a l i t y i s n e v e r j u s t a m a t t e r
of i n d i v i d u a l
c o n s c i e n c e . It o n l y t h r i v e s if it i s s u s t a i n e d b y w h a t
Hegel called
" o b j e c t i v e s p i r i t , " t h e s e t of u n w r i t t e n r u l e s w h i c h form t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i v i t y , t e l l i n g u s w h a t i s a c c e p t a b l e a n d w h a t Is
u n a c c e p t a b l e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s i g n of p r o g r e s s in o u r s o c i e t i e s i s t h a t
o n e d o e s not n e e d to a r g u e a g a i n s t r a p e : it i s " d o g m a t i c a l l y " c l e a r to
e v e r y o n e t h a t r a p e Is w r o n g , a n d w e a l l feel t h a t e v e n a r g u i n g a g a i n s t It i s
t o o m u c h . If s o m e o n e w e r e to a d v o c a t e t h e l e g i t i m a c y of r a p e , it w o u l d b e
a s a d s i g n if o n e h a d to a r g u e a g a i n s t h i m — h e s h o u l d s i m p l y a p p e a r
r i d i c u l o u s . A n d t h e s a m e s h o u l d h o l d for t o r t u r e .
T h i s i s w h y t h e g r e a t e s t v i c t i m s of p u b l i c l y a d m i t t e d t o r t u r e a r e a l l of
us, t h e p u b l i c t h a t i s i n f o r m e d a b o u t It. W e s h o u l d all b e a w a r e t h a t s o m e
p r e c i o u s p a r t of o u r c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y h a s b e e n i r r e t r i e v a b l y lost. W e a r e
in t h e m i d d l e of a p r o c e s s of m o r a l c o r r u p t i o n : t h o s e i n p o w e r a r e l i t e r a l l y
t r y i n g to b r e a k a p a r t of o u r e t h i c a l b a c k b o n e , to d a m p e n a n d u n d o w h a t
is a r g u a b l y c i v i l i z a t i o n ' s g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t , the g r o w t h of o u r s p o n ­
taneous moral senslti\'lty.
N o w h e r e i s t h i s c l e a r e r t h a n in a s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l of M o h a m m e d ' s
confession.
It w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a g e n t s t o r t u r i n g
him
submitted
t h e m s e l v e s to w a t e r - b o a r d i n g a n d w e r e a b l e to e n d u r e it for o n l y t e n
to fifteen s e c o n d s b e f o r e b e i n g r e a d y to c o n f e s s a n y t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g ,
w h i l e M o h a m m e d g a i n e d t h e i r g r u d g i n g a d m i r a t i o n b y e n d u r i n g it for
two and a half minutes, the longest time a n y o n e could r e m e m b e r someone
r e s i s t i n g . A r e w e a w a r e t h a t t h e l a s t t i m e s u c h s t a t e m e n t s w e r e p a r t of
p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e w a s w a y b a c k in t h e l a t e M i d d l e A g e s w h e n t o r t u r e w a s
still a p u b l i c s p e c t a c l e , a n h o n o r a b l e w a y to t e s t a c a p t u r e d w o i ' t h y e n e m y
w h o g a i n e d t h e a d m i r a t i o n of t h e c r o w d if h e b o r e t h e p a i n w i t h d i g n i t y ?
D o w e r e a l l y n e e d t h i s k i n d of p r i m i t i v e w a r r i o r e t h i c s ?
50
HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE
A r e w e , t h e n , a w a r e of w h a t is at t h e e n d of t h i s r o a d ? W h e n , in t h e
fifth s e a s o n o£24, it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e m a s t e r m i n d b e h i n d t h e t e r r o r i s t
p l o t w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e P r e s i d e n t of the U S h i m s e l f m a n y of u s
^ e r e e a g e r l y w a i t i n g to s e e if J a c k B a u e r w o u l d a l s o a p p l y to
the
p r e s i d e n t — " t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l m a n on e a r t h " , " t h e l e a d e r of t h e free
w o r l d " (and other
standard procedure
K i m - Y o n g - I l - e s q u e titles that
he
possesses)—his
for d e a l i n g w i t h t e r r o r i s t s w h o d o not w a n t
to
d i v u l g e a s e c r e t t h a t m a y s a v e t h o u s a n d s of l i v e s . W i l l h e torture t h e
president?
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e a u t h o r s d i d not r i s k t h i s r e d e e m i n g s t e p . B u t o u r
i m a g i n a t i o n c a n g o e v e n f u r t h e r , m a k i n g a m o d e s t p r o p o s a l in J o n a t h a n
S w i f t s t y l e : w h a t if p a r t of t h e p r o c e d u r e to test t h e c a n d i d a t e s for t h e U S
p r e s i d e n c y w e r e a l s o t h e p u b l i c t o r t u r e of t h e c a n d i d a t e ? S a y , a w a t e r b o a r d i n g of t h e c a n d i d a t e s on t h e W h i t e f i o u s e l a w n , t r a n s m i t t e d l i v e to
m i l l i o n s ? T h o s e q u a l i f i e d for t h e post of t h e l e a d e r of t h e free w o r l d
w o u l d be those w h o could last longer than M o h a m m e d ' s two a n d a half
minutes.
51
2
The Family Myth of Ideology
N u m e r o u s t r e a t i s e s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e p e r c e p t i o n of a h i s t o r i c a l
R e a l in t h e t e r m s of a f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a s a f u n d a m e n t a l
ideological
o p e r a t i o n : a s t o r y a b o u t t h e conflict of l a r g e r s o c i a l f o r c e s ( c l a s s e s a n d so
f o r t h ) i s f r a m e d i n t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of a f a m i l y d r a m a . T h i s i d e o l o g y , of
c o u r s e , finds its c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n in f i o l l 3 ' w o o d a s t h e u l t i m a t e i d e o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e : in a t y p i c a l HolljAvood p r o d u c t , e v e r y t h i n g , from
the
fate of t h e k n i g h t s of the R o u n d T a b l e t h r o u g h t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n
u p to a s t e r o i d s h i t t i n g t h e E a r t h , i s t r a n s p o s e d i n t o a n O e d i p a l n a r r a t i v e .
( A D e l e u z i a n c a n n o t r e s i s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n of p o i n t i n g o u t h o w t h e m a i n
t h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of s u c h f a m i l l a l i z a t l o n i s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , w h i c h
m a k e s it t h e k e y i d e o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e . )
"Capitaiidt realijm "
Our
first
s t e p s h o u l d b e to a n a l y z e t h i s f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a t its m o s t
e l e m e n t a r y , k i t s c h , l e v e l . E x e m p l a r y h e r e is M i c h a e l C r i c h t o n , t o d a y ' s
s u c c e s s o r of A r t h u r H a i l e y , t h e first g r e a t a u t h o r of " c a p i t a l i s t r e a l i s m "
( w h o s e b e s t s e l l e r s , b a c k in t h e \96Qs—Hotel, Airport, Cam . . . — a l w a y s
focused
on a p a r t i c u l a r site of p r o d u c t i o n
mixing a melodramatic
functions,
plot
or c o m p l e x
with lengthy descriptions
organization,
of t h e
site's
in a n u n e x p e c t e d e c h o of t h e S t a l i n i s t c l a s s i c s of t h e l a t e
1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0 s s u c h a s G l a d k o v ' s Cement)} C r i c h t o n a d d e d to t h e g e n r e
a p o s t m o d e r n t e c h n o - t h r i l l e r t w i s t , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t o d a y ' s p r e d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c s of fear: h e i s t h e u l t i m a t e n o v e l i s t of f e a r — f e a r of t h e p a s t
{Jurasdic Park, Eaters of the Dead), of t h e n a n o t e c h n o l o g i c a l f u t u r e
of J a p a n ' s e c o n o m i c s t r e n g t h
(The Runny Sun),
of s e x u a l
{Prey),
harassment
(DisclûJure), of r o b o t i c t e c h n o l o g y {Westworld), of t h e m e d i c a l I n d u s t r y
(Coma), of a l i e n i n t r u s i o n s (Andromeda Strain),
of e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s
(State of Fear). State of Fear, h i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , b r i n g s a n u n e x p e c t e d
final
52
a d d i t i o n to t h i s s e r i e s of s h a d o w y forces w h i c h l u r k a m o n g u s ,
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
p o i s e d to w r e a k h a v o c : A m e r i c a ' s fiercest e n e m i e s a r e n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e
environmentahsts themselves.^
A s m a n y a critic h a s noted, Crichton's books are not really novels, t h e y
a r e m o r e l i k e u n f i n i s h e d drafts, p r o s p e c t u s e s for s c r e e n p l a y s ; h o w e v e r , it
is t h i s v e r y f e a t u r e w h i c h m a k e s h i s w o r k i n t e r e s t i n g for a n a n a l y s i s of
contemporary
i d e o l o g y : t h e v e r y l a c k of s t y l i s t i c q u a l i t i e s , t h e t o t a l l y
" t r a n s p a r e n t " m o d e of w r i t i n g , a l l o w s t h e u n d e r l y i n g i d e o l o g i c a l f a n t a s i e s
to b e s t a g e d a t t h e i r e m b a r r a s s i n g l y d e s u b l i m a t e d p u r e s t , in n a k e d form,
a s it w e r e . E x e m p l a r y
h e r e i s Prey^
in w h i c h a
nanotechnological
e x p e r i m e n t in a l a b o r a t o r y in t h e N e v a d a d e s e r t g o e s h o r r i b l y w r o n g ;
a c l o u d of n a n o p a r t i c l e s — m i l l i o n s of m i c r o r o b o t s — e s c a p e s . T h e c l o u d —
v i s i b l e to o b s e r v e r s a s a b l a c k s w a r m — i s s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g ,
self-reprodu-
c i n g , i n t e l l i g e n t , a n d it l e a r n s from e x p e r i e n c e , e v o l v i n g h o u r b y h o u r .
E v e r y effort to d e s t r o y it fails.'* It h a s b e e n p r o g r a m m e d to b e c o m e a
p r e d a t o r ; h u m a n s a r e its p r e y . O n l y a h a n d f u l of s c i e n t i s t s t r a p p e d in t h e
l a b o r a t o r y c a n h a l t t h e r e l e a s e of t h i s m e c h a n i c a l p l a g u e on a d e f e n s e l e s s
w o r l d . . . A s i s a l w a y s t h e c a s e in s u c h s t o r i e s , t h i s " b i g p l o t "
(the
c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t t h r e a t e n s to r u i n h u m a n i t y itself) i s c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
" s e c o n d a r y p l o t , " a set of r e l a t i o n s a n d t e n s i o n s a m o n g s t t h e g r o u p of
s c i e n t i s t s , vrith t h e t r o u b l e d r o l e - r e v e r s a l m a r r i e d c o u p l e at its c e n t e r .
J a c k , t h e n o v e l ' s n a r r a t o r , w a s t h e m a n a g e r of a c u t t i n g - e d g e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m d i v i s i o n in a m e d i a - t e c h n o l o g y c o m p a n y b e f o r e h e w a s m a d e a
s c a p e g o a t for s o m e o n e e l s e ' s c o r r u p t i o n a n d fired; n o w h e i s a h o u s e h u s b a n d w h i l e h i s w i f e , J u l i a , i s t h e w o r k a h o l i c v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of X y m o s ,
the nanotechnology c o m p a n y w h i c h o w n s the N e v a d a desert l a b o r a t o r y
w h e r e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o c c u r s — e r o t i c , m a n i p u l a t i v e , a n d c o l d , she i s a
n e w v e r s i o n of t h e c o r p o r a t e v i x e n from DidclMure. A t t h e n o v e l ' s start.
J a c k h a s to c o p e w i t h t h e i r t h r e e c h i l d r e n , d i s c u s s e s P a m p e r s v e r s u s
H u g g i e s w i t h a n o t h e r f a t h e r in t h e s u p e r m a r k e t , a n d t r i e s to c o n t r o l h i s
s u s p i c i o n s t h a t h i s w i f e i s h a v i n g a n affair.
F a r from p r o v i d i n g a m e r e h u m a n - i n t e r e s t s u b p l o t , t h i s f a m i l y plot i s
w h a t t h e n o v e l r e a l l y t u r n s on: t h e c l o u d of n a n o p a r t i c l e s s h o u l d
be
c o n c e i v e d of a s a m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y ' s t e n s i o n s . T h e first t h i n g
t h a t c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e the e y e of a n y o n e w h o k n o w s L a c a n i s h o w t h i s
s w a r m r e s e m b l e s w h a t L a c a n , in h i s Seminar XI,
c a l l e d " l a m e l l a " : it
a p p e a r s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , in its infinite p l a s t i c i t y ; it a l w a y s r e a s s e m b l e s
Itself, a b l e to m o r p h i n t o a m u l t i t u d e of s h a p e s ; m it, p u r e evil a n i m a l i t y
o v e r l a p s w i t h m a c h i n e - l i k e b l i n d i n s i s t e n c e . T h e l a m e l l a is a n e n t i t y
consisting
of p u r e
surface, without
the
d e n s i t y of a s u b s t a n c e ,
an
53
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
I n f i n i t e l y p l a s t i c o b j e c t c a p a b l e n o t j u s t of i n c e s s a n t l y c h a n g i n g its form,
b u t e v e n of t r a n s p o s i n g
i t s e l f from
o n e to a n o t h e r
medium: imagine
" s o m e t h i n g " t h a t i s first h e a r d a s a s h r i l l s o u n d , a n d t h e n p o p s u p a s a
m o n s t r o u s l y d i s t o r t e d b o d y . A l a m e l l a is i n d i v i s i b l e , i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , a n d
i m m o r t a l — m o r e p r e c i s e l y , u n d e a d in t h e s e n s e t h i s t e r m h a s in h o r r o r
fiction:
not s u b l i m e s p i r i t u a l i m m o r t a l i t y , b u t t h e o b s c e n e I m m o r t a l i t y of
t h e " l i v i n g d e a d " w h i c h , after e v e r y a n n i h i l a t i o n , r e c o m p o s e t h e m s e l v e s
a n d c l u m s i l y c a r r y on t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . A s L a c a n p u t s it, t h e l a m e l l a d o e s
n o t e x i s t , it i n s i s t s : it i s u n r e a l , a n e n t i t y of p u r e s e m b l a n c e , a m u l t i p l i c i t y
of a p p e a r a n c e s w h i c h s e e m to e n v e l o p a c e n t r a l v o i d — i t s s t a t u s i s p u r e l y
f a n t a s m a t i c . T h i s b l i n d i n d e s t r u c t i b l e i n s i s t e n c e of t h e l i b i d o i s w h a t
F r e u d c a l l e d t h e " d e a t h d r i v e , " a n d o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e
" d e a t h d r i v e " i s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e F r e u d i a n n a m e for its v e r y o p p o s i t e ,
for t h e w a y i m m o r t a l i t y a p p e a r s w i t h i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : for a n u n c a n n y
e x c e s s of life, for a n " u n d e a d " u r g e w h i c h p e r s i s t s b e y o n d t h e ( b i o l o g i c a l )
c y c l e of life a n d d e a t h , of g e n e r a t i o n a n d c o r r u p t i o n . F r e u d e q u a t e s t h e
death drive with the so-called "compulsion-to-repeat," an u n c a n n y u r g e
to r e p e a t p a i n f u l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h s e e m s to o u t g r o w t h e n a t u r a l
l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e o r g a n i s m affected b y it a n d to i n s i s t e v e n b e y o n d t h e
o r g a n i s m ' s d e a t h . A s s u c h , t h e l a m e l l a i s " w h a t i s s u b t r a c t e d from
the
l i v i n g b e i n g b y v i r t u e of t h e fact t h a t it i s s u b j e c t to t h e c y c l e of s e x e d
reproduction":^
it p r e c e d e s s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e , it m u l t i p l i e s a n d
d u c e s itself b y m e a n s of a s e x u a l s e l f - d i v i s i o n .
repro­
In the n o v e l ' s c l i m a c t i c
s c e n e . J a c k h o l d s J u l i a in h i s a r m s w h i l e s h e , u n b e k n o w s t t o h i m , i s
a l r e a d y i n f e c t e d b y t h e s w a r m a n d l i v e s in s y m b i o s i s w i t h t h e
t i c l e s , r e c e i v i n g from t h e m a s u p e r h u m a n
nanopar-
life-power.
I h e l d h e r h a r d . T h e s k i n of h e r face b e g a n to s h i v e r , v i b r a t i n g r a p i d l y .
A n d t h e n h e r f e a t u r e s s e e m e d to g r o w , to s w e l l a s s h e s c r e a m e d . I
thought her eyes looked frightened.
b e g a n to b r e a k u p into
rivulets,
The
swelling continued,
and
and streams.
A n d t h e n in a s u d d e n r u s h J u l i a l i t e r a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t e d b e f o r e
my
e y e s . T h e s k i n of h e r s w o l l e n f a c e a n d b o d y b l e w a w a y from h e r in
s t r e a m s of p a r t i c l e s , l i k e s a n d b l o w n off a s a n d d u n e . T h e p a r t i c l e s
c u r v e d a w a y in t h e a r c of t h e m a g n e t i c field t o w a r d t h e s i d e s of t h e
room.
I felt h e r b o d y g r o w i n g l i g h t e r a n d l i g h t e r in m y a r m s . S t i l l t h e
p a r t i c l e s c o n t i n u e d to flow a w a y , w i t h a k i n d of w h o o s h i n g s o u n d , to
all c o r n e r s of t h e r o o m . A n d w h e n it w a s
54
finished,
w h a t w a s left
T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y
behind—what
I still h e l d in m y a r m s — ^ w a s a p a l e a n d
cadaverous
form. J u l i a ' s e y e s w e r e s u n k d e e p in h e r c h e e k s , t i e r m o u t h w a s t h i n
and cracked, her skin translucent. H e r hair w a s colorless, brittle. Her
c o l l a r b o n e s p r o t r u d e d from h e r b o n y n e c k . S h e l o o k e d l i k e s h e w a s
d y i n g of c a n c e r . H e r m o u t h w o r k e d . I h e a r d faint w o r d s , h a r d l y m o r e
t h a n b r e a t h i n g . 1 l e a n e d in, t u r n e d m y e a r to h e r m o u t h to h e a r .
" J a c k , " she w h i s p e r e d , "it's eating m e . " ( 4 6 8 - 9 )
T h i s s e p a r a t i o n i s t h e n u n d o n e , t h e p a r t i c l e s r e t u r n to J u l i a a n d r e v i t a l i z e
her:
T h e p a r t i c l e s on t h e w a l l s w e r e d r i f t i n g free o n c e m o r e . N o w
they
s e e m e d to t e l e s c o p e b a c k , r e t u r n i n g to h e r face a n d b o d y . . ./ A n d
s u d d e n l y , in a whoodh, a l l t h e p a r t i c l e s r e t u r n e d , a n d J u l i a w a s full a n d
b e a u t i f u l a n d s t r o n g a s b e f o r e , a n d s h e p u s h e d m e a w a y from h e r w i t h
a contemptuous look . . . ( 4 7 1 )
In t h e final c o n f r o n t a t i o n ,
w e then get both J u l i a s side b y side, the
g l i m m e r i n g J u l i a c o m p o s e d of t h e s w a r m a n d t h e e x h a u s t e d r e a l J u l i a :
J u l i a came swirling u p through the air t o w a r d me, spiralling like a
c o r k s c r e w — a n d g r a b b e d the l a d d e r alongside me. Except she w a s n ' t
J u l i a , s h e w a s t h e s w a r m , a n d for a m o m e n t t h e s w a r m w a s d i s ­
o r g a n i z e d e n o u g h t h a t I c o u l d s e e r i g h t t h r o u g h h e r in p l a c e s ; I c o u l d
see t h e s w i r l i n g p a r t i c l e s t h a t c o m p o s e d h e r . I l o o k e d d o w n a n d s a w
t h e r e a l J u l i a , d e a t h l y p a l e , s t a n d i n g a n d l o o k i n g u p at m e , h e r face a
skull. B y now the s w a r m alongside me become solid-appearing, as 1
h a d s e e n it b e c o m e solid b e f o r e . It l o o k e d l i k e J u l i a . ( 4 7 6 )
H e r e , w e a r e not t a l k i n g a b o u t s c i e n c e , not e v e n p r o b l e m a t i c s c i e n c e , b u t
o n e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a n t a s y s c e n a r l i , or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , the s c e n a r i o
of t h e v e r y d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n f a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y , so t h a t
w e g e t t h e t w o of t h e m , f a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y , t h e J u l i a - s w a r m a n d t h e
r e a l " J u l i a , s i d e b y s i d e , a s in t h e w o n d e r f u l s c e n e from t h e b e g i n n i n g of
Terrj^ G i l l i a m ' s Brazil, w h e r e food is s e r v e d in a n e x p e n s i v e r e s t a u r a n t in
s u c h a w a y t h a t w e g e t on a p l a t e itself a s m a l l p a t t y - l i k e c a k e w h i c h l o o k s
( a n d p r o b a b l y t a s t e s ) l i k e e x c r e m e n t , w h i l e a b o v e the p l a t e , h a n g s a c o l o r
photo which shows us w h a t w e are "really eating," namely a nicely
cooked juicy steak . . .
55
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
T h i s , t h e n , i s h o w o n e s h o u l d r e a d Prey: a l l t h e ( p s e u d o - ) s c i e n t l l i c
s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t n a n o t e c h n o l o g y a r e h e r e a p r e t e x t to tell t h e s t o r y of a
h u s b a n d r e d u c e d to a d o m e s t i c r o l e , f r u s t r a t e d b y h i s a m b i t i o u s c o r p o r a t e
v i x e n of a w i f e . N o w o n d e r that, a t t h e n o v e l ' s e n d , a " n o r m a l " c o u p l e is
r e c r e a t e d : a t J a c k ' s s i d e is M a e , t h e p a s s i v e b u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g
Chinese
c o l l e a g u e s c i e n t i s t , s i l e n t a n d faithful, l a c k i n g J u l i a ' s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s a n d
ambition.
The production of the couple in Hollywood . . .
A v a r i a n t of t h e s a m e motif, t h e i m p a s s e of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y a n d its
restoration, secretly r u n s t h r o u g h all k e y S t e v e n S p i e l b e r g
Empire of the Sun, Jurasdic Park, Schindler'd hut.
films—^T",
. . One should remember
t h a t t h e s m a l l b o y to w h o m E T a p p e a r s w a s a b a n d o n e d b y h i s f a t h e r ( a s
we
l e a r n i n t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g ) , so t h a t E T i s u l t i m a t e l y a k i n d of
"vanishing m e d i a t o r " w h o provides a n e w father (the good scientist w h o ,
in t h e film's last shot, i s a l r e a d y s e e n e m b r a c i n g t h e m o t h e r ) — w h e n t h e
n e w f a t h e r a r r i v e s , E T c a n l e a v e a n d " g o h o m e . " Empire of the Sun f o c u s e s
on a b o y d e s e r t e d b y h i s f a m i l y in w a r - t o r n C h i n a a n d s u r v i v i n g t h r o u g h
t h e h e l p of a n e r s a t z f a t h e r ( p l a y e d b y J o h n M a l k o v i c h ) . In t h e v e r y first
s c e n e of Jurassic Park, w e s e e t h e p a t e r n a l figure ( p l a y e d b y S a m N e l l l )
j o k i n g l y t h r e a t e n i n g the t w o k i d s w i t h a d i n o s a u r b o n e — t h i s b o n e is
c l e a r l y the t i n y object-stain w h i c h , later, e x p l o d e s into g i g a n t i c dinosaurs,
so t h a t o n e c a n r i s k t h e h j / p o t h e s i s t h a t , w i t h i n t h e
film's
fantasmatic
u n i v e r s e , t h e d i n o s a u r s ' d e s t r u c t i v e f u i y m e r e l y m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e r a g e of
t h e p a t e r n a l s u p e r e g o . A b a r e l y p e r c e p t i b l e d e t a i l t h a t o c c u r s l a t e r , in t h e
m i d d l e of t h e film, c o n f i r m s t h i s r e a d i n g . N e l l l a n d t h e t w o c h i l d r e n ,
p u r s u e d b y t h e m o n s t e r s , t a k e r e f u g e from t h e m u r d e r o u s
carnivorous
d i n o s a u r s in a g i g a n t i c t r e e , w h e r e , d e a d t i r e d , t h e y fall a s l e e p ; on t h e
t r e e , N e l l l l o s e s t h e d i n o s a u r b o n e t h a t w a s s t u c k in h i s belt, a n d it i s a s if
t h i s a c c i d e n t a l l o s s h a s a m a g i c a l effect —before t h e y fall a s l e e p , N e i l l i s
r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , d i s p l a y i n g w a r m affection a n d
tenderness
t o w a r d s them. Significantly, the d i n o s a u r s w h i c h a p p r o a c h the tree the
n e x t m o r n i n g a n d a w a k e n t h e s l e e p i n g p a r t y , t u r n o u t to b e of t h e
b e n e v o l e n t h e r b i v o r o u s k i n d . . . Schindler's List i s , a t t h e m o s t b a s i c l e v e l ,
a r e m a k e of Jurassic Park ( a n d , if a n y t h i n g , w o r s e t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l ) , w i t h
t h e N a z i s a s t h e d i n o s a u r m o n s t e r s , S c h i n d l e r a s ( a t t h e film's b e g i n n i n g )
the c y n i c a l , p r o f i t e e r i n g ,
and opportunistic
parental
figure,
and
the
g h e t t o J e w s a s t h r e a t e n e d c h i l d r e n ( t h e i r i n f a n t i l i z a t i o n in t h e film is
56
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
s t r i k i n g ) - T h e s t o i y t h e film t e l l s i s a b o u t S c h i n d l e r ' s g r a d u a l r e d i s c o v e r y
of h i s p a t e r n a l d u t y t o w a r d s t h e J e w s , a n d h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
into a
c a r i n g a n d r e s p o n s i b l e father. A n d i s The War of the Worlds not t h e l a t e s t
i n s t a l l m e n t of t h i s s a g a ? T o m C r u i s e p l a y s a d i v o r c e d w o r k i n g - c l a s s
father w h o n e g l e c t s h i s t w o c h i l d r e n ; t h e i n v a s i o n of t h e a l i e n s r e a w a k e n s
in him the proper paternal instincts, a n d he rediscovers himself a s a
c a r i n g f a t h e r — n o w o n d e r that, in l a s t s c e n e , h e f i n a l l y g e t s t h e r e c o g n i ­
t i o n from h i s son w h o , t h r o u g h o u t t h e film, d e s p i s e d h i m . In t h e m o d e of
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s t o r i e s , t h e film c o u l d t h u s a l s o h a v e b e e n s u b t i t l e d
" A s t o r y of h o w a w o r k i n g f a t h e r i s finally r e c o n c i l e d w i t h h i s s o n . " . . .
O n e c a n e a s i l y i m a g i n e t h e film without t h e b l o o d t h i r s t y a l i e n s so t h a t
w h a t r e m a i n s is in a w a y " w h a t it i s r e a l l y a b o u t , " t h e s t o r y of a d i v o r c e d
w o r k i n g - c l a s s f a t h e r w h o s t r i v e s to r e g a i n t h e r e s p e c t of h i s t w o c h i l d r e n .
T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e film's i d e o l o g y : w i t h r e g a r d to t h e t w o l e v e l s of t h e
s t o r y ( t h e O e d i p a l l e v e l of lost a n d r e g a i n e d p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y ;
the
s p e c t a c u l a r l e v e l of t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i n v a d i n g a l i e n s ) , t h e r e i s a c l e a r
diss3mimetry, s i n c e t h e O e d i p a l l e v e l i s w h a t t h e s t o r y i s " r e a l l y a b o u t , "
w h i l e t h e e x t e r n î J s p e c t a c u l a r i s m e r e l y its m e t a p h o r i c e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e
is a n i c e d e t a i l in t h e film's s o u n d t r a c k w h i c h m a k e s c l e a r t h e p r e d o m i ­
n a n c e of t h i s Oedipeil d i m e n s i o n : t h e a l i e n s ' a t t a c k s a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a
terrifying one-note low-trombone sound w e i r d l y resembling the low bass
and trumpet
s o u n d of t h e T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t c h a n t , t h e v o i c e of t h e
suffering, d y i n g evil f a t h e r ( i n c l e a r c o n t r a s t to t h e " b e a u t i f u l "
five-tones
m e l o d i c f r a g m e n t t h a t i d e n t i f i e s t h e " g o o d " a l i e n s in S p i e l b e r g ' s Encounterd of the Third Kind).
N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t t h e s a m e k e y d i s c l o s e s t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i f of
t h e g r e a t e s t c i n e m a h i t of a l l t i m e s , J a m e s C a m e r o n ' s Titanic. Is Titanic
r e a l l y a film a b o u t t h e c a t a s t r o p h e of a s h i p h i t t i n g a n i c e b e r g ? O n e
s h o u l d b e a t t e n t i v e to t h e p r e c i s e m o m e n t of t h e d i s a s t e r : it t a k e s p l a c e
when the two y o u n g lovers (Leonardo Di Caprio a n d Kate W i n s l e t ) ,
m i m e d i a t e l y after c o n s u m m a t i n g t h e i r a m o r o u s e n c o u n t e r in t h e s e x u a l
act, r e t u r n to t h e s h i p ' s d e c k . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s not a l l : if t h i s w e r e a l l ,
t h e n t h e c a t a s t r o p h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s i m p l y t h e p u n i s h m e n t of F a t e for
t h e d o u b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( i l l e g i t i m a t e s e x u a l act; t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c l a s s
d i v i s i o n s ) . W h a t i s m o r e c r u c i a l is t h a t , on t h e d e c k , K a t e p a s s i o n a t e l y
tells h e r l o v e r that, w h e n t h e s h i p r e a c h e s N e w Y o r k t h e n e x t m o r n i n g ,
s h e w i l l l e a v e w i t h h i m , p r e f e r r i n g a life of p o v e r t y w i t h h e r t r u e l o v e to a
false a n d c o r r u p t e d e x i s t e n c e a m o n g t h e r i c h ; a t thü m o m e n t t h e s h i p h i t s
t h e i c e b e r g , in o r d e r to prevent w h a t w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e b e e n t h e
57
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
true d i s a s t e r , n a m e l y t h e c o u p l e ' s life in N e w Y o r k . O n e c a n s a f e l y g u e s s
t h a t t h e m i s e r y of e v e r y d a y life w o u l d soon h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e i r l o v e . T h e
a c c i d e n t t h u s o c c u r s in o r d e r to s a v e t h e i r l o v e , in o r d e r to s u s t a i n t h e
i l l u s i o n t h a t , h a d it not h a p p e n e d , t h e y w o u l d h a v e l i v e d " h a p p i l y e v e r
after" . . .
B u t t h i s i s n o t a l l . A f u r t h e r c l u e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e final m o m e n t s of Di
C a p r i o . f^e i s f r e e z i n g to d e a t h i n t h e c o l d w a t e r , w h i l e W i n s l e t i s s a f e l y
floating
on a l a r g e p i e c e of w o o d ; a w a r e t h a t s h e is l o s i n g h i m , s h e c r i e s :
"I'll n e v e r let y o u g o ! " , all t h e w h i l e p u s h i n g h i m a w a y w i t h h e r h a n d s —
w h y ? B e c a u s e h e h a s s e r v e d h i s p u r p o s e . For, b e n e a t h t h e l o v e story,
Titanœ t e l l s a n o t h e r t a l e , t h a t of a s p o i l e d h i g h - s o c i e t y g i r l in a n i d e n t i t y
c r i s i s : s h e is c o n f u s e d , d o e s not k n o w w h a t to d o w i t h herself, a n d , m u c h
m o r e t h a n h e r l o v e r , D i C a p r i o i s a k i n d of " v a n i s h i n g m e d i a t o r " w h o s e
function is to r e s t o r e h e r s e n s e of i d e n t i t y a n d p u r p o s e in life, h e r selfi m a g e (quite literally, also: he s k e t c h e s her i m a g e ) ; once his job is done,
h e c a n d i s a p p e a r . T h i s is w h y h i s l a s t w o r d s , before h e d i s a p p e a r s into t h e
f r e e z i n g N o r t h A t l a n t i c , a r e not t h e w o r d s of a d e p a r t i n g l o v e r , but,
r a t h e r , t h e l a s t m e s s a g e of a p r e a c h e r , t e l l i n g h e r h o w to l e a d h e r life, to
b e h o n e s t a n d faithful to herself, a n d so o n a n d so forth. W h a t t h i s m e a n s
is t h a t C a m e r o n ' s s u p e r f i c i a l H o l l y w o o d M a r x i s m ( h i s a l l too o b v i o u s
p r i v i l e g i n g of t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s a n d c a r i c a t u r a l d e p i c t i o n of t h e c r u e l
e g o t i s m a n d o p p o r t u n i s m of t h e rich) s h o u l d not d e c e i v e u s : b e n e a t h t h i s
s y m p a t h y for t h e p o o r , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r n a r r a t i v e , t h e p r o f o u n d l y r e a c t i o n a r y m3'th, first fully d e p l o y e d b y K i p l i n g ' s Captains Coiirageoiid, of a
y o u n g rich k i d in c r i s i s w h o s e v i t a l i t y i s r e s t o r e d b y a b r i e f i n t i m a t e
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f u l l - b l o o d e d life of t h e p o o r . W h a t l u r k s b e h i n d
the
c o m p a s s i o n for t h e p o o r i s t h e i r v a m p i r i c e x p l o i t a t i o n .
T h e r i d i c u l o u s c l i m a x of t h i s H o l l y w o o d p r o c e d u r e of s t a g i n g g r e a t
h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s a s t h e b a c k d r o p to t h e f o r m a t i o n of a c o u p l e i s W a r r e n
B e a t t y ' s Reds, in w h i c h H o l l y w o o d found
a w a y to r e h a b i l i t a t e
the
O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n itself, a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t t r a u m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t
of t h e t w e n t i e t h
century.
How,
e x a c t l y , is t h e
October
Revolution
d e p i c t e d in t h e film? T h e c o u p l e of J o h n R e e d a n d L o u i s e B i y a n t a r e
in a d e e p e m o t i o n a l c r i s i s ; t h e i r l o v e is r e i g n i t e d w h e n L o u i s e w a t c h e s
John
on a p l a t f o r m
delivering an impassioned revolutionary
W h a t then follows is their love-making, intersected w i t h
speech.
archetypal
s c e n e s from t h e r e v o l u t i o n , s o m e of w h i c h r e v e r b e r a t e in a n a l l too
patent m a n n e r w i t h the love-making; say, w h e n J o h n penetrates Louise,
t h e r e is a c u t to a s t r e e t w h e r e a d a r k c r o w d of d e m o n s t r a t i n g
58
people
THE F A M I L Y M Y T H O F I D E O L O G Y
envelops a n d stops a p e n e t r a t i n g " p h a l l i c " t r a m w a y . . . all this a g a i n s t
b a c k g r o u n d of t h e s i n g i n g of " T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e . " W h e n , a t t h e
o r g a s m i c c l i m a x , L e n i n h i m s e l f a p p e a r s , a d d r e s s i n g a p a c k e d h a l l of
delegates, he is more a w i s e t e a c h e r overseeing the couple's love initiation
than a cold revolutionary
leader. Even
the
October
Revolution
is
ax;ceptable, if it s e r v e s t h e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a c o u p l e . . .
T o w h a t e x t e n t , o n e m i g h t a s k , i s t h i s H o l l y w o o d f o r m u l a of t h e
c r e a t i o n of t h e c o u p l e a s t h e f o r e g r o u n d of a g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l e p i c p r e s e n t
also in o t h e r c u l t u r e s ? L e t u s t a k e a l o o k a t t h e s u c c e s s o r s of t h e O c t o b e r
Revolution itself—there are surprises awaiting us here.
T a k e C h i a u r e l i ' s i n f a m o u s The Fall of Berlin ( 1 9 4 8 ) , t h e s u p r e m e c a s e of
t h e S t a l i n i s t w a r e p i c , t h e s t o r y of t h e
Soviet victory over
Hitler's
G e r m a n y . T h e film b e g i n s in 1 9 4 1 , j u s t p r i o r to t h e G e r m a n
assault
on t h e U S S R ; t h e h e r o , a S t a k h a n o v i t e s t e e l w o r k e r in l o v e w i t h a l o c a l
tecLcher, b u t too s h y to d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h her, i s a w a r d e d t h e S t a l i n P r i z e
a n d r e c e i v e d b y S t a l i n m h i s d a c h a . In a s c e n e w h i c h w a s c u t after 1 9 5 3
a n d t h e n lost, after t h e official c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s , S t a l i n n o t i c e s a n e r v o u s
u n e a s i n e s s in t h e h e r o a n d a s k s h i m w h a t is w r o n g . T h e h e r o t e l l s S t a l i n
a b o u t h i s l o v e p r o b l e m s , a n d S t a l i n g i v e s h i m a d v i c e : r e c i t e p o e t r y to h e r ,
t h a t ' s t h e w a y to w i n a g i r l ' s h e a r t , a n d so on. B a c k h o m e , t h e
hero
s u c c e e d s in s e d u c i n g t h e g i r l , b u t a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n h e i s c a r r y i n g
h e r in h i s a r m s i n t o t h e g r a s s (to m a k e l o v e , in all p r o b a b i l i t y ) , t h e b o m b s
f r o m G e r m a n p l a n e s s t a r t to f a l l — t h i s i s J u n e 2 2 , 1 9 4 1 . In t h e e n s u i n g
confusion, t h e g i r l i s t a k e n p r i s o n e r b y t h e G e r m a n s a n d t a k e n to a w o r k
c a m p n e a r Berlin, w h i l e the hero joins the R e d A r m y ,
fighting
on t h e
fi-ont l i n e s to g e t h i s l o v e b a c k . A t t h e film's e n d , w h e n t h e j u b i l a n t c r o w d
of c a m p p r i s o n e r s l i b e r a t e d b y t h e R e d A r m y m i n g l e s w i t h t h e R u s s i a n
s o l d i e r s , a p l a n e l a n d s on a field n e a r b y ; S t a l i n h i m s e l f s t e p s o u t a n d
W a l k s t o w a r d s t h e c r o w d w h i c h g r e e t s h i m j o y f u l l y . A t t h a t v e r y point, a s
if a g a i n m e d i a t e d b y S t a l i n ' s h e l p , t h e c o u p l e a r e r e u n i t e d : t h e g i r l n o t e s
t h e h e r o in t h e c r o w d ; before e m b r a c i n g h i m , s h e a p p r o a c h e s S t a l i n a n d
a s k s h i m if s h e c a n g i v e h i m a k i s s . . . T r u l y , t h e y d o n ' t m a k e t h e m l i k e
that a n y morel
The Fall of Berlin i s e f f e c t i v e l y t h e s t o r y of a c o u p l e
r e u n i t e d : W o r l d W a r II s e r v e s a s t h e o b s t a c l e to b e o v e r c o m e so t h a t t h e
h e r o c a n r e a c h h i s b e l o v e d , l i k e t h e d r a g o n t h e k n i g h t h a s to kill to w i n
t h e p r i n c e s s i m p r i s o n e d in t h e c a s t l e . T h e r o l e of S t a l i n is t h a t of a
n i a g i c i a n a n d m a t c h m a k e r w h o w i s e l y l e a d s t h e c o u p l e t o its r e u n i o n . . .
T h e s a m e i n t e r p r e t i v e k e y fits s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n c a t a s t r o p h e films. In a
r e c e n t e x a m p l e of t h e s e r i e s of c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e films, M i m i L e d e r ' s
59
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
Deep Impact ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a g i g a n t i c c o m e t t h r e a t e n s to h i t t h e E a r t h a n d to
e x t i n g u i s h a l l life for m i l l e n n i a ; a t t h e e n d of t h e film, t h e E a r t h i s s a v e d
d u e to t h e h e r o i c a n d s u i c i d a l a c t i o n of a g r o u p of a s t r o n a u t s w i t h a t o m i c
w e a p o n s ; o n l y a s m a l l f r a g m e n t of t h e c o m e t falls i n t o t h e o c e a n e a s t of
N e w Y o r k a n d c a u s e s a c o l o s s a l w a v e , h u n d r e d s of y a r d s h i g h , t h a t
flushes
t h e e n t i r e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t of t h e U S A , i n c l u d i n g N e w Y o r k a n d
Washington. This comet-Thing also creates a couple, but an unexpected
o n e : t h e i n c e s t u o u s c o u p l e of t h e y o u n g , o b v i o u s l y n e u r o t i c , s e x u a l l y
inactive T V reporter ( T e a L e o n i ) a n d h e r promiscuous father
(Max­
imilian Schell), w h o h a s divorced h e r mother a n d just married a y o u n g
w o m a n of t h e s a m e a g e a s h i s d a u g h t e r . It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e film is
effectively a d r a m a about this u n r e s o l v e d proto-incestuous f a t h e r - d a u g h ­
t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p : t h e t h r e a t e n i n g c o m e t o b v i o u s l y g i v e s b o d y to t h e selfd e s t r u c t i v e r a g e of t h e h e r o i n e , w h o i s s i n g l e , a n d h a s a n o b v i o u s
t r a u m a t i c f i x a t i o n on h e r f a t h e r . F l a b b e r g a s t e d b y h e r f a t h e r ' s r e m a r ­
r i a g e , s h e i s u n a b l e to c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e fact t h a t h e h a s a b a n d o n e d
h e r for h e r p e e r . T h e P r e s i d e n t ( p l a y e d b y M o r g a n F r e e m a n , i n a
p o l i f i c a l l y c o r r e c t v e i n ) w h o , i n a b r o a d c a s t to t h e n a t i o n , a n n o u n c e s
t h e l o o m i n g c a t a s t r o p h e , a c t s a s t h e i d e a l c o u n t e r p o i n t to t h e o b s c e n e r e a l
father, a s a c a r i n g p a t e r n a l
figure
(without a noticeable wife!) w h o ,
significantly, gives h e r a p r i v i l e g e d role at the press conference, allowing
h e r t o a s k t h e first q u e s t i o n s . T h e l i n k of t h e c o m e t w i t h t h e d a r k , o b s c e n e
u n d e r s i d e of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y i s m a d e c l e a r t h r o u g h t h e w a y t h e h e r o i n e
g e t s in t o u c h w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t : in h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s h e d i s c o v e r s a n
impending
financial
scandal (large illegal g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g ) con­
n e c t e d w i t h " E l l e " — h e r first i d e a , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f
is I n v o l v e d i n a s e x s c a n d a l , t h a t " E l l e " r e f e r s to h i s m i s t r e s s ; s h e t h e n
d i s c o v e r s t h e t r u t h : " E . L . E " i s a c o d e n a m e for t h e e m e r g e n c y m e a s u r e s to
be t a k e n w h e n a n a c c i d e n t t h a t c o u l d l e a d to total e x t i n c t i o n of life
threatens the Earth, a n d the g o v e r n m e n t w a s secretly spending funds
building a gigantic u n d e r g r o u n d shelter in w h i c h a million A m e r i c a n s
w o u l d b e a b l e to s u r v i v e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e .
T h e a p p r o a c h i n g c o m e t is t h u s c l e a r l y a m e t a p h o r i c s u b s t i t u t e for
p a t e r n a l i n f i d e l i t y , for t h e l i b i d i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e of a d a u g h t e r f a c i n g t h e
fact t h a t h e r o b s c e n e f a t h e r h a s c h o s e n a n o t h e r y o u n g w o m a n o v e r h e r .
T h e e n t i r e m a c h i n e r y of t h e g l o b a l d i s a s t e r i s t h u s s e t i n m o t i o n s o t h a t
the f a t h e r ' s y o u n g w i f e w i l l a b a n d o n h i m , a n d t h e f a t h e r w i l l r e t u r n ( n o t
to h i s w i f e , t h e h e r o i n e ' s m o t h e r , b u t . . . ) to h i s d a u g h t e r : t h e c u l m i n a t i o n
of t h e film i s t h e s c e n e in w h i c h t h e h e r o i n e r e j o i n s h e r f a t h e r w h o , a l o n e
60
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
in h i s l u x u r i o u s s e a s i d e h o u s e , a w a i t s t h e i m p e n d i n g w a v e . S h e f m d s h i m
w a l k i n g along the shoreline; they m a k e peace with each other
and
embrace, silently a w a i t i n g the w a v e ; w h e n the w a v e a p p r o a c h e s
and
is a l r e a d y c a s t i n g its l a r g e s h a d o w o v e r t h e m , she d r a w s h e r s e l f c l o s e r to
h e r father, g e n t l y c r y i n g " D a d d y ! " , a s if to s e a r c h for p r o t e c t i o n in h i m ,
r e c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e c h i l d h o o d s c e n e of a s m a l l g i r l s h e l t e r e d b y t h e f a t h e r ' s
loving embrace, a n d a second later t h e y are both swept a w a y b y the
g i g a n t i c w a v e . T h e h e r o i n e ' s h e l p l e s s n e s s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y in t h i s s c e n e
s h o u l d not d e c e i v e u s : s h e is t h e evil s p i r i t w h o , in t h e u n d e r l y i n g l i b i d i n a l
roaichinery
finding
of t h e film's n a r r a t i v e , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s , a n d t h i s s c e n e of
d e a t h in t h e p r o t e c t i v e f a t h e r ' s e m b r a c e i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of h e r
u l t i m a t e w i s h . . . f l e r e w e a r e a t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e to The Forbidden
Planet: in b o t h c a s e s w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n c e s t u o u s
relationship
b e t w e e n f a t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r , y e t w h i l e in Forbidden Planet t h e d e s t r u c t i v e
m o n s t e r m a t e r i a l i z e s the fathers
i n c e s t u o u s d e a t h w i s h , in Deep Impact it
m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e daughter'^ i n c e s t u o u s d e a t h w i s h . T h e
s c e n e on
the
waterfront w i t h the gigantic w a v e s w e e p i n g a w a y the embraced daughter
a n d f a t h e r i s to b e r e a d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e s t a n d a r d H o l l y ­
w o o d m o t i f ( r e n d e r e d f a m o u s in F r e d Z i n n e m a n ' s From Here to Eternity)
of t h e c o u p l e m a k i n g l o v e on t h e b e a c h , c a r e s s e d b y w a v e s
Lancaster and D e b o r a h Kerr): here, the couple is truly an
(Burt
incestuous
one, so t h e w a v e i s e n o r m o u s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e , not t h e s o o t h e i n g e b b a n d
flow of s m a l l b e a c h w a v e l e t s .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , t h e o t h e r b i g 1 9 9 8 b l o c k b u s t e r v a r i a t i o n on t h e
t h e m e of a g i g a n t i c c o m e t t h r e a t e n i n g E a r t h , Armageddon, a l s o f o c u s e s on
the incestuous f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e , h o w e v e r , it i s t h e
father ( B r u c e W i l l i s ) w h o i s e x c e s s i v e l y a t t a c h e d to h i s d a u g h t e r ;
the
c o m e t ' s d e s t r u c t i v e force g i v e s b o d y to hit f u r y a t h e r l o v e affairs w i t h
o t h e r m e n of h e r o w n a g e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e d e n o u e m e n t i s a l s o m o r e
p o s i t i v e , " n o t s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e : t h e f a t h e r s a c r i f i c e s h i m s e l f in o r d e r to
s a v e E a r t h , t h a t i s , e f f e c t i v e l y — a t t h e l e v e l of t h e underl3ring l i b i d i n a l
e c o n o m y — e r a s i n g h i m s e l f i n o r d e r to b l e s s t h e m a r r i a g e of h i s d a u g h t e r
to h e r y o u n g l o v e r .
• • . and out
R a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , o n e often finds a v e r s i o n of t h e s a m e f a m i l y m y t h
u n d e r l y i n g e v e n t h e o f f - H o l l y w o o d a r t films. L e t u s b e g i n w i t h F l o r i a n
H e n c k e l v o n D o n n e r s m a r c k ' s Das Leben der Anderen {The Lived of Otherd,
61
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
2 0 0 6 ) , often f a v o r a b l y c o m p a r e d w i t h U l r i c h B e c k e r ' s Goodbye Lenin —the
c l a i m i s t h a t it p r o v i d e s t h e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i v e to Goodbye Lenin w i t h its
s e n t i m e n t a l Ostalgie, b y p r o v i d i n g a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h
S t a s i t e r r o r p e n e t r a t e d e v e r y p o r e of p r i v a t e l i v e s . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s r e a l l y
the c a s e ?
U p o n a closer look, a n almost inverted i m a g e a p p e a r s : as is the case
w i t h m a n y d e p i c t i o n s of t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s . The
Lives of 0them m i s s e s the t r u e h o r r o r of t h e s i t u a t i o n in i t s v e r y a t t e m p t to
p o r t r a y i t — h o w ? F i r s t , t h e t r i g g e r for t h e e v e n t s in t h e film is t h e
corrupted
m i n i s t e r of c u l t u r e w h o w a n t s to g e t r i d of t h e top
GDR
p l a y w r i g h t G e o r g D r e y m a n , so t h a t h e w i l l b e a b l e to p u r s u e u n i m p e d e d
h i s affair w i t h D r e y m a n ' s p a r t n e r , t h e a c t r e s s C h r i s t a - M a r i a . In t h i s w a y ,
the horror inscribed into the v e r y formal structure
of t h e s y s t e m is
r e l e g a t e d to a n effect of a p e r s o n a l w h i m — t h e p o i n t lost i s that, e v e n
w i t h o u t the minister's personal corruption,
with only dedicated
and
devoted bureaucrats, the system w o u l d be no less terrifying.
T h e w r i t e r from
whom
t h e m i n i s t e r w a n t s to t a k e t h e w o m a n
is
i d e a l i z e d in t h e o p p o s i t e m a n n e r : if h e i s s u c h a g o o d w r i t e r , b o t h h o n e s t
a n d s i n c e r e l y d e d i c a t e d to t h e C o m m u n i s t s y s t e m , p e r s o n a l l y c l o s e to t h e
top r e g i m e f i g u r e s ( w e l e a r n t h a t M a r g o t f i o n e c k e r , t h e p a r l y l e a d e r ' s
w i f e , g a v e h i m a b o o k b y S o l z h e n i t s y n w h i c h is s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t e d
for
o r d i n a r y p e o p l e ) , h o w i s it t h a t h e d i d not c o m e i n t o conflict w i t h t h e
r e g i m e m u c h e a r l i e r ? H o w i s it t h a t h e w a s not c o n s i d e r e d at l e a s t a little
bit problematic b y the regime, w i t h his excesses nonetheless tolerated
b e c a u s e of h i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l f a m e , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h a l l f a m o u s
a u t h o r s from B e r t o l t B r e c h t to H e i n e r M ü l l e r a n d C h r i s t a W o l f ?
GDR
One
c a n n o t b u t r e c a l l h e r e a w i t t y f o r m u l a r e g a r d i n g life u n d e r a h a r s h
C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e : of t h r e e f e a t u r e s — p e r s o n a l h o n e s t y , s i n c e r e s u p p o r t
for t h e r e g i m e , intelligence^—it w a s p o s s i b l e to c o m b i n e o n l y t w o , n e v e r
all t h r e e . If o n e w a s h o n e s t a n d s u p p o r t i v e , o n e w a s not v e r y b r i g h t ; if o n e
w a s b r i g h t a n d s u p p o r t i v e , o n e w a s not h o n e s t ; if o n e w a s h o n e s t a n d
bright, one w a s not supportive. The problem w i t h D r e y m a n is that he
does a c t u a l l y combine all three features.
S e c o n d , d u r i n g a r e c e p t i o n a t t h e s t a r t of t h e film, a d i s s i d e n t d i r e c t l y
a n d a g g r e s s i v e l y c o n f r o n t s t h e m i n i s t e r , w i t h o u t c o n s e q u e n c e s — if s u c h a
t h i n g w a s p o s s i b l e , w a s t h e r e g i m e r e a l l y so t e r r i b l e ? L a s t , it i s C h r i s t a M a r i a w h o b r e a k s d o w n a n d b e t r a y s t h e h u s b a n d , w h i c h l a t e r l e a d s to
h e r s u i c i d a l flight from the a p a r t m e n t , c r u s h e d u n d e r t h e w h e e l s of a
t r u c k , w h e r e a s in t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of r e a l c a s e s of m a r r i e d
62
THE F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y
c o u p l e s w h e n a s p o u s e b e t r a y e d h i s p a r t n e r a n d s p i e d on her, it w a s t h e
0ien w h o b e c a m e " I M , " "inforinelieMitarheiter
( i n f o r m a l c o l l a b o r a t o r s ) " of
the S t a s i .
T h e m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y C o l d W a r l o v e s t o r y w a s the o n e b e t w e e n V e r a
L e n g s f e l d a n d K n u d W o l l e n b e r g e r w h o , in t h e n o w d e f u n c t
German
Democratic R e p u b l i c , got m a r r i e d a n d h a d t w o children together. After
t h e fall of t h e W a l l , w h e n V e r a , a G D R d i s s i d e n t , g a i n e d a c c e s s to h e r
S t a s i file, s h e l e a r n e d t h a t K n u d , a S t a s i i n f o r m e r c o d e n a m e d
Donald,
held m a r r i e d a n d l i v e d w i t h h e r on t h e o r d e r s of h i s m a s t e r s , so t h a t h e
w a s a b l e to r e p o r t on h e r a c t i v i t i e s ; u p o n l e a r n i n g t h i s , s h e i m m e d i a t e l y
d i v o r c e d h i m a n d t h e y h a v e not s p o k e n s i n c e . A f t e r w a r d s , K n u d s e n t h e r
a l e t t e r e x p l a i n i n g t h a t h e w a n t e d to s h i e l d h e r a n d t h a t h i s b e t r a y a l w a s ,
i n factj a n a c t of l o v e . N o w t h a t h e i s d y i n g of a g a l l o p i n g form
Parkinson's, V e r a has announced
of
that she h a s forgiven him . . . No
w o n d e r H o l l y w o o d i s c o n s i d e r i n g m a k i n g a film w i t h M e r y l S t r e e p a s
V e r a . ^ B e t r a y a l a s a n a c t of l o v e — t h e f o r m u l a h a d a l r e a d y b e e n p r o p o s e d
b y J o h n L e C a r r é in h i s m a s t e r p i e c e , A Perfect Spy.
T h e o n l y w a y to a c c o u n t for t h e shift in The Lives of Otherd is to e v o k e a
w e i r d u n d e r c u r r e n t of t h e s t o r y ; in a b l a t a n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n to t h e k n o w n
f a c t s , i s t h e r e a s o n for t h i s o d d
distortion
of r e a l i t y not t h e
secret
h o m o s e x u a l u n d e r c u r r e n t in t h e film? It is c l e a r t h a t , in t h e c o u r s e of
h i s s p y i n g on t h e c o u p l e , G e r d W i e s l e r b e c o m e s l i b i d i n a l l y a t t r a c t e d to
D r e y m a n , e f f e c t i v e l y o b s e s s e d b y h i m — it i s t h i s affection t h a t g r a d u a l l y
p u s h e s h i m to h e l p D r e y m a n . After die Wende, D r e y m a n d i s c o v e r s w h a t
h a d g o n e on b y g a i n i n g a c c e s s to h i s files; f o l l o w i n g w h i c h h e r e c i p r o c a t e s
in amorous terms, including tailing W i e s l e r w h o now w o r k s as a postman.
The situation is thus effectively reversed: the observed victim is n o w the
o b s e r v e r . In t h e
film's
l a s t s c e n e , W i e s l e r g o e s to a b o o k s t o r e
l e g e n d a r y Karl-Marx-Biichhandiung
(the
on t h e S t a l i n A l l e e , of c o u r s e ) , b u y s
t h e w r i t e r ' s n e w n o v e l . Sonata for an Honedt Man, a n d d i s c o v e r s t h a t it i s
d e d i c a t e d to h i m ( d e s i g n a t e d b y h i s S t a s i c o d e n a m e ) . T h u s , to i n d u l g e m
a s o m e w h a t c r u e l i r o n y , t h e finale of The Lived of Otherd r e c a l l s t h e f a m o u s
ending
Codablanca: t h e p r o v e r b i a l " b e g i n n i n g of a b e a u t i f u l f r i e n d s h i p "
between
Dreyman
and
Conveniently disposed
W i e s l e r , w i t h the
of—a
true
intrusive
female
Christological gesture
of
obstacle
sacrifice
(no w o n d e r h e r n a m e i s C h r i s t a - M a r i a ! ) .
In c o n t r a s t to t h i s i d y l l , t h e v e r y a p p e a r a n c e of H g h t - h e a r t e d n o s t a l g i c
c o m e d y in Goodbye Lenin is a f a ç a d e w h i c h c o v e r s a m u c h
harsher
U n d e r l y i n g r e a l i t y ( s i g n a l l e d at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g b y t h e b r u t a l i n t r u s i o n
63
IIN Libl-tNSE OF LOST CAUSES
of t h e S t a s i i n t o t h e f a m i l y h o m e after t h e h u s b a n d e s c a p e s to t h e W e s t ) .
T h e l e s s o n is t h u s m u c h m o r e d e s p e r a t e t h a n t h a t of The. Lived of Otherd: n o
h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e to t h e G D R r e g i m e w a s u l t i m a t e l y s u s t a i n a b l e , t h e o n l y
w a y to s u r v i v e w a s t o e s c a p e i n t o m a d n e s s , t o d i s c o n n e c t from r e a l i t y .
T h i s , of c o u r s e , in n o w a y i m p l i e s t h a t Goodbye Lenin i s w i t h o u t faults of
i t s o w n . A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a n o t h e r r e c e n t p o l i t i c a l t h r i l l e r c a n b e of
s o m e h e l p h e r e : J o h n M a l k o v i c h ' s Dancer Updtaird. In b o t h films, v i o l e n c e
is f r a m e d b y l o v e : t h e l o v e of a s o n for h i s m o t h e r (Goodbye Lenin), t h e l o v e
of a m a n for a w o m a n (Dancer). In b o t h c a s e s , t h e f u n c t i o n of l o v e i s dtricto
densu i d e o l o g i c a l : it m y s t i f i e s a n d t h e r e b y d o m e s t i c a t e s , r e n d e r s t o l e r a b l e ,
the
confrontation
w i t h t h e R e a l of b r u t a l ,
t r a u m a t i c v i o l e n c e — the
v i o l e n c e of t h e G D R r e g i m e , a s w e l l a s of its c o l l a p s e a n d t h e W e s t e r n
t a k e o v e r ; t h e v i o l e n c e of S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o ' s r u t h l e s s
revolutionary
t e r r o r . W h i l e b o t h Lenùi a n d Dancer c o n f r o n t a r e c e n t " r a d i c a l " p o l i t i c a l
p a s t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , o n e w a s a b i g h i t a n d t h e o t h e r a box-office f a i l u r e .
Goodbye Lenin t e l l s t h e s t o r y of a son w h o s e m o t h e r , an h o n e s t
GDR
b e l i e v e r , h a s a h e a r t a t t a c k o n t h e c o n f u s e d n i g h t of t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s
w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d t h e f o r t y - y e a r a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n s In 1 9 9 1 ; s h e
survives, but t h e doctor w a r n s the son that a n y traumatic experience
c o u l d c a u s e t h e m o t h e r ' s d e a t h . W i t h t h e h e l p of a friend, t h e s o n t h u s
s t a g e s for t h e m o t h e r , w h o i s r e s t r i c t e d t o h e r a p a r t m e n t , t h e s m o o t h
c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e G D R : e v e r y e v e n i n g , t h e y p l a y o n t h e T V v i d e o r e c o r d e d f a k e G D R n e w s , a n d s o on. T o w a r d s t h e film's e n d , t h e h e r o
s a y s t h a t t h e g a m e h a s g o n e t o o far^—the
fiction
s t a g e d for t h e d y i n g
m o t h e r h a s b e c o m e a n a l t e r n a t i v e G D R , r e i n v e n t e d a s it s h o u l d h a v e
been . . . Therein resides t h e k e y political question, b e y o n d t h e rather
b o r i n g topic o f Odtaigie ( w h i c h is n o t a r e a l l o n g i n g for t h e G D R , b u t t h e
e n a c t m e n t of a r e a l p a r t i n g from it, t h e a c q u i r i n g of a d i s t a n c e , d e t r a u m a t i z a t l o n ) ; w a s t h i s d r e a m of a n " a l t e r n a t i v e G D R " i n h e r e n t in t h e
G D R i t s e l f ? W h e n , in t h e final fictional T V r e p o r t , t h e n e w G D R l e a d e r
( t h e first G D R a s t r o n a u t ) d e c i d e s t o o p e n t h e b o r d e r s , a l l o w i n g t h e W e s t
G e r m a n c i t i z e n s to e s c a p e c o n s u m e r t e r r o r i s m , r a c i s m , a n d t h e h o p e l e s s
s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e , It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e n e e d for ditch a Utopian e s c a p e i s
r e a l . T o p u t i t q u i t e b r u t a l l y , w h i l e Odtaigie Is w i d e l y p r a c t i c e d in t o d a y ' s
G e r m a n y w i t h o u t c a u s i n g e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s , o n e (for t h e t i m e b e i n g , a t
least) cannot imagine publicly practicing a Nazi-nostalgia—"Goodbye
H i t l e r " instead of "Goodbye L e n i n . " Does this not b e a r witness to t h e
fact t h a t w e a r e still a w a r e o f t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l , d i s t o r t e d a n d
t h w a r t e d a s it w a s , in C o m m u n i s m b u t w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e l y m i s s i n g i n
64
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
f a s c i s m ? T h e q u a s i - m e t a p h y s i c a l e p i p h a n y t o w a r d s t h e film's e n d ( w h e n
t h e m o t h e r , on h e r first w a l k o u t s i d e t h e a p a r t m e n t , finds h e r s e l f f a c e - t o face w i t h a s t a t u e of L e n i n b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d
b y helicopter,
whose
o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d s e e m s to a d d r e s s / i n t e r p e l l a t e h e r d i r e c t l y ) i s t h u s to
b e t a k e n m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h a n it m a y first a p p e a r .
T h e w e a k p o i n t of t h e film i s t h a t ( l i k e R o b e r t o
B e n i g n i ' s Life
h
Beautiful) it s u s t a i n s a n e t h i c s of p r o t e c t i n g o n e ' s i l l u s i o n s : it m a n i p u l a t e s
t h e t h r e a t of a s e c o n d h e a r t a t t a c k a s t h e m e a n s to b l a c k m a i l u s i n t o
a c c e p t i n g t h e n e e d to p r o t e c t o n e ' s f a n t a s y a s t h e h i g h e s t e t h i c a l d u t y .
D o e s t h e film h e r e not e n d o r s e u n e x p e c t e d l y L e o S t r a u s s ' s t h e s i s on t h e
n e e d for a " n o b l e l i e " ? B u t i s it r e a l l y t h a t t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l of
C o m m u n i s m i s o n l y a " n o b l e l i e " to b e s t a g e d a n d s u s t a i n e d for n a i v e
beUevers, a l i e w h i c h
actually only m a s k s the
ruthless violence
of
C o m m u n i s t r u l e ? T h e m o t h e r i s t h e " s u b j e c t s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e " h e r e :
t h r o u g h her, otherd s u s t a i n t h e i r belief. ( T h e i r o n y i s t h a t it i s u s u a l l y t h e
m o t h e r w h o i s s u p p o s e d to b e t h e c a r e - g i v e r , p r o t e c t i n g h e r c h i l d r e n from
c r u e l r e a l i t y . ) Is t h e m o t h e r in Goodbye Lenin not t h e o n e w h o m a k e s t h e
l a w on b e h a l f of t h e ( a b s e n t ) f a t h e r h e r e ? S o — s i n c e , for L a c a n , t h e r e i n
r e s i d e s t h e g e n e s i s of m a l e h o m o s e x u a l i t y — t h e t r u e q u e s t i o n i s : w h y is
the hero not g a y , as he should h a v e b e e n ?
In c o n t r a s t
to Goodbye Lenin, Dancer Updtaird s e e s n o
potential in the
figure
redemptive
of E v i l w i t h w h i c h it i s s t r a n g e l y f a s c i n a t e d ; it
s h o u l d r a t h e r b e r e a d a s y e t a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of C o n r a d ' s v o y a g e i n t o
t h e " h e a r t of d a r k n e s s , " e p i t o m i z e d h e r e b y t h e e x c e s s i v e c r u e l t y a n d
r u t h l e s s n e s s of t h e S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o m o v e m e n t w h i c h , so w e a r e told,
showed
no
programs,
interest
but
in
conquering
simply w a g e d
its
public
opinion
murderous
with
campaign.
ideological
Rejas,
the
" h o n e s t l i b e r a l " p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t o r a n d t h e film's h e r o , i s split b e t w e e n
t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h o s e i n p o w e r a n d t h e a b s o l u t e E v i l of t h e R e v o l u ­
tion. T h i s s p l i t i s t h e o n e b e t w e e n form a n d c o n t e n t : R e j a s s u p p o r t s t h e
form of t h e e x i s t i n g d e m o c r a t i c o r d e r . A l t h o u g h c r i t i c a l of i t s p r e s e n t
content
(the
corrupt
rapist
president,
and
so
on),
he
rejects
the
r e v o l u t i o n a r y " t r a n s g r e s s i o n " of t h e form, t h e " l e a p of f a i t h " i n t o t h e
inhuman
dimension.
However,
the e n i g m a that the
film
a d d r e s s e s i s d o u b l e : it i s not
p r i m a r i l y t h e e n i g m a of t h e " r a d i c a l E v i l " of S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o
terror,
b u t t h e e n i g m a of R e j a s ' s l o v e - o b j e c t : h o w i s it p o s s i b l e for a c u l t i v a t e d
a n d b e a u t i f u l m i d d l e - c l a s s b a l l e t d a n c e r to b e a " f a n a t i c a l " m e m b e r of
S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o ? W h y does Y o l a n d a totally reject R e j a s at the e n d ?
65
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
H o w to a c c o u n t for t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h i s s e n s i t i v e a n d b e a u t i f u l
w o m a n from t h e f a n a t i c a l a n d m e r c i l e s s r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h a t e x p l o d e s at
t h e e n d ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s w h a t o n e is t e m p t e d t o c a l l t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e
s t u p i d i t y of t h e film ( a n d of t h e n o v e l on w h i c h it i s b a s e d ) : p u b l i c i z e d a s
a n a t t e m p t to " u n d e r s t a n d " t h e S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o p h e n o m e n o n ,
it is
p r e c i s e l y a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n a t t e m p t to p e r p e ­
t u a t e t h e " e n i g m a " it c o n f r o n t s .
N o w o n d e r t h a t , u l t i m a t e l y . Dancer
Upstairs —wWich p r i d e s itself on b e i n g a n t i - H o l l y w o o d — r e l i e s on
the
b a s i c H o l l y w o o d f o r m u l a of t h e " p r o d u c t i o n of t h e c o u p l e . "
The real Hollywood Left
If e v e n t h e m a r g i n a l n o n - H o l l y w o o d p r o d u c t i o n s r e m a i n d e t e r m i n e d b y
t h e f a m i l y motif, w h e r e , t h e n , a r e w e to find t r u e e x c e p t i o n s to i t s r u l e ?
In M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , t h e V a t i c a n i t s e l f m a d e a h i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d s t a t e m e n t ,
c o n d e m n i n g in t h e s t r o n g e s t t e r m s D a n B r o w n ' s The Da Vinci Code a s a
b o o k b a s e d on l i e s a n d w h i c h s p r e a d false t e a c h i n g s (for e x a m p l e , t h a t
J e s u s had married Alary M a g d a l e n e and that they had descendants —
t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y of t h e G r a i l i s M a r y M a g d a l e n e ' s v a g i n a ! ) , e s p e c i a l l y
regretting the book's popularity among the y o u n g e r generation search­
i n g for s p i r i t u a l g u i d a n c e . T h e a b s u r d i t y of t h i s V a t i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n ,
s u s t a i n e d b y a b a r e l y c o n c e a l e d l o n g i n g for the g o o d old d a y s w h e n t h e
i n f a m o u s I n d e x of p r o h i b i t e d b o o k s w a s still o p e r a t i v e , s h o u l d not b l i n d
u s to the fact that, w h i l e t h e form i s w r o n g ( o n e a l m o s t s u s p e c t s a
c o n s p i r a c y b e t w e e n t h e V a t i c a n a n d t h e p u b l i s h e r t o g i v e a n e w boost
to t h e s a l e s of t h e b o o k ) , t h e c o n t e n t is b a s i c a l l y right: The Da Vinci Code
d o e s in fact p r o p o s e a N e w A g e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y in t e r m s
of t h e b a l a n c e of t h e m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e s , t h a t i s , t h e
b a s i c i d e a of t h e n o v e l i s t h e r e i n s c r i p t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y ' i n t o a p a g a n
sexualized ontology: the feminine principle is sacred, perfection resides
in t h e h a r m o n i o u s c o u p l i n g of t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e s . . . T h e
p a r a d o x to b e a c c e p t e d h e r e is that, in t h i s c a s e , e v e r y f e m i n i s t s h o u l d
s u p p o r t t h e C h u r c h : it is only t h r o u g h t h e " m o n o t h e i s t i c " s u s p e n s i o n of
t h e f e m i n i n e s i g n i f i e r , of t h e p o l a r i t y of the m a s c u l i n e a n d
opposites,
feminine
t h a t t h e s p a c e e m e r g e s for w h a t w e b r o a d l y r e f e r to a s
" f e m i n i s m " p r o p e r , for t h e r i s e of f e m i n i n e s u b j e c t i v i t y . T h e f e m i n i n i t y
a s s e r t e d in t h e a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e c o s m i c " f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e " i s , on t h e
contrary, a l w a y s a subordinated
the active "masculine principle."
66
(passive, r e c e p t i v e ) pole, opposed
to
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
T h i s i s w h y t h r i l l e r s l i k e The Da Vinci Code a r e o n e of t h e k e y i n d i c a t o r s
of contemporary
i d e o l o g i c a l shifts: t h e h e r o
is in s e a r c h of a n o l d
manuscript w h i c h will reveal some shattering secret w h i c h
threatens
to u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s of ( i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ) C h r i s t i a n i t y ; t h e
" c r i m i n a l " e d g e i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e d e s p e r a t e a n d r u t h l e s s a t t e m p t s of t h e
C h u r c h ( o r s o m e h a r d l i n e faction w i t h i n i t ) t o s u p p r e s s t h i s d o c u m e n t .
T h i s s e c r e t f o c u s e s on t h e " r e p r e s s e d " f e m i n i n e d i m e n s i o n o l t h e d i v i n e :
C h r i s t w a s m a r r i e d to M a r y M a g d a l e n e , t h e G r a i l i s a c t u a l l y t h e f e m a l e
b o d y . . . i s t h i s r e v e l a t i o n r e a l l y s u c h a s u r p r i s e ? Is t h e i d e a t h a t J e s u s
h a d s e x w i t h M a r y M a g d a l e n e n o t r a t h e r a k i n d of o b s c e n e o p e n s e c r e t of
C h r i s t i a n i t y , a C h r i s t i a n j^cre/ depotichineLlel T h e t r u e s u r p r i s e w o u l d h a v e
b e e n to g o a s t e p f u r t h e r
a n d claim that M a i y h a d really been
transvestite, so that J e s u s ' lover h a d been a beautiful
a
ephebe!
T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e n o v e l ( a n d , a g a i n s t t h e s u s p i c i o u s l y h a s t y d i s m i s s a l
o f t h e film, o n e s h o u l d s a y t h a t t h i s h o l d s e v e n m o r e for t h e film) r e s i d e s
in a f e a t u r e w h i c h , s u r p r i s i n g l y , e c h o e s The X-Filed w h e r e t h e fact t h a t s o
m a n y t h i n g s h a p p e n " o u t t h e r e " w h e r e t h e t r u t h i s s u p p o s e d to d w e l l
( a l i e n s i n v a d i n g E a r t h a n d s o o n ) fills i n t h e void, t h a t i s , t h e m u c h c l o s e r
truth that nothing
(no sexual relation) is going on between the t w o
a g e n t s , M u l d e r a n d S c u l l y . In The Da Vinci Code, t h e s e x u a l life of C h r i s t
a n d M a r y M a g d a l e n e is t h e e x c e s s w h i c h i n v e r t s ( c o v e r s u p ) t h e fact t h a t
t h e s e x u a l life of S o p h i e , t h e h e r o i n e , C h r i s t ' s l a s t d e s c e n d a n t , i s n o n ­
e x i s t e n t : dhe rs l i k e a c o n t e m p o r a r y M a r y , v r r g i n a l , p u r e , a s e x u a l ; t h e r e i s
no h i n t of s e x b e t w e e n h e r a n d R o b e r t
Langdom.
H e r t r a u m a is t h a t s h e w i t n e s s e d t h e p r i m o r d i a l f a n t a s m a t i c s c e n e of
p a r e n t a l c o p u l a t i o n , t h i s e x c e s s oijouuMance
which totally "neutralized"
h e r s e x u a l l y : it i s a s if, i n a k i n d of t e m p o r a l loop, s h e w a s p r e s e n t a t t h e
a c t of h e r o w n c o n c e p t i o n , s o t h a t , for h e r , all s e x i s i n c e s t u o u s a n d t h u s
p r o h i b i t e d . H e r e e n t e r s R o b e r t w h o , far from b e i n g h e r l o v e r , a c t s a s h e r
" w i l d a n a l y s t " whose task is to construct a narrative frame, a myth, w h i c h
w i l l e n a b l e h e r to b r e a k o u t of t h i s f a n t a s m a t i c c a p t i v i t y , not b y w a y of
r e g a i n i n g " n o r m a l " h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y , b u t b y w a y of a c c e p t i n g h e r a s e x u a l i t y a n d " n o r m a l i z i n g " it a s p a r t of t h e n e w m y t h i c n a r r a t i v e . In t h i s
s e n s e . The Da Vinci Code b e l o n g s i n t h e s e r i e s w e a r e a n a l y z i n g : i t i s n o t
r e a l l y a film a b o u t r e l i g i o n , a b o u t t h e " r e p r e s s e d " s e c r e t of C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
b u t a film a b o u t a f r i g i d a n d t r a u m a t i z e d y o u n g w o m a n w h o i s r e d e e m e d ,
freed from h e r t r a u m a , p r o v i d e d w i t h a m y t h i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t e n a b l e s
h e r t o fully a c c e p t h e r a s e x u a l i t y .
T h e m 3 ^ h i c a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s s o l u t i o n e m e r g e s c l e a r l y if w e c o n t r a s t
67
R o b e r t a s i t s p r o p o n e n t to S i r L e i g h , t h e c o u n t e r p o i n t to O p u s D e i in t h e
film ( a n d n o v e l ) : h e w a n t s to d i s c l o s e t h e s e c r e t of M a r y a n d t h u s s a v e
h u m a n i t y from t h e o p p r e s s i o n of official C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e film r e j e c t s t h i s
r a d i c a l m o v e a n d o p t s for a
fictional
compromise
s o l u t i o n : w h a t is
i m p o r t a n t a r e n o t facts ( t h e D N A t h a t w o u l d p r o v e t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l
link between h e r a n d M a r y a n d Christ), but w h a t she ( S o p h i e ) be­
l i e v e s ^—the m o v i e o p t s for s y m b o l i c fiction a g a i n s t g e n e a l o g i c a l f a c t s . T h e
m y t h of b e i n g C h r i s t ' s d e s c e n d a n t c r e a t e s for S o p h i e a n e w s y m b o l i c
i d e n t i t y : a t t h e e n d , s h e e m e r g e s a s t h e l e a d e r of a c o m m u n i t y . It i s a t t h i s
l e v e l of w h a t g o e s on i n t e r r e s t r i a l life t h a t The Da Vinci Code r e m a i n s
C h r i s t i a n : i n t h e p e r s o n of S o p h i e , it e n a c t s t h e p a s s a g e from s e x u a l l o v e
to d e s e x u a l i z e d agape a s p o l i t i c a l l o v e , l o v e t h a t s e r v e s a s t h e b o n d of a
c o l l e c t i v e . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g " p r e - F r e u d l a n " i n t h i s s o l u t i o n —it c a n o n l y
a p p e a r p r e - F r e u d i a n if o n e a c c e p t s t h e c r u d e n o r m a t i v e
heterosexual
v e r s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h , for a w o m a n , e v e r y t h i n g
but "normal" heterosexual desire is pathological. For a true Freudian, on
t h e c o n t r a r y , " t h e r e Is n o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , " n o s t a n d a r d of n o r m a l i t y ,
b u t o n l y a n i n e v i t a b l e d e a d l o c k , a n d t h e a s e x u a l p o s i t i o n of w i t h d r a w i n g
from t h e c o m m e r c e b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s Is a s g o o d a dinthom ( a s y m p t o m a l
"knot" w h i c h holds a subject together) to deal w i t h this d e a d l o c k a s a n y
other position.
In s p i t e of t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e s t a n d a r d
Hollywood
f o r m u l a , it w o u l d b e , of c o u r s e , r i d i c u l o u s to c l a i m t h a t The Da Vinci Code
b e l o n g s to t h e H o l l y w o o d Left. O n e h a s t o l o o k for t h e r e a l H o l l y w o o d
Left e l s e w h e r e — b u t w h e r e ? Z a c k S n y d e r ' s 300, t h e s a g a of t h e t h r e e
h u n d r e d S p a r t a n s o l d i e r s w h o s a c r i f i c e d t h e m s e l v e s a t T h e r m o p y l a e to
h a l t t h e i n v a s i o n of X e r x e s ' P e r s i a n a r m y , w a s a t t a c k e d a s t h e w o r s t k i n d
of p a t r i o t i c m i l i t a r i s m w i t h c l e a r a l l u s i o n s to t h e r e c e n t t e n s i o n s w i t h I r a n
a n d e v e n t s i n I r a q — a r e , h o w e v e r , t h i n g s r e a l l y s o c l e a r ? T h e film s h o u l d ,
rather, be thoroughly defended against these accusations.
T h e r e a r e t w o p o i n t s to b e m a d e . T h e first c o n c e r n s t h e s t o r y i t s e l f — i t
i s t h e s t o r y of a s m a l l a n d p o o r c o u n t r y ( G r e e c e ) I n v a d e d b y t h e a r m y of a
m u c h l a r g e r state ( P e r s i a ) , at that point m u c h more developed, a n d w i t h
a d v a n c e d military technology—are the Persian elephants, giants a n d
l a r g e fire a r r o w s n o t t h e a n c i e n t v e r s i o n of h i g h - t e c h w e a p o n r y ? W h e n
t h e l a s t s u r v i v i n g g r o u p of S p a r t a n s a n d t h e i r k i n g , L e o n i d a s , a r e k i l l e d
b y t h e t h o u s a n d s of a r r o w s , a r e t h e y n o t i n a w a y b o m b e d to d e a t h b y
t e c h n o - s o l d i e r s o p e r a t i n g s o p h i s t i c a t e d w e a p o n s from a safe d i s t a n c e ,
l i k e t o d a y ' s U S s o l d i e r s w h o a t t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n l a u n c h r o c k e t s from
68
T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y
t h e w a r s h i p s m i l e s a w a y in t h e P e r s i a n G u l f ? F u r t h e r m o r e ,
Xerxes'
w o r d s w h e n h e a t t e m p t s to c o n v i n c e L e o n i d a s to a c c e p t P e r s i a n d o m ­
i n a t i o n , d e f i n i t e l y d o not s o u n d l i k e t h o s e of a f a n a t i c a l M u s l i m f u n d a ­
m e n t a l i s t : h e t r i e s to s e d u c e L e o n i d a s i n t o s u b j e c t i o n b y p r o m i s i n g h i m
p e a c e a n d s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e s if h e r e j o i n s t h e P e r s i a n g l o b a l e m p i r e . All h e
asks from h i m i s t h e f o r m a l g e s t u r e of k n e e l i n g in a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of
P e r s i a n s u p r e m a c y — if t h e S p a r t a n s d o t h i s , t h e y w i l l b e g i v e n s u p r e m e
a u t h o r i t y o v e r a l l G r e e c e . Is t h i s not s i m i l a r to w h a t P r e s i d e n t R e a g a n
d e m a n d e d from t h e N i c a r a g u a n S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t ? All t h e y h a d to
d o w a s s a y " H e y u n c l e ! " to t h e U S . . . A n d is X e r x e s ' c o u r t not d e p i c t e d
as a kind
of m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t d i f f e r e n t - l i f e s t y l e s p a r a d i s e ?
p a r t i c i p a t e s in o r g i e s t h e r e ,
different
Everyone
races, lesbians and gays,
the
h a n d i c a p p e d , a n d so f o r t h ? A r e , t h e n , t h e S p a r t a n s , w i t h t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e
a n d s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e , not m u c h c l o s e r to s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e T a l i b a n
d e f e n d i n g A f g h a n i s t a n a g a i n s t t h e U S o c c u p a t i o n (or, a n elite u n i t of t h e
I r a n i a n R e v o l u t i o n a r y G u a r d r e a d y to s a c r i f i c e i t s e l f in the c a s e of a n
American invasion)? Perspicuous historians have a l r e a d y noted
this
p a r a l l e l — t h i s i s from t h e b l u r b of T o m H o l l a n d ' s Persian Fire:
In t h e fifth c e n t u r y BC, a g l o b a l s u p e r p o w e r w a s d e t e r m i n e d to b r i n g
t r u t h a n d o r d e r to w h a t it r e g a r d e d a s t w o t e r r o r i s t s t a t e s .
The
s u p e r p o w e r w a s P e r s i a , i n c o m p a r a b l y r i c h in a m b i t i o n , g o l d
and
men. The terrorist states w e r e A t h e n s a n d S p a r t a , eccentric cities
in a p o o r a n d m o u n t a i n o u s b a c k w a t e r : G r e e c e .
W e s t e r n r a c i s t i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e b a t t l e of T h e r m o p y l a e i s e v i d e n t : it w a s
v r i d e l y r e a d a s t h e first a n d d e c i s i v e v i c t o r y of t h e free W e s t a g a i n s t t h e
d e s p o t i c E a s t —no w o n d e r H i t l e r a n d G o e r i n g c o m p a r e d t h e
German
d e f e a t at S t a l i n g r a d in 1 9 4 3 to L e o n i d a s ' s h e r o i c d e a t h at T h e r m o p y l a e .
H o w e v e r , it i s for t h i s v e r y r e a s o n t h a t o n e s h o u l d i n v e r t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e .
W e s t e r n c u l t u r a l r a c i s t s l i k e to c l a i m t h a t , h a d t h e P e r s i a n s s u c c e e d e d in
subduing Greece, there w o u l d today be minarets all over Europe. This
s t u p i d c l a i m i s d o u b l y w r o n g : not o n l y w o u l d t h e r e b e n o I s l a m in t h e
c a s e of t h e d e f e a t of t h e G r e e k s ( s i n c e t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o a n c i e n t
G r e e k t h o u g h t a n d no C h r i s t i a n i t y , t w o h i s t o r i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s
of
I s l a m ) ; e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t is t h e fact t h a t t h e r e are m i n a r e t s in m a n y
European
c i t i e s t o d a y , a n d t h e k i n d of m u l t i c u l t u r a l t o l e r a n c e w h i c h
m a d e t h i s p o s s i b l e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e r e s u l t of t h e G r e e k v i c t o r y o v e r t h e
Persians.
69
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
The main Greek arm against Xerxes' overwhelming military supre­
m a c y w a s d i s c i p l i n e a n d t h e s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e — a n d , to q u o t e
Alain
Badiou:
W e n e e d a p o p u l a r discipline. I w o u l d even s a y . . . that "those w h o
have nothing h a v e only their d i s c i p l i n e . " T h e poor, those w i t h
financial
no
or m i l i t a r y m e a n s , those w i t h no p o w e r — a l l t h e y h a v e is their
d i s c i p l i n e , t h e i r c a p a c i t y to a c t t o g e t h e r . T h i s d i s c i p l i n e i s a l r e a d y a
form of o r g a n i z a t i o n .
In t o d a y ' s e r a of h e d o n i s t p e r m i s s l v i t y w h i c h s e r v e s a s t h e
dominant
i d e o l o g y , t h e t i m e h a s c o m e for t h e Left to ( r e ) a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c i p l i n e a n d
t h e s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e : t h e r e i s n o t h m g i n h e r e n t l y " f a s c i s t " a b o u t
these
values.
B u t e v e n t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t i d e n t i t y of t h e S p a r t a n s i s m o r e a m b i g ­
u o u s . A p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e film d e f i n e s t h e
G r e e k s ' a g e n d a a s " a g a i n s t t h e r e i g n of m y s t i q u e a n d t y r a n n y , t o w a r d s
t h e b r i g h t f u t u r e , " f u r t h e r s p e c i f i e d a s t h e r u l e of f r e e d o m a n d r e a s o n —
w h i c h sounds l i k e an elementai"y E n l i g h t e n m e n t p r o g r a m , w i t h even a
communist
twist! Recall also that, at the
film's
beginning,
Leonidas
o u t r i g h t l y r e j e c t s t h e m e s s a g e of t h e c o r r u p t " o r a c l e s " a c c o r d i n g
to
w h o m t h e g o d s f o r b i d t h e m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n to s t o p t h e P e r s i a n s — a s
we
learn later, the " o r a c l e s " w h o w e r e allegedly receiving the divine
m e s s a g e in a n e c s t a t i c t r a n c e h a d in fact b e e n p a i d b y t h e P e r s i a n s , l i k e
t h e T i b e t a n " o r a c l e " w h o , In 1 9 5 9 , d e l i v e r e d t h e m e s s a g e to t h e D a l a i
L a m a to l e a v e T i b e t a n d w h o w a s — a s w e n o w k n o w — o n t h e p a y r o l l of
the C I A !
B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e a p p a r e n t a b s u r d i t y of t h e i d e a of d i g n i t y , f r e e d o m ,
a n d r e a s o n , s u s t a i n e d b y e x t r e m e m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e . I n c l u d i n g of t h e
p r a c t i c e of d i s c a r d i n g w e a k c h i l d r e n ? T h i s " a b s u r d i t y " i s s i m p l y t h e p r i c e
of f r e e d o m — f r e e d o m i s not free, a s t h e y p u t it in t h e film. F r e e d o m i s n o t
s o m e t h i n g g i v e n , it i s r e g a i n e d t h r o u g h a h a r d s t r u g g l e i n w h i c h
one
s h o u l d b e r e a d y to r i s k e v e r y t h i n g . S p a r t a n r u t h l e s s m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e i s
not s i m p l y t h e e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t e of A t h e n i a n " l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y , " it Is i t s
i n h e r e n t c o n d i t i o n , it l a y s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for it: t h e free s u b j e c t of R e a s o n
c a n o n l y e m e r g e t h r o u g h r u t h l e s s s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . T r u e f r e e d o m i s not a
f r e e d o m of c h o i c e m a d e from a safe d i s t a n c e , l i k e c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n a
strawberry cake and
a chocolate
cake; true
freedom
overlaps
with
n e c e s s i t y , o n e m a k e s a t r u l y free c h o i c e w h e n o n e ' s c h o i c e p u t s a t s t a k e
70
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
o n e ' s v e r y e x i s t e n c e — o n e d o e s it b e c a u s e o n e s i m p l y " c a n n o t d o o t h e r vvise." W h e n o n e ' s c o u n t r y i s u n d e r foreign o c c u p a t i o n a n d o n e is c a l l e d
b y a r e s i s t a n c e l e a d e r to j o i n t h e fight a g a i n s t t h e o c c u p i e r s , t h e r e a s o n
g i v e n i s n o t " y o u a r e free to c h o o s e , " b u t : " C a n ' t y o u s e e t h a t t h i s i s t h e
o n l y t h i n g y o u c a n d o if y o u w a n t to r e t a i n y o u r d i g n i t y ? " N o w o n d e r
t h a t a l l t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e g a l i t a r i a n r a d i c a l s , from R o u s s e a u to t h e
Jacobins, imagined republican France a s the n e w Sparta: there is an
e m a n c i p a t o r y c o r e i n t h e S p a r t a n s p i r i t of m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h
survives even w h e n
w e subtract
a l l t h e h i s t o r i c a l p a r a p h e r n a l i a of
S p a r t a n c l a s s r u l e , r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of a n d t e r r o r o v e r t h e i r s l a v e s ,
a n d s o forth —no w o n d e r t o o t h a t T r o t s k y h i m s e l f c a l l e d t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n i n t h e difficult y e a r s of " w a r c o m m u n i s m " a " p r o l e t a r i a n S p a r t a . "
E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t i s , p e r h a p s , t h e film's f o r m a l a s p e c t : t h e e n t i r e
film w a s s h o t in a w a r e h o u s e in M o n t r e a l , w i t h t h e e n t i r e
background
a n d m a n y of t h e p e o p l e a n d o b j e c t s d i g i t a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e a r t i f i c i a l
c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a c k g r o u n d s e e m s to infect t h e " r e a l " a c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s ,
w h o often a p p e a r l i k e c h a r a c t e r s from c o m i c s b r o u g h t to life ( t h e film i s
b a s e d on F r a n k M i l l e r ' s g r a p h i c n o v e l 300). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a r t i f i c i a l
( d i g i t a l ) n a t u r e of t h e b a c k g r o u n d c r e a t e s a c l a u s t r o p h o b i c
atmosphere,
a s if t h e s t o r y i s n o t t a k i n g p l a c e in " r e a l " r e a l i t y w i t h i t s e n d l e s s o p e n
h o r i z o n s , b u t i n a " c l o s e d w o r l d , " a k i n d of r e l i e f - w o r l d of c l o s e d s p a c e .
A e s t h e t i c a l l y , w e a r e h e r e s t e p s a h e a d of t h e Star Ward a n d Tjord of the
Ringd s e r i e s : a l t h o u g h , in t h e s e s e r i e s a l s o , m a n y b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s a n d
p e r s o n s a r e d i g i t a l l y c r e a t e d , t h e i m p r e s s i o n i s n o n e t h e l e s s o n e of ( r e a l
a n d ) digital actord and ohjectd ( e l e p h a n t s , Y o d a , U r k h s , p a l a c e s , e t c . ) placed
in a "real" open world; i n 300, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a l l t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s a r e
"real" actord placed against an artifical background, a c o m b i n a t i o n
which
p r o d u c e s a m u c h m o r e u n c a n n y " c l o s e d " w o r l d of a " c y b o r g " m i x t u r e of
r e a l p e o p l e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n a r t i f i c i a l w o r l d . It is o n l y w i t h 300 t h a t t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of " r e a l " a c t o r s a n d o b j e c t s w i t h a d i g i t a l e n v i r o n m e n t h a s
c o m e c l o s e to c r e a t i n g a t r u l y n e w a u t o n o m o u s a e s t h e t i c s p a c e .
T h e p r a c t i c e of m i x i n g different a r t s , of i n c l u d i n g i n o n e a r t i s t i c form
t h e r e f e r e n c e to a n o t h e r , h a s a l o n g t r a d i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d to
c i n e m a ; m a n y of H o p p e r ' s p o r t r a i t s of a w o m a n a t a n o p e n
window,
l o o k i n g out, a r e c l e a r l y m e d i a t e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e of c i n e m a ( t h e y offer
a s h o t w i t h o u t its c o u n t e r - s h o t ) . W h a t m a k e s 500 n o t a b l e is t h a t in it ( n o t
for t h e first t i m e , of c o u r s e , b u t in a w a y w h i c h i s a r t i s t i c a l l y m u c h m o r e
m t e r e s t i n g t h a n , s a y . W a r r e n B e a t t y ' s Dick Tracy) a t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e
d e v e l o p e d a r t form ( d i g i t a l i z e d c i n e m a ) r e f e r s to a l e s s d e v e l o p e d
form
7!
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
( c o m i c s ) . T h e effect p r o d u c e d i s t h a t of " t r u e r e a h t y " l o s i n g i t s i n n o c e n c e ,
a p p e a r i n g a s p a r t of a c l o s e d a r t i f i c i a l u n i v e r s e , w h i c h is a p e r f e c t
f i g u r a t i o n of o u r s o c i o - l d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i c a m e n t .
T h o s e c r i t i c s w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e " s y n t h e s i s " of t h e t w o a r t f o r m s in
300 i s a f a i l u r e a r e t h u s w r o n g b e c a u s e t h e y a r e r i g h t : of c o u r s e t h e
" s y n t h e s i s " falls, of c o u r s e t h e u n i v e r s e w e s e e on t h e s c r e e n i s t r a v e r s e d
b y a p r o f o u n d a n t a g o n i s m a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c y , b u t it i s t h i s v e r y a n t a g o n ­
ism w h i c h i s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t r u t h .
History and family in F r a n k e n s t e i n
There is, however, a more fundamental question to be raised apropos the
f a m i l y myth a s i n t e r p r e t i v e tool. It s e e m s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e first t a s k of t h e
c r i t i q u e of i d e o l o g y i s , of c o u r s e , t o t r e a t t h e f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a s a n
ideological m y t h w h i c h should be h a n d l e d like a d r e a m ' s explicit text,
w h i c h should be d e c i p h e r e d b a c k into the true struggle obfuscated b y the
f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , o n e f o l l o w s h e r e t h e h o m o l o g y w i t h
t h e F r e u d i a n l o g i c o f d r e a m s to t h e e n d , b e a r i n g in m i n d t h a t t h e t r u e
f o c u s of a d r e a m , i t s " u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e , " i s n o t t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t , b u t
s o m e t h i n g that, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n s c r i b e s itself i n t o a d r e a m - t e x t t h r o u g h
t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m s of t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n of t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t i n t o t h e
d r e a m - t e x t ? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e i n a d r e a m i s not
s i m p l y i t s c o r e w h i c h n e v e r a p p e a r s d i r e c t l y , w h i c h Is d i s t o r t e d b y t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - t e x t , b u t t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e of t h i s
d i s t o r t i o n — h e r e i s F r e u d ' s u n s u r p a s s e d f o r m u l a t i o n of t h i s p a r a d o x :
The latent dream-thoughts a r e the material w h i c h the dream-work
t r a n s f o r m s i n t o t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m . [. . . ] T h e o n l y e s s e n t i a l t h i n g
about d r e a m s is the d r e a m - w o r k that h a s influenced the thoughtm a t e r i a l . W e h a v e n o right to i g n o r e it in o u r t h e o r y , e v e n t h o u g h w e
m a y d i s r e g a r d it in certain practical situations. A n a l y t i c observation
s h o w s f u r t h e r t h a t t h e d r e a m - w o r k n e v e r r e s t r i c t s i t s e l f to t r a n s l a t i n g
t h e s e t h o u g h t s i n t o t h e a r c h a i c o r r e g r e s s i v e m o d e of e x p r e s s i o n t h a t i s
f a m i l i a r to y o u . I n a d d i t i o n , it r e g u l a r l y t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n of s o m e t h i n g
e l s e , w h i c h i s n o t p a r t of t h e l a t e n t t h o u g h t s of t h e p r e v i o u s d a y , b u t
w h i c h i s t h e t r u e m o t i f force for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d r e a m . T h i s
i n d i s p e n s a b l e a d d i t i o n [^unentbehrliche Zutat^ i s t h e e q u a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s
w i s h for t h e fulfillment of w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t of t h e d r e a m is g i v e n its
n e w form. A d r e a m m a y t h u s b e a n y sort of t h i n g i n s o f a r a s y o u a r e
72
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
o n l y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t h o u g h t s it r e p r e s e n t s — a w a r n i n g , a n
i n t e n t i o n , a p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d so on; b u t it i s a l w a y s a l s o t h e fulfillment
of a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h a n d , i f y o u a r e c o n s i d e r i n g it a s a p r o d u c t of t h e
d r e a m - w o r k , it i s o n l y that. A d r e a m is t h e r e f o r e n e v e r s i m p l y a n
i n t e n t i o n , o r a w a r n i n g , b u t a l w a y s a n Intention etc., t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e
a r c h a i c m o d e of t h o u g h t b y t h e h e l p of a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h a n d
transformed
to fulfill t h a t w i s h . T h e o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e w i s h -
fulfillment, i s t h e i n v a r i a b l e o n e ; t h e o t h e r m a y v a r y . It m a y for i t s
p a r t o n c e m o r e b e a w i s h , in w h i c h c a s e t h e d r e a m w i l l , w i t h t h e h e l p of
a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , r e p r e s e n t a s fulfilled a l a t e n t w i s h of t h e p r e v i o u s
E v e r y d e t a i l i s w o r t h a n a l y z i n g in t h i s m a r v e l o u s p a s s a g e , from
its
i m p l i c i t o p e n i n g m o t t o " w h a t i s g o o d e n o u g h for p r a c t i c e — n a m e l y t h e
s e a r c h for t h e m e a n i n g of d r e a m s — i s n o t g o o d e n o u g h for t h e o r y , " to its
c o n c l u d i n g r e d o u b l i n g of t h e w i s h . Its k e y i n s i g h t i s , of c o u r s e , t h e
" t r i a n g u l a t i o n " of l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t s , m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t , a n d
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , w h i c h l i m i t s t h e s c o p e of—or, r a t h e r , d i r e c t l y
u n d e r m i n e s — t h e h e r m e n e u t i c m o d e l of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d r e a m s
( t h e p a t h from t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t to i t s h i d d e n m e a n i n g , t h e
l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t ) , w h i c h r u n s b a c k w a r d s t h e p a t h of t h e f o r m a t i o n
of a d r e a m
( t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n of t h e l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t
manifest dream-content
into
b y d r e a m - w o r k ) . The p a r a d o x is that
d r e a m - w o r k i s not m e r e l y a p r o c e s s of m a s k i n g t h e d r e a m ' s
the
this
"true
m e s s a g e " : the d r e a m ' s true core, its u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , i n s c r i b e s itself
o n l y t h r o u g h a n d in t h i s v e r y p r o c e s s of m a s k i n g , so t h a t t h e m o m e n t w e
r e t r a n s l a t e t h e d r e a m - c o n t e n t b a c k i n t o t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t e x p r e s s e d in
it, w e l o s e t h e " t r u e m o t i f f o r c e " of t h e d r e a m — i n s h o r t , it i s t h e p r o c e s s
of m a s k i n g i t s e l f w h i c h i n s c r i b e s i n t o t h e d r e a m i t s t r u e s e c r e t .
One
s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of t h e e v e r d e e p e r
p e n e t r a t i o n to t h e c o r e of t h e d r e a m : it i s n o t t h a t w e first p e n e t r a t e from
t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t to t h e
thought,
a n d then,
first-level
in a s t e p f u r t h e r ,
secret, the latent d r e a m -
e v e n d e e p e r , to t h e
dream's
u n c o n s c i o u s core, the u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h . The " d e e p e r " w i s h is l o c a t e d
in the v e r y g a p b e t w e e n the latent d r e a m - t h o u g h t a n d manifest d r e a m content.^''
A p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of t h i s l o g i c in l i t e r a t u r e is M a r y S h e l l e y ' s Franken­
stein. A s t a n d a r d M a r x i s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t a b o u t t h e n o v e l i s t h a t it i s f o c u s e d
on t h e d e n s e f a m i l y - a n d - s e x u a l i t y n e t w o r k in o r d e r to o b l i t e r a t e (or,
73
IN UthENSE OF LOST CAUSES
r a t h e r , r e p r e s s ) i t s t r u e h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e : h i s t o r y is e t e r n a l i z e d a s a
f a m i l y d r a m a , l a r g e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s (from t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of
r e v o l u t i o n a r y terror to the i m p a c t of scientific a n d technological revolu­
tions) are reflected/staged in a distorted m a n n e r as Victor Frankenstein's
t r o u b l e s w i t h h i s father,
fiancée,
a n d monstrous p r o g e n y . . . W h i l e all
t h i s i s t r u e , a s i m p l e m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of
this approach: i m a g i n e t h e same story (of D r F r a n k e n s t e i n
and his
m o n s t e r ) t o l d a s a s t o r y of t h e s c i e n t i s t a n d h i s e x p e r i m e n t ,
without
the a c c o m p a n y i n g family m e l o d r a m a ( t h e monster a s t h e a m b i g u o u s
o b s t a c l e t o t h e s e x u a l c o n s u m m a t i o n of m a r r i a g e : "I'll b e t h e r e o n y o u r
w e d d i n g night, " a n d so o n ) — w h a t w e w o u l d e n d u p with i s an i m ­
poverished
story, deprived of t h e dimension
w h i c h a c c o u n t s for i t s
e x t r a o r d i n a r y l i b i d i n a l i m p a c t . S o , t o p u t it m F r e u d i a n t e r m s : it i s t r u e
that the explicit narrative is like a d r e a m - t e x t w h i c h refers in a n encoded
w a y to its t r u e referent, i t s " d r e a m - t h o u g h t "
( t h e l a r g e r socio-histoi'lcal
d i m e n s i o n ) , r e f l e c t i n g i t i n a d i s t o r t e d w a y ; h o w e v e r , it i s t h r o u g h t h i s
v e r y distortion a n d displacement that the text's "unconscious w i s h " (the
s e x u a l i z e d f a n t a s y ) i n s c r i b e s Itself.
T h e R o m a n t i c notion of m o n s t r o s i t y i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t t h e
b a c k g r o u n d of t h e d i s t i n c t i o n , e l a b o r a t e d b y S a m u e l T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e ,
b e t w e e n I m a g i n a t i o n a n d F'ancy: I m a g i n a t i o n i s a c r e a t i v e p o w e r w h i c h
generates organic a n d harmonious
b o d i e s , w h i l e F a n c y s t a n d s for a
m e c h a n i c a l a s s e m b l a g e of p a r t s w h i c h d o n o t fit e a c h o t h e r , s o t h a t
the p r o d u c t is a m o n s t r o u s c o m b i n a t i o n l a c k i n g a n y h a r m o n i o u s u n i t y . In
F rankelutein, t h e s t o r y of a m o n s t e r , t h i s t o p i c of m o n s t r o s i t y is n o t l i m i t e d
to t h e n a r r a t i v e c o n t e n t ; It s o m e h o w s p i l l s o v e r a n d p e r v a d e s o t h e r l e v e l s .
T h e r e a r e t h r e e l e v e l s of m o n s t r o s i t y / f a n c y .
1. First, m o s t o b v i o u s l y , t h e m o n s t e r r e a n i m a t e d b y V i c t o r i s m e ­
c h a n i c a l l y c o m p o s e d of p a r t s , n o t a h a r m o n i o u s
organism.
2. T h e n , a s t h e n o v e l ' s s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d , s o c i a l u n r e s t a n d r e v o l u t i o n
as a monstrous
decomposition
of s o c i e t y : w i t h
t h e a d v e n t of
modernity, traditional h a r m o n i o u s society is r e p l a c e d b y an i n d u s ­
trialized society in w h i c h people interact m e c h a n i c a l l y a s indivi­
duals, following their egotistic interests, n o l o n g e r feeling that t h e y
belong to a w i d e r W h o l e , a n d occasionally exploding in violent
rebellions.
Modern
societies oscillate between
oppression a n d
a n a r c h y : t h e o n l y u n i t y t h a t c a n t a k e p l a c e i n t h e m i s t h e artificial
u n i t y Imposed b y b r u t a l
74
power.
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
3. F i n a l l y , t h e r e is t h e novel itself, a m o n s t r o u s , c l u m s y , i n c o n s i s t e n t
c o m p o s i t e of different p a r t s , n a r r a t i v e m o d e s , a n d g e n r e s .
T o t h e s e t h r e e , o n e s h o u l d a d d a fourth l e v e l of m o n s t r o s i t y , t h a t of t h e
interpretations provoked b y the novel: w h a t does the monster mean, w h a t
d o e s it s t a n d for? It c a n m e a n t h e m o n s t r o s i t y of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n , of s o n s
r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t f a t h e r s , of m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , of a s e x u a l
r e p r o d u c t i o n , of s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e . W e t h u s g e t a m u l t i t u d e of m e a n ­
i n g s w h i c h d o n o t form a h a r m o n i o u s w h o l e , b u t j u s t c o e x i s t s i d e b y s i d e .
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m o n s t r o s i t y t h u s e n d s u p i n m o n s t r o s i t y ( f a n c y ) of
interpretations.
H o w a r e to find o u r w a y in this m o n s t r o s i t y ? It i s e a s y to s h o w t h a t t h e
t r u e f o c u s of M a r y S h e l l e y ' s Frankenstein i s t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of t h e
F r e n c h Revolution, its d e g e n e r a t i o n into terror a n d dictatorship. M a r y
a n d P e r c y S h e l l e y w e r e a r d e n t s t u d e n t s of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d p o l e m i c s
r e g a r d i n g t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . V i c t o r c r e a t e s h i s m o n s t e r in t h e s a m e
city, I n g o l s t a d t , t h a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e h i s t o r i a n of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , B a r r u e l — M a r y r e a d h i s b o o k r e p e a t e d l y — c i t e s a s t h e s o u r c e of t h e F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n (it w a s in I n g o l s t a d t t h a t t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y of l U u m i n a t i
p l a n n e d t h e R e v o l u t i o n ) . T h e m o n s t r o s i t y of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n w a s
d e s c r i b e d b y E d m u n d B u r k e p r e c i s e l y in t h e t e r m s of a s t a t e k i l l e d a n d
revived as a monster:
o u t of t h e t o m b of t h e m u r d e r e d m o n a r c h y in F r a n c e h a s a r i s e n a v a s t ,
t r e m e n d o u s , u n f o r m e d s p e c t r e , in a far m o r e t e r r i f i c g u i s e t h a n a n y
w h i c h ever y e t have overpowered the imagination, and s u b d u e d the
f o r t i t u d e of m a n . G o i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d to its e n d , u n a p p a l l e d b y
p e r i l , u n c h e c k e d b y r e m o r s e , d e s p i s i n g all c o m m o n m a x i m s a n d a l l
common means, that hideous phantom overpowered those w h o could
not b e l i e v e it w a s p o s s i b l e s h e c o u l d a t all e x i s t .
F u r t h e r m o r e , Frankenstein i s d e d i c a t e d to M a r y ' s father, W i l l i a m G o d w i n ,
k n o w n for h i s Utopian i d e a s a b o u t t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e h u m a n r a c e .
G o d w i n e n t e r t a i n e d m i l l e n n i a l e x p e c t a t i o n s in An Enquiry Concerning the
Principles of Political Justice ( 1 7 9 3 ) , w h e r e h e e x u l t e d in n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n
t h e c o m i n g of a n e w h u m a n r a c e . T h i s r a c e , to e m e r g e o n c e
population h a d been scientifically brought
over­
u n d e r c o n t r o l , w a s to b e
p r o d u c e d b y s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g , not s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e . In t h e n o v e l ,
Victor says:
7S
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
A n e w s p e c i e s w o u l d bless m e a s its c r e a t o r a n d s o u r c e ; m a n y h a p p y
a n d e x c e l l e n t n a t u r e s w o u l d o w e t h e i r b e i n g to m e . N o f a t h e r c o u l d
c l a i m t h e g r a t i t u d e of h i s c h i l d s o c o m p l e t e l y a s I s h o u l d d e s e r v e t h e i r s .
T h e s y m b o l i c a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n G o d w i n a n d m o n s t e r s w a s f o r g e d in
1 7 9 6 - 1 8 0 2 , w h e n t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t h i m r e a c h e d Its p e a k .
D u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , d e m o n s a n d t h e g r o t e s q u e w e r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to
d e f l a t e G o d w i n ' s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e Utopian r e g e n e r a t i o n of h u m a n i t y .
Conservatives depicted Godwin a n d his writings as a nascent
t h a t h a d to b e s t a m p e d
monster
o u t , l e s t E n g l a n d w e r e to g o t h e w a y of
r e v o l u t i o n a r y F r a n c e , f i o r a c e W a l p o l e c a l l e d G o d w i n " o n e of t h e g r e a t ­
e s t m o n s t e r s e x h i b i t e d b y h i s t o r y . " In 1 8 0 0 , T\\e AntiJacohm Review, w h i c h
championed the attack upon William Godwin a n d M a r y Wollstonecraft,
d e n o u n c e d t h e c o u p l e ' s d i s c i p l e s a s " t h e s p a w n of t h e m o n s t e r . "
Frankenstein d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h Its t r u e focus; i n s t e a d , it t e l l s
the story a s a depoliticized family d r a m a or a family m y t h . T h e c h a r a c t e r s
of t h e n o v e l r e - e n a c t e a r l i e r p o l i t i c a l p o l e m i c s on t h e l e v e l of p e r s o n a l
p s y c h o l o g y . In t h e 1 7 9 0 s , w r i t e r s s u c h a s E k i m u n d B u r k e h a d w a r n e d of a
c o l l e c t i v e , p a r r i c i d a l m o n s t e r — t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e In F r a n c e ; In t h e
a f t e r m a t h of t h e r e v o l u t i o n , M a r y S h e l l e y s c a l e s t h i s s y m b o l i s m d o w n to
d o m e s t i c s i z e . H e r n o v e l r e - e n a c t s t h e m o n s t e r t r o p e , b u t it d o e s so from
the p e r s p e c t i v e of i s o l a t e d a n d s u b j e c t i v e n a r r a t o r s w h o a r e l o c k e d i n
p a r r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e s of t h e i r o w n . I n t h i s w a y , t h e n o v e l c a n m a i n t a i n i t s
t r u e t o p i c a t a d i s t a n c e , i n v i s i b l e . A s w e h a v e n o t e d , t h i s Is a l s o t h e
s t a n d a r d M a r x i s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t a b o u t Frankeiutein: it i s f o c u s e d o n t h e
d e n s e f a m i l y - a n d - s e x u a l i t y n e t w o r k i n o r d e r to o b l i t e r a t e ( o r , r a t h e r ,
repress) its true historical reference.
B u t w h y m u s t Frankeiutein
obfuscate
its true
historical
referent?
B e c a u s e i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h i s t r u e f o c u s / t o p i c ( t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n )
is d e e p l y a m b i g u o u s a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y , a n d t h e form of t h e f a m i l y m y t h
m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to n e u t r a l i z e t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , to e v o k e a l l t h e s e
i n c o m p a t i b l e a t t i t u d e s a s p a r t s of t h e s a m e s t o r y . N o t o n l y i s Frankenstein
a m y t h In L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s s e n s e , a n I m a g i n a r y r e s o l u t i o n of r e a l c o n t r a ­
dictions. O n e should also follow L é v i - S t r a u s s w h e n h e claims that
F r e u d ' s a n a l y s i s of t h e O e d i p u s m y t h Is a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h e O e d i p u s
m y t h , to b e t r e a t e d in t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e o r i g i n a l m y t h :
further
v a r i a t i o n s of a m y t h t r y to d i s p l a c e a n d r e s o l v e i n a n o t h e r w a y t h e
c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l m y t h t r i e d to r e s o l v e . In the c a s e of
Frankenstein, o n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e t r e a t a s p a r t of t h e s a m e m y t h , a s i t s
76
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n , t h e c i n e m a t i c v e r s i o n s (of w h i c h t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n
fifty),
a n d the m a n n e r t h e y t r a n s f o r m t h e o r i g i n a l s t o r y . H e r e a r e t h e
main moments:
1. Frankenstein
( t h e b e s t - k n o w n , J a m e s W h a l e ' s c l a s s i c from 1 9 3 1 ,
w i t h B o r i s Karloff a s t h e m o n s t e r ) : its m a i n f e a t u r e i s t h a t it l e a v e s
o u t t h e s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n of t h e
monster
(the monster
is n e v e r
a l l o w e d to tell t h e s t o r y in t h e first p e r s o n , it r e m a i n s a m o n s t r o u s
Other).
2. In Frankenstein:
The True Story
handsome young man whom
(1973),
Frankenstein
creates
h e e d u c a t e s for s o c i e t y , b u t
c r e a t u r e ' s b o d y b e g i n s to d e g e n e r a t e , t u r n i n g
a
the
him against his
maker.
3. In
The Bride ( 1 9 8 5 ) , after
Frankenstein
abandons
his original
creature a s a failure, he creates a beautiful female a n d educates
h e r to b e h i s p e r f e c t m a t e ; b u t s h e a l s o e s c a p e s h i s c o n t r o l .
A. In K e n n e t h B r a n a g h ' s / ^ < z n / Shelley's Frankenstein, after t h e m o n s t e r
k i l l s V i c t o r ' s b r i d e , V i c t o r in a d e s p e r a t e m o v e r e a s s e m b l e s a n d
r e a n i m a t e s her ( t h e s c e n e c u l m i n a t e s in V i c t o r d a n c i n g w i t h h i s
reanimated wife).
5. F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h it d o e s not d i r e c t l y refer to Frankenstein, in R i d l e y
S c o t t ' s BLide Runner ( 1 9 8 2 ) , P o l i c e Lt. D e c k a r d i s a s s i g n e d to h u n t
d o w n a n d e l i m i n a t e a g r o u p of " r e p l i c a n t s , " s u p e r - h u m a n c r e a t u r e s
g e n e t i c a l l y e n g i n e e r e d for s l a v e l a b o r , w h o h a v e r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t
t h e i r c r e a t o r s a n d a r e h i d i n g in L o s A n g e l e s . T h e
between
Deckard
showdown
a n d " B a t t y , " the replicant leader, obviously
r e f e r s to t h e conflict b e t w e e n F r a n k e n s t e i n a n d t h e m o n s t e r — h e r e .
B a t t y , in t h e final a c t of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , s a v e s D e c k a r d from c e r t a i n
death.
W h a t a l l t h e s e films h a v e i n c o m m o n i s t h a t t h e y a l l r e p r o d u c e t h e b a s i c
p r o h i b i t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l n o v e l : n o n e of t h e m d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h e s t h e
p o l i t i c a l t o p i c ( t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of s o c i a l r e b e l l i o n ) ; t h e y a l l tell t h e s t o r y
t h r o u g h t h e f r a m e of f a m i l y / l o v e r e l a t i o n s . S o in w h a t d o e s t h e n o v e l ' s
c o n t r a d i c t o r y a t t i t u d e to its c e n t r a l t o p i c c o n s i s t ?
The
m o t i f of t h e m o n s t r o s i t y
of t h e
revolution
is a
conservative
e l e m e n t , a n d the n o v e l ' s form ( a c o n f e s s i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r
a t t h e p o i n t o l d e a t h ) is c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to a c o n s e r v a t i v e g e n r e p o p u l a r in
S h e l l e y ' s t i m e , in w h i c h , after t h e y a r e f o r c e d to c o n f r o n t t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c
77
uicrcrNSt
Uh
LOST
CAUSES
r e s u l t s of t h e i r d r e a m s a b o u t u n i v e r s a l f r e e d o m a n d b r o t h e r h o o d , r e ­
pentant ex-radicals renounce their reforming w a y s . However,
Shelley
d o e s h e r e s o m e t h i n g t h a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d n e v e r h a v e d o n e : in t h e
c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e book, she m o v e s a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d d i r e c t l y g i v e s a
v o i c e to t h e m o n s t e r h i m s e l f w h o i s a l l o w e d to tell t h e s t o r y from h i s o w n
p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s s t e p e x p r e s s e s t h e Hberal a t t i t u d e of f r e e d o m of s p e e c h
a t its m o s t
radical: everyone's point
of v i e w s h o u l d
be h e a r d .
In
Franketuteln,
t h e m o n s t e r i s not a T h i n g , a h o r r i b l e o b j e c t no o n e d a r e s
to confront; h e is i^^Ay dubjectivized. M a r y S h e l l e y m o v e s i n s i d e t h e m i n d of
the m o n s t e r a n d a s k s w h a t it i s l i k e to b e l a b e l e d , d e f i n e d ,
excommunicated, even physically distorted
oppressed,
by society. The
ultimate
c r i m i n a l i s t h u s a l l o w e d to p r e s e n t h i m s e l f a s t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t i m . T h e
m o n s t r o u s m u r d e r e r r e v e a l s h i m s e l f to b e a d e e p l y h u r t a n d d e s p e r a t e
i n d i v i d u a l , y e a r n i n g for c o m p a n y a n d l o v e .
S o it i s c r u c i a l to s e e in what c o n s i s t s t h e m o n s t e r ' s o w n s t o r y . T h e
m o n s t e r t e l l s u s t h a t h i s i d e n t i t y a s a r e b e l a n d m u r d e r e r w a s l e a r n e d , not
i n n a t e . In d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n to t h e B u r k e a n t r a d i t i o n of t h e m o n s t e r a s
e v i l i n c a r n a t e , t h e c r e a t u r e t e l l s F r a n k e n s t e i n : "I w a s b e n e v o l e n t a n d
g o o d ; m i s e r y m a d e m e a fiend." S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e m o n s t e r p r o v e s to b e a
v e r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e b e l : h e e x p l a i n s h i s a c t i o n s in t r a d i t i o n a l r e p u b l i c a n
t e r m s . H e c l a i m s to h a v e b e e n d r i v e n to r e b e l l i o n b y t h e f a i l i n g s of t h e
ruling order. His superiors a n d protectors h a v e shirked their responsi­
b i l i t i e s t o w a r d s h i m , i m p e l l i n g h i m to i n s u r r e c t i o n . M o n s t e r s r e b e l not
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n f e c t e d b y t h e e v i l s of t h e g o d l e s s r a d i c a l p h i l o s o p h y ,
but because t h e y have been oppressed and misused b y the regnant order.
M a r y S h e l l e y ' s s o u r c e w a s h e r e h e r o w n m o t h e r ' s s t u d y . An Hutarical and
Moral View of the Origin and Progresd of the French Revoiution ( 1 7 9 4 ) , i n w h i c h
M a r y W o l l s t o n e c r a f t , after a g r e e i n g w i t h t h e B u r k e a n c o n s e r v a t i v e s t h a t
rebels are monsters, resolutely insists that these monsters are social
p r o d u c t s . T h e y a r e not t h e l i v i n g d e a d , n o r a r e t h e y s p e c t e r s a r i s e n
from t h e t o m b of t h e m u r d e r e d m o n a r c h y . R a t h e r , t h e y a r e the p r o d u c t s
of o p p r e s s i o n , m i s r u l e , a n d d e s p o t i s m u n d e r t h e ancien régime. T h e l o w e r
o r d e r s a r e d r i v e n to r e b e l l i o n , t h e y t u r n a g a i n s t t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s
in
p a r r i c i d a l f a s h i o n . It is h e r e t h a t t h e n o v e l c o m e s c l o s e s t to p o l i t i c s :
t h e m o n s t e r d e v e l o p s a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e of o p p r e s s i o n a n d i n e q u a h t y : "I
h e a r d of t h e d i v i s i o n of p r o p e r t y , of I m m e n s e w e a l t h a n d s q u a l i d p o v e r t y ;
of r a n k , d e s c e n t , a n d n o b l e b l o o d . " H e s p e a k s in t h e m a n n e r of r e v o l u ­
tionary-era radicals:
78
THE FAMILY MYTH OF IDEOLOGY
I learned that the possessions most esteemed b y y o u r fellow-creatures
w e r e , h i g h a n d u n s u l l i e d d e s c e n t u n i t e d w i t h riches. A m a n m i g h t b e
r e s p e c t e d w i t h o n l y o n e of t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , b u t w i t h o u t e i t h e r h e
w a s considered, except in v e r y rare occasions, a s a v a g a b o n d a n d a
s l a v e , d o o m e d t o w a s t e h i s p o w e r s for t h e profit of t h e c h o s e n few.
H e r e M a r y S h e l l e y e f f e c t i v e l y d e v e l o p s t h e " d i a l e c t i c of E n l i g h t e n m e n t "
1 5 0 y e a r s before A d o r n o a n d H o r k h e i m e r . S h e g o e s m u c h f u r t h e r
than
the usual conservative w a r n i n g s about h o w scientific a n d political pro­
gress t u r n s into n i g h t m a r e , chaos, a n d violence, h o w m a n should retain
p r o p e r h u m i l i t y i n t h e face o f t h e m y s t e r y of c r e a t i o n a n d n o t t r y t o
b e c o m e a m a s t e r of life, w h i c h s h o u l d r e m a i n a d i v i n e p r e r o g a t i v e .
T h e m o n s t e r i s a p u r e s u b j e c t o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t : after h i s r e a n i m a ­
tion, h e i s a " n a t u r a l m a n , " h i s m i n d a tabula
rasa.
Left a l o n e , a b a n d o n e d
b y h i s c r e a t o r , h e h a s t o r e - e n a c t t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t t h e o r y of d e v e l o p ­
m e n t : h e h a s t o l e a r n e v e r y t h i n g from z e r o - l e v e l b y r e a d i n g a n d b y
e x p e r i e n c e . H i s first m o n t h s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of a k i n d o f
p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p e r i m e n t . T h e fact t h a t h e m o r a l l y fails, t h a t h e t u r n s i n t o
a m u r d e r o u s v e n g e f u l m o n s t e r , i s n o t a c o n d e m n a t i o n o f h i m b u t of the
s o c i e t y w h i c h h e a p p r o a c h e s w i t h t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n s a n d a n e e d to l o v e
a n d b e l o v e d . H i s s a d fate i l l u s t r a t e s p e r f e c t l y R o u s s e a u ' s t h e s i s t h a t m a n
is b y n a t u r e g o o d , a n d t h a t i t i s s o c i e t y t h a t c o r r u p t s h i m .
T h e v e r y fear of p r o g r e s s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a c o n s e r v a t i v e motif. R e c a l l
that, i n M a r y S h e l l e y ' s E n g l a n d , " L u d d i t e s , " g a n g s of d e s p e r a t e w o r k e r s ,
w e r e d e s t r o y i n g i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e s in p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e l o s s of j o b s a n d
t h e g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t m a c h i n e s m e a n t for t h e m .
f e m i n i s t s r e a d Frankeiutein
Furthermore,
not a s a conservative warning about the
d a n g e r s of p r o g r e s s , b u t a s a p r o t o - f e m i n i s t
c r i t i q u e of t h e d a n g e r s of
masculine k n o w l e d g e a n d technology w h i c h a i m to dominate t h e world
a n d g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r h u m a n life itself. T h i s fear i s still w i t h u s t o d a y : t h e
f e a r t h a t s c i e n t i s t s w i l l c r e a t e a n e w form of life o r a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e
w h i c h will r u n o u t of our control a n d turn a g a i n s t u s .
T h e r e i s , finally, a f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i g u i t y t h a t p e r t a i n s t o t h e v e r y
motrf of t h e s o n ' s r e b e l l i o n a s a m o n s t r o s i t y — w h o s e r e b e l l i o n i s t h i s In t h e
n o v e l ? R e b e l l i o n i s r e d o u b l e d : t h e first r e b e l a g a i n s t p a t e r n a l o r d e r i s
V i c t o r himself, a n d t h e m o n s t e r r e b e l s a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l l i o u s son. V i c t o r
r e b e l s a g a i n s t t h e p r o p e r p a t e r n a l o r d e r : h i s c r e a t i o n of t h e m o n s t e r i s
asexual reproduction,
n o t t h e n o r m a l s u c c e s s i o n of g e n e r a t i o n s i n a
family.
79
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e F r e u d i a n n o t i o n of t h e Unheimliche ( t h e u n c a n n y ) .
W h a t i s t h e m o s t unheimlich t h i n g , t h a t c l o s e s t to u s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e
t h e o b j e c t of h o r r o r a n d d i s g u s t ? Incest: t h e I n c e s t u o u s s u b j e c t l i t e r a l l y
s t a y s a t h o m e , h e d o e s not n e e d to l o o k for h i s s e x u a l p a r t n e r o u t s i d e , and
h e e n g a g e s in a s e c r e t a c t i v i t y w h i c h i n s p i r e s fear a n d s h a m e in a l l of u s .
N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t h i n t s of i n c e s t o c c u r t w i c e in Frankemtein:
Walton
w r i t e s h i s l e t t e r s ( a n d , a t t h e n o v e l ' s e n d , d e c i d e s to r e t u r n ) not to h i s
w i f e , b u t to h i s sister; in t h e first e d i t i o n of t h e n o v e l , V i c t o r ' s b r i d e i s h i s
h a l f - s i s t e r . ( S o w h e n t h e m o n s t e r i s r e a l l y " t h e r e at [ t h e ] w e d d i n g n i g h t "
a n d k i l l s t h e b r i d e , h e p r e v e n t s a t t h e l a s t m o m e n t t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n of
an incestuous union.)
W a l t o n ' s a n d V i c t o r ' s u r g e to l e a v e h o m e a n d e n g a g e in a r i s k y
t r a n s g r e s s i v e a c t is t h u s m o r e a m b i g u o u s t h a n it m a y s e e m : t h e y b o t h
d o it n o t o u t of s o m e p a t h o l o g i c a l b l a s p h e m o u s a m b i t i o n , b u t in o r d e r to
e s c a p e t h e i n c e s t u o u s stuffiness of t h e i r h o m e . T h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g
w r o n g at home. M a r y ' s husband, Percy, described w h a t w a s w r o n g in his
f a m o u s s o n n e t " E n g l a n d in 1 8 1 9 " :
A n old, m a d , b l i n d , d e s p i s e d , a n d d y i n g k i n g .
P r i n c e s , t h e d r e g s of t h e i r d u l l r a c e , w h o
flow
T h r o u g h p u b l i c s c o r n — m u d from a m u d d y s p r i n g .
R u l e r s w h o n e i t h e r s e e , n o r feel, n o r k n o w .
B u t l e e c h - l i k e to t h e i r f a i n t i n g c o u n t r y c l i n g ,
Till t h e y d r o p , b l i n d in b l o o d , w i t h o u t a b l o w ,
A p e o p l e s t a r v e d a n d s t a b b e d in t h e u n t i l l e d
field.
An army, w h i c h libertlcide a n d p r e y
M a k e s a s a t w o - e d g e d s w o r d to a l l w h o w i e l d ,
Golden a n d sanguine laws w h i c h tempt and slay.
Religion Christless, Godless — a book seal'd,
A S e n a t e — T i m e ' s worst statute unrepealed.
A r e g r a v e s , from w h i c h a g l o r i o u s P h a n t o m m a y
B u r s t , to i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s d a y .
A c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d r e p l y , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h i s p h a n t o m w h i c h m a y
b u r s t from a g r a v e "to i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s d a y " , m a y t u r n o u t not to
b e so g l o r i o u s a t all, b u t r a t h e r a p h a n t o m of m u r d e r o u s r e v e n g e l i k e
F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s m o n s t e r . T h i s b r i n g s u s to M a r y S h e l l e y ' s c o n t r a d i c t i o n :
the c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n " o p p r e s s i o n a n d a n a r c h y " , b e t w e e n t h e stifling
a n d o p p r e s s i v e h o m e a n d t h e m u r d e r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r a t t e m p t s to
80
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
b r e a k o u t of it. U n a b l e to r e s o l v e t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a n d not w i l l i n g to
c o n f r o n t it d i r e c t l y , s h e c o u l d o n l y tell it a s a f a m i l y m y t h .
T h e l e s s o n of a l l t h e s e i m p a s s e s i s not t h a t o n e s h o u l d b y p a s s t h e f a m i l y
m y t h a n d t u r n d i r e c t l y to s o c i a l r e a l i t y ; w h a t o n e s h o u l d d o i s s o m e t h i n g
m u c h m o r e difficult: to u n d e r m i n e t h e f a m i l y m y t h from within. T h e k e y
t e s t i m o n y of a s t r u g g l e to a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l i s K a f k a ' s l e t t e r to h i s father.
A letter which d i d arrive at ltd dedtinxition
T h e 2 0 0 1 D a r w i n A w a r d for t h e m o s t s t u p i d a c t w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y
c o n f e r r e d on a n u n f o r t u n a t e w o m a n from r u r a l R o m a n i a w h o w o k e u p
d u r i n g h e r f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n . C r a w l i n g o u t of h e r coffin a n d r e a l i z i n g
w h a t w a s g o i n g on, s h e r a n a w a y in b l i n d t e r r o r , o n l y to b e hit b y a t r u c k
on a b u s y r o a d a n d i n s t a n t l y k i l l e d . S o s h e w a s p u t b a c k i n t o t h e coffin
a n d t h e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n c a r r i e d on . . . Is t h i s not t h e u l t i m a t e e x a m p l e
of w h a t w e c a l l f a t e — o f a l e t t e r a r r i v i n g a t its d e s t i n a t i o n ?
A l e t t e r c a n a l s o r e a c h its d e s t i n a t i o n p r e c i s e l y i n s o f a r a s its a d d r e s s e e
r e f u s e s to r e c e i v e i t — a s i s t h e c a s e t o w a r d s t h e e n d of Troihid and Creddida,
S h a k e s p e a r e ' s aforementioned neglected masterpiece, w h e n the deceived
l o v e r T r o i l u s r i p s u p a n d t h r o w s a w a y t h e l e t t e r from h i s C r e s s i d a in
w h i c h s h e t r i e s to e x p l a i n h e r
flirtation
with Diomedes. W e never learn
w h a t w a s in t h e l e t t e r , a l t h o u g h t h e s c e n e c a n n o t
but
m e l o d r a m a t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s : w i l l C r e s s i d a r e d e e m herself,
arouse
our
" e x p l a i n it
a l l " ? T h e force of t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n a c c o u n t s for t h e fact that, t h r o u g h o u t
t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e v e r s i o n of t h e p l a y u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d w a s
D i y d e n ' s r e v i s i o n from 1 6 7 9 , in w h i c h C r e s s i d a i s fully r e d e e m e d : w e
leeirn t h a t s h e h a s p l o t t e d w i t h h e r f a t h e r a n e s c a p e b a c k to T r o y a n d to
T r o i l u s , a n d t h a t h e r s e e m i n g s u r r e n d e r to D i o m e d e s w a s m e r e l y a p l o y
to e n a b l e t h a t . S o , w h a t if S h a k e s p e a r e w a n t e d to m a k e a p o i n t — a n d not
j u s t k e e p o u r c u r i o s i t y in s u s p e n s i o n — w h e n h e r e f u s e s to d i v u l g e its
c o n t e n t ? W h a t if t h e l e t t e r w a s meant to b e r e j e c t e d ? T h e s c e n e to w h i c h
t h i s l e t t e r r e f e r s o c c u r r e d e a r l i e r , w h e n , after C r e s s i d a a n d T r o i l u s s p e n d
t h e i r first ( a n d o n l y ) n i g h t t o g e t h e r , s h e w a s d e l i v e r e d b y h e r o w n f a t h e r
to t h e G r e e k s , a s p a r t of a c o l d b a r g a i n , in e x c h a n g e for a T r o j a n w a r r i o r
c a p t u r e d b y t h e G r e e k s . In t h e G r e e k c a m p , s h e w a s g i v e n a s a b o o t y to
D i o m e d e s ; in h i s tent, s h e flirts w i t h h i m , s h a m e l e s s l y offering h e r s e l f
U n d e r t h e g a z e of T r o i l u s , w h o h a s b e e n b r o u g h t to t h e t e n t b y U l y s s e s .
After D i o m e d e s l e a v e s t h e tent, s h e r e f l e c t s a l o u d :
81
L . ' c r c i v o i : ur
LUb I CAUSES
T r o i l u s , f a r e w e l l ! O n e e y e y e t l o o k s on t h e e ,
B u t w i t h m y heart the other e y e doth see.
A h , p o o r o u r s e x ! T h i s fault in u s I
find:
T h e e r r o r of o u r e y e d i r e c t s o u r m i n d .
W h a t error leads must err. O then conclude:
JVlinds s w a y e d b y e y e s a r e full of t u r p i t u d e .
(V, 2 )
T h e k e y q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d h e r e i s : w h a t if C r e s s i d a h a d b e e n all t h e
t i m e a w a r e of b e i n g o b s e r v e d b y T r o i l u s , a n d j u s t p r e t e n d e d
to b e
t h i n k i n g a l o u d a l o n e ? W h a t if t h e e n t i r e s e d u c t i o n s c e n e , h e r s h a m e l e s s
a t t e m p t t o a r o u s e D i o m e d e s ' d e s i r e , w a s staged for Troiliis'é gaze'l L e t u s
n o t f o r g e t t h a t C r e s s i d a a n n o u n c e s h e r split n a t u r e a l r e a d y a t t h e l o v e r s '
first a n x i o u s m e e t i n g , w h e n s h e o m i n o u s l y w a r n s T r o i l u s of h o w
I h a v e a k i n d of self [ t h a t ] r e s i d e s w i t h y o u —
B u t a n u n k i n d self, t h a t i t s e l f w i l l l e a v e
T o b e a n o t h e r ' s fool.
(in,
2)
t h e r e b y f o r e s h a d o w i n g h i s b i t t e r s t a t e m e n t , after w i t n e s s i n g h e r f l i r t i n g
w i t h D i o m e d e s , that, in h e r , t h e r e i s n o " r u l e in u n i t y itself." T h i s s t r a n g e
i n t e r n a l d i s l o c a t i o n of h e r s i s m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n it m a y a p p e a r : p a r t of
h e r l o v e s h i m , b u t t h i s p a r t is " u n k i n d , " a n d , w i t h t h e s a m e n e c e s s i t y t h a t
it l i n k e d h e r to T r o i l u s , w i l l soon p u s h h e r t o w a r d s a n o t h e r m a n . T h e
g e n e r a l l e s s o n of t h i s is that, in o r d e r to i n t e r p r e t a s c e n e o r a n u t t e r a n c e ,
s o m e t i m e s , t h e k e y t h i n g t o d o i s to Locate its true aedrcdsee. In o n e of t h e
b e s t P e r r y M a s o n n o v e l s , t h e l a w y e r w i t n e s s e s a p o l i c e i n t e r r o g a t i o n of a
couple
in t h e c o u r s e of w h i c h t h e h u s b a n d
tells t h e p o l i c e m a n i n
u n e x p e c t e d l y great detail w h a t happened, w h a t he saw, a n d w h a t he
t h i n k s h a p p e n e d — w h y t h i s e x c e s s of i n f o r m a t i o n ? T h e s o l u t i o n : t h i s
couple c o m m i t t e d the murder, a n d since the h u s b a n d k n e w that he a n d
h i s w i f e w o u l d soon b e a r r e s t e d o n s u s p i c i o n of t h e m u r d e r a n d k e p t
s e p a r a t e d , h e u s e d t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y to tell h i s w i f e t h e ( f a l s e ) s t o r y t h e y
s h o u l d b o t h c l i n g to —the t r u e a d d r e s s e e of h i s e n d l e s s t a l k w a s t h u s n o t
the p o l i c e m a n , but his wife.
A n d t h u s w e c o m e to F r a n z K a f k a ' s l e t t e r to h i s father, i n w h i c h h e
a r t i c u l a t e d t h e c r i s i s of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y i n a l l i t s a m b i g u i t y — n o w o n d e r
t h a t t h e f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o n e g e t s i n r e a d i n g K a f k a ' s l e t t e r i s t h a t t h e r e is
82
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g in it, t h e final t w i s t a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e p a r a b l e on t h e
D o o r of t h e L a w ( " T h i s d o o r w a s h e r e o n l y for y o u . . . " ) : t h e f a t h e r ' s
d i s p l a y of t e r r o r a n d r a g e i s h e r e o n l y for y o u , y o u h a v e i n v e s t e d in it, y o u
a r e s u s t a i n i n g it . . . O n e c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h e r e a l H e r m a n n K a f k a a s a
benevolent a n d nice gentleman, g e n u i n e l y surprised at the role he p l a y e d
i n h i s s o n ' s imagination.*'^
T o p u t it in C a l i f o r n i a n s t y l e , K a f k a h a d a s e r i o u s a t t i t u d e
problem
w i t h r e g a r d to h i s f a t h e r . W h e n K a f k a i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f a s " L o w y , "
assuming his mother's
n a m e , h e l o c a t e d h i m s e l f in a s e r i e s w h i c h
c o m p r i s e s A d o r n o ( w h o a l s o s h i f t e d from f a t h e r ' s n a m e , W i e s e n g r u n d ,
to h i s m o t h e r ' s
f a m i l y n a m e ) , n o t to m e n t i o n
H i t l e r (from
e l g r u b e r ) — a l l u n e a s y w i t h a s s u m i n g t h e r o l e of t h e
Schick-
b e a r e r of
the
p a t e r n a l n a m e . T h i s i s w h y o n e of t h e p o i n t s in t h e l e t t e r to h i s f a t h e r
i s K a f k a ' s c l a i m t h a t it w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e for h i m to a c c e p t ( t h e
p e r s o n of) h i s father, to e s t a b l i s h a n o n - t r a u m a t i c
relationship with
h i m , if h e w e r e h i s f r i e n d , b r o t h e r , b o s s , e v e n f a t h e r - i n - l a w , j u s t n o t
his father . . .
W h a t b o t h e r s K a f k a i s t h e e x c e s s i v e p r e s e n c e of h i s father: h e i s too
m u c h a l i v e , too o b s c e n e l y i n t r u s i v e . H o w e v e r , t h i s f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s i v e
p r e s e n c e i s not a d i r e c t fact: it a p p e a r s a s s u c h o n l y a g a i n s t t h e b a c k ­
g r o u n d of t h e s u s p e n s i o n of t h e f a t h e r ' s s y m b o l i c function. T h i s f a t h e r ' s
"too-muchness"
( a s E r i c S a n t n e r w o u l d c a l l i t ) is u l t i m a t e l y t h e
too-
m u c h n e s s of life itself, t h e h u m i l i a t i n g q u a l i t y of t h e f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s of
vitality w h i c h undermines his authority—let u s note h o w Kafka's notices
his father's
taste for i n d e c e n t e x p r e s s i o n s , w h i c h y o u w o u l d p r o d u c e in t h e l o u d e s t
possible voice, laughing about them as though y o u h a d said something
p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d , w h i l e in p o i n t of fact it w a s o n l y a b a n a l little
o b s c e n i t y ( a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h i s a g a i n w a s for m e a h u m i l i a t i n g
m a n i f e s t a t i o n of y o u r v i t a l i t y ) .
A g a i n , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h e p r o p e r o r d e r of c a u s a l i t y : it i s not t h a t
h i s f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s i v e v i t a l i t y u n d e r m i n e s h i s s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y ; it i s ,
r a t h e r , t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d , n a m e l y , t h e v e r y fact t h a t K a f k a i s b o t h e r e d
b y his father's
excessive vitality already presupposes
the
failure
of
symbolic authority.
W h a t i s t h e t r u e function of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r ?
It i s , p r e c i s e l y , to
a l l o w t h e s u b j e c t to " s y m b o l i c a l l y k i l l " t h e father, to b e a b l e to abandon h i s
83
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
father ( a n d t h e c l o s e d f a m i l y c i r c l e ) a n d f r e e l y s e t out on h i s o w n p a t h in
the w o r l d . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t K a f k a ' s r e l u c t a n c e to a s s u m e t h e N a m e o f - t h e - F a t h e r is t h e v e r y I n d i c a t i o n of h i s f a i l u r e to b r e a k a w a y from h i s
father: w h a t t h e l e t t e r to K a f k a ' s f a t h e r b e a r s w i t n e s s to i s a s u b j e c t w h o
w a s d o o m e d to r e m a i n f o r e v e r i n t h e p a t e r n a l s h a d o w , c a u g h t u p w i t h
h i m in a l i b i d i n a l d e a d l o c k . F a r from e n a b l i n g h i m to e l u d e h i s f a t h e r ' s
g r a s p , K a f k a ' s refusal to a c c e p t t h e f a t h e r ' s n a m e is the s u r e s t s i g n of t h i s
imprisonment.
N o t in a n y s e n s e a p a s s i v e v i c t i m of h i s f a t h e r ' s t e r r o r , K a f k a w a s
d i r e c t i n g t h e g a m e ( r e c a l l f r o m t h e l o n g d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e m a n from t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e a n d t h e P r i e s t , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e p a r a b l e a b o u t t h e D o o r of
the L a w in K a f k a ' s The Triai, t h e P r i e s t ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e m a n from t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e w a s in t h e s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n a n d t h a t t h e g u a r d i a n of t h e d o o r
w a s r e a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e d to h i m ) . T h e p r o o f ? If t h e r e e v e r w a s a s c r e e n
m e m o r y , it i s t h e a c c i d e n t f r o m w h e n h e w a s t w o m o n t h s o l d t h a t K a f k a
c l a i m s a s t h e o n l y t h i n g f r o m h i s c h i l d h o o d of w h i c h h e h a s a " d i r e c t
m e m o r y " ( a n d a p p e a l s to h i s f a t h e r t h a t h e s h o u l d a l s o r e m e m b e r i t ) . It
was
( r e ) c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r w a r d s , p r o b a b l y from w h a t t h e p a r e n t s told
F r a n z a b o u t i t — b u t c o v e r i n g w h a t , w e m a y a s k ? L i k e t h e p r i m a l s c e n e of
the W o l f m a n , it is a r e t r o a c t i v e f a n t a s y :
T h e r e i s o n l y o n e e p i s o d e In t h e e a r l y y e a r s of w h i c h 1 h a v e a d i r e c t
m e m o r y . Y o u m a y r e m e m b e r it, t o o . O n e n i g h t I k e p t on w h i m p e r i n g
for w a t e r , not, 1 a m c e r t a i n , b e c a u s e I w a s t h i r s t y , b u t p r o b a b l y p a r t l y
to b e a n n o y i n g , p a r t l y to a m u s e m y s e l f . A f t e r s e v e r a l v i g o r o u s t h r e a t s
h a d f a i l e d to h a v e a n y effect, y o u t o o k m e o u t of b e d , c a r r i e d m e o u t
onto t h e pavlatche [ t h e C z e c h w o r d for t h e l o n g b a l c o n y in t h e i n n e r
c o u r t y a r d of o l d h o u s e s in P r a g u e ] , a n d left m e t h e r e a l o n e for a w h i l e
in m y n i g h t s h i r t , o u t s i d e t h e s h u t d o o r . I a m not g o i n g to s a y t h a t t h i s
w a s w r o n g — p e r h a p s t h e r e w a s r e a l l y n o o t h e r w a y of g e t t i n g p e a c e
a n d q u i e t t h a t n i g h t — b u t I m e n t i o n it a s t y p i c a l of y o u r m e t h o d s of
b r i n g i n g u p a c h i l d a n d t h e i r effect on m e . I d a r e s a y I w a s q u i t e
o b e d i e n t a f t e r w a r d a t t h a t p e r i o d , b u t it d i d m e i n n e r h a r m . W h a t w a s
for m e a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , t h a t s e n s e l e s s a s k i n g for w a t e r , a n d t h e n t h e
e x t r a o r d i n a r y t e r r o r of b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t s i d e w e r e t w o t h i n g s t h a t I,
m y n a t u r e b e i n g w h a t it w a s , c o u l d n e v e r p r o p e r l y c o n n e c t w i t h e a c h
other. E v e n y e a r s a f t e r w a r d I s u f f e r e d from t h e t o r m e n t i n g f a n c y t h a t
the h u g e m a n , m y father, t h e u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y , w o u l d c o m e a l m o s t
for no r e a s o n a t a l l a n d t a k e m e o u t of b e d in t h e n i g h t a n d c a r r y m e o u t
84
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
o n t o t h e pavlatche, a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y I m e a n t a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g a s
far a s h e w a s c o n c e r n e d .
T h e g u r g l i n g s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n of t h e c h i l d I n t e n d e d t o p r o v o k e t h e f a t h e r
is l i k e t h e o b s c e n e soft s o u n d s o n t h e p h o n e l i n e from t h e C a s t l e , o r t h e
U S m a r i n e s ' marching chants . . . There is thus a hidden link between the
" s u b v e r s i v e " p r e - s y m b o l i c b a b b l e of t h e c h i l d a n d t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e P o w e r
that terrorizes the K a l k e a n hero, between superego a n d id.
The true u n d e r l y i n g reproach to the father is not his p o w e r a n d
a r r o g a n t d i s p l a y of a u t h o r i t y , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , h i s impotence, h i s lack
of s j m i b o l i c a u t h o r i t y . A r e t h e f a t h e r ' s t e r r i f y i n g o u t b u r s t s
of r a g e
(y^uten) n o t so m a n y s i g n s of h i s b a s i c i m p o t e n c e , s i g n a l s t h a t h i s c o l d
a n d efficient a u t h o r i t y h a s f a i l e d ? T h e f a t h e r h i m s e l f a c c o u n t e d for h i s
" i m p e r i o u s t e m p e r a m e n t " a s " d u e to [ h i s ] n e r v o u s h e a r t c o n d i t i o n " — n o t
e x a c t l y a s i g n of p o w e r , b u t , a s i s c l e a r to K a f k a himself, a m e t h o d of
c h e a p m a n i p u l a t i o n w o r t h y of a w e a k l i n g : " t h e n e r v o u s h e a r t c o n d i t i o n i s
a means b y w h i c h y o u exert y o u r domination more strongly, since the
t h o u g h t of It n e c e s s a r i l y c h o k e s off t h e l e a s t o p p o s i t i o n from
others."
H e r e i s a n o t h e r of t h e f a t h e r ' s r i t u a l i s t i c d i s p l a y s of p o w e r : "It w a s a l s o
terrible w h e n y o u r a n around the table, shouting, g r a b b i n g at one,
o b v i o u s l y n o t r e a l l y t r y i n g to g r a b , y e t p r e t e n d i n g t o . . . " — a r i d i c u l o u s ,
s e l f - u n d e r m i n i n g , d i s p l a y of p o w e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t k i n d of a f a t h e r
feels so t h r e a t e n e d b y h i s t w o - m o n t h - o l d s o n t h a t h e h a s to u n d e r t a k e t h e
a b s u r d l y e x c e s s i v e m e a s u r e of t a k i n g h i m o u t of t h e a p a r t m e n t ? A t r u l y
a u t h o r i t a t i v e figure w o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m w i t h a c o l d s t a r e . . .
(And, incidentally, in the standard patriarchal family w h i c h the Kafka
f a m i l y c e r t a i n l y w a s , i s t h e first s i g n of t h e l a c k of a u t h o r i t y n o t a l r e a d y
t h e fact t h a t it w a s t h e father, n o t t h e m o t h e r , w h o c a m e t o r e s p o n d to t h e
c h i l d ? ) It i s n o l e s s c l e a r t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f a t h e r ' s " i n t e l l e c t u a l
domination" is sustained b y a b a r e l y concealed fear that this obvious
fraud, t h i s s e m b l a n c e of a u t h o r i t y , w i l l b u r s t l i k e a b a l l o o n , l a y i n g b a r e
father's stupidity . . .
F r o m y o u r a r m c h a i r y o u r u l e d the w o r l d . Y o u r opinion w a s correct,
e v e r y o t h e r w a s m a d , w i l d , rnedhugge, not n o r m a l . Y o u r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e
i n d e e d w a s so g r e a t that y o u h a d no need to be consistent at all a n d y e t
n e v e r c e a s e d to b e in t h e r i g h t . It d i d s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n t h a t y o u h a d
n o o p i n i o n s w h a t s o e v e r a b o u t a m a t t e r a n d a s a r e s u l t e v e r y con­
c e i v a b l e o p i n i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e m a t t e r w a s n e c e s s a r i l y w r o n g ,
85
I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n . Y o u w e r e c a p a b l e , for i n s t a n c e , of r u n n i n g d o w n
the Czechs, a n d then the Germans, a n d then the J e w s , a n d w h a t is
m o r e , not o n l y s e l e c t i v e l y b u t in e v e r y r e s p e c t , a n d finally n o b o d y w a s
left e x c e p t y o u r s e l f . F o r m e y o u t o o k on t h e e n i g m a t i c q u a l i t y t h a t all
t y r a n t s h a v e w h o s e r i g h t s a r e b a s e d on t h e i r p e r s o n a n d not on r e a s o n .
No wonder
K a f k a ' s " e x c l u s i v e s e n s e of g u i l t " h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b y
"insight into our helplessness, y o u r s a n d m i n e . "
W e h a v e t h u s to b e v e r y p r e c i s e w h e n w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e t o p i c of
p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y , a u t h o r i t y i s not to b e c o n f u s e d w i t h a n o v e r b e a r i n g ,
v i o l e n t l y i n t r u s i v e p r e s e n c e . T h a t i s to s a y , o n e w a y to r e a d K a f l i a ' s
b e w i l d e r m e n t w i t h r e g a r d to h i s f a t h e r is to d e c i p h e r it a s t h e e x p e r i e n c e
of t h e g a p , t h e c o n t r a s t , b e t w e e n t h e r i d i c u l o u s , p r e t e n t i o u s , a n d i m ­
p o t e n t figure t h a t is t h e r e a l i t y of h i s f a t h e r a n d t h e I m m e n s e p o w e r he
nonetheless exerts: " H o w can such a pathetic
figure
nonetheless exert
such p o w e r ? " The a n s w e r w o u l d then be the socio-symbolic network that
m v e s t s a n e m p i r i c a l p e r s o n w i t h p o w e r , a n d t h e g a p w o u l d b e t h a t of
s y m b o l i c c a s t r a t i o n . F r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s of i n v e s t i t u r e , w e k n o w
t h e o b j e c t s w h i c h not o n l y " s y m b o l i z e " p o w e r , b u t p u t t h e s u b j e c t w h o
a c q u i r e s t h e m i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n of e f f e c t i v e l y exercinng p o w e r — i f a k i n g
h o l d s in h i s h a n d s t h e s c e p t e r a n d w e a r s t h e c r o w n , h i s w o r d s w i l l b e
t a k e n a s the w o r d s of a k i n g . S u c h i n s i g n i a a r e e x t e r n a l , not p a r t of m y
n a t u r e : I d o n t h e m ; I w e a r t h e m in o r d e r to e x e r t p o w e r . A s s u c h , t h e y
"castrate" me; they introduce a g a p between w h a t I immediately a m a n d
t h e function t h a t I e x e r c i s e ( t h a t Is, I a m n e v e r fully a t t h e l e v e l of m y
f u n c t i o n ) . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s not t h e w a y K a f k a e x p e r i e n c e s h i s father; t h e
p r o b l e m for K a f k a i s r a t h e r t h a t h i s f a t h e r ' s b o d i l y p r e s e n c e d i s t u r b s t h e
e f f i c a c y of t h e p a t e r n a l s y m b o l i c function, i n o t h e r w o r d s , h i s f a t h e r ' s
excessive, almost spectral, towering presence whose impact exceeds the
i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y of h i s p e r s o n i s n o t t h e e x c e s s of t h e s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y
o v e r i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y ; it i s t h e e x c e s s of t h e f a n t a s m a t i c o b s c e n i t y of t h e
R e a l . In F r e u d i a n t e r m s , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h K a f k a ' s f a t h e r i s t h a t , in
F r a n z ' s e y e s , h e h a s " r e g r e s s e d " from t h e a g e n c y of syrmbolic L a w to t h e
"primordial father
\lJr-Valer\."
T h e r e a r e t w o m o d e s of t h e M a s t e r , t h e p u b l i c s y m b o l i c M a s t e r a n d
the secret Evil M a g i c i a n w h o effectively p u l l s the strings a n d does his
w o r k d u r i n g the night. W h e n the subject is e n d o w e d w i t h symbolic
a u t h o r i t y , h e a c t s a s a n a p p e n d i x to h i s s y m b o l i c title, t h a t i s , it is t h e b i g
O t h e r , t h e s y m b o l i c i n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h a c t s t h r o u g h h i m : suffice it to
86
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
recall a j u d g e , w h o m a y be a miserable a n d corrupted person, but the
m o m e n t h e p u t s on h i s r o b e a n d o t h e r i n s i g n i a , h i s w o r d s a r e t h e w o r d s of
the
L a w itself
On
the
other hand,
the
"invisible" Master
(whose
e x e m p l a r y c a s e is t h e a n t i - S e m i t i c f i g u r e of t h e " J e w " w h o , i n v i s i b l e
to t h e p u b l i c e y e , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s of s o c i a l hfe) i s a k i n d of u n c a n n y
d o u b l e of p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y : h e h a s to a c t in t h e s h a d o w s , i r r a d i a t i n g a
p h a n t o m - l i k e , s p e c t r a l o m n i p o t e n c e . T h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e p a t r i a r c h a l
s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y , of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r , g i v e s r i s e to a n e w f i g u r e
of t h e M a s t e r w h o i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o u r c o m m o n p e e r , o u r " n e i g h b o r , "
o u r i m a g i n a r y d o u b l e , a n d for t h i s v e r y r e a s o n f a n t a s m a t i c a l l y e n d o w e d
w i t h a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n of t h e Evil G e n i u s . In L a c a n i a n t e r m s :
the
s u s p e n s i o n of t h e e g o i d e a l , of t h e f e a t u r e of s y m b o l i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
t h a t i s , t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e M a s t e r to an i m a g i n a r y i d e a l , n e c e s s a r i l y
g i v e s r i s e to its m o n s t r o u s o b v e r s e , to t h e
omnipotent Evil Genius w h o controls
superego
figure
o u r l i v e s . In t h i s
of
the
figure,
the
I m a g i n a r y ( s e m b l a n c e ) a n d t h e R e a l (of p a r a n o i a ) o v e r l a p , d u e to t h e
s u s p e n s i o n of p r o p e r s y m b o l i c e f f i c i e n c y .
T h e K a f k e a n L a w i s not p r o h i b i t i v e , not e v e n i n t r u s i v e o r i m p o s i n g : its
r e p e a t e d m e s s a g e to t h e s u b j e c t i s " Y o u a r e free to d o w h a t e v e r y o u
want!
D o n ' t a s k m e for o r d e r s ! " — w h i c h ,
of c o u r s e , i s t h e
perfect
s u p e r e g o f o r m u l a . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e m e s s a g e of K a f k a ' s father
to
h i s son w a s : " D o w h a t e v e r y o u l i k e . S o l a r a s I'm c o n c e r n e d y o u h a v e a
free h a n d . Y o u ' r e of a g e , I've n o a d v i c e to g i v e y o u . . . " T h e s e r i e s of t h e
father's "rhetorical m e t h o d s " as e n u m e r a t e d b y Kalk^a—"abuse, threats,
i r o n y , spiteful l a u g h t e r , a n d — o d d l y e n o u g h — s e l f - p i t y " — a r e t h e m o s t
concise rendering
of t h e
superego's
ambiguity. Kafka's
father
d e f i n i t e l y a luder, if e v e r t h e r e w a s o n e , a figure o u t of w h i c h a n
was
"orgy
of m a l i c e a n d spiteful d e l i g h t " e m a n a t e d . ( T h e l i n k h e r e is b e t w e e n K a f k a
a n d D a v i d L y n c h : n a m e l y , the excessive clownish
figures
of t e r r o r i s t
a u t h o r i t y in Blue Velvet, Wild at Heart, Dune, Lodt Highway . . .)
T h e s u p e r e g o ' s b a s i c t r i c k c o n s i s t s in r e p r o a c h i n g t h e s u b j e c t for not
l i v i n g u p to its h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s , w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s a b o t a g i n g t h e
s u b j e c t ' s efforts
(or m o c k i n g l y e x p r e s s i n g d i s b e l i e f in t h e
subject's
capacities, and then l a u g h i n g at the subject's failure). Kafka
clearly
n o t i c e d t h i s p a r a d o x a p r o p o s of h i s f a t h e r ' s d e m a n d s t h a t h e
should
b e c o m e a n a u t o n o m o u s p e r s o n w h o s u c c e e d s on h i s o w n :
B u t t h a t w a s n ' t w h a t y o u w a n t e d a t a l l ; t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d , after a l l ,
b e c o m e q u i t e different a s a r e s u l t of a l l y o u r efforts, a n d t h e r e w a s n o
87
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h o n e s e l f a s y o u h a d d o n e . S u c h a n o p p o r ­
t u n i t y w o u l d first of a l l h a v e h a d to b e c r e a t e d b y v i o l e n c e
and
r e v o l u t i o n s , it w o u l d h a v e m e a n t b r e a k i n g a w a y from h o m e ( a s s u m i n g
o n e h a d h a d t h e r e s o l u t i o n a n d s t r e n g t h to d o so a n d t h a t
Mother
w o u l d n ' t h a v e w o r k e d a g a i n s t it, for h e r p a r t , w i t h o t h e r m e a n s ) . B u t
t h a t w a s not w h a t y o u w a n t e d a t a l l , t h a t y o u t e r m e d
Ingratitude,
e x t r a v a g a n c e , d i s o b e d i e n c e , t r e a c h e r y , m a d n e s s . A n d so, w h i l e on the
one hand y o u tempted
m e to it b y m e a n s of e x a m p l e , s t o r y ,
and
h u m i l i a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d y o u f o r b a d e it w i t h t h e u t m o s t s e v e r i t y .
T h i s i s t h e o b s c e n e s u p e r e g o in its c o n t r a s t to t h e
Name-of-the-Father:
t h e v e r y I n j u n c t i o n " b e a u t o n o m o u s , " in i t s m o d e of o p e r a t i o n , s a b o t a g e s
its g o a l ; t h e v e r y i n j u n c t i o n " B e f r e e ! " t i e s t h e s u b j e c t u p f o r e v e r in t h e
v i c i o u s c i r c l e of d e p e n d e n c e .
O n e c a n r e t e l l in t h e s e s u p e r e g o t e r m s e v e n t h e r e m a r k a l l e g e d l y m a d e
b y B r e c h t a p r o p o s t h e a c c u s e d at t h e M o s c o w s h o w t r i a l s in t h e 1 9 3 0 s :
"If t h e y a r e i n n o c e n t ,
statement
they deserve all the more
is t h o r o u g h l y a m b i g u o u s — i t
to b e shot. " T h i s
can be read as the
standard
a s s e r t i o n of r a d i c a l S t a l i n i s m ( y o u r v e r y I n s i s t e n c e on y o u r i n d i v i d u a l
i n n o c e n c e , y o u r r e f u s a l to s a c r i f i c e y o u r s e l f for t h e C a u s e , b e a r s w i t n e s s
to y o u r g u i l t w h i c h r e s i d e s in p r i v i l e g i n g y o u r i n d l v i d u a l l l y o v e r
the
l a r g e r i n t e r e s t s of t h e p a r t y ) , o r it c a n b e r e a d a s its o p p o s i t e , in a r a d i c a l l y
a n t i - S t a l i n i s t w a y : if t h e y w e r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o p l o t a n d e x e c u t e t h e
e x e c u t i o n of S t a l i n a n d h i s e n t o u r a g e , a n d w e r e " m n o c e n t " ( t h a t i s , t h e y
d i d n o t g r a s p t h e o p p o r t u n i t y ) , t h e y e f f e c t i v e l y d e s e r v e d to d i e for falling
to r i d u s of S t a l i n . T h e t r u e g u i l t of t h e a c c u s e d is t h u s t h a t , I n s t e a d of
rejecting the v e r y ideological framework
of S t a l i n i s m a n d
ruthlessly
a c t i n g a g a i n s t S t a l i n , t h e y n a r c i s s i s t i c a l l y fell in l o v e w i t h t h e i r v i c t i m i z a ­
tion a n d either protested their i n n o c e n c e or b e c a m e fascinated b y the
u l t i m a t e s a c r i f i c e t h e y w e r e m a k i n g to t h e p a r t y b y c o n f e s s i n g t h e i r n o n ­
e x i s t e n t c r i m e s . S o t h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l w a y of g r a s p i n g t h e i m b r i c a ­
t i o n of t h e s e t w o m e a n i n g s w o u l d h a v e b e e n to s t a r t w i t h t h e first r e a d i n g ,
f o l l o w e d b y t h e c o m m o n - s e n s e m o r a l i s t i c r e a c t i o n to B r e c h t : " B u t h o w
c a n y o u c l a i m s o m e t h i n g so r u t h l e s s ? C a n s u c h a l o g i c w h i c h d e m a n d s
b l i n d s e l f - s a c r i f i c e for t h e a c c u s a t o r y w h i m s of t h e L e a d e r not
function
o n l y w i t h i n a t e r r i f y i n g c r i m i n a l t o t a l i t a r i a n u n i v e r s e ? F a r from a c c e p t i n g
t h e s e r u l e s , it i s t h e d u t y of e v e r y e t h i c a l s u b j e c t to fight s u c h a u n i v e r s e
w i t h all m e a n s p o s s i b l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e p h y s i c a l r e m o v a l ( k i l l i n g ) of t h e
t o t a l i t a r i a n l e a d e r s h i p ? " " S o y o u s e e h o w , if t h e a c c u s e d a r e i n n o c e n t ,
88
THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y
t h e y d e s e r v e all t h e m o r e to b e s h o t — t h e y e f f e c t i v e l y were in a p o s i t i o n to
o r g a n i z e a p l o t to r i d u s of S t a l i n a n d h i s h e n c h m e n ,
a n d missed this
u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y to s p a r e h u m a n i t y from t e r r i b l e c r i m e s ! " T h i s , a g a i n ,
is t h e t w i s t e d s u p e r e g o l o g i c a t i t s p u r e s t : t h e m o r e y o u a r e i n n o c e n t , t h e
m o r e y o u a r e g u i l t y , b e c a u s e y o u r i n n o c e n c e itself ( i n n o c e n c e in t h e e y e s
of w h o m ? W i t h r e g a r d to w h a t ? W i t h r e g a r d to t h e o b s c e n e c r i m i n a l
p o w e r ) i s t h e p r o o f of y o u r g u i l t (of y o u r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h t h i s p o w e r ) . . .
A l t h o u g h F r e u d u s e s t h r e e d i s t i n c t t e r m s for t h e a g e n c y t h a t p u s h e s
t h e s u b j e c t to a c t e t h i c a l l y — h e s p e a k s of t h e i d e a l e g o (Idealœh), e g o i d e a l
(Jch-Ideat), a n d s u p e r e g o [IJherLch^—as
a rule he conflated the three (he
often u s e s t h e e x p r e s s i o n IchOealoder Idealkh ( e g o i d e a l o r i d e a l e g o ) , a n d
t h e title of c h a p t e r III of The Ego and the Id) i s " T h e E g o a n d S u p e r e g o
(Ego I d e a l ) . " Lacan, however, introduces a precise distinction
between
t h e s e t h r e e t e r m s : t h e " i d e a l e g o " s t a n d s for t h e i d e a l i z e d s e l f - i m a g e of t h e
s u b j e c t ( t h e w a y I w o u l d l i k e to b e , I w o u l d l i k e o t h e r s to s e e m e ) ; t h e e g o
i d e a l i s t h e a g e n c y w h o s e g a z e I t r y to i m p r e s s w i t h m y e g o i m a g e , t h e b i g
O t h e r w h o w a t c h e s o v e r m e a n d p u s h e s m e to g i v e m y best, t h e i d e a l I t r y
to follow a n d a c t u a l i z e ; a n d t h e s u p e r e g o i s t h i s s a m e a g e n c y in i t s
vengeful, sadistic, punishing aspect. The u n d e r l j a n g structuring principle
of t h e s e t r e e t e r m s is c l e a r l y L a c a n ' s t r i a d I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c — R e a l : t h e
ideal ego is i m a g i n a r y , w h a t L a c a n calls the "small other," the idealized
d o u b l e i m a g e of m y e g o ; t h e e g o i d e a l i s s y m b o l i c , t h e p o i n t of m y
S3mibolic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t h e p o i n t in t h e b i g O t h e r from w h i c h I o b s e r v e
( a n d j u d g e ) myself; t h e s u p e r e g o i s r e a l , t h e c r u e l a n d i n s a t i a b l e a g e n c y
which bombards
me with impossible demands and which mocks
my
failed a t t e m p t s to m e e t t h e m , t h e a g e n c y in t h e e y e s of w h i c h 1 a m a l l t h e
m o r e g u i l t y , t h e m o r e I t r y to s u p p r e s s m y " s i n f u l " s t r i v i n g s a n d l i v e u p to
its e x i g e n c i e s .
W h a t f o l l o w s from t h e s e p r e c i s e d i s t i n c t i o n s i s that, for L a c a n , t h e
s u p e r e g o " h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e a s far a s its m o s t
o b l i g a t o r y d e m a n d s a r e c o n c e r n e d . " * ^ T h e s u p e r e g o i s , on the c o n t r a r y ,
the a n t i - e t h i c a l a g e n c y , t h e s t i g m a t i z a t i o n of o u r e t h i c a l b e t r a y a l . S o
w h i c h o n e of t h e o t h e r t w o L) t h e p r o p e r e t h i c a l a g e n c y ? S h o u l d w e — a s
s o m e A m e n c a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t s p r o p o s e — set u p t h e " g o o d "
(rational-
moderate, c a r i n g ) ego ideal against the " b a d " (irrational-excessive, cruel,
a n x i e t y - p r o v o k i n g ) s u p e r e g o , t r y i n g to l e a d t h e p a t i e n t to g e t r i d of t h e
b a d " s u p e r e g o a n d follow the " g o o d " ego i d e a l ? L a c a n opposes this e a s y
W a y o u t —for h i m , t h e o n l y p r o p e r a g e n c y is t h e f o u r t h o n e , m i s s i n g from
F r e u d ' s t r i p a r t i t e list, t h e o n e s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to b y L a c a n a s " t h e l a w
89
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
of d e s i r e , " t h e a g e n c y w h i c h t e l l s y o u to a c t in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h y o u r
d e s i r e . T h e g a p b e t w e e n t h i s " l a w of d e s i r e " a n d t h e e g o i d e a l
(the
n e t w o r k of s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c n o r m s a n d i d e a l s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i n t e r n a l i z e s
in t h e c o u r s e of h e r e d u c a t i o n ) i s c r u c i a l h e r e . F o r L a c a n , t h e e g o i d e a l ,
t h i s s e e m i n g l y b e n e v o l e n t a g e n c y w h i c h l e a d s u s to m o r a l g r o w t h a n d
m a t u r i t y , f o r c e s u s to b e t r a y t h e " l a w of d e s i r e " b y a d o p t i n g t h e " r e a s o n ­
a b l e " d e m a n d s of t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i o - s y m b o l i c o r d e r . T h e s u p e r e g o , w i t h
its e x c e s s i v e f e e l i n g of g u i l t , is m e r e l y the n e c e s s a r y o b v e r s e of t h e e g o
i d e a l : it e x e r t s i t s u n b e a r a b l e p r e s s u r e u p o n u s o n b e h a l f of o u r b e t r a y a l
of t h e " l a w of d e s i r e . " In short, for L a c a n , t h e g u i l t w e e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r
t h e s u p e r e g o ' s p r e s s u r e is not i l l u s o r y b u t a c t u a l — " t h e o n l y t h i n g of
w h i c h o n e c a n b e g u i l t y i s of h a v i n g g i v e n g r o u n d
r e l a t i v e to
one's
d e s i r e , " a n d the s u p e r e g o ' s p r e s s u r e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t w e e f f e c t i v e l y are
g u i l t y of b e t r a y i n g o u r d e s i r e .
B a c k to Kafka: he formulates this s a m e i n s i g h t a p r o p o s the
father's
r e a c t i o n s to h i s a t t e m p t s to g e t m a r r i e d ;
The fundamental thought behind both a t t e m p t s at m a r r i a g e w a s quite
s o u n d : to set u p h o u s e , to b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t .
An idea that does
a p p e a l t o y o u , o n l y i n r e a l i t y it a l w a y s t u r n s o u t l i k e t h e c h i l d r e n ' s
g a m e in w h i c h o n e h o l d s a n d e v e n g r i p s t h e o t h e r ' s h a n d , c a l l i n g out:
"Oh, go a w a y , go a w a y , w h y don't y o u go a w a y ? "
W h a t the f a t h e r w a s t h u s p r e v e n t i n g is K a f k a ' s m a r r i a g e : in h i s c a s e , the
f a t h e r d i d not a c t a s t h e g u a r a n t o r of m a r r i a g e , a s t h e a g e n t of s y m b o l i c
authority (see L a c a n ' s thesis that a h a r m o n i o u s s e x u a l relationship can
o n l y t a k e p l a c e u n d e r t h e c o v e r of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r ) ,
s u p e r e g o o b s t a c l e , a s w h a t F r e u d , in h i s a n a l y s i s of E . T . A .
Sandimin,
b u t a s its
Hoffmann's
c a l l s LieheMtörer, t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h d i s t u r b s / p r e v e n t s t h e l o v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p . W e e n c o u n t e r h e r e t h e s u p e r e g o p a r a d o x a t its p u r e s t ; t h e
f a t h e r w h o p r e v e n t s the l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p is p r e c i s e l y t h e o b s c e n e
w h o e n j o i n s u s to " d o i t , " to e n g a g e in s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y
father
without
c o n s t r a i n t s ; a n d , i n v e r s e l y , t h e f a t h e r w h o o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for a l o v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p is the f a t h e r w h o i s the a g e n c y of p r o h i b i t i o n , of t h e s y m b o l i c
Law.
T h a t i s to s a y , K a f k a ' s d e s i r e for a p r o p e r f a t h e r i s not a m a s o c h i s t i c
d e s i r e for s u b o r d i n a t i o n to a n a u t h o r i t y ; it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a d e s i r e for
f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y . T h e p a r a d o x is t h u s t h a t freedom from h i s f a t h e r
m e a n s aMumlng
h'u father's mime, w h i c h p u t s t h e m
on t h e s a m e l e v e l :
" M a r r i a g e c e r t a i n l y i s t h e p l e d g e of t h e m o s t a c u t e f o r m of s e l f - l i b e r a t i o n
90
T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y
a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . I w o u l d h a v e a f a m i l y , in m y o p i n i o n t h e h i g h e s t o n e
c a n a c h i e v e , a n d so too t h e h i g h e s t y o u h a v e a c h i e v e d . " T h e c h o i c e K a f k a
c o n f r o n t e d w a s b e t w e e n t h e t w o w a y s of e s c a p i n g from h i s father, t w o
m o d e s of i n d e p e n d e n c e : m a r r i a g e o r w r i t i n g , U père ou pire, h i s father o r
t h e " a l m o s t n o t h i n g " of w r i t i n g :
in m y w r i t i n g , a n d in e v e r y t h i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h it, I h a v e m a d e s o m e
a t t e m p t s a t i n d e p e n d e n c e , a t t e m p t s a t e s c a p e , w i t h t h e v e r y s m a l l e s t of
s u c c e s s ; t h e y w i l l s c a r c e l y l e a d a n y farther; m u c h c o n f i r m s t h i s for m e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s it i s m y d u t y or, r a t h e r , t h e e s s e n c e of m y life, to w a t c h
o v e r t h e m , to let n o d a n g e r t h a t I c a n a v e r t , i n d e e d n o p o s s i b i l i t y of
s u c h a d a n g e r , a p p r o a c h t h e m . M a r r i a g e b e a r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a
danger.
And he continues,
t h e final o u t c o m e is c e r t a i n : I m u s t r e n o u n c e . T h e s i m i l e of t h e b i r d in
t h e h a n d a n d t h e t w o in t h e b u s h h a s o n l y a fiery r e m o t e a p p l i c a t i o n
h e r e . In m y h a n d I h a v e n o t h i n g , i n t h e b u s h is e v e r y t h i n g , a n d y e t —so
it i s d e c i d e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s of b a t t l e a n d t h e e x i g e n c y of life —I m u s t
choose the
Kafka's
nothing.
self-humiliation,
which
includes
excremental
identification
( " A n d so if t h e w o r l d c o n s i s t e d o n l y of m e a n d y o u , a n o t i o n I w a s
m u c h i n c l i n e d to h a v e , t h e n t h i s p u r i t y of t h e w o r l d c a m e to a n e n d w i t h
y o u a n d , b y v i r t u e of y o u r a d v i c e , t h e filth b e g a n w i t h m e " ) , i s t h u s
p r o f o u n d l y d e c e p t i v e : it i s e a s y to d i s c e r n in K a f k a ' s c l a i m t h a t h e i s " t h e
r e s u l t of y o u r u p b r i n g i n g a n d of m y o b e d i e n c e " t h e s t r a t a g e m of d e n y i n g
o n e ' s o w n l i b i d i n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n o n e ' s s a d fate. T h e s t r a t e g y i s c l e a r
h e r e : / wiitingLy lUdunie
my fiith in order for my father to renuiin pure. T h i s
b e c o m e s e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r w h e n o n e b e a r s in m i n d w h e n , p r e c i s e l y , t h i s
s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h " f i l t h " o c c u r s : a t the e x a c t ( a n d m o s t t r a u m a t i c )
p o i n t of t h e letter, w h e n K a f k a r e p o r t s on t h e ( r a r e ) m o m e n t s w h e n h i s
f a t h e r offered h i m " r e a l i s t i c " / o b s c e n e a d v i c e on h o w to d e a l w i t h s e x ( d o
it d i s c r e e t l y , h a v e y o u r fun, d o n o t t a k e t h i n g s too s e r i o u s l y , d o not fall for
t h e first girl w h o offers h e r s e l f to y o u , r e m e m b e r t h e y a r e a l l t h e s a m e
w h o r e s , j u s t u s e t h e m a n d m o v e on . . . ) . F o r e x a m p l e , K a f k a r e c a l l s a
"brief discussion" that followed
91
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
the
announcement
of m y l a t e s t m a r r i a g e p l a n s . Y o u
s a i d to
me
s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h i s : " S h e p r o b a b l y p u t on a f a n c y b l o u s e , s o m e t h i n g
t h e s e P r a g u e J e w e s s e s a r e g o o d at, a n d
decided
to m a r r y
tomorrow,
her.
And
right
a w a y , of c o u r s e , y o u
t h a t a s fast a s p o s s i b l e ,
in a w e e k ,
t o d a y . I c a n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y o u : after a l l , y o u ' r e a g r o w n
m a n , y o u l i v e in t h e c i t y , a n d y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h a t to d o b u t m a r r y the
first g i r l w h o c o m e s a l o n g . Isn't t h e r e a n y t h i n g e l s e y o u c a n d o ? If
y o u ' r e f r i g h t e n e d , I'll g o w i t h y o u . " Y o u p u t it in m o r e d e t a i l a n d m o r e
plainly, but
I c a n n o l o n g e r r e c a l l t h e d e t a i l s , p e r h a p s too
things
b e c a m e a l i t t l e v a g u e b e f o r e m y e y e s , I p a i d a l m o s t m o r e a t t e n t i o n to
M o t h e r w h o , t h o u g h in c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t w i t h y o u , t o o k s o m e t h i n g
from
the
t a b l e a n d left t h e r o o m w i t h it. Y o u h a v e h a r d l y
ever
humiliated me more deeply with w o r d s a n d shown me y o u r contempt
more clearly.
T h e " r e a l m e a n i n g " of t h i s a d v i c e w a s c l e a r to K a f k a : " w h a t y o u a d v i s e d
m e to d o w a s in y o u r o p i n i o n a n d e v e n m o r e in m y o p i n i o n a t t h a t t i m e ,
t h e filthiest t h i n g p o s s i b l e . " F o r K a f k a , t h i s d i s p l a c e m e n t of " f i l t h " o n t o
t h e son w a s p a r t of t h e f a t h e r ' s s t r a t e g y to k e e p h i m s e l f p u r e — a n d it is at
this point that Kafka's o w n identification w i t h "filth" occurs:
T h u s y o u b e c a m e still p u r e r , r o s e still h i g h e r . T h e t h o u g h t t h a t y o u
m i g h t h a v e g i v e n y o u r s e l f s i m i l a r a d v i c e b e f o r e y o u r m a r r i a g e w a s to
m e u t t e r l y u n t h i n k a b l e . S o t h e r e w a s h a r d l y a n y s m u d g e of e a r t h l y
filth on y o u at a l l . A n d it w a s y o u w h o p u s h e d m e d o w n i n t o t h i s filth —
j u s t a s t h o u g h I w e r e p r e d e s t i n e d to it w i t h a f e w f r a n k w o r d s . A n d so,
if t h e w o r l d c o n s i s t e d o n l y of m e a n d y o u ( a n o t i o n I w a s m u c h i n c l i n e d
to h a v e ) , t h e n t h i s p u r i t y of t h e w o r l d c a m e to a n e n d w i t h y o u a n d , b y
v i r t u e of y o u r a d v i c e , t h e filth b e g a n w i t h m e .
A g a i n , it is h e r e t h a t K a f k a c h e a t s : it i s not h i s f a t h e r ' s , b u t hi) own,
d e s p e r a t e s t r i v i n g to k e e p t h e f a t h e r p u r e — i t is for K a f k a h i m s e l f t h a t a n y
n o t i o n of h i s f a t h e r f o l l o w i n g s i m i l a r a d v i c e ( a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , d w e l l i n g
in " f i l t h " ) i s " u t t e r l y u n t h i n k a b l e , " w h i c h m e a n s ; t o t a l l y c a t a s t r o p h i c ,
f o r e c l o s e d from h i s u n i v e r s e .
T h e r e follows a w e i r d but crucial conclusion: the father's
prosopo­
p o e i a . In h i s f a t h e r ' s r e p l y a s i m a g i n e d b y K a f k a , t h e f a t h e r i m p u t e s to
K a f k a t h a t w h a t e v e r h e w o u l d h a v e d o n e ( n a m e l y to s u p p o r t o r o p p o s e
K a f k a ' s m a r r i a g e p l a n s ) , it w o u l d h a v e b a c k f i r e d a n d h a v e b e e n t w i s t e d
92
T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y
b y K a f l i a i n t o an o b s t a c l e . T h e f a t h e r e v o k e s h e r e t h e s t a n d a r d l o g i c of
(paternal) prohibition a n d its transgression:
M y a v e r s i o n to y o u r m a r r i a g e w o u l d not h a v e p r e v e n t e d it; on t h e
c o n t r a r y , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n a d d e d i n c e n t i v e for y o u to m a r r y t h e
g i r l , for it w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e " a t t e m p t a t e s c a p e , " a s y o u p u t it,
complete.
O n e h a s to b e v e r y p r e c i s e h e r e a n d a v o i d c o n f u s i n g t h i s e n t a n g l e m e n t of
t h e l a w a n d its t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( t h e l a w s u s t a i n e d b y a h i d d e n c a l l for its
o w n t r a n s g r e s s i o n ) w i t h t h e s u p e r e g o p r o p e r a s its ( a l m o s t ) s y m m e t r i ­
cally opposite.
On
the one hand,
it is t h e h i d d e n
(non-articulated)
i n j u n c t i o n " E n j o y ! V i o l a t e t h e l a w ! " t h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s in t h e e x p l i c i t
p r o h i b i t i o n ; on t h e o t h e r ( m u c h m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d u n e a s y ) h a n d , it i s
t h e h i d d e n ( n o n - a r t i c u l a t e d ) i n j u n c t i o n to fail t h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s i n t h e
explicit permissive call " B e free!
Enjoy!"
T h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h d o e s b r e a k t h e v i c i o u s c y c l e of m u t u a l a c c u s a t i o n s
a n d i s t h u s h e s i t a n t l y " o p t i m i s t i c , " o p e n i n g u p a m i n i m a l s p a c e ol t r u c e
and a symbolic pact.
M y a n s w e r to t h i s i s that, after all, t h i s w h o l e r e j o i n d e r — w h i c h c a n
p a r t l y a l s o b e t u r n e d a g a i n s t y o u — d o e s not c o m e from y o u , b u t from
m e . N o t e v e n y o u r m i s t r u s t of o t h e r s i s a s g r e a t a s m y self-mistrust,
w h i c h y o u h a v e b r e d in m e . I d o not d e n y a c e r t a i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h i s
r e j o i n d e r , w h i c h in i t s e l f c o n t r i b u t e s n e w m a t e r i a l to t h e c h a r a c t e r ­
i z a t i o n of o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p . N a t u r a l l y t h i n g s c a n n o t
in r e a l i t y
fit
t o g e t h e r the w a y t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s in m y l e t t e r ; h i e is m o r e t h a n a
C h i n e s e puzzle. B u t w i t h the correction m a d e b y this r e j o i n d e r — a
c o r r e c t i o n T n e i t h e r c a n n o r w i l l e l a b o r a t e in d e t a i l — in m y o p i n i o n
s o m e t h i n g h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d w h i c h so c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e t r u t h
t h a t it m i g h t r e a s s u r e u s b o t h a little a n d m a k e o u r l i v i n g a n d o u r d y i n g
easier.
•)
W h a t w e h a v e h e r e is e t f e c t i v e l y a k i n d of ( s e l f - ) a n a l y s i s p u n c t u a t e d b y
the father's ( a n a l y s t ' s ) i m a g i n e d intervention w h i c h brings about the
c o n c l u s i o n : it is a s if K a f k a ' s l o n g , r a m b h n g
flow
finally
a n a l y s t ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , a s a r e a c t i o n to w h i c h K a f k a
finally
p r o v o k e s the
(the a n a l y s a n d )
e n a c t s t h e shift in his s u b j e c t i v e position, s i g n a l e d b y t h e o b v i o u s
b u t n o l e s s o d d c l a i m t h a t " t h i s w h o l e r e j o i n d e r — w h i c h c a n p a r t l y a l s o be
93
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t u r n e d a g a i n s t y o u — d o e s not c o m e from y o u , b u t from m e . " T h e p a r a l l e l
is c l e a r w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n of the p a r a b l e on the D o o r of t h e L a w , w h e n
t h e m a n from t h e c o u n t r y i s told t h a t " t h i s d o o r w a s h e r e o n l y for y o u ' :
h e r e too, K a f k a l e a r n s t h a t a l l t h e s p e c t a c l e of f a t h e r ' s o u t b u r s t s a n d so
forth " w a s h e r e o n l y for h i m . " T h u s t h e l e t t e r to father did indeed a r r i v e at
its d e s t i n a t i o n — b e c a u s e t h e t r u e a d d r e s s e e w a s t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f . . .
In t h i s w a y , K a f k a ' s s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n shifts — m i n i m a l l y , b u t in
a w a y w h i c h c h a n g e s e v e r y t h i n g —from t h e " a l m o s t n o t h i n g " of b e i n g
( f a t h e r ' s ) filth to " n o t h i n g a t a l l " ; if a l l of it " c o m e s from m e , " m y n u l l i t y
c a n n o l o n g e r b e ( t h e o t h e r ' s ) filth. T h e m o v e t h a t c o n c l u d e s t h e l e t t e r is
t h u s t h e o n e from d e a t h to s u b l i m a t i o n : K a f k a ' s c h o i c e of n o t h i n g a s o n e ' s
p l a c e , the r e d u c t i o n of h i s e x i s t e n c e to t h e m i n i m u m w h e r e " n o t h i n g b u t
t h e p l a c e t a k e s p l a c e , " to p a r a p h r a s e M a l l a r m é , c r e a t e s t h e s p a c e for
creative sublimation (literature). To paraphrase y e t again Brecht's motto
from The Threepenny Opera, w h a t is t h e filth of e n g a g i n g in s m a l l s e x u a l
t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c o m p a r e d to t h e filthy p u r i t y of w r i t i n g , of l i t e r a t u r e a s
" l i t t u r a t e r r e " ( L a c a n ' s p u n ) , a s t h e l i t t e r d e f i l i n g the s u r f a c e of e a r t h ?
94
3
Radical Intellectuals
O r , W h y Heidegger Tool< the Right Step
(Albeit in the W r o n g Direction) in 1933
Hälng the tree in a foredl
W h e n , in G.K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s " T h e S i g n of t h e B r o k e n S w o r d " ( a s t o r y
from The Innocence of Father Brown),
Father B r o w n explains the m y s t e r y
to h i s c o m p a n i o n F l a m b e a u , h e b e g i n s w i t h " w h a t e v e r y o n e k n o w s " :
A r t h u r St. C l a r e w a s a great and successful English general. [Every­
o n e ] k n o w s t h a t after s p l e n d i d y e t c a r e f u l c a m p a i g n s b o t h in I n d i a a n d
A f r i c a h e w a s in c o m m a n d a g a i n s t B r a z i l w h e n t h e g r e a t B r a z i l i a n
p a t r i o t O l i v i e r i s s u e d h i s u l t i m a t u m . [ E v e r y o n e ] k n o w s t h a t on t h a t
o c c a s i o n S t . C l a r e w i t h a v e r y s m a l l force a t t a c k e d O l i v i e r w i t h a v e r y
l a r g e o n e , a n d w a s c a p t u r e d after h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e . A n d [ e v e r y o n e ]
k n o w s t h a t after h i s c a p t u r e , a n d to t h e a b h o r r e n c e of t h e c i v i l i s e d
w o r l d , S t . C l a r e w a s h a n g e d on t h e n e a r e s t t r e e . H e w a s
found
s w i n g i n g t h e r e after t h e B r a z i l i a n s h a d r e t i r e d , w i t h h i s b r o k e n s w o r d
h u n g round his neck.
H o w e v e r , F a t h e r B r o w n n o t i c e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g d o e s not fit in t h i s s t o r y
that e v e r y b o d y k n o w s : St. Clare, w h o w a s a l w a y s a prudent
commander,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d m o r e b y a s e n s e of d u t y t h a n b y d a s h i n g , m a d e a foolish
a t t a c k w h i c h e n d e d i n d i s a s t e r ; O l i v i e r , w h o w a s m a g n a n i m o u s to t h e
p o i n t of k n i g h t e r r a n t r y a n d a l w a y s set free p r i s o n e r s , c r u e l l y k i l l e d S t .
C l a r e . T o a c c o u n t for t h i s m y s t e r y . F a t h e r B r o w n e v o k e s a m e t a p h o r :
" W h e r e d o e s a w i s e m a n h i d e a l e a f ? In t h e forest. B u t w h a t d o e s h e d o
if t h e r e is n o f o r e s t ? H e g r o w s ajforest to h i d e it i n , " s a i d t h e p r i e s t in
a n o b s c u r e v o i c e . " A fearful sin. [. . . ] A n d if a m a n h a d to h i d e a d e a d
b o d y , h e w o u l d m a k e a Held of d e a d b o d i e s to h i d e it i n . "
95
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
T h e d e n o u e m e n t r e h e s on the h y p o t h e s i s of t h e d a r k c o r r u p t e d s i d e of the
English hero: S i r Arthur St. Clare
w a s a man w h o read his Bible. That w a s w h a t w a s the matter with
him. W h e n will people understand
t h a t it i s u s e l e s s for a m a n
to
read his Bible unless he also reads e v e r y b o d y else's Bible? A printer
r e a d s a B i b l e for m i s p r i n t s . A M o r m o n r e a d s h i s B i b l e , a n d
finds
p o l y g a m y ; a C h r i s t i a n S c i e n t i s t r e a d s h i s , a n d Finds w e h a v e
no
a r m s a n d l e g s . S t . C l a r e w a s a n old A n g l o - I n d i a n P r o t e s t a n t s o l d i e r .
[. . . ] O f c o u r s e , h e f o u n d
In t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n y t h i n g t h a t h e
w a n t e d —lust, t y r a n n y , treason. Oh,
you
I d a r e s a y he w a s honest,
c a l l it. B u t w h a t i s t h e g o o d of a m a n b e i n g h o n e s t
as
in his
w o r s h i p of d i s h o n e s t y ?
In t h e B r a z i l i a n j u n g l e , j u s t before t h e fatal battle, t h e g e n e r a l e n c o u n ­
t e r e d a n u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m : h i s a c c o m p a n y i n g y o u n g e r officer. M a j o r
M u r r a y , had somehow guessed the hideous truth; and as they w a l k e d
s l o w l y through the jungle, he killed M u r r a y w i t h his sabre. B u t w h a t
c o u l d h e d o n o w w i t h t h i s b o d y h e w o u l d h a v e to a c c o u n t for? " H e c o u l d
m a k e t h e c o r p s e l e s s u n a c c o u n t a b l e . H e c o u l d c r e a t e a hill of c o r p s e s to
c o v e r t h i s o n e . In t w e n t y m i n u t e s e i g h t h u n d r e d E n g l i s h s o l d i e r s w e r e
m a r c h i n g d o w n to t h e i r d e a t h . " H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h i n g s w e n t w r o n g for
t h e g e n e r a l : the s u r v i v i n g E n g l i s h s o l d i e r s s o m e h o w g u e s s e d w h a t h e h a d
done—^it w a s t h e y w h o k i l l e d t h e g e n e r a l , not O l i v i e r . O l i v i e r (to w h o m
t h e s u r v i v o r s s u r r e n d e r e d ) g e n e r o u s l y s e t t h e m free a n d w i t h d r e w h i s
troops; the surviving soldiers then tried St. C l a r e a n d h a n g e d him, a n d
t h e n , in o r d e r to s a v e t h e g l o r y of t h e E n g l i s h a r m y , c o v e r e d u p t h e i r a c t
b y the story that Olivier had h a d him killed.
T h e s t o r y e n d s In t h e s p i r i t of J o h n
Ford's westerns which
prefer
h e r o i c l e g e n d to t r u t h ( r e c a l l J o h n W a y n e ' s final s p e e c h to t h e j o u r n a l i s t s
a b o u t t h e r u t h l e s s g e n e r a l p l a y e d b y H e n r y F o n d a , from Fort Apache):
"Millions w h o never k n e w him shall love him like a father—this
man
w h o m t h e l a s t f e w t h a t k n e w h i m d e a l t w i t h l i k e d u n g . H e shall b e a saint;
a n d t h e t r u t h s h a l l n e v e r b e t o l d of h i m , b e c a u s e I h a v e m a d e u p m y m i n d
at last."
W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e H e g e l i a n l e s s o n of t h i s s t o r y ? Is it t h a t t h e s i m p l e
c y n i c a l - d e n u n c i a t o r y r e a d i n g s h o u l d b e r e j e c t e d ? Is it t h a t t h e g a z e
w h i c h r e d u c e s the g e n e r a l ' s c o r r u p t i o n to t h e t r u t h of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y is
Itself m e a n a n d b a s e ? H e g e l d e s c r i b e d l o n g a g o t h i s t r a p a s t h a t of t h e
96
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
B e a u t i f u l S o u l w h o s e g a z e r e d u c e s all g r e a t h e r o i c d e e d s to t h e p r i v a t e
b a s e m o t i v e s of t h e i r
perpetrators:
N o h e r o is a h e r o to h i s v a l e t , not, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e h e r o i s not a
h e r o , b u t b e c a u s e t h e v a l e t i s — t h e v a l e t , w i t h w h o m t h e h e r o h a s to do,
not a s a h e r o , b u t a s a m a n w h o e a t s , d r i n k s , a n d d r e s s e s , w h o , in short,
a p p e a r s a s a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l w a n t s a n d i d e a s of
h i s o w n . In t h e s a m e w a y , t h e r e i s no a c t in w h i c h t h a t p r o c e s s of
j u d g m e n t c a n n o t o p p o s e the p e r s o n a l a s p e c t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y to t h e
u n i v e r s a l a s p e c t of t h e act, a n d p l a y t h e p a r t of t h e " m o r a l " v a l e t
t o w a r d s the agent.
Is, t h e n . F a t h e r B r o w n , if not t h i s k i n d of " m o r a l v a l e t " to t h e g e n e r a l ,
t h e n , at l e a s t , a c y n i c w h o k n o w s t h a t t h e u n p l e a s a n t t r u t h h a s to b e
c o v e r e d u p for t h e s a k e of t h e p u b l i c g o o d ? C h e s t e r t o n ' s
finesse
theological
is d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e w a y h e a l l o c a t e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e
g e n e r a l ' s g r a d u a l d o w n f a l l : it i s n o t t h e g e n e r a l ' s b e t r a y a l of t h e C h r i s t i a n
faith t h r o u g h
his moral corruption
d u e to t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e
of b a s e
m a t e r i a l i s t m o t i v e s . C h e s t e r t o n i s w i s e e n o u g h to d e p i c t t h e c a u s e of t h e
g e n e r a l ' s m o r a l d o w n f a l l a s i n h e r e n t to C h r i s t i a n i t y : t h e g e n e r a ! " w a s a
m a n w h o r e a d h i s B i b l e . T h a t w a s w h a t w a s t h e m a t t e r w i t h h i m . " It w a s
the p a r t i c u l a r — i n this case, Protestant — r e a d i n g that is h e l d responsible.
A n d c a n o n e not s a y t h e s a m e a b o u t H e i d e g g e r ' s a t t e m p t ( a n d a l s o t h a t of
A d o r n o a n d H o r k h e i m e r , a n d e v e n of A g a m b e n ) to l a y t h e b l a m e for t h e
e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y on t h e s h o u l d e r s of
the entire tradition
of " W e s t e r n
m e t a p h y s i c s " w i t h its
instrumental
R e a s o n , a n d so on a n d so forth, l e a d i n g in l i n e a r fashion "from
to N a t o " (or, r a t h e r , t h e g u l a g ) ? S l o t e r d i j k h a s w r i t t e n t h e
Plato
following
a b o u t t h e leftist g l o b a l p r o b l e m a t i z a t i o n of " W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n " :
T h r o u g h t h e b o u n d l e s s f o r m s of c u l t u r a l c r i t i c i s m — s a y , t h e r e d u c t i o n
of A u s c h w i t z b a c k to L u t h e r a n d P l a t o , o r t h e c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of
W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n in its e n t i r e t y — o n e t r i e s to b l u r t h e t r a c e s w h i c h
b e t r a y h o w c l o s e to a c l a s s - g e n o c i d i c a l s y s t e m w e o u r s e l v e s w e r e
standing.
T h e o n l y t h i n g o n e s h o u l d a d d h e r e is t h a t t h e s a m e a p p l i e s to H e i d e g g e r
a n d o t h e r f o r m e r f a s c i s t s : t h e y too h i d t h e i r N a z i c o r p s e in t h e m o u n t a i n
of c o r p s e s c a l l e d W e s t e r n m e t a p h y s i c s . . . A n d s h o u l d o n e not r e j e c t in
97
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
the same w a y , as a n over-hasty generalization, the liberal p o p u l a r w i s d o m
a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o m e d d l e in p o l i t i c s w i l l a l w a y s l e a d
to d i s a s t e r ? A c c o r d i n g to t h i s v i e w , s t a r t i n g w i t h P l a t o , t h e y
either
m i s e r a b l y fail o r s u c c e e d . . . in s u p p o r t i n g t y r a n t s . T h e r e a s o n , so the
s t o r y g o e s on, is t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s t r y to i m p o s e t h e i r N o t i o n s on r e a l i t y ,
v i o l a t i n g it — n o w o n d e r t h a t , from P l a t o to f i e i d e g g e r , t h e y a r e r e s o l u t e l y
anti-democratic
( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a few e m p i r i c i s t s a n d
pragma-
t i s t s ) , d i s m i s s i n g t h e " p e o p l e " a s t h e v i c t i m of s o p h i s t s , a t t h e m e r c y of a
c o n t i n g e n t p l u r a l i t y . . . S o w h e n t h o s e w h o h o l d to t h i s c o m m o n s e n s i c a l
w i s d o m h e a r of M a r x i s t s w h o d e f e n d M a r x , c l a i m i n g t h a t h i s i d e a s w e r e
not faithfully r e a l i z e d b y S t a l i n i s m , t h e y r e p l y : " T h a n k G o d ! It w o u l d
h a v e b e e n e v e n w o r s e h a d t h e y b e e n fully r e a l i z e d ! " H e i d e g g e r a t l e a s t
w a s w i l l i n g to d r a w t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of h i s c a t a s t r o p h i c e x p e r i e n c e a n d
c o n c e d e t h a t those w h o t h i n k o n t o l o g i c a l l y h a v e to e r r o n t l c a l l y , t h a t t h e
g a p is i r r e d u c i b l e , t h a t t h e r e i s no " p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i t i c s " p r o p e r . It t h u s
s e e m s t h a t G.K. C h e s t e r t o n w a s fully j u s t i f i e d in h i s i r o n i c p r o p o s a l to
i n s t a l l a " s p e c i a l c o r p s of p o l i c e m e n , p o l i c e m e n w h o a r e a l s o p h i l o s o ­
phers":
It Is t h e i r b u s i n e s s to w a t c h t h e b e g i n n i n g s of t h i s c o n s p i r a c y ,
not
m e r e l y in a c r i m i n a l b u t in a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s e n s e . [. . . ] T h e w o r k of t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n [. . . ] i s a t o n c e b o l d e r a n d m o r e s u b t l e t h a n
t h a t of t h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e . T h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e g o e s to p o t ­
h o u s e s to a r r e s t t h i e v e s ; w e g o to a r t i s t i c t e a - p a r t i e s to d e t e c t p e s s i ­
m i s t s . T h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e d i s c o v e r s from a l e d g e r o r a d i a r y t h a t a
c r i m e h a s b e e n c o m m i t t e d . W e d i s c o v e r from a b o o k of s o n n e t s t h a t a
c r i m e w i l l b e c o m m i t t e d . W e h a v e to t r a c e t h e o r i g i n of t h o s e d r e a d f u l
thoughts
that drive men
on a t l a s t to i n t e l l e c t u a l f a n a t i c i s m
and
intellectual crime.^
W o u l d not t h i n k e r s a s different a s P o p p e r , A d o r n o , a n d L e v i n a s a l s o
s u b s c r i b e to a s l i g h t l y a m e n d e d v e r s i o n of t h i s i d e a , w h e r e t h e p o l i t i c a l
c r i m e i s c a l l e d " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r i m e is c o n d e n s e d
in t h e n o t i o n of " t o t a l i t y " ? A s t r a i g h t r o a d l e a d s from t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
n o t i o n of t o t a l i t y to p o l i t i c a l t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , a n d t h e t a s k of t h e " p h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l p o l i c e " i s to d e t e c t in a b o o k of P l a t o ' s d i a l o g u e s o r a t r e a t i s e on
the social contract b y R o u s s e a u that a political c r i m e will be committed.
T h e o r d i n a r y p o l i t i c a l p o l i c e m a n g o e s to s e c r e t o r g a n i z a t i o n s to a r r e s t
r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ; t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n g o e s to p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y m 98
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
p o s i a to d e t e c t p r o p o n e n t s of t o t a l i t y . T h e o r d i n a r y a n t i - t e r r o r i s t p o l i c e ­
m a n t r i e s to d e t e c t t h o s e p r e p a r i n g to b l o w u p b u i l d i n g s a n d b r i d g e s ; t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n t r i e s to a r r e s t t h o s e a b o u t to d e c o n s t r u c t
the
r e l i g i o u s a n d m o r a l f o u n d a t i o n s of o u r s o c i e t i e s . .
T h i s p o s i t i o n i s t h a t of " w i s d o m " : a w i s e m a n k n o w s t h a t o n e s h o u l d
not " e n f o r c e " r e a l i t y , t h a t a little bit of c o r r u p t i o n i s t h e b e s t
against great corruption.
defense
C h r i s t i a n i t y i s in t h i s s e n s e a form of a n t i -
w i s d o m par excellence: a c r a z y w a g e r on T r u t h , in c o n t r a s t to p a g a n i s m
w h i c h , u l t i m a t e l y , c o u n t s on w i s d o m ( " e v e r y t h i n g r e t u r n s to dust, t h e
W h e e l of Life g o e s on f o r e v e r . . . " ) . T h e fateful l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s s t a n c e
of w i s d o m r e s i d e s in t h e f o r m a l i s m t h a t p e r t a i n s to t h e n o t i o n of b a l a n c e ,
of a v o i d i n g t h e e x t r e m e s . W h e n o n e h e a r s f o r m u l a e s u c h a s " w e n e e d
neither total state control nor totally non-regulated Irberalism/individuahsm, but the right m e a s u r e b e t w e e n these two e x t r e m e s , " the problem
t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p o p s u p i s the measurement of thid measure—the p o i n t of
b a l a n c e i s a l w a y s s i l e n t l y p r e s u p p o s e d . S u p p o s e s o m e o n e w e r e to s a y :
" W e n e e d n e i t h e r too m u c h r e s p e c t for J e w s , n o r t h e N a z i f i o l o c a u s t , b u t
t h e r i g h t m e a s u r e i n b e t w e e n , s o m e q u o t a s for u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d p r o h i b i ­
tion of p u b l i c office for t h e J e w s to p r e v e n t t h e i r e x c e s s i v e i n f l u e n c e , "
one cannot r e a l l y a n s w e r at a p u r e l y formal level. H e r e w e h a v e the
f o r m a l i s m of w i s d o m : t h e t r u e t a s k i s to t r a n s f o r m t h e m e a s u r e i t s e l f not
o n l y to o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n t h e e x t r e m e s of t h e m e a s u r e .
In h i s o t h e r w i s e a d m i r a b l e Holy Terror, T e r r y E a g l e t o n s e e m s to fall
i n t o t h e s a m e t r a p w h e n h e d e p l o y s t h e pharmukoJ d i a l e c t i c of the e x c e s s
of t h e S a c r e d , of t h e H o l y T e r r o r a s t h e e x c e s s of t h e R e a l w h i c h s h o u l d
b e r e s p e c t e d , satisfied, b u t k e p t a t a d i s t a n c e . T h e R e a l i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
generative and
destructive:
destructive
i l g i v e n Iree r e i n ,
but
also
d e s t r u c t i v e if d e n i e d , s i n c e its v e r y d e n i a l u n l e a s h e s a f u r y w h i c h i m i t a t e s
i t — a g a i n a c a s e of t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of o p p o s i t e s . E a g l e t o n h e r e p e r c e i v e s
freedom
as such
a s a pharmakoj,
which becomes
destructive
u n h i n d e r e d . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s not a l l too c l o s e to a c o n s e r v a t i v e
when
form
of w i s d o m ? Is it n o t a s u p r e m e i r o n y h e r e t h a t E a g l e t o n , a r g u a b l y t h e
s h a r p e s t a n d m o s t p e r s p i c u o u s c r i t i c of p o s t m o d e r n i s m , d i s p l a y s h e r e h i s
own secret postmodern
bias, endorsing one^of the great
postmodern
motifs, t h a t of t h e R e a l T h i n g t o w a r d s w h i c h o n e s h o u l d m a i n t a i n a
p r o p e r d i s t a n c e ? N o w o n d e r t h a t E a g l e t o n p r o f e s s e s h i s s y m p a t h y for
c o n s e r v a t i v e s s u c h a s B u r k e a n d h i s c r i t i q u e of F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n : not
t h a t it w a s unjust, a n d so on, b u t t h a t it e x p o s e d t h e f o u n d i n g e x c e s s i v e
v i o l e n c e of t h e l e g a l o r d e r , b r i n g i n g to l i g h t a n d r e - e n a c t i n g w h a t s h o u l d
99
MM
i-icrciNac
i-ir
LUS
1
CAUSES
b e at a l l c o s t s c o n c e a l e d — t h i s is t h e
function
of t r a d i t i o n a l
myths.
R e j e c t i o n of t h e s e m y t h s , r e l i a n c e on p u r e R e a s o n c r i t i c a l of t r a d i t i o n ,
t h e r e b y n e c e s s a r i l y e n d s u p in t h e m a d n e s s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e o r g y of
6
TT
Unreason.
W h e r e d o e s I^acan s t a n d w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s c o m p l e x t o p i c r e f e r r e d to
b y t h e t i r e s o m e a n d s t u p i d d e s i g n a t i o n " t h e s o c i a l r o l e of i n t e l l e c t u a l s " ?
L a c a n ' s t h e o r y , of c o u r s e , c a n b e u s e d to t h r o w n e w l i g h t on n u m e r o u s
p o h t i c o - i d e o l o g l c a l p h e n o m e n a , b r i n g i n g to t h e fore t h e h i d d e n l i b i d i n a l
economy that sustains them; but w e are asking here a more basic and
n a i v e q u e s t i o n : d o e s Lyacan's t h e o r y i m p l y a p r e c i s e p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e ?
S o m e L a c a n i a n s ( a n d not o n l y L a c a n i a n s ) , s u c h a s Y a n n i s S t a v r a k a k i s ,
e n d e a v o r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t L a c a n i a n t h e o r y d i r e c t l y g r o u n d s d e m o ­
c r a t i c p o l i t i c s . T h e t e r m s a r e w e l l k n o w n : " t h e r e is no b i g O t h e r " m e a n s
t h a t t h e s o c i o - s y m b o l i c o r d e r is Inconsistent, n o u l t i m a t e g u a r a n t e e , a n d
d e m o c r a c y is t h e w a y to i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e e d i f i c e of p o w e r t h i s l a c k of
u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n . Insofar a s a l l o r g a n i c v i s i o n s of a h a r m o n i o u s W h o l e
of s o c i e t y r e l y on a f a n t a s y , d e m o c r a c y t h u s a p p e a r s to offer a p o l i t i c a l
stance w h i c h
"traverses the
fantasy," that is, w h i c h renounces
the
i m p o s s i b l e I d e a l of a n o n - a n t a g o n i s t i c s o c i e t y .
The political theorist w h o serves as a k e y reference here is C l a u d e
Lefort, w h o w a s h i m s e l f i n f l u e n c e d b y L a c a n a n d u s e s L a c a n i a n t e r m s in
h i s d e f i n i t i o n of d e m o c r a c y : d e m o c r a c y a c c e p t s t h e g a p b e t w e e n
the
s y m b o l i c ( t h e e m p t y p l a c e of p o w e r ) a n d t h e r e a l ( t h e a g e n t w h o o c c u p i e s
t h i s p l a c e ) , p o s t u l a t i n g t h a t n o e m p i r i c a l a g e n t " n a t u r a l l y " fits t h e e m p t y
p l a c e of p o w e r . O t h e r s y s t e m s a r e i n c o m p l e t e , t h e y h a v e to e n g a g e in
c o m p r o m i s e s , in o c c a s i o n a l s h a k e - u p s , to function; d e m o c r a c y e l e v a t e s
i n c o m p l e t e n e s s i n t o a p r i n c i p l e , it i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s t h e r e g u l a r s h a k e - u p
in t h e
g u i s e of e l e c t i o n s . In
short,
S ( b a r r e d A ) is the
s i g n i f i e r of
d e m o c r a c y . D e m o c r a c y here goes further than the "realistic" nostrum
a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h , in o r d e r to a c t u a l i z e a c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n , o n e
s h o u l d a l l o w for c o n c r e t e u n p r e d i c t a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d b e r e a d y to
m a k e c o m p r o m i s e s , to l e a v e t h e s p a c e o p e n for p e o p l e ' s v i c e s a n d
i m p e r f e c t i o n s — d e m o c r a c y t u r n s i m p e r f e c t i o n itself i n t o a n o t i o n . H o w ­
e v e r , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c s u b j e c t , w h i c h e m e r g e s
t h r o u g h a v i o l e n t a b s t r a c t i o n from a l l its p a r t i c u l a r r o o t s a n d d e t e r m i n a ­
t i o n s , i s t h e l a c a n i a n b a r r e d s u b j e c t , S , w h i c h is a s s u c h f o r e i g n to,
incompatible with, enjoyment:
D e m o c r a c y a s e m p t y p l a c e m e a n s for u s ; t h e s u b j e c t of d e m o c r a c y is a
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RADICAL
INTELLECTUALS
b a r r e d s u b j e c t . O u r s m a l l a l g e b r a e n a b l e s u s to g r a s p i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t
t h i s l e a v e s o u t t h e s m a l l (a).
T h a t is to s a y : a l l t h a t h i n g e s on
the
p a r t i c u l a r i t y of e n j o y m e n t s . T h e e m p t y b a r r e d s u b j e c t of d e m o c r a c y
f i n d s it difficult to l i n k i t s e l f t o a l l t h a t g o e s on, f o r m s itself, t r e m b l e s , in
all t h a t w e d e s i g n a t e w i t h t h i s c o m f o r t a b l e s m a l l l e t t e r , t h e s m a l l (a).
W e a r e t o l d : o n c e t h e r e i s t h e e m p t y p l a c e , e v e r y b o d y , if h e r e s p e c t s
the l a w s , c a n b r i n g in h i s t r a d i t i o n s a n d h i s v a l u e s . [. . . ] H o w e v e r ,
w h a t w e k n o w is t h a t , e f f e c t i v e l y , t h e m o r e d e m o c r a c y i s e m p t y , t h e
m o r e it i s a d e s e r t of e n j o y m e n t , a n d , c o r r e l a t i v e l y , t h e m o r e e n j o y m e n t
c o n d e n s e s i t s e l f i n c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s . [. . . ] t h e m o r e t h e s i g n i f i e r i s
" d i s a f f e c t e d , " a s o t h e r s p u t it, t h e m o r e t h e s i g n i f i e r i s p u r i f i e d , t h e
m o r e it i m p o s e s i t s e l l m t h e p u r e form of l a w , of e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a c y ,
of t h e g l o b a l i z a t i o n of t h e m a r k e t , [. . . ] t h e m o r e p a s s i o n a u g m e n t s
itself, t h e m o r e h a t r e d i n t e n s i f i e s , f u n d a m e n t a l i s m s m u l t i p l y , d e s t r u c ­
t i o n e x t e n d s itself, m a s s a c r e s w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d , a n d
unheard-of catastrophes occur.
W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t the d e m o c r a t i c e m p t y p l a c e a n d t h e d i s c o u r s e of
t o t a l i t a r i a n f u l l n e s s a r e s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t i v e , t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e c o i n : it i s
m e a n i n g l e s s to p l a y o n e a g a i n s t the o t h e r a n d a d v o c a t e a " r a d i c a l "
democracy w h i c h w o u l d avoid this unpleasant supplement. So, w h e n
leftists d e p l o r e the fact t h a t t o d a y o n l y t h e R i g h t h a s p a s s i o n , i s a b l e to
p r o p o s e a n e w m o b i l i z i n g i m a g i n a r y , a n d t h a t t h e Left o n l y e n g a g e s in
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h a t t h e y d o not s e e is t h e s t r u c t u r a l n e c e s s i t y of w h a t
t h e y p e r c e i v e a s a m e r e t a c t i c a l w e a k n e s s of t h e Left. N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e
European
p r o j e c t w h i c h i s w i d e l y d e b a t e d t o d a y fails to e n f l a m e
the
p a s s i o n s : it i s u l t i m a t e l y a p r o j e c t of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , not of i d e o l o g i c a l
c o m m i t m e n t . T h e o n l y p a s s i o n i s t h a t of t h e r i g h t i s t r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t
E u r o p e — a l l t h e leftist a t t e m p t s to i n f u s e t h e n o t i o n of a u n i t e d E u r o p e
with
political passion
(such the
Habermas-Derrida
i n i t i a t i v e in
the
s u m m e r of 2 0 0 3 ) fail to g a i n m o m e n t u m . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s f a i l u r e is
that the
fant(umailc
"fundamentalist"
supplément,
attachment
to jouiMancc
i s the ohverde, the
of democracy itself.
W h a t to d o , t h e n , o n c e o n e d r a w s t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s Unbehagen
in d e m o c r a c y ? S o m e L a c a n i a n s ( a n d not e x c l u s i v e l y L a c a n i a n s ) e n d e a ­
v o r t o a t t r i b u t e to L a c a n t h e p o s i t i o n of a n i n t e r n a l c r i t i c of d e m o c r a c y , a
provocateur w h o raises unpleasant questions without proposing his own
p o s i t i v e p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t . P o l i t i c s a s s u c h is h e r e d e v a l u e d a s a d o m a i n of
i m a g i n a r y a n d s y m b o l i c identifications, as the self by definition, involves
101
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
a m i s r e c o g n l t i o n , a form of s e l f - b l i n d i n g . L a c a n i s t h u s a p r o v o c a t e u r , in
t h e t r a d i t i o n e x t e n d i n g from S o c r a t e s to l ü e r k e g a a r d , a n d h e d i s c e r n s
democracy's illusions and hidden
metaphysical presuppositions.
The
o u t s t a n d i n g a d v o c a t e of t h i s s e c o n d p o s i t i o n i s W e n d y B r o w n w h o ,
although not a L a c a n i a n , d e p l o y s a n e x t r e m e l y important a n d perspic­
u o u s N i e t z s c h e a n c r i t i q u e of t h e p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t p o l i t i c s of v i c t i m i z a ­
tion, of b a s m g o n e ' s i d e n t i t y on i n j u r y .
A domestication of Nietzsche
B r o w n r e a d s t h e p o s t m o d e r n p o l i t i c s of i d e n t i t y b a s e d on t h e w r o n g s
c o m m i t t e d to s p e c i f i c g r o u p s ( t h e s e x - g e n d e r - r a c e t r i n i t y ) a s a n e x p r e s ­
sion of t h e a m b i g u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c e g a l i t a r i a n
f r a m e w o r k of h u m a n r i g h t s : o n e feels b e t r a y e d b y it ( w i t h r e g a r d to
w o m e n , b l a c k s , g a y s . . . t h e u n i v e r s a l i s t l i b e r a l r h e t o r i c d i d n o t d e l i v e r , it
masks continuous exclusion and exploitation), while nonetheless remain­
i n g d e e p l y a t t a c h e d to t h e s e v e r y i d e a l s . In a r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s . B r o w n
d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e s e n s e of m o r a l o u t r a g e e m e r g e s i n o r d e r to find a
p r e c a r i o u s c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n a h o s t of i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d o p p o s e d
attitudes (sadism a n d masochism, attachment a n d rejection,
blaming
the other a n d feeling one's o w n guilt). S h e r e a d s moralizing politics
"not o n l y a s a s i g n of s t u b b o r n c l i n g i n g to a c e r t a i n e q u a t i o n of t r u t h w i t h
p o w e r l e s s n e s s , o r a s t h e a c t i n g o u t of a n i n j u r e d w i l l , b u t a s a s y m p t o m of
a b r o k e n h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e to w h i c h w e h a v e n o t y e t f o r g e d a l t e r ­
n a t i v e s . " "It i s w h e n t h e t e l o s of t h e g o o d v a n i s h e s b u t t h e y e a r n i n g for it
r e m a i n s t h a t m o r a l i t y a p p e a r s to d e v o l v e i n t o m o r a h s m in p o l i t i c s . " A f t e r
t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e g r a n d , a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g , leftist n a r r a t i v e s of
p r o g r e s s , w h e n p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y d i s s o l v e d i n t o a m u l t i t u d e of i d e n t i t y
i s s u e s , t h e e x c e s s o v e r t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s t r u g g l e s c a n o n l y find an o u t l e t in
impotent moralistic outrage.
H o w e v e r , B r o w n t a k e s h e r e a c r u c i a l s t e p f u r t h e r a n d p u s h e s all t h e
p a r a d o x e s of d e m o c r a c y to t h e e n d , m o r e r a d i c a l l y t h a n C h a n t a i JVlouffe
did with h e r "democratic p a r a d o x . " A l r e a d y with S p i n o z a a n d Tocquev i l l e , it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t d e m o c r a c y i s i n i t s e l f I n c h o a t e — e m p t y , l a c k i n g
a f i r m p r i n c i p l e —it n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e n t t o fill i n its form; a s
s u c h , it r e a l l y i s c o n s t i t u t i v e l y " f o r m a l . " T h i s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e n t is
p r o v i d e d b y p h i l o s o p h y , i d e o l o g y , t h e o r y ^—no w o n d e r t h a t m o s t of t h e
g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s , from P l a t o to H e i d e g g e r , w e r e m i s t r u s t f u l of d e m o c ­
r a c y , if not d i r e c t l y a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c :
102
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
W h a t if d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c s , t h e m o s t u n t h e o r e t i c a l of a l l p o l i t i c a l
forms, p a r a d o x i c a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e o r y , r e q u i r e s a n a n t i t h e s i s to i t s e l l in
b o t h t h e form a n d s u b s t a n c e of t h e o r y , if it is to s a t i s f y its a m b i t i o n to
p r o d u c e a free a n d e g a l i t a r i a n o r d e r ?
B r o w n d e p l o y s all t h e p a r a d o x e s from t h i s fact t h a t " d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s
for its h e a l t h a n o n d e m o c r a t i c e l e m e n t " : a d e m o c r a c y n e e d s a p e r m a n e n t
influx
of a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c
democracy—the
s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g in onkr to remain a living
c u r e for d e m o c r a c y ' s ills is h o m o e o p a t h i c in form:
If, a s t h e m u s i n g s of S p i n o z a a n d T o c q u e v i l l e s u g g e s t , d e m o c r a c i e s
t e n d t o w a r d s c a t h e x i s o n t o p r i n c i p l e s a n t i t h e t i c a l to d e m o c r a c y , t h e n
c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y of t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a n d of t h e p o l i t i c a l
formations
a n i m a t e d b y t h e m i s c r u c i a l to t h e p r o j e c t of r e f o u n d i n g o r r e c o v e r i n g
democracy.
B r o w n defines the tension b e t w e e n politics a n d t h e o t y as the tension
b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y to fix m e a n i n g , to " s u t u r e " t e x t u a l drift in
a f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e w h i c h c a n o n l y g u i d e u s in a c t i o n , a n d
permanent
"deconstruction"
theory's
which cannot ever be recuperated
in a
n e w positive program:
A m o n g h u m a n p r a c t i c e s , p o l i t i c s is p e c u l i a r l y u n t h e o r e t i c a l b e c a u s e
t h e b i d s for p o w e r t h a t c o n s t i t u t e it a r e n e c e s s a r i l y a t o d d s w i t h t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l p r o j e c t of o p e n i n g u p m e a n i n g , of " m a k i n g m e a n i n g s l i d e , "
in S t u a r t H a l l ' s w o r d s . D i s c u r s i v e p o w e r f u n c t i o n s b y c o n c e a l i n g t h e
t e r m s of its f a b r i c a t i o n a n d h e n c e its m a l l e a b i l i t y a n d c o n t i n g e n c y ;
d i s c o u r s e fixes m e a n i n g b y n a t u r a l i z i n g it, or e l s e c e a s e s to h a v e s w a y
in a d i s c o u r s e . T h i s fixing o r n a t u r a l i z i n g of m e a n i n g s is t h e n e c e s s a r y
i d i o m in w h i c h p o l i t i c s t a k e s p l a c e . E v e n t h e p o l i t i c s of d e c o n s t r u c t i v e
displacement implicates such normativity, at least provisionally.*^
Theoretical analyses which unearth
the
contingent
and
inconsistent
n a t u r e a n d l a c k of u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n of all n o r m a t i v e c o n s t r u c t s a n d
political projects, "are anti-political e n d e a v o r s insofar as each destabilizes
m e a n i n g w i t h o u t p r o p o s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o d e s or i n s t i t u t i o n s . Y e t e a c h
m a y a l s o b e e s s e n t i a l in s u s t a i n i n g a n e x i s t i n g d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e b y
r e j u v e n a t i n g it."''^ It is t h u s a s if B r o w n is p r o p o s i n g a k i n d of K a n t i a n
c r i t i q u e of d e c o n s t r u c t i v e
(anti-democratic) reason,"
distinguishing
103
b e t w e e n its l e g i t i m a t e a n d i l l e g i t i m a t e u s e : it i s l e g i t i m a t e to u s e it a s a
negatively regulative corrective, a provocation,
a n d so on, b u t it is
i l l e g i t i m a t e to u s e it a s a c o n s t i t u t i v e p r i n c i p l e to b e d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d
to reality^ a s a p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m o r p r o j e c t . B r o w n d i s c e r n s the s a m e
a m b i g u o u s l i n k in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s t a t e a n d p e o p l e : in t h e s a m e
w a y t h a t d e m o c r a c y n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a c y to r e j u v e n a t e itself, t h e state
n e e d s t h e p e o p l e ' s r e s i s t a n c e to r e j u v e n a t e itself:
O n l y t h r o u g h t h e s t a t e a r e t h e p e o p l e c o n s t i t u t e d a s a p e o p l e ; o n l y in
r e s i s t a n c e to the s t a t e d o t h e p e o p l e r e m a i n a p e o p l e . T h u s , j u s t a s
d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s a n t i d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e in o r d e r to r e m a i n d e m o ­
c r a t i c , so too t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e m a y r e q u i r e d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e
r a t h e r t h a n f e a l t y if it i s not to b e c o m e t h e d e a t h of d e m o c r a c y .
S i m i l a r l y , d e m o c r a c y m a y r e q u i r e t h e o r y ' s p r o v i s i o n of u n l i v e a b l e
critiques and u n r e a c h a b l e ideals.''*
ITere, h o w e v e r , in t h i s p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u p l e s of d e m o c r a c y /
anti-democracy
and
state/people.
Brown's
argumentation
becomes
c a u g h t u p in a s t r a n g e s y m p t o m a l d y n a m i c of r e v e r s a l s : w h i l e d e m o c r a c y
n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e to r e m a i n a l i v e , to s h a k e its false c e r t a i n ­
t i e s , t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e n e e d s t h e d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e p e o p l e ,
not a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e . D o e s B r o w n not c o n f o u n d h e r e t w o (or,
r a t h e r , a w h o l e s e r i e s of) r e s i s t a n c e s to t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e : t h e a n t i ­
democratic "elitist" theoreticians' resistance
(Plato-Nietzsche-Heideg­
g e r ) , and popular-democratic resistance against the insufficiently demo­
c r a t i c c h a r a c t e r of the s t a t e ? F u r t h e r m o r e , is not e a c h of t h e s e t w o k i n d s
of r e s i s t a n c e a c c o m p a n i e d b y its d a r k s h a d o w y d o u b l e : b r u t a l c y n i c a l
e l i t i s m t h a t j u s t i f i e s t h o s e in p o w e r ; t h e v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s of t h e r a b b l e ?
A n d w h a t if t h e t w o j o i n h a n d s , w h a t If w e h a v e anti-democratic resLtlance of
the people themselves ( " a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o p u l i s m " ) ?
F u r t h e r m o r e , d o e s B r o w n not d i s m i s s a l l too l i g h t l y a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c
t h e o r i s t s s u c h a s N i e t z s c h e a s p r o p o s i n g " u n l i v e a b l e " c r i t i q u e s of d e ­
m o c r a c y ? H o w d o w e r e s p o n d to t h e c o m i n g - a b o u t of a r e g i m e t h a t
e n d e a v o r s to " l i v e " t h e m , s u c h a s N a z i s m ? Is it n o t too s i m p l e to r e l i e v e
N i e t z s c h e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b y c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e N a z i s d i s t o r t e d
his
t h o u g h t ? O f c o u r s e t h e y d i d , b u t so d i d S t a l i n i s m d i s t o r t M a r x , for
e v e r y t h e o r y c h a n g e s ( i s " b e t r a y e d " ) i n its p r a c t i c o - p o l i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n ,
a n d the H e g e l i a n p o i n t to b e m a d e h e r e is that, in s u c h c a s e s , t h e " t r u t h "
is not s i m p l y on t h e s i d e of t h e o r y — w h a t if the a t t e m p t to a c t u a l i z e a
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RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
t h e o r y r e n d e r s v i s i b l e t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t of t h i s t h e o r y , c o n c e a l e d from
t h e g a z e of t h e t h e o r i s t itself?
T h e w e a k n e s s of B r o w n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n i s p e r h a p s t h a t s h e l o c a t e s t h e
u n d e m o c r a t i c i n g r e d i e n t t h a t k e e p s d e m o c r a c y a l i v e o n l y in t h e " c r a z y "
t h e o r e t i c i a n s q u e s t i o n i n g its f o u n d a t i o n s from " u n l i v e a b l e " p r e m i s e s —
b u t w h a t a b o u t t h e v e r y real u n d e m o c r a t i c e l e m e n t s t h a t s u s t a i n d e m o c ­
r a c y ? D o e s t h e r e i n not r e s i d e t h e m a j o r p r e m i s e of F o u c a u l t ' s ( B r o w n ' s
m a j o r r e f e r e n c e ) a n a l y s e s of m o d e r n p o w e r : d e m o c r a t i c p o w e r h a s to b e
s u s t a i n e d b y a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k of c o n t r o l l i n g a n d r e g u l a t i n g m e c h a n ­
i s m s ? In \y\sNoted Towards a Definition of Culture, T . S . Eliot, t h a t a r c h e t y p a l
^'noble conservative," convincingly a r g u e d that a strong aristocratic class
i s a n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t of a f e a s i b l e d e m o c r a c y : t h e h i g h e s t c u l t u r a l
v a l u e s c a n o n l y t h r i v e if t h e y a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a c o m p l e x a n d
c o n t i n u o u s familial a n d g r o u p b a c k g r o u n d . S o w h e n B r o w n c l a i m s t h a t
" d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s a n t i d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e in o r d e r to r e m a i n d e m o ­
c r a t i c , " a l i b e r a l c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d d e e p l y a g r e e in t h e i r w a r n i n g s
a g a i n s t " d e M O R E c r a c y " : t h e r e s h o u l d b e a t e n s i o n in t h e
opposition
b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e a n d d e m o c r a c y , a state s h o u l d not s i m p l y b e d i s s o l v e d
in d e m o c r a c y , it s h o u l d r e t a i n t h e e x c e s s of u n c o n d i t i o n a l p o w e r over the
p e o p l e , t h e firm r u l e of l a w , to p r e v e n t its o w n d i s s o l u t i o n . If the s t a t e ,
d e m o c r a t i c t h o u g h it m a y b e , i s not s u s t a i n e d b y t h i s s p e c t e r of t h e
u n c o n d i t i o n a l e x e r c i s e of p o w e r , it d o e s n o t
have the authority
to
function: p o w e r is, b y d e f i n i t i o n , in e x c e s s , o r e l s e it i s not p o w e r .
T h e q u e s t i o n h e r e i s : w h o i s s u p p l e m e n t i n g w h o m ? Is d e m o c r a c y a
s u p p l e m e n t to f u n d a m e n t a l l y n o n - d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e p o w e r , o r i s u n d e m o ­
c r a t i c t h e o r y a s u p p l e m e n t to d e m o c r a c y ? A t w h a t p o i n t i s t h e p r e d i c a t e
i n v e r t e d w i t h t h e s u b j e c t ? F u r t h e r m o r e , a p r o p o s " s t o p p i n g the s l i d i n g of
m e a n i n g , " d o e s n o n - d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y a s a r u l e not a r t i c u l a t e i t s h o r r o r
at d e m o c r a c y p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it p e r c e i v e s it a s too " s o p h i s t i c " (for P l a t o
• • . ) , too i n v o l v e d in t h e s l i d i n g of m e a n i n g , so t h a t t h e o r y , far from
r e p r o a c h i n g d e m o c r a c y for t h e fixity of m e a n i n g , d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t s to
i m p o s e a s t a b l e o r d e r on social l i f e ? A n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , i s t h i s " i n c e s s a n t
s l i d i n g of m e a n i n g " not s o m e t h i n g t h a t is a l r e a d y a f e a t u r e of t h e
c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y itself w h i c h , in its c o n t e m p o r a r y ' d y n a m i c , r a i s e s to
n e w h e i g h t s M a r x ' s o l d d e s c r i p t i o n of its d i s s o l v e n t p o w e r on a l l
fixed
identities?
The " h o m o e o p a t h i c " logic e v o k e d b y B r o w n is thus a m b i g u o u s . O n
t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e m e d y a g a i n s t a n ossified d e m o c r a c y i s t h e o r e t i c a l
a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e w h i c h s h a t t e r s its c e r t a i n t i e s a n d r e j u v e n a t e s it.
105
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
B u t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e is t h e o p p o s i t e h o m o e o p a t h y : a s the s a y i n g
g o e s , t h e o n l y t r u e r e m e d y a g a i n s t t h e o b v i o u s d e m o c r a t i c ills is m o r e
d e m o c r a c y . T h i s d e f e n s e of d e m o c r a c y is a v a r i a t i o n of C h u r c h i l l ' s
f a m o u s q u i p t h a t it is t h e w o r s t of all s y s t e m s , t h e o n l y q u a l i f i c a t i o n
b e i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o n e b e t t e r : t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t , in
its v e r y notion a n " u n f i n i s h e d p r o j e c t , " b u t Its v e r y " p a r a d o x " Is Its
strength, a guarantee against totalitarian temptation. D e m o c r a c y Includes
Its i m p e r f e c t i o n In Its v e r y notion, w h i c h Is w h y t h e o n l y c u r e a g a i n s t
d e m o c r a t i c d e f i c i e n c i e s Is m o r e d e m o c r a c y .
T h u s a l l t h e d a n g e r s t h a t l u r k In d e m o c r a c y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d
as
g r o u n d e d In t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i v e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t ,
a s w a y s of d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , b u t w i t h t h e p r i c e that, in
t r y i n g to g e t r i d of t h e I m p e r f e c t i o n s of d e m o c r a c y , of Its n o n - d e m o c r a t i c
Ingredients, w e Inadvertently lose d e m o c r a c y Itself—recall s i m p l y h o w
the p o p u l i s t a p p e a l to a d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of t h e p e o p l e ' s G e n e r a l W i l l ,
b y p a s s i n g a l l p a r t i c u l a r I n t e r e s t s a n d p e t t y conflicts, e n d s u p stifling
d e m o c r a t i c life itself. In a H e g e l i a n m o d e , o n e is t h u s t e m p t e d to c l a s s i f y
B r o w n ' s v e r s i o n a s t h e e x t r e m e a g g r a v a t i o n of t h e " d e m o c r a t i c p a r a d o x "
to t h e p o i n t
of d i r e c t s e l f - i n c o n s i s t e n c y . W h a t , t h e n , w o u l d b e
the
( r e ) s o l u r i o n of t h i s o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n " t h e s i s " ( L a c a n a s a t h e o r i s t of
d e m o c r a c y ) a n d " a n t i t h e s i s " ( L a c a n a s its I n t e r n a l c r i t i c ) ? W e s u g g e s t
t h a t It Is t h e r i s k y b u t n e c e s s a r y g e s t u r e of r e n d e r i n g p r o b l e m a t i c t h e v e r y
notion of " d e m o c r a c y , " of m o v i n g e l s e w h e r e — of h a v i n g t h e c o u r a g e to
e l a b o r a t e a p o s i t i v e Iweable p r o j e c t " b e y o n d d e m o c r a c y . "
Is B r o w n not all too u n - N l e t z s c h e a n In h e r r e d u c t i o n of " N i e t z s c h e " to
a p r o v o c a t i v e c o r r e c t i o n of d e m o c r a c y w h i c h , t h r o u g h h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n ,
r e n d e r s v i s i b l e t h e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a n d w e a k n e s s e s of t h e
democratic
p r o j e c t ? W h e n s h e p r o c l a i m s N i e t z s c h e ' s Implicit ( a n d a l s o e x p l i c i t ) a n t i ­
d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t " u n l i v e a b l e , " d o e s s h e not t h e r e b y a l l too g l i b l y p a s s
o v e r t h e fact t h a t t h e r e w e r e v e r y r e a l p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t s w h i c h d i r e c t l y
r e f e r r e d to N i e t z s c h e , u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g N a z i s m , a n d t h a t N i e t z s c h e
h i m s e l f c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r r e d to a c t u a l polltrcal e v e n t s a r o u n d hrm — s a y ,
t h e " s l a v e r e b e l l i o n " of t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e t h a t h e f o u n d so s h a t t e r i n g ? ' ^
B r o w n t h u s a c c o m p l i s h e s a domestication of N i e t z s c h e , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
of h i s t h e o r y Into a n e x e r c i s e In " I n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n " : p r o v o c a t i o n s
w h i c h a r e not r e a l l y " m e a n t s e r i o u s l y , " b u t a i m , t h r o u g h t h e i r " p r o v o ­
c a t i v e " c h a r a c t e r , to a w a k e n u s from o u r d e m o c r a t i c - d o g m a t i c s l u m b e r
a n d t h u s c o n t r i b u t e to t h e r e v l t a l l z a t l o n of d e m o c r a c y itself . . . T h i s i s
h o w t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t l i k e s Its " s u b v e r s i v e " t h e o r i s t s : h a r m l e s s g a d f l i e s
106
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
•vvho s t i n g u s a n d t h u s a w a k e n u s t o t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a n d i m p e r f e c t i o n
of o u r d e m o c r a t i c
enterprise — God
forbid
that they might take the
p r o j e c t s e r i o u s l y a n d t r y t o live it . . .
Michel Foucault ant) the Iraninn event
O n e o f t h e m a i n a n t i - t o t a h t a r i a n c l i c h é s i s t h a t of " i n t e l l e c t u a l s " (in t h e
i n f a m o u s P a u l J o h n s o n s e n s e of t h e t e r m ) s e d u c e d b y t h e " a u t h e n t i c "
touch
of v i o l e n t s p e c t a c l e s a n d o u t b u r s t s ,
in love w i t h t h e ruthless
exercise of p o w e r w h i c h supplements their limp-wristed existence —
the l o n g l i n e from P l a t o a n d R o u s s e a u t o f i e i d e g g e r , n o t to m e n t i o n
the s t a n d a r d list of t h e d u p e s of S t a l i n i s m ( B r e c h t , S a r t r e . . . ) . T h e facile
L a c a n i a n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h i s c h a r g e w o u l d b e to p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e l e a s t
o n e c a n s a y a b o u t L a c a n i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s t h a t it r e n d e r s u s i m m u n e
to s u c h " t o t a l i t a r i a n t e m p t a t i o n s " : n o L a c a n i a n h a s e v e r c o m m i t t e d a
s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l b l u n d e r of b e i n g s e d u c e d b y a m i r a g e of a t o t a l i t a r i a n
revolution . . .
H o w e v e r , i n s t e a d of s u c h a n e a s y w a y out, o n e s h o u l d r a t h e r h e r o i c a l l y
a c c e p t t h i s " w h i t e i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s b u r d e n . " L e t u s a p p r o a c h it a t its m o s t
p r o b l e m a t i c . T h e c o n t o u r s of t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e s t a t u s of H e i d e g g e r ' s
Nazi
engagement
( w a s it j u s t
a passing
m i s t a k e of n o t h e o r e t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e o r w a s i t g r o u n d e d i n h i s t h o u g h t itself'.' D i d it c o n t r i b u t e
to t h e t u r n H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t t o o k a f t e r w a r d s ? ) a r e s t r a n g e l y r e m i ­
n i s c e n t of M i c h e l F o u c a u l t ' s b r i e f e n g a g e m e n t o n b e h a l f of t h e I r a n i a n
revolution.
H o w c o u l d t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s not e v o k e a s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l
with Heidegger?
M a n y s c h o l a r s of F o u c a u l t v i e w t h e s e w r i t i n g s [on I r a n ] a s a b e r r a n t o r
t h e p r o d u c t of a p o l i t i c a l m i s t a k e . W e s u g g e s t t h a t F o u c a u l t ' s w r i t i n g s
on I r a n w e r e i n fact c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s
on t h e d i s c o u r s e of p o w e r a n d t h e h a z a r d s of m o d e r n i t y . W e a l s o a r g u e
t h a t F o u c a u l t ' s e x p e r i e n c e i n I r a n left a l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n h i s s u b ­
sequent oeuvre a n d that o n e cannot understand t h e sudden turn in
Foucault's w r i t i n g s in the 1980s without recognizing the significance
of t h e I r a n i a n e p i s o d e a n d h i s m o r e g e n e r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e
Orient.*^
In b o t h c a s e s , o n e s h o u l d i n v e r t t h e s t a n d a r d n a r r a t i v e a c c o r d i n g t o
w h i c h t h e e r r o n e o u s e n g a g e m e n t a w a k e n e d t h e t h i n k e r to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s
107
IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES
of h i s p r e v i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n a n d c o m p e l l e d h i m t o r a d i c a l i z e h i s
thought,
to enact a " t u r n " that w o u l d prevent
o c c u r r i n g a g a i n ( H e i d e g g e r ' s shift
such mistakes
from
t o GeLuueiiheit, F o u c a u l t ' s t o t h e
a e s t h e t i c of t h e s e l f ) : F o u c a u l t ' s I r a n i a n e n g a g e m e n t , h k e H e i d e g g e r ' s
N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , w a s i n i t s e l f (in i t s f o r m ) a n a p p r o p r i a t e g e s t u r e , t h e
b e s t t h i n g h e e v e r d i d , t h e o n l y p r o b l e m b e i n g t h a t it w a s ( a s to i t s
content) a commitment in t h e w r o n g direction.
R a t h e r t h a n r e p r o a c h F o u c a u l t for h i s " b l u n d e r , " o n e s h o u l d r e a d h i s
t u r n t o K a n t a c o u p l e of y e a r s l a t e r a s h i s r e s p o n s e
to t h i s failed
e n g a g e m e n t . F o u c a u l t is interested in t h e notion of e n t h u s i a s m a s Kant
d e p l o y s it a p r o p o s t h e F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n ( i n h i s Conflict of Faculties,
w h i c h w e a l r e a d y q u o t e d i n C h a p t e r 1 ) : a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d , for
Kant, i t s t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e d o e s n o t r e s i d e i n w h a t a c t u a l l y w e n t on in
Paris — m a n y things there w e r e terrifying, outbursts of m u r d e r o u s p a s ­
sions—but in the enthusiastic response that the events in P a n s g e n e r a t e d
in t h e e y e s of t h e s y m p a t h e t i c o b s e r v e r s a l l a r o u n d E u r o p e . . . D i d
F o u c a u l t t h e r e b y n o t p r o p o s e a k i n d of m e t a - t h e o r y of h i s o w n e n t h u ­
s i a s m a b o u t t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n of 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ? W h a t m a t t e r s i s n o t t h e
miserable reality that followed the upheavals, the bloody confrontations,
t h e n e w o p p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s , a n d so on, b u t t h e e n t h u s i a s m t h a t t h e
e v e n t s i n I r a n s t i m u l a t e d in t h e e x t e r n a l ( W e s t e r n ) o b s e r v e r , c o n f i r m i n g
h i s h o p e s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n e w form
of s p i r i t u a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l
collective.
W a s Iran, t h e n , for F o u c a u l t t h e o b j e c t of " i n t e r p a s s i v e a u t h e n t i c i t y , "
the mythical O t h e r Place w h e r e the authentic happens —Cuba, Nicar­
a g u a , B o l i v i a t o d a y . . . — a n d for w h i c h W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v e a n
i n e x h a u s t i b l e n e e d ? A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , o n e c o u l d r e d e e m in t h e s a m e w a y
not o n l y t h e e n t h u s i a s m e v o k e d b y S t a l i n i s t R u s s i a i n m a n y W e s t e r n
intellectuals a n d artists in t h e 1930s a n d 1940s, b u t even t h e enthusiasm
s t o k e d i n t h o s e w h o w e r e o t h e r w i s e b i t t e r c r i t i c s of S t a l i n i s m b y t h e
M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : w h a t m a t t e r s w a s not t h e b r u t a l v i o l e n c e a n d
t e r r o r i n C h i n a , b u t t h e e n t h u s i a s m fired u p b y t h i s s p e c t a c l e a m o n g s t t h e
W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s . . . ( A n d — w h y n o t ? — o n e c o u l d c l a i m t h e s a m e for
t h e f a s c i n a t i o n of N a z i G e r m a n y for s o m e W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s i n t h e first
four y e a r s of H i t l e r ' s r u l e w h e n u n e m p l o y m e n t fell r a p i d l y , a n d so o n ! )
H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e a d i n g is that, in h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the Iranian events, Foucault turns this perspective a r o u n d a n d opposes
t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h o s e e n g a g e d i n t h e e v e n t t o t h e cold v i e w o f t h e
e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r w h o d i s c e r n s t h e l a r g e r c a u s a l c o n t e x t , t h e i n t e r p l a y of
I OB
RADICAL
INTELLECTUALS
c l a s s e s a n d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , a n d so on a n d so forth. T h i s shift of t h e
e n t h u s i a s m a r o u s e d in a n e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r to t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h o s e
c a u g h t in t h e e v e n t s i s c r u c i a l — h o w a r e w e to thltik t h e l i n k of t h e s e t w o
l o c a t i o n s of e n t h u s i a s m , t h e e n t h u s i a s m of d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d t h a t of
e x t e r n a l a n d d i s e n g a g e d ( d i s i n t e r e s t e d ) o b s e r v e r s ? T h e o n l y s o l u t i o n is
t o " d e c o n s t r u c t " t h e v e r y i m m e d i a c y of t h e l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e of t h e d i r e c t
p a r t i c i p a n t s : w h a t if t h i s i m m e d i a c y is a l r e a d y s t a g e d for a n o b s e r v e r , for
a n i m a g i n e d O t h e r ' s g a z e ? W h a t if, in t h e i r i n n e r m o s t l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e ,
t h e y a l r e a d y i m a g i n e t h e m s e l v e s b e i n g o b s e r v e d ? A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , in h i s
l a s t t e x t on I r a n ( " I s it U s e l e s s to R e v o l t ? " , from M a y 1 9 7 9 ) , F o u c a u l t
o p p o s e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y of a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l ,
e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d so on, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s to t h e m a g i c a l e v e n t of t h e
r e v o l t w h i c h s o m e h o w s u s p e n d s t h e n e t w o r k of h i s t o r i c a l c a u s a l i t y — t o
w h i c h it i s i r r e d u c i b l e :
The
man
in r e v o l t i s u l t i m a t e l y i n e x p h c a b l e . T h e r e
must
be
an
u p r o o t i n g t h a t i n t e r r u p t s t h e u n f o l d i n g of h i s t o r y , a n d i t s l o n g s e r i e s
of r e a s o n s w h y , for a m a n " r e a l l y " to p r e f e r t h e r i s k of d e a t h o v e r t h e
c e r t a i n t y of h a v i n g to o b e y . ' ^
O n e s h o u l d b e a w a r e of t h e K a n t i a n c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s :
r e v o l t i s a n a c t of f r e e d o m w h i c h m o m e n t a r i l y s u s p e n d s t h e n e x u s of
historical causality, that is, i n revolt, the n o u m e n a l dimension transpires.
T h e p a r a d o x , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h i s n o u m e n a l d i m e n s i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h its
o p p o s i t e , w i t h t h e p u r e s u r f a c e of a p h e n o m e n o n : t h e n o u m e n o n not o n l y
a p p e a r s , t h e n o u m e n a l i s w h a t i s , in a p h e n o m e n o n ,
i r r e d u c i b l e to t h e
c a u s a l n e t w o r k of r e a l i t y t h a t g e n e r a t e d t h i s p h e n o m e n o n — i n short, t h e
noumenon Li phenomenon qua phenomenon. T h e r e i s a c l e a r l i n k b e t w e e n t h i s
i r r e d u c i b l e c h a r a c t e r of t h e p h e n o m e n o n a n d D e l e u z e ' s n o t i o n of e v e n t
a s t h e flux of b e c o m i n g , a s a s u r f a c e e m e r g e n c e t h a t c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to
its " b o d i l y " c a u s e s . F l i s r e p l y to t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c s w h o
the
miserable and
e v e n t e r r i f y i n g a c t u a l r e s u l t s of a
denounce
revolutionary
U p h e a v a l i s t h a t t h e y r e m a i n b l i n d to t h e d i m e n s i o n of b e c o m i n g :
It i s f a s h i o n a b l e t h e s e d a y s to c o n d e m n t h e h o r r o r s of r e v o l u t i o n . It's
n o t h i n g n e w ; E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c i s m is p e r m e a t e d b y r e f l e c t i o n s on
C r o m w e l l v e r y s i m i l a r to p r e s e n t - d a y r e f l e c t i o n s on S t a l i n . T h e y s a y
revolutions turn out b a d l y . B u t t h e y ' r e constantly confusing
two
different t h i n g s , t h e w a y r e v o l u t i o n s t u r n o u t h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d p e o p l e ' s
109
r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e c o m i n g . T h e s e r e l a t e to t w o different s e t s of p e o p l e .
M e n ' s o n l y h o p e l i e s in a r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e c o m i n g : t h e o n l y w a y of
c a s t i n g off t h e i r s h a m e o r r e s p o n d i n g to w h a t i s i n t o l e r a b l e . ' ^
D e l e u z e r e f e r s h e r e to r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n s in a w a y w h i c h i s s t r i c t l y
p a r a l l e l to F o u c a u l t ' s :
T h e I r a n i a n m o v e m e n t d i d not e x p e r i e n c e t h e " l a w " of r e v o l u t i o n s t h a t
w o u l d , some say, m a k e the t y r a n n y that a l r e a d y secretly inhabited
t h e m r e a p p e a r u n d e r n e a t h t h e b l i n d e n t h u s i a s m of t h e m a s s e s . W h a t
c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m o s t i n t e r n a l a n d t h e m o s t i n t e n s e l y l i v e d p a r t of t h e
uprising touched,
in a n u n m e d i a t e d f a s h i o n , on a n a l r e a d y o v e r ­
c r o w d e d p o l i t i c a l c h e s s b o a r d , b u t s u c h c o n t a c t i s not i d e n t i t y . T h e
s p i r i t u a l i t y of t h o s e w h o w e r e g o i n g to t h e i r d e a t h s h a s n o s i m i l a r i t y
w h a t s o e v e r w i t h t h e b l o o d y g o v e r n m e n t of a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t
clergy.
T h e I r a n i a n c l e r i c s w a n t to a u t h e n t i c a t e t h e i r r e g i m e t h r o u g h
the
s i g n i f i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e u p r i s i n g h a d . It i s no different to d i s c r e d i t the
fact of t h e u p r i s i n g on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e is t o d a y a g o v e r n m e n t of
m u l l a h s . In b o t h c a s e s , t h e r e i s " f e a r , " fear of w h a t j u s t h a p p e n e d l a s t
fall in I r a n , s o m e t h i n g of w h i c h t h e w o r l d h a d not s e e n a n e x a m p l e for
a l o n g time.'^*'
F o u c a u l t is here effectively D e l e u z i a n : w h a t interests him are not the
I r a n i a n e v e n t s a t the l e v e l of a c t u a l s o c i a l r e a l i t y a n d its c a u s a l i n t e r a c ­
t i o n s , b u t t h e e v e n t a l s u r f a c e , t h e p u r e v i r t u a l i t y of t h e " s p a r k of l i f e "
w h i c h o n l y a c c o u n t s for t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e E v e n t . W h a t t o o k p l a c e in
I r a n in t h e i n t e r s t i c e of t w o e p o c h s of s o c i a l r e a l i t y w a s not t h e e x p l o s i o n
of t h e P e o p l e a s a s u b s t a n t i a l e n t i t y w i t h a set of p r o p e r t i e s , b u t t h e e v e n t
of a b e c o m i n g - p e o p l e . T h e p o i n t is t h u s n o t t h e shift in r e l a t i o n s of p o w e r
and domination between actual socio-political agents, the redistribution
of s o c i a l c o n t r o l , a n d so on, b u t t h e v e r y fact of t r a n s c e n d i n g —or, r a t h e r ,
m o m e n t a r i l y c a n c e l i n g — t h i s v e r y d o m a i n , t h e e m e r g e n c e of a t o t a l l y
d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n of " c o l l e c t i v e w i l l " a s a p u r e s e n s e - e v e n t in w h i c h a l l
d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o b l i t e r a t e d , r e n d e r e d i r r e l e v a n t . S u c h a n e v e n t i s not o n l y
n e w w i t h r e g a r d to w h a t h a p p e n e d before, it i s n e w "in i t s e l f " a n d t h u s
forever remains new.
H o w e v e r , h e r e , at t h e i r m o s t s u b l i m e , t h i n g s s t a r t to g e t c o m p h c a t e d .
F o u c a u l t h a s to c o n c e d e t h a t t h i s d i v i s i o n w a s i n t e r n a l to the e n g a g e d
individuals themselves:
no
RADICAL
INTELLECTUALS
L e t ' s t a k e t h e a c t i v i s t in s o m e p o l i t i c a l g r o u p . W h e n h e w a s t a k i n g p a r t
in o n e of t h o s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , h e w a s d o u b l e : h e h a d h i s p o l i t i c a l
c a l c u l a t i o n , w h i c h w a s t h i s or that, a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e w a s a n
i n d i v i d u a l c a u g h t u p in t h a t r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t , or r a t h e r t h a t
I r a n i a n w h o h a d r i s e n u p a g a i n s t t h e k i n g . A n d the t w o t h i n g s d i d not
c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t , h e d i d not rise u p a g a i n s t t h e k i n g b e c a u s e h i s p a r t y
h a d m a d e this or that calculation.^^
A n d t h e s a m e d i v i s i o n c u t s a c r o s s the e n t i r e s o c i a l b o d y : at t h e l e v e l of
r e a l i t y , t h e r e w e r e , of c o u r s e , m u l t i p l e a g e n t s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n s of
c l a s s e s , t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n c o m p a t i b l e s t r u g g l e s ; h o w e v e r , at t h e
l e v e l of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t p r o p e r , a l l t h i s w a s " s u b l a t e d " i n t o " a n
absolutely collective w i l l " that united the entire social b o d y a g a i n s t the
S h a h a n d his clique. There w a s no division within the social body, no
" c l a s s s t r u g g l e , " a l l —from
p o o r f a r m e r s to s t u d e n t s ,
from
clergy
to
disappointed capitalists—wanted the same:
T h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l is a p o l i t i c a l m y t h w i t h w h i c h j u r i s t s a n d p h i l o s o ­
p h e r s t r y to a n a l y z e or to j u s t i f y i n s t i t u t i o n s , etc. It's a t h e o r e t i c a l tool:
nobody has ever seen the "collective w i l l " and, personally, I thought
t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l w a s l i k e God, l i k e t h e soul, s o m e t h i n g
one
w o u l d n e v e r e n c o u n t e r . I d o n ' t k n o w w h e t h e r 3'ou a g r e e w i t h m e , b u t
we
met, in T e h r a n
a n d t h r o u g h o u t Iran,
t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l of a
people.
F o u c a u l t o p p o s e s h e r e r e v o l t a n d r e v o l u t i o n : " r e v o l u t i o n " (in t h e m o d e r n
E u r o p e a n s e n s e ) d e s i g n a t e s t h e r e i n s c r i p t i o n of a r e v o l t into t h e p r o c e s s
of s t r a t e g i c - p o l i t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n : r e v o l u t i o n i s a p r o c e s s b y m e a n s of
w h i c h the revolt is "colonized b y realpolitik":
"Revolution " g a v e these u p r i s i n g s a legitimacy, sorted out their good
a n d b a d forms, a n d d e f i n e d t h e i r l a w s of d e v e l o p m e n t . [. . . ] E v e n t h e
p r o f e s s i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a s d e f i n e d . B y t h u s r e p a t r i a t i n g r e v o l t
i n t o t h e d i s c o u r s e of r e v o l u t i o n , it w a s s a i d , t h e u p r i s i n g w o u l d a p p e a r
in all its t r u t h a n d c o n t i n u e to its t r u e c o n c l u s i o n .
N o w o n d e r F o u c a u l t c o m p a r e s t h e a p p e a r i n g of a c o l l e c t i v e w i l l w i t h t w o
of K a n t ' s n o u m e n a l t h i n g s ( G o d , s o u l ) . W h e n t h e n o u m e n a l a p p e a r s , it is
in t h e g u i s e of u l t i m a t e h o r r o r — a s F o u c a u l t is a w a r e :
III
At t h i s s t a g e , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d t h e m o s t a t r o c i o u s m i n g l e — t h e
e x t r a o r d i n a r y h o p e of" r e m a k i n g I s l a m i n t o a g r e a t l i v i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n
a n d v a r i o u s f o r m s of v i r u l e n t x e n o p h o b i a , a s w e l l a s t h e g l o b a l s t a k e s
a n d the r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s . A n d t h e p r o b l e m of i m p e r i a l i s m s . A n d t h e
s u b j u g a t i o n of w o m e n , a n d so on.
W h a t h a s g i v e n t h e I r a n i a n m o v e m e n t its i n t e n s i t y h a s b e e n a d o u b l e
register. O n the one hand, a collective w i l l that h a s been v e r y strongly
e x p r e s s e d p o l i t i c a l l y a n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e d e s i r e for a r a d i c a l
c h a n g e in o r d i n a r y life. B u t t h i s d o u b l e a f f i r m a t i o n c a n o n l y b e b a s e d
on t r a d i t i o n s , i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t c a r r y a c h a r g e of c h a u v i n i s m , n a t i o n ­
a l i s m , e x c l u s i v e n e s s , w h i c h h a v e a v e r y p o w e r f u l a t t r a c t i o n for in­
d i v i d u a l s . T o c o n f r o n t so f e a r s o m e a n a r m e d p o w e r , o n e m u s t n ' t feel
alone, nor begin w i t h nothing.
The picture
thus becomes blurred.
First,
Foucault withdraws
from
o v e r a l l s u p p o r t for t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l t ( s u s t a i n e d b y a h o p e t h a t a n
e n t i r e l y different s o c i e t y w i l l e m e r g e o u t of it, b r e a k i n g o u t of t h e s p a c e
of E u r o p e a n
m o d e r n i t y a n d i t s d e a d l o c k s ) to v a l o r i z i n g o n l y t h e e n ­
t h u s i a s t i c m o m e n t of r e v o l t itself: t h e E u r o p e a n
l i b e r a l s w h o w a n t to
d i s c r e d i t t h e I r a n i a n e v e n t s b e c a u s e t h e y e n d e d u p in a n
oppressive
theocracy move at the s a m e level a s the c l e r g y itself w h i c h is r e c l a i m i n g
t h e r e v o l t in o r d e r to j u s t i f y i t s r u l e — t h e y b o t h a t t e m p t to r e d u c e t h e
E v e n t to a factor in a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e of s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s . T h e n , in a
m o r e s u b t l e a n d s u r p r i s i n g m o v e , F o u c a u l t d i s c e r n s another a m b i g u i t y
w h i c h c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l of p u r e
r e v o l t a n d t h e l e v e l of m u l t i p l e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l I n t e r p l a y : " c h a u v i n i s m , "
" v i r u l e n t x e n o p h o b i a , " t h e " s u b j u g a t i o n of w o m e n , " a n d so on, a r e not
s i g n s of t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e E v e n t b y s o c i o p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , t h e y a r e
i n h e r e n t f o r c e s of t h e E v e n t itself, t h a t i s , t h e i r m o b i l i z a t i o n g a v e t h e
E v e n t t h e s t r e n g t h to o p p o s e i t s e l f to t h e o p p r e s s i v e p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e a n d
to a v o i d g e t t i n g c a u g h t in t h e g a m e of p o l i t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . It i s t h i s v e r y
r e l i a n c e on t h e " v i l e s t " r a c i s t , a n t i - f e m i n i s t , etc., motifs t h a t g a v e t h e
I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n t h e p o w e r to m o v e b e y o n d a m e r e p r a g m a t i c p o w e r
s t r u g g l e . To p u t it in B a d i o u i a n t e r m s , t h e a u t h e n t i c E v e n t t h u s b e c o m e s
I n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from a
pseudo-Event.
A r e w e not d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h a k i n d of H e g e l i a n t r i a d i n w h i c h t h e
e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n i s g r a d u a l l y i n t e r n a l i z e d , r e f l e c t e d i n t o i t s e l f ? F'lrst,
t h e e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n of t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n in i t s e l f ( a u n i q u e e v e n t )
112
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
a n d t h e w a y it a p p e a r s to E u r o p e a n s is i n t e r n a h z e d into t h e t w o a s p e c t s
of t h e e v e n t s t h e m s e l v e s : t h e i r p r a g m a t i c s t r u g g l e - f o r - p o w e r s i d e , a n d t h e
s i d e of a u n i q u e p o l i t i c o - s p i r i t u a l E v e n t . F i n a l l y , t h e s e t w o a s p e c t s a r e
i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e form a n d c o n t e n t of t h e s a m e e v e n t : t h e
oppressive
m i s o g y n i s t i d e o l o g y , a n t i - S e m i t i s m , a n d so forth, a r e t h e o n l y i d e o l o g i c a l
m a t e r i a l s at t h e d i s p o s a l of t h e I r a n i a n s t h a t c a n s u s t a i n t h e
m e t a p h y s i c a l e l e v a t i o n of t h e
properly
Event—the Event turns into a p u r e l y
formal f e a t u r e , i n d i f f e r e n t t o w a r d s its specific h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e n t . In o t h e r
w o r d s , F o u c a u l t e n d s u p a t a p o i n t at w h i c h o n e s h o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y r a i s e
t h e q u e s t i o n u s u a l l y a d d r e s s e d to B a d i o u : w h y , t h e n , i s t i i t l e r ' s N a z i
" r e v o l u t i o n " not a l s o a n E v e n t ?
D o e s it not s h a r e t h e v e r y
features
a t t r i b u t e d b y F o u c a u l t to the I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n ? D i d w e not h a v e t h e r e
a l s o t h e s p i r i t u a l u n i t y of p e o p l e , u n d i v i d e d i n t o p a r t i c u l a r
subgroups
s e p a r a t e d b y i n t e r e s t s , a u n i t y for w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r e a d y
to
s a c r i f i c e t h e m s e l v e s ? A n d , a s in t h e c a s e of Iran, w a s t h i s s p i r i t of u n i t y
not s u s t a i n e d b y t h e " v i l e s t " e l e m e n t s of t r a d i t i o n ( r a c i s m a n d so o n ) ?
A t t h i s point, t h e o n l y m o v e t h a t r e m a i n s i s to d r o p t h i s form i t s e l f — n o
w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t , after h i s I r a n i a n e x p e r i e n c e , F o u c a u l t w i t h d r e w to the
t o p i c of t h e c a r e of t h e self, of t h e a e s t h e t i c s of e x i s t e n c e ( a n d , p o l i t i c a l l y ,
to s u p p o r t i n g
different
h u m a n - r i g h t s i n i t i a t i v e s , w h i c h m a k e s h i m in
F r a n c e a d a r l i n g of t h e n e o l i b e r a l - h u m a n i t a r i a n " n e w
philosophers").
H e r e , o n e c a n o n l y v e n t u r e t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e c o n c e p t u a l root of this
F o u c a u l d i a n d e a d l o c k is h i s k e y notion of t h e àispoditif. A t first s i g h t , it
m a y a p p e a r t h a t L a c a n ' s big O t h e r is the p o o r c o u s i n of F o u c a u l t ' s n o t i o n
of t h e didpojUif, w h i c h i s m u c h
more productive
for s o c i a l a n a l y s i s .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s t h e d e a d l o c k of t h e dupositif •w\t\\ r e g a r d to t h e s t a t u s
of t h e s u b j e c t : first (in h i s h i s t o r y of m a d n e s s ) , F o u c a u l t t e n d e d
to
e x c l u d e from it t h e r e s i s t i n g c o r e of s u b j e c t i v i t y ; t h e n , h e shifted h i s
p o s i t i o n to i t s o p p o s i t e , to t h e r a d i c a l i n c l u s i o n of r e s i s t a n t s u b j e c t i v i t y
i n t o t h e dutpositif
( p o w e r itself g e n e r a t e s resistance, a n d
t h e m e s of h i s DLicipUne and Punuh);
finally,
so
on—the
h e t r i e d to o u t l i n e t h e s p a c e
of t h e " c a r e of t h e self" t h a t a l l o w s t h e s u b j e c t to a r t i c u l a t e t h r o u g h selfr e l a t i n g h i s o w n " m o d e of l i f e " w i t h i n a diipoé'dif, a n d t h u s to r e g a i n a
m i n i m u m of d i s t a n c e from
it. T h e s u b j e c t i s h e r e a l w a y s a c u r v e , a
d i s t u r b a n c e , of t h e diipojitif, t h e p r o v e r b i a l g r a i n of s a n d t h a t d i s r u p t s its
s m o o t h r u n n i n g . W i t h L a c a n ' s " b i g O t h e r , " t h e p e r s p e c t i v e is c o m p l e t e l y
t h e o p p o s i t e : the v e r y " p o s i t i n g " of t h e b i g O t h e r is a s u b j e c t i v e g e s t u r e ,
t h a t i s , t h e " b i g O t h e r " is a v i r t u a l e n t i t y t h a t e x i s t s o n l y t h r o u g h
the
s u b j e c t ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n ( t h i s m o m e n t is m i s s i n g in A l t h u s s e r ' s notion of
113
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
t h e " I d e o l o g i c a l S t a t e A p p a r a t u s e s , " w i t h its e m p h a s i s on t h e " m a t e r i ­
a l i t y " of t h e b i g O t h e r , its m a t e r i a l e x i s t e n c e in i d e o l o g i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
a n d r i t u a l i z e d p r a c t i c e s — L a c a n ' s b i g O t h e r i s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , ulti­
m a t e l y v i r t u a l a n d a s s u c h , in i t s m o s t b a s i c d i m e n s i o n , " i m m a t e r i a l " ) .
B u t let u s r e t u r n to I r a n . F o u c a u l t ' s b l u n d e r in no w a y i m p l i e s t h a t t h e
Iranian revolution w a s a pseudo-Event
(in a B a d i o u i a n s e n s e ) c o m p a r ­
a b l e to t h e N a z i " r e v o l u t i o n " : it w a s a n a u t h e n t i c E v e n t , a m o m e n t a r y
opening t h a t u n l e a s h e d u n p r e c e d e n t e d forces of s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,
a
m o m e n t in w h i c h " e v e r y t h i n g s e e m e d p o s s i b l e . " T o d e t e c t t h i s d i m e n ­
sion, it i s e n o u g h to f o l l o w c l o s e l y t h e shifts a n d r e v e r s a l s of t h e I r a n i a n
e v e n t s , the g r a d u a l c l o s i n g of t h e m u l t i p l e m o d e s of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of
the p r o t e s t i n g c r o w d s t h r o u g h t h e t a k e o v e r of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r b y t h e n e w
I s l a m i c c l e r g y . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e to the e f f e r v e s c e n t first
m o n t h s after
the
shah's fall—the constant
frantic
activity, debates,
Utopian p l a n s , e t c . — i n G e r m a n y after t h e N a z i t a k e o v e r ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e
wad s o m e t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e g o i n g on in t h e first y e a r s after t h e O c t o b e r
R e v o l u t i o n ) . O n e s h o u l d not t a k e t h i s q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e a s s o m e t h i n g
t h a t c o n c e r n s o n l y t h e f o r m a l l e v e l of e v e n t s (or, e v e n w o r s e , t h e g r o u p p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e v e l , a s if t h e I r a n i a n e x p l o s i o n w a s m o r e " s i n c e r e " t h a n
t h e N a z i o n e ) — i t s c r u c i a l d i m e n s i o n w a s t h a t of s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t :
w h a t m a k e s the Iranian explosion an Event w a s the m o m e n t a r y emer­
g e n c e of s o m e t h i n g n e w t h a t p e r t a i n e d to t h e s t r u g g l e to f o r m u l a t e a n
a l t e r n a t i v e b e y o n d t h e e x i s t i n g o p t i o n s of W e s t e r n l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y or a
r e t u r n to p r e - m o d e r n t r a d i t i o n . T h e N a z i " r e v o l u t i o n " w a s never " o p e n "
in t h i s a u t h e n t i c s e n s e .
F o u c a u l t w a s a l s o fully j u s t i f i e d in e m p h a s i z i n g S h l a I s l a m ' s p o t e n t i a l
for s e r v i n g a s t h e i d e o l o g i c a l v e h i c l e for a d e m o c r a t i c - e g a l i t a r i a n m o v e ­
m e n t : the o p p o s i t i o n
S u n n i v e r s u s S h l a i s , in p o l i t i c a l t e r m s , o n e of
h i e r a r c h i c a l s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n v e r s u s t h e e g a l i t a r i a n o p e n i n g of t h e e v e n t .
In c o n t r a s t to b o t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e t w o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s of
the b o o k , I s l a m e x c l u d e s G o d from t h e d o m a i n of p a t e r n a l l o g i c : A l l a h is
n o t a father, not e v e n a s y m b o l i c o n e — G o d a s O n e is n e i t h e r b o r n n o r
d o e s H e g i v e b i r t h to c r e a t u r e s : there Li no place for a Holy Family in Idlam.
T h i s i s w h y I s l a m e m p h a s i z e s so m u c h t h e fact t h a t M u h a m m a d h i m s e l f
was
a n o r p h a n ; t h i s is w h y , in I s l a m , G o d i n t e r v e n e s p r e c i s e l y at t h e
moments
of t h e
p a t e r n a l function
suspension,
w i t h d r a w a l , f a i l u r e , " b l a c k o u t , " of
( w h e n the mother
or the child are a b a n d o n e d
the
or
i g n o r e d b y the b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r ) . W h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t G o d r e m a i n s
t h o r o u g h l y i n t h e d o m a i n of t h e i m p o s s i b l e - R e a l : H e i s t h e i m p o s s l b l e 114
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
R e a l b e y o n d t h e father, so t h a t t h e r e i s a " g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t b e t w e e n
m a n a n d God."^'^ ( T h i s w a s t h e p r o b l e m w i t h I s l a m for F r e u d , s i n c e h i s
e n t i r e t h e o r y of r e l i g i o n i s b a s e d on t h e p a r a l l e l of G o d w i t h t h e f a t h e r . )
jVlore i m p o r t a n t l y still, t h i s i n s c r i b e s p o l i t i c s i n t o t h e v e r y h e a r t of I s l a m ,
s i n c e t h e " g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t " r e n d e r s i m p o s s i b l e a g r o u n d i n g of t h e
c o m m u n i t y in t h e s t r u c t u r e s of p a r e n t h o o d
blood: "the desert b e t w e e n
political Institutes i t s e l f "
o r o t h e r b o n d s b a s e d on
God a n d F a t h e r is the p l a c e w h e r e
the
W i t h I s l a m , it i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to g r o u n d
a c o m m u n i t y in t h e m o d e of Totem and Taboo, t h r o u g h t h e m u r d e r of t h e
father,
the ensuing guilt bringing brothers
together—thence
Islam's
u n e x p e c t e d a c t u a l i t y . T h i s p r o b l e m is a t t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e ( i n ) f a m o u s
umma, t h e M u s l i m " c o m m u n i t y of b e l i e v e r s " ; it a c c o u n t s for t h e o v e r ­
l a p p i n g of t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l ( t h e c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d
be
g r o u n d e d d i r e c t l y on G o d ' s w o r d ) , a s w e l l a s for t h e fact t h a t I s l a m i s
" a t its b e s t " w h e n it g r o u n d s t h e f o r m a t i o n of a c o m m u n i t y "out of
n o w h e r e , " in t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t , a s t h e e g a l i t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y
fraternity—no
w o n d e r I s l a m s u c c e e d s w h e n y o u n g m e n find t h e m s e l v e s
d e p r i v e d of a t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l i a l s a f e t y n e t w o r k .
T h i s , too, c o m p e l s u s to q u a l i f y a n d l i m i t t h e h o m o l o g y
Foucault's Iranian engagement and
Heidegger's Nazi
between
commitments:
F o u c a u l t w a s right in e n g a g i n g h i m s e l f h e correctly d e t e c t e d the e m a n c i ­
p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l in t h e e v e n t s ; a l l i n s i n u a t i o n s of l i b e r a l c r i t i c s t h a t t h i s
w a s y e t a n o t h e r c h a p t e r in t h e s a d s a g a of W e s t e r n r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s
p r o j e c t i n g t h e i r f a n t a s i e s o n t o a n e x o t i c foreign z o n e of t u r b u l e n c e , w h i c h
a l l o w s t h e m to s a t i s f y eimultaneously t h e i r e m a n c i p a t o r y d e s i r e s and t h e i r
s e c r e t " m a s o c h i s t i c " l o n g i n g for h a r s h d i s c i p l i n e a n d o p p r e s s i o n , t o t a l l y
miss the point. S o w h e r e w a s his m i s t a k e ? O n e can claim that he d i d the
r i g h t t h i n g for t h e w r o n g r e a s o n : t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h h e t h e o r i z e d a n d
justified his e n g a g e m e n t is misleading. The f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h
F o u c a u l t o p e r a t e s in h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e I r a n i a n s i t u a t i o n is t h e o p p o s i t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y E v e n t , the s u b l i m e e n t h u s i a s m of t h e u n i t e d
people w h e r e all internal differences a r e m o m e n t a r i l y suspended, a n d the
p r a g m a t i c d o m a i n of t h e p o l i t i c s of i n t e r e s t s , s t r a t e g i c p o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s ,
a n d so f o r t h — t h e o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , d i r e c t l y
e v o k e s K a n t ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o u m e n a l (or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e
sublime w h i c h evokes the noumenal dimension) and the
phenomenal.
O u r t h e s i s is h e r e a v e r y p r e c i s e o n e : t h i s g e n e r a l f r a m e i s too " a b s t r a c t "
to a c c o u n t for different m o d a l i t i e s of c o l l e c t i v e e n t h u s i a s m — t o d i s t i n ­
g u i s h b e t w e e n , s a y , t h e N a z i e n t h u s i a s m of t h e p e o p l e u n i t e d in its
lis
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
r e j e c t i o n of t h e J e w s ( w h o s e effects w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y r e a l ) , t h e
en-
t h u s i a s m of t h e p e o p l e u n i t e d a g a i n s t t h e s t a g n a t i n g C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e ,
o r a p r o p e r l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is s i m p l y t h a t t h e
first t w o a r e not E v e n t s , m e r e l y p s e u d o - E v e n t s , b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k e d the
m o m e n t of a t r u l y Utopian o p e n i n g . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s t r i c t l y i m m a n e n t to
e n t h u s i a s t i c u n i t y : o n l y in t h e l a s t c a s e , t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of t h i s
u n i t y w a s t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t , " t h e " d o w n t r o d d e n , "
t h o s e i n c l u d e d in
s o c i e t y w i t h n o p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n it a n d , a s s u c h , f u n c t i o n i n g a s t h e
"universal s i n g u l a r i t y , " directly e m b o d y i n g the universal dimension.
T h i s is a l s o w h y t h e o p p o s i t i o n
between noumenal enthusiasm
and
p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s d o e s not c o v e r t h e e n t i r e field — i f it w e r e so,
t h e n w e w o u l d r e m a i n s t u c k f o r e v e r in t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n e m a n c i p a t o r y o u t b u r s t s a n d t h e s o b e r i n g " d a y a f t e r " w h e n life r e t u r n s to its
p r a g m a t i c normal run. F r o m this constrained perspective, e v e r y attempt
to a v o i d a n d / o r p o s t p o n e t h i s s o b e r i n g r e t u r n to t h e n o r m a l r u n of t h i n g s
a m o u n t s to t e r r o r , to t h e r e v e r s a l of e n t h u s i a s m i n t o m o n s t r o s i t y . W h a t if,
h o w e v e r , thit is w h a t i s t r u l y at s t a k e in a t r u e e m a n c i p a t o r y p r o c e s s : in
J a c q u e s R a n c i è r e ' s t e r m s , h o w to u n i t e t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d t h e p o l i c e , h o w
to t r a n s p o s e t h e p o l i t i c a l e m a n c i p a t o r y o u t b u r s t i n t o the c o n c r e t e r e g u l a t i o n of p o l i c i n g ? W h a t c a n b e m o r e s u b l i m e t h a n t h e c r e a t i o n of a n e w
" l i b e r a t e d t e r r i t o r y , " of a p o s i t i v e o r d e r of b e i n g w h i c h e s c a p e s t h e g r a s p
of the e x i s t i n g o r d e r ?
T h i s is w h y B a d i o u i s r i g h t to d e n y the s t a t u s of a n E v e n t to
the
e n t h u s i a s m t h a t followed t h e c o l l a p s e of the C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s . W h e n , m
t h e last m o n t h s of 2 0 0 1 , t h e M i l o s e v i c r e g i m e in S e r b i a w a s finally t o p p l e d ,
m a n y M a r x i s t s in the W e s t r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n : " W h a t a b o u t t h e coal
m i n e r s w h o s e s t r i k e l e d to t h e d i s r u p t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l y a n d t h u s
effectively b r o u g h t
M i l o s e v i c d o w n ? W a s t h a t not a g e n u i n e w o r k e r s '
movement, w h i c h w a s then manipulated b y the politicians, w h o
were
nationalists or corrupted
point
b y the C I A ? " The same symptomatic
e m e r g e s a p r o p o s of e v e r y n e w social u p h e a v a l ; in e a c h of t h e s e c a s e s ,
such people identify some w o r k i n g - c l a s s movement w h i c h allegedly disp l a y e d a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n a r y or, a t least, socialist potential, b u t w a s
first
e x p l o i t e d a n d t h e n b e t r a y e d b y t h e p r o - c a p i t a l i s t a n d / o r n a t i o n a l i s t forces.
T h i s w a y , o n e c a n c o n t i n u e to d r e a m t h a t the R e v o l u t i o n is r o u n d
the
c o r n e r : all w e n e e d is a n a u t h e n t i c l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h w o u l d b e a b l e to
o r g a n i z e t h e w o r k e r s ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l . If o n e i s to b e l i e v e t h e m ,
Solidarnosc w a s originally a w o r k e r s ' democratic-socialist movement, later
" b e t r a y e d " b y its l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h w a s c o r r u p t e d b y the C h u r c h a n d t h e
116
RADICAL
INTELLECTUALS
C I A . • . T h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , a g r a i n of t r u t h in t h i s a p p r o a c h : t h e u h i m a t e
i r o n y of t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of C o m m u n i s m w a s t h a t the g r e a t r e v o l t s ( t h e
G D R in 1953, H u n g a r y in 1 9 5 6 , S o l i d a r i t y in P o l a n d ) w e r e o r i g i n a l l y
ivorker/ u p r i s i n g s w h i c h o n l y l a t e r p a v e d t h e w a y for t h e s t a n d a r d " a n t i C o m m u n i s t " m o v e m e n t s —before s u c c u m b i n g to t h e " e x t e r n a l " e n e m y ,
the regime got a message about
its f a l s i t y from
those w h o m
these
" w o r k e r s ' and peasants' states" evoked as their own social base. H o w ­
e v e r , t h i s v e r y fact a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e w o r k e r s ' r e v o l t l a c k e d a n y
s u b s t a n t i a l s o c i a l i s t c o m m i t m e n t : in all c a s e s , o n c e t h e m o v e m e n t
ex­
p l o d e d , it w a s s m o o t h l y h e g e m o n i z e d b y s t a n d a r d " b o u r g e o i s " i d e o l o g y
( p o l i t i c a l f r e e d o m , p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y , a n d so f o r t h ) .
The trouble with Heidegger
H o w , t h e n , d o t h i n g s s t a n d w i t h H e i d e g g e r ' s e n g a g e m e n t ? W a s it, i n
c o n t r a s t to F o u c a u l t ' s , not j u s t a m i s t a k e , b u t a m i s t a k e g r o u n d e d in h i s
p h i l o s o p h y ? T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g p r o f o u n d l y s y m p t o m a t i c in t h e c o m p u l ­
sion of m a n y l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i c s of H e i d e g g e r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i affiliation w a s not a m e r e t e m p o r a r y b l u n d e r , b u t in
c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e v e r y f u n d a m e n t a l s of h i s t h o u g h t : it i s a s if t h i s
c o n s o n a n c e a l l o w s u s to d i s m i s s H e i d e g g e r a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t a n d
t h u s to a v o i d t h e effort to think w i t h a n d t h r o u g h H e i d e g g e r , to c o n f r o n t
t h e u n e a s y q u e s t i o n s h e r a i s e d a g a i n s t s u c h b a s i c t e n e t s of m o d e r n i t y a s
" h u m a n i s m , " " d e m o c r a c y , " " p r o g r e s s , " etc. O n c e H e i d e g g e r d i s a p p e a r s
from t h e p i c t u r e , w e c a n s a f e l y c a r r y on w i t h o u r c o m m o n c o n c e r n s a b o u t
t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s o p e n e d u p b y b i o g e n e t i c s , a b o u t h o w to a c c o m ­
m o d a t e c a p i t a l i s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n w i t h i n a m e a n i n g f u l c o m m u n a l life — i n
short, w e c a n s a f e l y a v o i d c o n f r o n t i n g w h a t i s r e a l l y n e w in g l o b a l i z a t i o n
a n d b i o g e n e t i c d i s c o v e r i e s , a n d c o n t i n u e to m e a s u r e t h e s e
phenomena
w i t h old s t a n d a r d s , in t h e w i l d h o p e of a s y n t h e s i s t h a t w i l l a l l o w u s to
k e e p t h e b e s t of b o t h w o r l d s .
B u t t h i s , of c o u r s e , in n o w a y m e a n s t h a t w e s h o u l d r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e
s t a n d a r d d e f e n s e of H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e p i s o d e , w h i c h , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
follows y e t a g a i n the borrowed-kettle formula: ( 1 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s never
r e a l l y a N a z i , h e j u s t m a d e s o m e s u p e r f i c i a l c o m p r o m i s e s in o r d e r to s a v e
w h a t e v e r c o u l d h a v e b e e n s a v e d for the autonomy? of t h e u n i v e r s i t y ; w h e n
h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s t a c t i c w o u l d not w o r k , h e c o n s e q u e n t l y
stepped
d o w n a n d w i t h d r e w from p u b l i c life. ( 2 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s , for a l i m i t e d
p e r i o d , a s i n c e r e l y c o m m i t t e d N a z i ; h o w e v e r , not o n l y d i d he w i t h d r a w
117
UN utI-tlNbt Of
LOST CAUSES
o n c e h e b e c o m e a w a r e of h i s b l u n d e r , b u t t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h N a z i
p o w e r p r e c i s e l y e n a b l e d h i m to g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n i h i l i s m of
modern
t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e d e p l o y m e n t of t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l
p o w e r . ( 3 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s a N a z i , a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g to
will-toreproach
h i m w i t h for t h i s c h o i c e : in t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , it w a s a p e r f e c t l y l e g i t i m a t e
a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e c h o i c e . T h i s final p o s i t i o n i s E r n s t N o l t e ' s , a n d it is
w o r t h r e c a l l i n g h e r e h i s b o o k on H e i d e g g e r , w h i c h b r o u g h t fresh w i n d to
t h e s a i l s of t h e e n d l e s s d e b a t e on " H e i d e g g e r a n d p o l i t i c s " — f a r from
e x c u s i n g H e i d e g g e r ' s i n f a m o u s p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e i n 1 9 3 3 , it j u s t i f i e s it, or,
at l e a s t , d e - d e m o n i z e s it, r e n d e r i n g it a v i a b l e a n d m e a n i n g f u l c h o i c e .
Against the
standard defenders
of H e i d e g g e r w h o s e m a n t r a i s t h a t
H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t w a s a p e r s o n a l m i s t a k e of no f u n d a m e n t a l
c o n s e q u e n c e for h i s t h o u g h t , N o l t e a c c e p t s t h e b a s i c c l a i m of H e i d e g g e r ' s
c r i t i c s t h a t h i s N a z i c h o i c e is i n s c r i b e d i n t o h i s t h o u g h t — b u t w i t h a t w i s t :
I n s t e a d of p r o b l e m a t i z i n g h i s t h o u g h t , N o l t e j u s t i f i e s h i s p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e
as a justifiable option
In t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s a n d e a r l y
1930s, g i v e n the
e c o n o m i c c h a o s a n d t h e t h r e a t of C o m m u n i s m :
Insofar a s H e i d e g g e r resisted the a t t e m p t at the [ C o m m u n i s t ] solution,
he, like countless others, w a s historically right . . .
h i m s e l f to t h e
In
committing
[National Socialist] solution p e r h a p s he became
" f a s c i s t . " B u t In n o w a y d i d t h a t m a k e h i m h i s t o r i c a l l y w r o n g
1
a
from
29
the outset.
A n d h e r e i s M a r k W r a t h a l l ' s m o d e l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n :
H e i d e g g e r ' s w o r k after t h e w a r d i d g o s o m e w a y t o w a r d s o v e r c o m i n g
t h e p o l i t i c a l n a i v e t e t h a t l e d to h i s d i s a s t r o u s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N a ­
t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m . H e d i d t h i s b y , first, g e t t i n g m u c h c l e a r e r t h a n h e h a d
b e e n a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s of t h e m o d e r n w o r l d — t h e d a n g e r s w h i c h l e d
h i m to t h i n k w e n e e d a n e w w o r l d d i s c l o s u r e . O n c e h e w a s a b l e to
a r t i c u l a t e t h e d a n g e r of m o d e r n i t y i n t e r m s of t e c h n o l o g y , it b e c a m e
clear that National Socialism w a s just another modern technological
m o v e m e n t ( e v e n if it e m p l o y e d t e c h n o l o g y for r e a c t i o n a r y g o a l s ) .
T h i s p a s s a g e t e l l s m u c h m o r e t h a n m a y a p p e a r at first g l a n c e ^—the k e y
w o r d s in it a r e t h e i n n o c u o u s " j u s t a n o t h e r " : i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e
not " e v e n t h e b e s t of p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t s , t h e m o s t r a d i c a l a t t e m p t t o o p p o s e
n i h i l i s m , r e m a i n e d j u s t a n o t h e r n i h i l i s t i c m o v e m e n t c a u g h t in t e c h n o l 118
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
ogy'"- T h e r e is n o h o r r o r of N a z i s m h e r e , N a z i s m is " j u s t a n o t h e r " i n t h e
s e r i e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e is o n t o l o g i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t ( w h i c h is w h y , for
H e i d e g g e r , t h e A l l i e d v i c t o r y i n W o r l d W a r II r e a l l y d e c i d e d n o t h i n g ) .
H e r e H e i d e g g e r ' s r e f e r e n c e to H ö l d e r l i n ' s f a m o u s l i n e s e n t e r s : " w h e r e
the d a n g e r i s r i s i n g , t h a t w h i c h c a n s a v e u s — C ' A / Rettende — also g r o w s
."—in order
to o v e r c o m e
t h e d a n g e r , o n e h a s to p u s h
it to t h e
e x t r e m e — i n s h o r t , i n o r d e r to a r r i v e a t t h e o n t o l o g i c a l t r u t h , H e i d e g g e r
h a d to e r r o n t i c a l l y . S o w h e n W r a t h a l l w r i t e s a p r o p o s H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i
e n g a g e m e n t : "It i s d i s c o n c e r t i n g , to s a y t h e l e a s t , t h a t H e i d e g g e r , w h o
p u r p o r t e d to h a v e a u n i q u e i n s i g h t into t h e m o v e m e n t of w o r l d h i s t o r y ,
p r o v e d t o b e s o t e r r i b l y b l i n d to t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e e v e n t s t h a t p l a y e d
out before h i s e y e s " ^ * — a H e i d e g g e r i a n c o u l d e a s i l y t u r n t h i s a r g u m e n t
a r o u n d : t h e " o n t i c " b l i n d n e s s t o t h e t r u t h ol t h e N a z i r e g i m e w a s a
p o s i t i v e c o n d i t i o n of h i s " o n t o l o g i c a l " i n s i g h t . H o w e v e r , w h e n d e f e n d e r s
of H e i d e g g e r c l a i m t h a t h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e N a z i e x e r c i s e of p o w e r
p r e c i s e l y e n a b l e d h i m t o g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n i h i l i s m of m o d e r n
t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e d e p l o y m e n t of t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l w i l l - t o - p o w e r , d o e s
t h i s l i n e of d e f e n s e n o t s o u n d a little bit l i k e t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e p r o v e r b i a l
p r o s t i t u t e - t u r n e d - p r e a c h e r w h o , after h e r c o n v e r s i o n , f e r o c i o u s l y a t t a c k s
c a r n a l s i n s , c l a i m i n g t h a t s h e k n o w s from
her own experience how
destructive they are? Steve Fuller writes:
I r o n i c a l l y , H e i d e g g e r ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l s t a t u r e m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n helped
b y t h e t i m e - h o n o r e d p r a c t i c e of " l e a r n i n g from t h e o p p o n e n t " in w h i c h
v i c t o r s i n d u l g e after
a w a r . In t h i s r e s p e c t ,
Heidegger's political
" g e n i u s " m a y lie in h a v i n g stuck with the N a z i s long enough
for
t h e A m e r i c a n s to d i s c o v e r h i m d u r i n g d e - N a z i f i c a t i o n w i t h o u t e n d i n g
u p b e i n g j u d g e d a n u n t o u c h a b l e w a r c r i m i n a l w h o s e w o r k s h a d to b e
banned.
As committed
anti-Nazis
ensconced
in A l l i e d
countries,
Heidegger's existentialist rivals never underwent such intense scrutiny
n o r s u b s e q u e n t l y a c q u i r e d s u c h a m y s t i q u e for d e p t h a n d d a n g e r . ^ ^
T h e r e i s t r u t h i n t h e s e l i n e s , b u t it is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n H e i d e g g e r ' s m e r e
l u c k i n s t r i k i n g t h e r i g h t b a l a n c e in t h e d e p t h of h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t : t h e
difficult t r u t h t o a d m i t i s t h a t H e i d e g g e r is " g r e a t " not in spite of, but because
of\\\s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , t h a t t h i s c o m m i t m e n t i s a k e y c o n s t i t u e n t of h i s
g r e a t n e s s . " Imagine a H e i d e g g e r without this passage, or a H e i d e g g e r
w h o , after W o r l d W a r II, h a d d o n e w h a t m a n y c o l l e a g u e s e x p e c t e d of
h i m : n a m e l y , p u b l i c l y r e n o u n c e h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t a n d a p o l o g i z e for
I 19
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
it^—would t h i s not s o m e h o w h a v e o c c l u d e d t h e r a d i c a l i t y of h i s i n s i g h t ?
W o u l d it not h a v e c o n s t r a i n e d h i m to h u m a n i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n s
w h i c h h e so b i t t e r l y d e s p i s e d ? M i g u e l d e B e i s t e g u i m a k e s a p e r s p i c u o u s
o b s e r v a t i o n on t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i g u i t y of F l e i d e g g e r ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t
w i t h N a z i s m : it w a s h i s " r e s i g n a t i o n a n d h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h w h a t ,
u n t i l t h e e n d of h i s life, a n d w i t h a t o u c h of r e g r e t a t not h a v i n g s e e n it
d e v e l o p i t s p o t e n t i a l , h e r e f e r r e d to a s 'the m o v e m e n t ' . " "
Is, h o w e v e r ,
t h i s not t h e r e a s o n w h y H e i d e g g e r ' s l a t e r w i t h d r a w a l from
political
c o m m i t m e n t a l s o c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d o n l y in t h e t e r m s of h i s i n s i g h t
into t h e n i h i l i s m of c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s ? D e B e i s t e g u i c o n c l u d e s h i s
book with the statement that H e i d e g g e r
w i l l n o t b e c a u g h t o u t i n [ a belief i n t h e r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r of p o l i t i c a l
e n g a g e m e n t ] t w i c e : h a v i n g b u r n e d h i s f i n g e r s in p o l i t i c s , a n d lost h i s
i l l u s i o n s in t h e f a i l u r e of N a z i s m to c a r r y o u t a p r o j e c t of o n t o - d e s t i n a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e , h i s h o p e s w i l l t u r n to t h e h i d d e n r e s o u r c e s of t h o u g h t , a r t
a n d poetr3^ a l l d e e m e d to c a r r y a h i s t o r i c a l a n d d e s t i n a i p o w e r far
g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of politics.'''*
B u t I S H e i d e g g e r ' s r e f u s a l to b e c a u g h t t w i c e in t h e a c t of p o l i t i c a l
e n g a g e m e n t a n d t h u s b u r n i n g h i s frngers a g a i n not a n e g a t i v e m o d e of h i s
c o n t i n u i n g m e l a n c h o l i c a t t a c h m e n t to t h e N a z i " m o v e m e n t " ?
(His re­
fusal to e n g a g e a g a i n in p o l i t i c s w a s t h u s s i m i l a r to a d i s a p p o i n t e d l o v e r
w h o , after t h e f a i l u r e of h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , r e j e c t s l o v e a s s u c h a n d a v o i d s all
f u r t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e r e b y c o n f i r m i n g in a n e g a t i v e w a y h i s l a s t i n g
a t t a c h m e n t to t h e f a i l e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . ) Is the p r e m i s e of t h i s r e f u s a l not
that, to t h e e n d of h i s life, N a z i s m r e m a i n e d for H e i d e g g e r t h e o n l y
p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t w h i c h at l e a s t t r i e d to a d d r e s s t h e r i g h t p r o b l e m , so
t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of N a z i s m i s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e p o l i t i c a l a s s u c h ? It n e v e r
e n t e r e d H e i d e g g e r ' s m i n d to p r o p o s e — s a y , in a l i b e r a l m o d e — t h a t t h e
f a i l u r e of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t w a s m e r e l y t h e farlure of a c e r t a i n k i n d of
e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h c o n f e r r e d on t h e p o l i t i c a l t h e t a s k of c a r r y i n g o u t " a
p r o j e c t of o n t o - d e s t i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , " so t h a t t h e l e s s o n to d r a w w a s
s i m p l y a m o r e modest p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t . In o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t if o n e
c o n c l u d e s from t h e f a i l u r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w h a t
o n e s h o u l d r e n o u n c e Is t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w i l l
h a v e d e s t i n a i o n t o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e in
" m e r e l y o n t i c " p o l i t i c s w h i c h , far from o b f u s c a t i n g t h e n e e d for a d e e p e r
o n t o l o g i c a l reflection, p r e c i s e l y o p e n u p a s p a c e for i t ? W h a t if e v e n t h e
120
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
v e r y last H e i d e g g e r , w h e n
he expressed
h i s d o u b t s a s to
whether
d e m o c r a c y w a s t h e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r w h i c h b e s t fitted t h e e s s e n c e of m o d e r n
t e c h n o l o g y , h a d still not l e a r n t t h e u l t i m a t e l e s s o n of h i s N a z i p e r i o d ,
s i n c e h e c o n t i n u e d to c l i n g to t h e h o p e of f i n d i n g a n ( o n t i c ) p o l i t i c a l
e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d fit ( b e a t t h e l e v e l of) t h e o n t o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t of
m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y ? ( O u r p r e m i s e , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e l i b e r a l e n g a g e ­
m e n t i s not t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e : H e i d e g g e r w a s r i g h t in h i s d o u b t a b o u t
liberal d e m o c r a c y ; w h a t he refused
to c o n s i d e r w a s a r a d i c a l leftist
engagement.)
T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n H e i d e g g e r a n d
H a n n a h A r e n d t : w h a t is at s t a k e in the difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
H e i d e g g e r a n d A r e n d t is H e i d e g g e r ' s m u c h - d e c r i e d a v e r s i o n to l i b e r a l ­
ism
and
(liberal)
democracy,
which
he
continuously,
to h i s
death,
r e j e c t e d a s " i n a u t h e n t i c , " not t h e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i a i s o n s .
A r e n d t w a s not o n l y o p p o s e d to H e i d e g g e r a l o n g t h e d o u b l e a x i s of
woman versus man and a "worldly" J e w versus a "provincial" German,
she w a s ( w h i c h i s m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t ) the firjt liberal Heideggerian, t h e
first to t r y to r e u n i t e H e i d e g g e r ' s i n s i g h t s w i t h t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c
u n i v e r s e . In a c l o s e r r e a d i n g , of c o u r s e , it is e a s y to d i s c e r n w h a t e n a b l e d
A r e n d t to s u p p o r t l i b e r a l i s m w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g h e r b a s i c
fidelity
to
Heidegger's insights: her anti-bourgeois stance, her critical dismissal
of p o l i t i c s a s " i n t e r e s t - g r o u p " p o l i t i c s , a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e c o m p e ­
titive a n d a c q u i s i t i v e s o c i e t y of t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . S h e s h a r e d t h e g r e a t
c o n s e r v a t i v e s ' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e l a c k of h e r o i s m a n d t h e p r a g m a t i c u t i l i t a r i a n o r i e n t a t i o n of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y :
S i m p l y to b r a n d a s o u t b u r s t s of n i h i l i s m t h i s v i o l e n t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h t h e p r e w a r a g e a n d s u b s e q u e n t a t t e m p t s a t r e s t o r i n g it
(from
N i e t z s c h e to S o r e l to P a r e t o , from R i m b a u d a n d T.E. L a w r e n c e to
Juenger,
Brecht
and
Malraux,
from
Bakunin
and
Nechayev
to
A l e k s a n d e r B l o k ) is to o v e r l o o k h o w j u s t i f i e d d i s g u s t c a n b e in a
society wholly permeated
w i t h the ideological outlook a n d
moral
s t a n d a r d s of t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . ^ ^
The opposition
A r e n d t m o b i l i z e s h e r e is t h e o n e b e t w e e n citoyen a n d
hoiirgeou: t h e first l i v e s in t h e p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e of p u b l i c e n g a g e m e n t for t h e
c o m m o n g o o d , of t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p u b l i c affairs, w h i l e t h e s e c o n d i s
t h e e g o t i s t i c u t i l i t a r i a n fully i m m e r s e d in the p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d
w h o r e d u c e s a l l o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s of life to t h e i r r o l e in e n a b l i n g t h e
121
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
s m o o t h r u n n i n g of t h i s p r o c e s s . In A r i s t o t e l i a n t e r m s , t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s
t h a t b e t w e e n prax'ui a n d pole,iLi, b e t w e e n t h e " h i g h " e x e r c i s e of v i r t u e s in
p u b l i c life, a n d t h e " l o w " i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of l a b o r — t h e o p p o s i t i o n w h o s e
e c h o e s r e v e r b e r a t e not o n l y in H a b e r m a s ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
commu­
n i c a t i v e a c t i o n a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , b u t e v e n in B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of
t h e E v e n t ( a n d in h i s c o n c o m i t a n t d e n i a l t h a t a n E v e n t c a n t a k e p l a c e in
t h e d o m a i n of p r o d u c t i o n ) . R e c a l l h o w A r e n d t d e s c r i b e s , in B a d i o u i a n
t e r m s , t h e s u s p e n s i o n of t e m p o r a l i t y a s t h e d e f i n i n g o n t o l o g i c a l c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c of o n t i c p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n : a c t i n g , a s m a n ' s c a p a c i t y to b e g i n
s o m e t h i n g n e w , "out of n o t h i n g , " not r e d u c i b l e to a c a l c u l a t e d s t r a t e g i c
r e a c t i o n to a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , t a k e s p l a c e in t h e n o n - t e m p o r a l gap b e t w e e n
p a s t a n d future, in t h e h i a t u s b e t w e e n t h e e n d of t h e old o r d e r a n d the
b e g i n n i n g of t h e
revolution.
n e w w h i c h in h i s t o r y i s p r e c i s e l y t h e
moment
S u c h a n o p p o s i t i o n , of c o u r s e , r a i s e s a f u n d a m e n t a l
tion formulated b y R o b e r t
of
ques­
Pippin:
h o w c a n A r e n d t s e p a r a t e o u t w h a t s h e a d m i r e s in b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e —
its c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , its a s s e r t i o n of f u n d a m e n t a l
human
r i g h t s , its
e q u a l i t y b e f o r e t h e l a w , i t s i n s i s t e n c e on a p r i v a t e z o n e in h u m a n life,
e x e m p t from t h e p o l i t i c a l , its r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e — a n d c o n d e m n w h a t
s h e d i s a g r e e s w i t h — i t s s e c u l a r i s m , its c y n i c a l a s s u m p t i o n
of
the
p e r v a s i v e n e s s of s e l f - i n t e r e s t , the p e r v e r t i n g i n f l u e n c e of m o n e y on
h u m a n v a l u e s , its d e p o l i t i c i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s , a n d t h e m e n a c e it p o s e s for
t r a d i t i o n a n d a s e n s e of p l a c e ?
In o t h e r w o r d s , a r e t h e s e not t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n ?
No
w o n d e r t h e n , t h a t , w h e n A r e n d t is p r e s s e d to p r o v i d e t h e o u t l i n e of t h e
a u t h e n t i c " c a r e of t h e w o r l d " a s a p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e t h a t w o u l d n o t b e
c o n t a m i n a t e d b y u t i l i t a r i a n p r a g m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of Interests, a l l s h e c a n
e v o k e a r e f o r m s of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n In r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n s , from t h e
e a r l y A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n of t o w n - h a l l m e e t i n g s of a l l c i t i z e n s to r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y c o u n c i l s in t h e G e r m a n r e v o l u t i o n . N o t t h a t s h e i s not p o l i t i c a l l y
justified
In
evoking these
examples—the
problem
is that t h e y
are
"utopian," that t h e y cannot be reconciled w i t h the liberal-democratic
p o l i t i c a l o r d e r to w h i c h s h e r e m a i n s faithful. In o t h e r w o r d s , is A r e n d t
w i t h r e g a r d to l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y n o t t h e v i c t i m of t h e s a m e i l l u s i o n a s t h e
democratic Communists w h o , within the "really-existing socialism," w e r e
fighting
for i t s t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c i n s t a n t i a t i o n ? A r e n d t i s a l s o r i g h t w h e n
(implicitly a g a i n s t H e i d e g g e r ) she points out that fascism, although a
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RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
r e a c t i o n to b o u r g e o i s b a n a l i t y , r e m a i n s its i n h e r e n t n e g a t i o n , t h a t i s ,
r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y : t h e t r u e p r o b l e m
of
N a z i s m i s not t h a t it " w e n t too f a r " in its s u b j e c t i v i s t - n i h i l i s t h u b r i s of
e x e r t i n g total p o w e r , b u t t h a t it did not go far enough, n a m e l y , t h a t i t s
v i o l e n c e w a s a n i m p o t e n t a c t i n g - o u t w h i c h , u l t i m a t e l y , r e m a i n e d in t h e
s e r v i c e of t h e v e r y o r d e r it d e s p i s e d . ( H o w e v e r , H e i d e g g e r w o u l d a l s o
h a v e b e e n r i g h t in r e j e c t i n g A r e n d t ' s A r i s t o t e l i a n p o l i t i c s a s not r a d i c a l
e n o u g h to b r e a k o u t of t h e n i h i l i s t s p a c e of E u r o p e a n
modernity.)
A r e n d t w o u l d t h u s h a v e b e e n j u s t i f i e d in c o u n t e r i n g P i p p i n ' s a l l - t o o e a s y v e r s i o n of a c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l H e g e l i a n i s m ; h i s b a s i c c l a i m i s
t h a t w h i l e , of c o u r s e , from
t o d a y ' s perspective, H e g e l ' s notion
of a
r a t i o n a l s t a t e n o l o n g e r w o r k s , its l i m i t a t i o n s a r e e v i d e n t , a n d t h e s e v e r y
l i m i t a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d in a H e g e l i a n w a y :
In s o m e f a i r l y o b v i o u s s e n s e a n d in t h e h i s t o r i c a l t e r m s h e w o u l d h a v e
to a c c e p t a s r e l e v a n t to h i s o w n p h i l o s o p h y , h e w a s w r o n g . N o n e of
these institutional realizations n o w looks a s stable, a s rational, or even
a s r e s p o n s i v e to t h e c l a i m s of free s u b j e c t s a s H e g e l h a s c l a i m e d , e v e n
t h o u g h s u c h c r i t i c i s m s a r e often t h e m s e l v e s m a d e in t h e n a m e of s u c h
f r e e d o m . B u t t h e n a t u r e of t h a t w r o n g i s , I a m a r g u i n g , a l s o H e g e l i a n , a
m a t t e r of b e i n g i n c o m p l e t e , not w h o l l y w r o n g - h e a d e d .
In short, it i s a m a t t e r of a n Aufhebung, of t h e i m m a n e n t s e l f - c r i t i q u e a n d
s e l f - o v e r c o m i n g , of t h e s e s o l u t i o n s , not of t h e i r o u t r i g h t r e j e c t i o n . . .
H o w e v e r , w h a t c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e t h e e y e is t h e " f o r m a l i s t " c h a r a c t e r of
P i p p i n ' s f o r m u l a : h e d o e s not p r o v i d e a n y c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e s t h a t w o u l d
r e n d e r it o p e r a t i v e . T h e q u e s t i o n i s , of c o u r s e , h o w far d o w e h a v e to g o in
t h i s Aufhebung if w e a r e to b r i n g H e g e l ' s p r o j e c t of a r a t i o n a l s t a t e of
f r e e d o m u p to t o d a y ' s c o n d i t i o n s — h o w " d e e p l y " is i r r a t i o n a l i t y i n s c r i b e d
i n t o t o d a y ' s b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y so t h a t its c r i t i q u e c a n still b e f o r m u l a t e d a s
a d e f e n s e of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y ? D o w e h a v e to s t a y w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m o r
risk a move b e y o n d it? These, however, a r e not H e i d e g g e r ' s concerns: his
f u n d a m e n t a l m o v e a p r o p o s o u r c r i t i c a l h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t i s to e m p h a s i z e
t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a m e n e s s of t h e
(ideological, political, economic . . .)
c h o i c e s w e confront:
from t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e i r o n t o - h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n , t h e r e i s no real or
fundarruntal
difference b e t w e e n the Christian doctrine and Bolshevism,
b e t w e e n t h e b i o l o g i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m of N a z i s m a n d t h e forces of
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IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
c a p i t a l ( w h i c h , t o d a y , h a v e p e r m e a t e d a l l s p h e r e s of life), a n d b e t w e e n
vitalism a n d spiritualism. This, I believe, is at once the strength, and
t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y w e a k n e s s a n d l i m i t a t i o n of f i e i d e g g e r ' s p o s i t i o n . F o r
on t h e o n e h a n d it a l l o w s u s to e s t a b l i s h c o n t i n u i t i e s a n d c o m p l i c i t i e s
w h e r e w e t h o u g h t t h e r e w e r e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s , a n d to shift t h e w e i g h t
of d i f f e r e n c e to a different t e r r a i n ( t h a t of t h e " m e a n i n g " o r t h e " t r u t h "
of b e i n g ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h o u g h , b y r e v e a l i n g s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s a s
pseudo-differences, he also neutralizes the decisions a n d choices they
often c a l l for, t h e r e b y e r a s i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s p a c e of p o l i t i c s a n d
ethics.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , d e B e l s t e g u l ' s s o l u t i o n to t h i s d e a d l o c k r e m a i n s a l l too
commonsensical — a balanced approach
w h i c h t a k e s into account
the
l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d s of b o t h l e v e l s :
w h a t e v e r o u r c o m m i t m e n t s to t h e d e c o n s t r u c t l o n of m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d
to t h e s t r u g g l e for n e w p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n b e y o n d it, or
p e r h a p s on its m a r g i n s , w e c o n t i n u e to live w i t h i n t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l ,
t e c h n i c a l f r a m e w o r k , a n d so m u s t r e m a i n c o m m i t t e d to t a k i n g ser­
iously, a n d discriminating between, the m a n y differences, choices and
situations w e are faced w i t h at the historical, political, religious and
a r t i s t i c l e v e l . [. . . ] T h e free r e l a t i o n to t e c h n o l o g y H e i d e g g e r a d v o ­
c a t e s m a y , after a l l , a l s o I n v o l v e a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In
m e t a p h y s l c a l p r o c e s s e s , a n d not j u s t a m e d i t a t i o n
intra-
of its e s s e n c e .
F o r w i t h i n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t m a t t e r , a n d to w h i c h
w e c a n n o t — a n d m u s t not — r e m a i n b l i n d . W i t h o n e c r i t i c a l e y e , a n d
t h e o t h e r d e c o n s t r u c t i v e , w e m a y b e b e t t e r e q u i p p e d to n a v i g a t e t h e
often t r e a c h e r o u s w a t e r s of o u r t i m e .
B u t w h a t If t h e r e Is a f u n d a m e n t a l d i s c o r d a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l
a n d t h e o n t i c , so that, a s H e i d e g g e r p u t It, t h o s e w h o r e a c h o n t o l o g i c a l
t r u t h h a v e to e r r In t h e o n t i c ? W h a t If, If w e a r e to s e e w i t h the o n t o l o g i c a l
e y e , o u r o n t i c e y e h a s to b e b l i n d e d ?
Ontological difference
When
H e i d e g g e r s p e a k s of t h e u n t r u t h - c o n c e a l e d n e s s - w i t h d r a w a l
as
i n h e r e n t to t h e t r u t h - e v e n t itself, h e h a s in m i n d t w o different l e v e l s :
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RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
1. O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e w a y a m a n , w h e n e n g a g e d in i n n e r - w o r l d l y
affairs, f o r g e t s t h e h o r i z o n of m e a n i n g w i t h i n w h i c h h e d w e l l s , a n d
e v e n f o r g e t s t h i s f o r g e t t i n g itself ( e x e m p l a r y is h e r e t h e " r e g r e s ­
s i o n " of G r e e k t h o u g h t t h a t o c c u r s w i t h t h e r i s e of S o p h i s t s : w h a t
w a s t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n of o u r B e i n g t u r n s
i n t o a t r i f l i n g p l a y w i t h different l i n e s of a r g u m e n t a t i o n w i t h n o
i n h e r e n t r e l a t i o n to T r u t h ) .
2. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e w a y t h i s h o r i z o n of m e a n i n g itself, insofar a s
it i s a n e p o c h a l E v e n t , a r i s e s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of—and
t h e r e b y c o n c e a l s — t h e i m p o n d e r a b l e M y s t e r y of i t s e m e r g e n c e ,
in t h e s a m e w a y a c l e a r i n g in t h e m i d s t of a forest i s s u r r o u n d e d
b y t h e d a r k t h i c k n e s s of t h e w o o d s .
T h e s a m e a m b i g u i t y r e p e a t s i t s e l f w i t h r e g a r d to t h e e a r t h a s t h a t w h i c h
resists, r e m a i n s forever obscure a n d unfathomable:
"There a l w a y s is
something resisting a n d supporting our practices, and that something is
very real."
S o , on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e e a r t h d e s i g n a t e s w h a t r e s i s t s t h e
m e a n i n g f u l t o t a l i t y of a h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d :
A s a w o r l d s t r i v e s to g r o w b a c k i n t o t h e e a r t h , it e n c o u n t e r s r e s i s t a n c e .
In t h e p r o c e s s , t h e e a r t h a p p e a r s i n a d e t e r m i n a t e w a y i n t e r m s of t h e
r e s i s t a n c e t h a t t h e w o r l d e n c o u n t e r s . In b u i l d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a l , w e
d i s c o v e r p a r t i c u l a r w a y s in w h i c h o u r p r a c t i c e s a r e l i m i t e d a n d
constrained.
[. . . ] O u r w o r l d s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o u r m e a n i n g f u l
r e l a t i o n s t o t h i n g s , a r e a l w a y s b a s e d in s o m e t h i n g
explained
that can't be
in t e r m s of t h e p r e v a i l i n g i n t e l l i g i b l e s t r u c t u r e
of t h e
world.^^
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h o w e v e r , w h a t i s m o s t i m p e n e t r a b l e i s the basic
structure of the worl2 itself. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n w e a r g u e t h a t t h e m o d e r ­
n i z a t i o n of J a p a n w a s d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e it b r o u g h t a b o u t a h i g h e r g r o s s
domestic product
fundamental
a n d p e r capita income, one should raise the more
question:
B u t w h y o n e s h o u l d h a v e j u s t t h o s e p r e f e r e n c e s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t is a t
i s s u e — i f o n e w o u l d p r e f e r t h e p a c e a n d s t y l e of p r e m o d e r n J a p a n e s e
life to a n i n c r e a s e of p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t J a p a n
s h o u l d m o d e r n i z e i n o r d e r to i n c r e a s e a v e r a g e i n c o m e w i l l n o t b e
p e r s u a s i v e . [. . . ] S o it s e e m s t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e d r i v e to e s t a b l i s h
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IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
a n e w w o r l d a n d d e s t r o y t h e old d e p e n d s on s o m e t h i n g w i t h d r a w i n g
from v i e w — t h a t is b e c o m i n g so s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t it i s n o l o n g e r o p e n to
q u e s t i o n : n a m e l y , t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of t h e n e w w o r l d itself. T h i s d e s i r a b i l i t y is a n e a r t h l y t h i n g : it w i t h d r a w s a n d s h e l t e r s the w o r l d it
s u p p o r t s . [. . . ] O u r w o r l d i s s u p p o r t e d b y o u r m o s t b a s i c p r e f e r e n c e s — a t a s t e for e f f i c i e n c y a n d
flexibility—having
largely withdrawn
from view."*^
T h e e a r t h i s t h u s e i t h e r t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e a b y s s of t h e o n t i c w h i c h
w i t h d r a w s from o n t o l o g i c a l d i s c l o s u r e , or t h e h o r i z o n of t h i s d i s c l o s u r e
itself, i n v i s i b l e on a c c o u n t of its e x c e s s i v e s e l f - e v i d e n c e — w e d o not s e e it
a s s u c h b e c a u s e it i s t h e v e r y m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h w e s e e e v e r y t h i n g .
O n e s h o u l d m a k e t h e p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n m o v e of i d e n t i f y i n g t h e t w o
l e v e l s : t h e B e y o n d a n d t h e o b s t a c l e - s c r e e n t h a t d i s t o r t s o u r a c c e s s to
B e y o n d . S o t h i s is not s i m p l y H e i d e g g e r ' s m i s t a k e o r c o n f u s i o n (to be
r e s o l v e d o r c o r r e c t e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g a f u r t h e r n o t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n : one
t e r m for t h e e a r t h a s t h e d a r k n e s s of w h a t r e s i s t s d i s c l o s u r e , a n o t h e r for
t h e i n v i s i b i l i t y of t h e v e r y h o r i z o n of d i s c l o s u r e ) . T h e o s c i l l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e t w o l e v e l s is w h a t d e f i n e s t h e e a r t h .
W h a t t h i s a l s o m e a n s i s t h a t o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e i s not " m a x i m a l , "
b e t w e e n all b e i n g s , the highest g e n u s , a n d something else/more/beyond,
b u t , r a t h e r , " m i n i m a l , " t h e b a r e m i n i m u m of a d i f f e r e n c e not b e t w e e n
b e i n g s b u t b e t w e e n t h e m i n i m u m of a n e n t i t y a n d t h e v o i d , n o t h i n g .
I n s o f a r a s it i s g r o u n d e d in t h e finitude of h u m a n s , o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e
is t h a t w h i c h m a k e s a t o t a l i z a t i o n of " A l l b e i n g s " i m p o s s i b l e — o n t o l o g i c a l
d i f f e r e n c e m e a n s t h a t t h e field of r e a l i t y i s finite. O n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e
is, in t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e , " r e a l / i m p o s s i b l e " : to c i t e E r n e s t o L a c l a u ' s
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n t a g o n i s m , in it, external difference overlap/) with internal
difference. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n b e i n g s a n d t h e i r B e i n g i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s ; t h a t i s to s a y , t h e difference
between
beings/entities and
their
Opening,
their
horizon
of
m e a n i n g , a l w a y s a l s o c u t s i n t o the field of b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s , r e n d e r i n g
it i n c o m p l e t e / f i n i t e . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e p a r a d o x : the difference between
beings in their totality and their Being precùely "niLises the difference"and reduces
Being to another "higher"entity. T h e p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n K a n t ' s a n t i n o m i e s a n d
H e i d e g g e r ' s o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e r e s i d e s in t h e fact that, in b o t h c a s e s ,
t h e g a p ( p h e n o m e n a l / n o u m e n a l ; o n t i c / o n t o l o g i c a l ) i s to b e r e f e r r e d to t h e
n o n - A l l of t h e phenomenal—ontic d o m a i n itself. H o w e v e r , t h e l i m i t a t i o n
of K a n t w a s t h a t h e w a s not a b l e to fully a s s u m e t h i s p a r a d o x of
126
finitude
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
a s c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e o n t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n : u l t i m a t e l y , h e r e d u c e d t r a n s ­
c e n d e n t a l h o r i z o n to a w a y r e a l i t y a p p e a r s to a finite b e i n g ( m a n ) , w i t h a l l
of it l o c a t e d i n t o a w i d e r e n c o m p a s s i n g r e a l m of n o u m e n a l r e a l i t y .
H e r e there is a clear link w i t h the L a c a n i a n Real w h i c h , at its most
r a d i c a l l e v e l , i s t h e d i s a v o w e d X o n a c c o u n t of w h i c h o u r v i s i o n of r e a l i t y
is a n a m o r p h i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d : it i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e T h i n g to w h i c h d i r e c t
a c c e s s i s not p o s s i b l e and t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h i s d i r e c t a c c e s s ,
t h e T h i n g w h i c h e l u d e s o u r g r a s p and t h e d i s t o r t i n g s c r e e n w h i c h m a k e s
u s m i s s t h e T h i n g . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e R e a l is u l t i m a t e l y t h e v e r y shift of
p e r s p e c t i v e from
t h e first to t h e s e c o n d s t a n d p o i n t .
Recall the well-
k n o w n A d o r n i a n a n a l y s i s of t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e notion of
s o c i e t y : i n a first a p p r o a c h , t h e split b e t w e e n t h e t w o n o t i o n s of s o c i e t y
(the A n g l o - S a x o n individualistic-nominalistic version a n d the D u r k h e i m i a n o r g a n i c i s t n o t i o n of s o c i e t y a s a t o t a l i t y w h i c h p r e e x i s t s i n d i v i d u a l s )
s e e m s i r r e d u c i b l e ; w e s e e m to b e d e a l i n g w i t h a t r u e K a n t i a n a n t i n o m y
which cannot be resolved via a higher "dialectical synthesis," a n d w h i c h
e l e v a t e s s o c i e t y i n t o a n i n a c c e s s i b l e T h i n g - i n - i t s e l f H o w e v e r , in a s e c o n d
approach,
o n e s h o u l d m e r e l y t a k e n o t e of h o w t h i s r a d i c a l a n t i n o m y
w h i c h s e e m s to p r e c l u d e o u r a c c e s s to t h e T h i n g already Li the thing itself—
t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e of t o d a y ' s s o c i e t y it t h e i r r é c o n c i l i a b l e a n t a g o n ­
ism
between
Totality and the individual. W h a t
t h i s m e a n s is that,
u l t i m a t e l y , t h e s t a t u s of t h e R e a l is p u r e l y p a r a l l a c t i c a n d , a s s u c h ,
n o n - s u b s t a n t i a l : it h a s n o s u b s t a n t i a l d e n s i t y in itself, it i s j u s t a g a p
b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s of p e r s p e c t i v e , p e r c e p t i b l e o n l y in t h e shift from t h e
o n e to t h e o t h e r . T h e p a r a l l a x R e a l is t h u s o p p o s e d
to t h e s t a n d a r d
( L a c a n i a n ) n o t i o n of t h e R e a l a s t h a t w h i c h " a l w a y s r e t u r n s to its p l a c e , "
namely, a s that w h i c h r e m a i n s the same in all possible
(symbolic)
u n i v e r s e s : t h e p a r a l l a x R e a l i s r a t h e r t h a t w h i c h a c c o u n t s for t h e v e r y
multiplicity of a p p e a r a n c e s of t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g R e a l — i t i s n o t t h e h a r d
c o r e w h i c h p e r s i s t s a s t h e S a m e , b u t t h e h a r d b o n e of c o n t e n t i o n w h i c h
p u l v e r i z e s t h e s a m e n e s s i n t o t h e m u l t i t u d e of a p p e a r a n c e s . In a
move, the Real is the impossible h a r d core w h i c h w e cannot
d i r e c t l y , b u t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e l e n s e s of a m u l t i t u d e of s y m b o l i c
first
confront
fictions.
Virtual f o r m a t i o n s . In a s e c o n d m o v e , t h i s v e r y h a r d c o r e i s p u r e l y v i r t u a l ,
actually non-existing, an X w h i c h can be reconstructed
only retroac­
t i v e l y , from t h e m u l t i t u d e of s y m b o l i c f o r m a t i o n s w h i c h a r e " a l l t h a t t h e r e
actually i s . "
It s e e m s t h a t H e i d e g g e r w a s n o t r e a d y to d r a w all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
from t h i s n e c e s s a r y d o u b l e m e a n i n g of " u n c o n c e a l e d n e s s , " w h i c h , to p u t
127
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
it b l u n t l y , w o u l d h a v e c o m p e l l e d h i m to a c c e p t t h a t " o n t o l o g i c a l differ­
e n c e " i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t h i n g b u t a rift in t h e o n t i c o r d e r ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , in t h e
e x a c t p a r a l l e l to B a d i o u ' s k e y a d m i s s i o n t h a t t h e E v e n t i s u l t i m a t e l y
n o t h i n g b u t a t o r s i o n in t h e o r d e r of B e i n g ) . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n of H e i d e g ­
ger's thought
h a s a s e r i e s of p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d e t h l c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s e ­
q u e n c e s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , it l e a d s to H e i d e g g e r ' s n o t i o n
d e s t i n y w h i c h d e l i v e r s different
of h i s t o r i c a l
h o r i z o n s of t h e d i s c l o s u r e of B e i n g ,
d e s t i n y w h i c h c a n n o t a n d s h o u l d not b e in a n y w a y i n f l u e n c e d b y or
d e p e n d e n t on o n t i c o c c u r r e n c e s . E t h i c o - p o l l t i c a l l y , it a c c o u n t s for H e i ­
d e g g e r ' s (not s i m p l y ethical, but p r o p e r l y ontological) indifference
to­
w a r d s t h e H o l o c a u s t , i t s l e v e l i n g t o j u s t a n o t h e r c a s e of t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
d i s p o s a l of life ( i n t h e i n f a m o u s p a s s a g e from t h e c o n f e r e n c e on t e c h ­
n i q u e ) : to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e H o l o c a u s t ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y / e x c e p t i o n a l s t a t u s
w o u l d e q u a l r e c o g n i z i n g in it a t r a u m a t h a t s h a t t e r s t h e v e r y o n t o l o g i c a l
c o o r d i n a t e s of B e i n g . D o e s t h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e m a k e h i m a N a z i ?
Heidegger's smoking gun?
T h e r e a r e t w o of H e i d e g g e r ' s s e m i n a r s w h i c h c l e a r l y d i s t u r b t h e official
p i c t u r e of a H e i d e g g e r w h o o n l y e x t e r n a l l y a c c o m m o d a t e d h i m s e l f to the
N a z i r e g i m e in o r d e r to s a v e w h a t e v e r c o u l d b e s a v e d of t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s
a u t o n o m y : Über Wesen und Begriff von Natur, Geschichte un? Staat (On the
Essence and Notion of Nature, History, and State, W i n t e r 1 9 3 3 - 3 4 , p r o t o c o l
c o n s e r v e d i n t h e D e u t s c h e s L i t e r a t u r a r c h i v , M a r b a c h a m N e c k a r ) ; Hegel,
über den Staat (Hegel, on the State, W i n t e r 1 9 3 4 - 3 5 , p r o t o c o l a l s o c o n s e r v e d
in t h e D L A ) . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e first of t h e t w o i s not i n c l u d e d in t h e
official Gesamtausgabe b y K l o s t e r m a n n V e r l a g — a fact t h a t r e n d e r s p r o ­
b l e m a t i c its d e s i g n a t i o n a s a " c o m p l e t e e d i t i o n . " T h e s e t w o s e m i n a r s a r e
t h e c l o s e s t o n e c a n g e t to t h e p r o v e r b i a l s m o k i n g g u n , s i n c e t h e y e n a c t
p r e c i s e l y w h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e official H e i d e g g e r i a n doxa, d i d not, c o u l d
not, a n d s h o u l d not h a v e t a k e n p l a c e : f u l l - b o d i e d s u p p o r t for N a z i s m
f o r m u l a t e d a n d g r o u n d e d in H e i d e g g e r ' s i n n e r m o s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l
pro­
j e c t . (It i s n o n e t h e l e s s w r o n g for a p h i l o s o p h e r to i n v e s t too m u c h i n t o
finding
s m o k i n g g u n s : t h e y o n l y c o n f i r m w h a t i s a l r e a d y t h e r e in t h e
f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e of a t h o u g h t . ) H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d not l o s e o n e ' s n e r v e
too fast h e r e a n d let o n e s e l f fall i n t o t h e s t a n d a r d l i b e r a l c o n d e m n a t i o n :
H e i d e g g e r ' s failure is not
a s e a s y to l o c a t e a s It m a y a p p e a r .
The
a t m o s p h e r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s in h i s t e x t s a n d c o u r s e s
from t h e 1 9 3 0 s ( t h e e x a m p l e s h e u s e s , e t c . ) i s , a s e x p e c t e d , o m i n o u s —
128
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
suffice it to r e c a l l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p a r a g r a p h w h i c h q u e s t i o n s t h e
b e i n g of a s t a t e : " A s t a t e — it id. In w h a t c o n s i s t s i t s b e i n g ? In t h a t t h e s t a t e
p o l i c e a r r e s t s a s u s p e c t [. . .]?"'^'* T h e v e r y e x a m p l e h e u s e s t o i l l u s t r a t e
w h a t H e g e l m e a n s b y h i s c l a i m a b o u t t h e s p e c u l a t i v e i d e n t i t y of t h e
r a t i o n a l a n d t h e a c t u a l i s , a g a i n , o m i n o u s : " T h e t r e a t y of V e r s a i l l e s is
actual, but not rational."
H e i d e g g e r ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s a d e f e n s e of H e g e l a g a i n s t t h e f a m o u s
p r o c l a m a t i o n b y C a r l S c h m i t t t h a t H e g e l d i e d in 1 9 3 3 , w h e n H i t l e r t o o k
o v e r : "It w a s s a i d t h a t H e g e l d i e d in 1 9 3 3 ; q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y : it w a s o n l y
t h e n t h a t h e first b e g a n to l i v e . "
W h y ? Heidegger endorses Hegel's
t h e s i s o n t h e s t a t e a s t h e h i g h e s t form of s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e : " T h e h i g h e s t
a c t u a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g o c c u r s i n t h e s t a t e . "
H e even directly
"ontologizes" the state, defining the relationship b e t w e e n the people a n d
t h e s t a t e i n t e r m s of o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e : " T h e p e o p l e , t h e e x i s t i n g , h a s
a fully d e t e r m i n e d relationship t o w a r d s its being, t o w a r d s the state."
H o w e v e r , i n w h a t follows, it s o o n b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t H e i d e g g e r o n l y
n e e d s H e g e l i n o r d e r t o a s s e r t t h e e m e r g i n g N a z i "total s t a t e " a g a i n s t t h e
l i b e r a l n o t i o n of t h e s t a t e a s a m e a n s to r e g u l a t e the i n t e r a c t i o n of civil
s o c i e t y ; h e a p p r o v i n g l y r e f e r s to H e g e l ' s d e p l o j m i e n t of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of
t h e " e x t e r n a l " s t a t e , t h e " s t a t e o i n e c e s s i t y , " t h e " s t a t e of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , "
t h e s y s t e m of c i v i l society:'^'' " [ . . . ] w e c a n n o t g r a s p w h a t H e g e l u n d e r ­
s t a n d s a s f r e e d o m , if w e t a k e it a s a n e s s e n t i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a s i n g u l a r
I. [. . . ] F r e e d o m i s o n l y a c t u a l w h e r e t h e r e i s a c o m m u n i t y of T's, of
subjects."'
B u t H e g e l u n d e r s t a n d s b y " f r e e d o m " aLw t h i s : h e i n s i s t s on
t h e " m o d e r n " p r i n c i p l e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s " i n f i n i t e r i g h t . " F o r H e g e l , civil
s o c i e t y is the g r e a t m o d e r n a c h i e v e m e n t , t h e c o n d i t i o n of a c t u a l f r e e d o m ,
t h e " m a t e r i a l b a s i s " of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d h i s p r o b l e m i s p r e c i s e l y
h o w to luiile t h e u n i t y of t h e s t a t e a n d t h e d y n a m i c m e d i a t i o n of c i v i l
s o c i e t y w i t h o u t c u r t a i l i n g t h e r i g h t s of civil s o c i e t y . T h e y o u n g H e g e l ,
e s p e c i a l l y in h i s System der Sittlichkeit, w a s still f a s c i n a t e d b y the G r e e k
polid a s t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y of i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y : h e r e , s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e
d o e s n o t y e t s t a n d o p p o s e d to i n d i v i d u a l s a s a c o l d , a b s t r a c t , o b j e c t i v e
l e g a l i t y i m p o s e d from o u t s i d e , b u t a s t h e l i v i n g u n i t y of " c u s t o m s , " of a
c o l l e c t i v e e t h i c a l life in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a r e " a t h o m e , " r e c o g n i z i n g it a s
t h e i r o w n s u b s t a n c e . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , cold u n i v e r s a l l e g a l i t y i s a
regression
from
t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y of c u s t o m s —the r e g r e s s i o n
from
G r e e c e to t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . A l t h o u g h H e g e l s o o n a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e
s u b j e c t i v e f r e e d o m of m o d e r n i t y h a s t o b e a c c e p t e d , t h a t t h e o r g a n i c
u n i t y of polu is f o r e v e r lost, h e n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t e d o n a n e e d for s o m e
129
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
k i n d of r e t u r n to r e n e w e d o r g a n i c u n i t y , to a nevjpolià t h a t w o u l d offer a s
a c o u n t e r p a r t to i n d i v i d u a l s a d e e p e r s e n s e of s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y a n d o r g a n i c
u n i t y over and above the " m e c h a n i s t i c " interaction a n d individualist
c o m p e t i t i o n of civil s o c i e t y .
Hegel's crucial step t o w a r d s maturity occurs w h e n he really "abandons
t h e p a r a d i g m of t h e poli/'^^ b y w a y of r e c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e r o l e of civil
s o c i e t y . F i r s t , civil s o c i e t y i s for H e g e l the " s t a t e of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , " t h e
s t a t e r e d u c e d to t h e p o l i c e a p p a r a t u s r e g u l a t i n g t h e c h a o t i c i n t e r a c t i o n
of i n d i v i d u a l s e a c h of w h o m p u r s u e s h i s e g o t i s t i c i n t e r e s t s — s u c h
an
i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c - a t o m i s t i c n o t i o n of f r e e d o m a n d t h e n o t i o n of l e g a l o r d e r
a s i m p o s e d on i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e e x t e r n a l l i m i t a t i o n of t h e i r f r e e d o m a r e
s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t i v e . T h e n e e d t h u s a r i s e s to p a s s from t h i s " s t a t e of
U n d e r s t a n d i n g " to t h e t r u e " s t a t e of R e a s o n , " in w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s '
s u b j e c t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e h a r m o n i z e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l W h o l e , in w h i c h
i n d i v i d u a l s recognize the social substance as their own. The crucial step
o c c u r s w h e n H e g e l fully d e v e l o p s t h e m e d i a t i n g r o l e of civil s o c i e t y : the
" s y s t e m of m u l t i l a t e r a l d e p e n d e n c e " w h o s e u l t i m a t e m o d e r n form i s the
market
economy,
separated
the
s y s t e m In w h i c h
particular and
universal
are
a n d o p p o s e d , in w h i c h e v e r y I n d i v i d u a l p u r s u e s o n l y h i s
p r i v a t e g o a l s , in w h i c h o r g a n i c s o c i a l u n i t y d e c o m p o s e s i n t o e x t e r n a l
m e c h a n i c i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i c h i s in i t s e l f a l r e a d y t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of the
p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l in the g u i s e of t h e f a m o u s " i n v i s i b l e h a n d " of
t h e m a r k e t , on a c c o u n t of w h i c h , b y p u r s u i n g p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s a t t h e
e x p e n s e of o t h e r s , e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e w e l f a r e of a l l . It is
t h u s not s i m p l y t h a t o n e h a s to " o v e r c o m e " t h e
mechanical/external
i n t e r a c t i o n of c i v i l s o c i e t y In a h i g h e r o r g a n i c u n i t y : c i v i l s o c i e t y a n d its
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n p l a y a c r u c i a l m e d i a t i n g r o l e , so t h a t t h e t r u e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n
( w h i c h does not abolish m o d e r n subjective freedom) should recognize
how
t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n Is in i t s e l f a l r e a d y Its o p p o s i t e ,
a force
of
i n t e g r a t i o n . R e c o n c i l i a t i o n is t h u s r a d i c a l l y immanent: it i m p l i e s a shift
of p e r s p e c t i v e a s to w h a t first a p p e a r s a s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s ,
i n s o f a r a s c i v i l s o c i e t y i s the s p h e r e of a l i e n a t i o n , of t h e
between
s u b j e c t i v i t y p e r s i s t i n g In Its a b s t r a c t
separation
Individuality and
the
o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r o p p o s i n g it a s a n e x t e r n a l n e c e s s i t y t h a t c u r t a i l s
its f r e e d o m , t h e r e s o u r c e s of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n s h o u l d b e f o u n d in this very
sphere (in what, in this sphere, appears "at first sight, as the least spiritual, as the
most alienating: the system of needs'
) , n o t in t h e p a s s a g e to
another
" h i g h e r " s p h e r e . T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n in t h e m a t u r e H e g e l
is, a g a i n , t h a t of t h e R a b i n o v i c h j o k e : " T h e r e a r e t w o r e a s o n s m o d e r n
130
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
s o c i e t y is r e c o n c i l e d w i t h itself. T h e first i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n civil
s o c i e t y . . ." " B u t t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n i s c o n s t a n t strife, t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m
of d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , of r u t h l e s s c o m p e t i t i o n ! " " W e l l , t h i s i s the
second
r e a s o n , s i n c e t h i s v e r y strife a n d c o m p e t i t i o n m a k e s i n d i v i d u a l s t h o r ­
o u g h l y interdependent a n d thus g e n e r a t e s the ultimate social bond . . . "
T h e w h o l e p e r s p e c t i v e t h u s c h a n g e s : it i s no l o n g e r t h a t t h e o r g a n i c
Sittlichkeit
of t h e polu d i s i n t e g r a t e s u n d e r t h e c o r r o s i v e i n f l u e n c e
of
m o d e r n a b s t r a c t i n d i v i d u a l i t y in its m u l t i p l e m o d e s ( t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y ,
protestantism,
a n d so o n ) , a n d t h a t this u n i t y s h o u l d
somehow
be
r e s t o r e d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l : t h e p o m t of H e g e l ' s a n a l y s e s of A n t i q u i t y ,
best exemplified b y his repeated readings
Antigone, is t h a t t h e G r e e k
poluf i t s e l f w a s a l r e a d y m a r k e d , c u t t h r o u g h , b y fatal i m m a n e n t a n t a g o n ­
i s m s (public—private, m a s c u l i n e — f e m i n i n e , h u m a n — d i v i n e , free—slaves,
etc.)
w h i c h belie its organic unity. A b s t r a c t universal i n d i v i d u a l i s m
( C h r i s t i a n i t y ) , far from
u n i t y , w a s , on
the
c a u s i n g t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of G r e e k
contrary,
the
necessary hrst step
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . W i t h r e g a r d to t h e m a r k e t ,
far from
organic
towards
true
being simply a
c o r r o s i v e force, it i s m a r k e t i n t e r a c t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e m e d i a t i n g
p r o c e s s w h i c h f o r m s t h e b a s i s of t r u e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s a l
and the particular: m a r k e t competition brings people really together,
while organic order divides them.
T h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n of t h i s shift in t h e m a t u r e H e g e l c o n c e r n s
the
o p p o s i t i o n of c u s t o m s a n d l a w : for t h e e a r l y H e g e l , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
c u s t o m s i n t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d l a w i s a r e g r e s s i v e m o v e from o r g a n i c u n i t y
to a l i e n a t i o n ( t h e n o r m i s n o l o n g e r e x p e r i e n c e d a s p a r t of m y s u b s t a n t i a l
e t h i c a l n a t u r e , b u t a s a n e x t e r n a l force t h a t c o n s t r a i n s m y f r e e d o m ) , w h i l e
for t h e m a t u r e
Hegel this transformation
i s a crucied s t e p
o p e n i n g u p a n d s u s t a i n i n g t h e s p a c e of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v e
forward,
freedom.
It i s in total o p p o s i t i o n to t h e s e H e g e l i a n i n s i g h t s t h a t H e i d e g g e r d e p l o y s
his n o t i o n of a "total s t a t e " :
W e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t a total s t a t e . T h i s s t a t e is not a p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n
( a m o n g o t h e r s ) , it is not a n a p p a r a t u s w h i c h i s h e r e to p r o t e c t s o c i e t y
(from t h e s t a t e i t s e l f ) , a d o m a i n w i t h w h i c h o n l y s o m e p e o p l e h a v e to
deal.^^
[. . . ] t h e p e o p l e t h u s w i l l s a n d l o v e s t h e s t a t e a s its o w n w a y a n d
m a n n e r to b e a s a p e o p l e . T h e p e o p l e i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e s t r i v i n g , b y
ero,i, for t h e s t a t e .
131
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
T h i s E r o s , of c o u r s e , i m p h e s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n : l o v e i s a l w a y s l o v e for t h e
O n e , the L e a d e r :
The Führer-State—the
o n e w e h a v e — m e a n s t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of
the historical development:
t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e in
the
Führer.^^
It i s o n l y t h e l e a d e r ' s w i l l w h i c h m a k e s o t h e r s i n t o h i s f o l l o w e r s , a n d
c o m m u n i t y a r i s e s o u t of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p of f o l l o w i n g . T h e f o l l o w e r s '
s a c r i f i c e a n d s e r v i c e o r i g i n a t e in t h i s l i v i n g c o n n e c t i o n , not in t h e i r
o b e d i e n c e to t h e c o n s t r a i n t of i n s t i t u t i o n s .
T h e l e a d e r h a s s o m e t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e p e o p l e ' s w i l l ; t h i s w i l l is not
t h e s u m of s i n g u l a r w i l l s , b u t a W h o l e of a p r i m o r d i a l a u t h e n t i c i t y . T h e
q u e s t i o n of t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s - o f - t h e - w i l l of a c o m m u n i t y i s a p r o b l e m
in a l l d e m o c r a c i e s , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e r e s o l v e d in a fruitful w a y w h e n
o n e r e c o g n i z e s t h e l e a d e r ' s w i l l a n d t h e p e o p l e ' s w i l l in t h e i r e s s e n t i ­
a l i t y . O u r t a s k t o d a y i s to a r r a n g e t h e f o u n d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p of o u r
c o m m u n a l b e i n g in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h i s a c t u a l i t y of p e o p l e a n d l e a d e r ,
w h e r e , a s its a c t u a l i t y , t h e t w o c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d . O n l y w h e n t h i s
b a s i c s c h e m e Is a s s e r t e d in its e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t t h r o u g h Its a p p l i c a t i o n ,
is t r u e l e a d e r s h i p p o s s i b l e .
T h i s , of c o u r s e , is a g a i n t o t a l l y o p p o s e d to H e g e l , for w h o m the h e a d of a
r a t i o n a l state s h o u l d not b e a l e a d e r , b u t a k i n g . W h y ? L e t us t a k e a l o o k a t
H e g e l ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s d e d u c t i o n of t h e r a t i o n a l n e c e s s i t y of h e r e d i t a r y m o n ­
a r c h y : t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c c h a i n of k n o w l e d g e h a s to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e
k i n g ' s d e c i s i o n a s t h e " c o m p l e t e l y c o n c r e t e o b j e c t i v i t y of t h e w i l l " w h i c h
" r e a b s o r b s a l l p a r t i c u l a r i t y i n t o its s i n g l e self, c u t s s h o r t t h e w e i g h i n g of p r o s
a n d c o n s b e t w e e n w h i c h it l e t s itself o s c i l l a t e p e r p e t u a l l y n o w t h i s w a y a n d
n o w that, a n d b y s a y i n g T w i l l ' m a k e s its d e c i s i o n a n d so i n a u g u r a t e s all
activity and actuality."
T h i s is w h y "the c o n c e p t i o n of t h e m o n a r c h " i s "of
all c o n c e p t i o n s t h e h a r d e s t for r a t i o c i n a t i o n , i.e. for t h e m e t h o d of reflection
employed b y the Understanding."
In t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h , H e g e l f u r t h e r
e l a b o r a t e s t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e n e c e s s i t y of the m o n a r c h :
T h i s u l t i m a t e self in w h i c h t h e w i l l of t h e s t a t e is c o n c e n t r a t e d i s , w h e n
t h u s t a k e n in a b s t r a c t i o n ,
individuality. Hence
132
a single self a n d therefore
its " n a t u r a l " c h a r a c t e r
is i m m e d i a t e
is i m p l i e d in its v e r y
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
conception. The monarch, therefore, is essentially c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s this
i n d i v i d u a l , in a b s t r a c t i o n from all h i s o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d t h i s
i n d i v i d u a l i s r a i s e d to t h e d i g n i t y of m o n a r c h y in a n i m m e d i a t e ,
n a t u r a l , fashion, i.e. t h r o u g h h i s b i r t h in t h e c o u r s e of n a t u r e .
T h e s p e c u l a t i v e m o m e n t t h a t U n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n n o t g r a s p is " t h e t r a n s i ­
tion of t h e c o n c e p t of p u r e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n t o t h e i m m e d i a c y of
B e i n g a n d so i n t o t h e r e a l m of n a t u r e . " ' ' ^ In o t h e r w o r d s , w h i l e U n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g c a n w e l l g r a s p t h e u n i v e r s a l m e d i a t i o n of a l i v i n g t o t a l i t y , w h a t it
c a n n o t g r a s p is t h a t thi) totality, in order to actualize itself, has to acquire actiuil
existence in the guue of an immediate "natural" singularity.
The
term
" n a t u r a l " s h o u l d b e g i v e n its full w e i g h t h e r e : in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t ,
a t t h e e n d of t h e Logic, t h e I d e a ' s c o m p l e t e d s e l f - m e d i a t i o n r e l e a s e s i t s e l f
from N a t u r e , c o l l a p s e s into t h e e x t e r n a l i m m e d i a c y of N a t u r e , t h e S t a t e ' s
r a t i o n a l s e l f - m e d i a t i o n h a s to a c q u i r e a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e in a w i l l w h i c h i s
d e t e r m i n e d a s d i r e c t l y n a t u r a l , u n m e d i a t e d , stricto sensu " i r r a t i o n a l . '
W h i l e o b s e r v i n g N a p o l e o n on a h o r s e in t h e s t r e e t s of J e n a after t h e
b a t t l e of 1 8 0 7 , H e g e l r e m a r k e d t h a t it w a s a s if h e h a d s e e n t h e W o r l d
S p i r i t r i d i n g a h o r s e . T h e C h r i s t o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s r e m a r k a r e
o b v i o u s : w h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e c a s e of C h r i s t i s t h a t G o d himself, t h e
creator
of o u r
entire universe, w a s w a l k i n g around
as a
common
i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s m y s t e r y of i n c a r n a t i o n is d i s c e r n i b l e a t different l e v e l s ,
u p to t h e p a r e n t ' s s p e c u l a t i v e j u d g m e n t a p r o p o s a c h i l d " O u t t h e r e o u r
l o v e i s w a l k i n g ! " , w h i c h s t a n d s for t h e H e g e l i a n r e v e r s a l of d e t e r m i n a t e
reflexion into reflexive determination — the s a m e a s w i t h a king, w h e n his
subject sees him w a l k i n g around: "Out
there our state is w a l k i n g . "
M a r x ' s e v o c a t i o n of r e f l e x i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( i n h i s f a m o u s footnote in
c h a p t e r 1 of Capital) a l s o falls s h o r t h e r e : i n d i v i d u a l s t h i n k t h a t t h e y t r e a t
a p e r s o n a s a k i n g b e c a u s e h e i s a k i n g m himself, w h i l e , in fact, h e i s a
k i n g o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y t r e a t h i m a s o n e . H o w e v e r , t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t is
t h a t t h i s " r e i f i c a t i o n " of a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n in a p e r s o n c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d
a s a s i m p l e " f e t i s h i s t i c m i s p e r c e p t i o n " ; w h a t s u c h a d i s m i s s a l itself m i s s e s
i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t , p e r h a p s , c o u l d be d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e " H e g e l i a n p e r ­
f o r m a t i v e " : of c o u r s e a k i n g i s " i n h i m s e l f " a m i s e r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l , of
c o u r s e h e is a k i n g o n l y i n s o f a r a s h i s s u b j e c t s t r e a t h i m a s o n e ; h o w e v e r ,
t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e " f e t i s h i s t i c i l l u s i o n " w h i c h s u s t a i n s o u r v e n e r a t i o n of
a k i n g h a s in i t s e l f a p e r f o r m a t i v e d i m e n s i o n — ^ ^ ^ very unity of our state, that
which the king "embodies, "actualizes itself only in the person of a king. W h i c h i s
w h y it i s not e n o u g h to i n s i s t on t h e n e e d to a v o i d t h e " f e t i s h i s t i c t r a p "
133
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
a n d to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e c o n t i n g e n t p e r s o n of a k i n g a n d w h a t h e
s t a n d s for: w h a t t h e k i n g s t a n d s for o n l y c o m e s to b e in h i s p e r s o n , t h e
same as w i t h a couple's love w h i c h (at least w i t h i n a certain traditional
perspective) only becomes actual in their
offspring.
S o far, f-fegel s e e m s to s a y t h e s a m e t h i n g a s H e i d e g g e r ; t h e r e is,
h o w e v e r , a k e y d i f f e r e n c e , m a d e c l e a r i n the A d d i t i o n to p a r a g r a p h 2 8 0 :
Addition: It is often a l l e g e d a g a i n s t m o n a r c h y t h a t it m a k e s t h e w e l f a r e
of t h e s t a t e d e p e n d e n t on c h a n c e , for, it i s u r g e d , t h e m o n a r c h m a y b e
i l l - e d u c a t e d , h e m a y p e r h a p s b e u n w o r t h y of t h e h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n in the
state, a n d it i s s e n s e l e s s t h a t s u c h a s t a t e of affairs s h o u l d e x i s t b e c a u s e
it i s s u p p o s e d to b e r a t i o n a l . B u t a l l this r e s t s on a
presupposition
w h i c h i s n u g a t o r y , n a m e l y t h a t e v e i y t h i n g d e p e n d s on t h e m o n a r c h ' s
p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r . In a c o m p l e t e l y o r g a n i z e d state, it i s o n l y a
q u e s t i o n of t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t of formal d e c i s i o n ( a n d a n a t u r a l
b u l w a r k a g a i n s t p a s s i o n . It i s w r o n g t h e r e f o r e to d e m a n d
objective
q u a l i t i e s in a m o n a r c h ) ; h e h a s o n l y to s a y " y e s " a n d dot t h e " 1 " ,
b e c a u s e t h e t h r o n e s h o u l d b e s u c h t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g in its
holder
is not
his particular make-up.
[. . . ] In
a well-organized
m o n a r c h y , t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t b e l o n g s to l a w a l o n e , a n d t h e m o n ­
a r c h ' s p a r t IS m e r e l y to s e t to t h e l a w t h e s u b j e c t i v e "1 w i l l " .
W h a t i s m i s s i n g in H e i d e g g e r is t h i s r e d u c t i o n of t h e function
of the
M o n a r c h to the p u r e l y formal function of d o t t i n g t h e " i " s , that is, t h e
s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t , t o d a y , w e w o u l d call t h e " c o n s t a t i v e " a n d the
" p e r f o r m a t i v e " a s p e c t s (or, in L a c a n ' s t e r m s , t h e c h a i n of k n o w l e d g e a n d
t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r ) : t h e " o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t " of g o v e r n i n g a state, the
c o n t e n t of l a w s a n d m e a s u r e s
( w h i c h i s t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e
b u r e a u c r a c y ) , a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
expert
into a " s u b j e c t i v e " d e c i s i o n of the
state t h a t is to b e e n a c t e d . H e i d e g g e r ' s c o n c e p t of the L e a d e r
confounds
p r e c i s e l y t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s H e g e l s t r i v e s to k e e p a p a r t . T h e
further
p a r a d o x of H e g e l ' s notion of m o n a r c h y i s t h a t t h e k i n g i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e
e x c e p t i o n w h i c h , a s s u c h , g u a r a n t e e s t h e u n i v e r s a l l e g a l e q u a l i t y of all
o t h e r s u b j e c t s ; no w o n d e r that, in c o n t r a s t to H e g e l , H e i d e g g e r e x p l i c i t l y
r e j e c t s e q u a l i t y in favor of a " h i e r a r c h y of g r a d e s " e n f o r c e d b y t h e L e a d e r :
To d o m i n a t i o n b e l o n g s p o w e r , w h i c h c r e a t e s a h i e r a r c h y of g r a d e s
t h r o u g h t h e i m p o s i t i o n of t h e w i l l of t h e o n e w h o r u l e s , i n s o f a r a s h e is
a c t u a l l y p o w e r f u l , i.e., i n s o f a r a s h e d i s p o s e s t h o s e u n d e r h i s rule.^^
134
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
Heidegger—pace
t h o s e w h o a c c u s e h i m of l e a v i n g o u t of c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e
" c r u e l " a s p e c t s of a n c i e n t G r e e k life ( s l a v e r y a n d so o n ) — o p e n l y d r a w s
attention
to h o w " r a n k a n d d o m i n a n c e " a r e d i r e c t l y g r o u n d e d
d i s c l o s u r e of b e i n g , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a d i r e c t o n t o l o g i c a l
in a
grounding
for t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n :
If p e o p l e t o d a y from t i m e to t i m e a r e g o i n g to b u s y t h e m s e l v e s r a t h e r
too e a g e r l y w i t h t h e polis of t h e G r e e k s , t h e y s h o u l d not s u p p r e s s t h i s
s i d e of it; o t h e r w i s e t h e c o n c e p t of t h e polis e a s i l y b e c o m e s i n n o c u o u s
a n d s e n t i m e n t a l . W h a t is h i g h e r in r a n k i s w h a t i s s t r o n g e r .
Thus
B e i n g , l o g o s , a s t h e g a t h e r e d h a r m o n y , i s not e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e for e v e r y
m a n a t t h e s a m e p r i c e , b u t is c o n c e a l e d , a s o p p o s e d to t h a t h a r m o n y
w h i c h is a l w a y s m e r e e q u a l i z i n g , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t e n s i o n , l e v e l i n g .
W h o , t h e n , i s t h e e n e m y of s u c h a h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r ? T h e J a n u s h e a d
of n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w i t h its t w o faces, b o u r g e o i s - l i b e r a l
individualism
and
communist
egalitarianism, grounded
in
C h r i s t i a n " spirituality, w h i c h is thus the common source a n d
"Judeofoundation
of b o t h o p p o s e d s t r a n d s of m o d e r n p o l i t i c s :
In a c c o r d a n c e to i t s m o d e , Jewuh-ChrLitian
game, taking simultaneously the
domination plays a double
s i d e of t h e
"dictatorship
of
the
p r o l e t a r i a t " a n d t h e s i d e of t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c u l t u r a l s t r i v i n g ;
for s o m e t i m e , t h i s d o u b l e g a m e w i l l c o n t i n u e to c o n c e a l o u r a l r e a d y p r e s e n t l o s s of r o o t s a n d i n a b i l i t y to t a k e e s s e n t i a l d e c i s i o n s .
A n d H e i d e g g e r goes even a step further here against the liberal-demo­
c r a t i c doxa-, i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e b e t w e e n
Communism
" E n g l i s h " d e m o c r a t i c liberalism is the more
g e o i s - C h r i s t i a n form
Without
of E n g l i s h
its a n n i h i l a t i o n , t h e
and
' B o l s h e v i s m ' i s the m o s t
modern
liberalism,
dangerous: "The
era will continue
bour­
dangerous.
to b e
main­
tained.'"^^
D i s t r u s t of d e m o c r a c y i s a c o n s t a n t f e a t u r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t ,
e v e n after t h e Kehre; w e find it in h i s N i e t z s c h e l e c t u r e s from
1936-37
( w h e r e h e w r o t e t h a t " E u r o p e a l w a y s w a n t s to c l i n g to ' d e m o c r a c y ' a n d
d o e s not w a n t to s e e t h a t t h i s w o u l d b e a fateful d e a t h for i t " ^ ^ ) , a s w e l l a s
in h i s p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Spiegel i n t e r v i e w w h e r e h e e x p r e s s e d h i s
d o u b t t h a t d e m o c r a c y w a s t h e p o l i t i c a l form
that best
fits
modern
technology.
135
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
Repetition and the New
S o w e a r e b a c k to C h e s t e r t o n ' s n o t i o n of c o n c e a h n g a b o d y in a p i l e of
corpses: w h e n one c o n d e m n s H e i d e g g e r ' s entire philosophical edifice a s
" f a s c i s t , " o n e m a s k s o n e ' s i n a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y { o n e ) c o r p s e — t h e s i n g u l a r
i d e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e w h i c h g a v e a fascist t o u c h to all o t h e r s — b y
con­
s t r u c t i n g a pile of c o r p s e s c a l l e d " H e i d e g g e r ' s fascist t h o u g h t . " In t h i s
w a y , o n e c o n c e d e s too m u c h to t h e e n e m y : t h e r e i s n o t h i n g " i n h e r e n t l y
f a s c i s t " In t h e n o t i o n s of d e c i s i o n , r e p e t i t i o n , a s s u m i n g o n e ' s d e s t i n y , a n d
so forth (or, c l o s e r to " o r d i n a r y " p o l i t i c s , in t h e n o t i o n s of m a s s d i s c i p l i n e ,
s a c r i f i c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l for t h e c o l l e c t i v e , a n d so f o r t h ) . In short, one
s h o u l d n o t a l l o w t h e e n e m y to d e f i n e t h e t e r r a i n of t h e b a t t l e a n d its
s t a k e s , so t h a t w e e n d u p a b s t r a c t l y o p p o s i n g h i m , s u p p o r t i n g a n e g a t i v e
c o p y of w h a t h e w a n t s . T o b e c l e a r a n d b r u t a l to t h e e n d , t h e r e i s a l e s s o n
to b e l e a r n e d from H e r m a n n G o e r i n g ' s r e p l y , in t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 s , to a
f a n a t i c a l N a z i w h o a s k e d h i m w h y h e p r o t e c t e d a w e l l - k n o w n J e w from
d e p o r t a t i o n : "In t h i s c i t y , I d e c i d e w h o i s a J e w ! " ( a n a n s w e r , i n c i d e n ­
t a l l y , a t t r i b u t e d a l r e a d y to m a n y o t h e r G e r m a n
figures
who
protected
t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d J e w s , from B i s m a r c k to K a r l L ü g e r ) . In t h i s c i t y , it i s w e
w h o d e c i d e w h a t i s left, so w e s h o u l d s i m p l y i g n o r e l i b e r a l a c c u s a t i o n s of
" i n c o n s i s t e n c y . " F o r e x a m p l e , in h i s r e v i e w of t h e G u e v a r a
film
The
Motorcycle Diaries, P a u l B e r m a n c r i t i c a l l y c l a i m e d t h a t
t h e e n t i r e m o v i e , in i t s c o n c e p t a n d tone, e x u d e s a C h r i s t o l o g i c a l c u l t of
m a r t y r d o m , a c u l t of a d o r a t i o n for t h e s p i r i t u a l l y s u p e r i o r p e r s o n w h o
is v e e r i n g t o w a r d d e a t h ^—precisely t h e k i n d of a d o r a t i o n t h a t L a t i n
America's
Catholic
Church
promoted
for
several centuries,
with
miserable consequences. The rebellion against reactionary Catholicism
in t h i s m o v i e i s Itself a n e x p r e s s i o n of r e a c t i o n a r y C a t h o l i c i s m . T h e
t r a d i t i o n a l c h u r c h e s of L a t i n A m e r i c a a r e full of s t a t u e s of g r u e s o m e
b l e e d i n g s a i n t s . A n d t h e m a s o c h i s t i c a l l u r e of t h o s e s t a t u e s i s p r e c i s e l y
w h a t y o u s e e in t h e m o v i e ' s m a n y d e p i c t i o n s of y o u n g C h e c o u g h i n g
o u t h i s l u n g s from a s t h m a a n d t e s t i n g h i m s e l f b y s w i m m i n g in cold
^
70
water.
T o t h i s , o n e s h o u l d s i m p l y a n s w e r : t r u e , b u t —so w h a t ? W h y
should
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c s not t a k e o v e r t h e C a t h o l i c c u l t of m a r t y r d o m ? A n d
o n e s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d to g o to ( w h a t for m a n y l i b e r a l s w o u l d b e ) t h e
e n d a n d to s a y t h e s a m e a b o u t L e n l R i e f e n s t a h l . H e r w o r k s e e m s to l e n d
136
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
itself to a t e l e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g , p r o g r e s s i n g t o w a r d s i t s d a r k c o n c l u s i o n . It
b e g a n w i t h Bergfiirne w h i c h c e l e b r a t e d h e r o i s m a n d b o d i l y effort i n t h e
e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s of m o u n t a i n - c l i m b i n g ; it w e n t o n t o h e r t w o N a z i
d o c u m e n t a r i e s , c e l e b r a t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d s p o r t f o r m s of b o d i l y d i s ­
c i p l i n e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d s t r e n g t h of t h e w i l l ; then, a f t e r W o r l d W a r II,
i n h e r p h o t o a l b u m s , s h e r e d i s c o v e r e d h e r i d e a l of b o d i l y b e a u t y a n d
g r a c e f u l s e l f - m a s t e r y i n t h e N u b i A f r i c a n t r i b e ; finally, i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e s ,
she l e a r n e d t h e difficult a r t of d e e p - s e a d i v i n g a n d s t a r t e d
shooting
d o c u m e n t a r i e s a b o u t t h e s t r a n g e life i n t h e d a r k d e p t h s o f t h e s e a .
W e t h u s s e e m t o o b t a i n a c l e a r t r a j e c t o r y from t h e t o p t o t h e b o t t o m ;
w e begin with the individuals struggling at the mountain
tops a n d
g r a d u a l l y d e s c e n d , till w e r e a c h t h e a m o r p h o u s t h r i v i n g of life i t s e l f a t
t h e b o t t o m of t h e s e a — i s n o t w h a t s h e e n c o u n t e r e d
down there h e r
u l t i m a t e object, o b s c e n e a n d i r r e s i s t i b l e e t e r n a l life itself, w h a t s h e w a s
s e a r c h i n g for a l l a l o n g ? A n d d o e s t h i s n o t a p p l y a l s o t o h e r p e r s o n a l i t y ?
In fact, i t s e e m e d t h a t t h e f e a r o f t h o s e w h o w e r e f a s c i n a t e d b y L e n i w a s
n o l o n g e r " W h e n w i l l s h e d i e ? " , b u t " W i l l s h e ever d i e ? " — a l t h o u g h w e
r a t i o n a l l y k n e w s h e w o u l d soon d i e , w e s o m e h o w d i d n o t r e a l l y b e l i e v e it,
s e c r e t l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t s h e w o u l d g o o n forever, s o h e r d e a t h w a s a
genuine surprise.
This continuity is u s u a l l y given a "proto-fascist"
twist, a s in t h e
e x e m p l a r y c a s e of S u s a n S o n t a g ' s f a m o u s e s s a y o n R i e f e n s t a h l , " F a s ­
cinating F a s c i s m . " T h e i d e a here is that even h e r p r e - a n d post-Nazi
films a r t i c u l a t e a v i s i o n of life w h i c h i s " p r o t o - f a s c i s t " :
Riefenstahl's
fascism i s d e e p e r than h e r direct celebration of N a z i politics, it r e s i d e s
a l r e a d y i n h e r p r e - p o l l t i c a l a e s t h e t i c s o f life, i n h e r f a s c i n a t i o n
with
beautiful b o d i e s d i s p l a y i n g their d i s c i p l i n e d m o v e m e n t s . . . P e r h a p s it
i s t i m e t o p r o b l e m a t i z e t h i s t o p o s . L e t u s t a k e Bcu blaue Licht: i s i t n o t
p o s s i b l e t o r e a d t h e film a l s o i n e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e w a y ? I s J u n t a , t h e
lonely a n d w i l d mountain girl, not a n outcast w h o almost becomes the
v i c t i m of a p o g r o m b y t h e v i l l a g e r s in a m a n n e r w h i c h c a n n o t b u t r e m i n d
u s of a n t i - S e m i t i c m a s s a c r e s ? P e r h a p s i t i s n o t a n a c c i d e n t t h a t B é l a
Balâzs, Riefenstahl's lover at that time w h o co-wrote t h e scenario with
her, w a s a M a r x i s t . . .
T h e p r o b l e m i s h e r e m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l , i t g o e s far b e y o n d R i e f e n ­
stahl, L e t u s t a k e t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of R i e f e n s t a h l , A r n o l d S c h o e n b e r g : i n
t h e s e c o n d p a r t of Harmonienlehre, h i s m a j o r t h e o r e t i c a l m a n i f e s t o
from
1911, h e develops his opposition to tonal music i n terms w h i c h , super­
ficially, a l m o s t r e c a l l l a t e r N a z i a n t i - S e m i t i c t r a c t s : t o n a l m u s i c h a s
137
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
b e c o m e a " d i s e a s e d , " " d e g e n e r a t e " w o r l d In n e e d of a c l e a n s i n g solution;
t h e t o n a l s y s t e m h a s g i v e n in to " i n b r e e d i n g a n d i n c e s t " ; r o m a n t i c c h o r d s
such as the diminished seventh are "hermaphroditic," "vagrant," and
" c o s m o p o l i t a n " . . . n o t h i n g e a s i e r t h a n to c l a i m t h a t s u c h a m e s s i a n i c apocaly^ptic a t t i t u d e i s p a r t of t h e s a m e " s p i r i t u a l s i t u a t i o n " w h i c h g a v e
b i r t h to t h e N a z i " f i n a l s o l u t i o n . " T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s p r e c i s e l y t h e con­
c l u s i o n o n e s h o u l d awi/): w h a t m a k e s N a z i s m r e p u l s i v e i s n o t t h e r h e t o r i c
of final s o l u t i o n M such, b u t t h e c o n c r e t e t w i s t it g i v e s to it.
A n o t h e r p o p u l a r t o p i c of t h i s k m d of a n a l y s i s , c l o s e r to R i e f e n s t a h l , is
t h e a l l e g e d l y " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " c h a r a c t e r of t h e m a s s c h o r e o g r a p h y d i s ­
p l a y i n g d i s c i p l i n e d m o v e m e n t s of t h o u s a n d s of b o d i e s ( p a r a d e s , m a s s
p e r f o r m a n c e s in t h e s t a d i a , a n d so o n ) ; if o n e finds t h e s a m e p h e n o m ­
e n o n a l s o in s o c i a l i s m , o n e i m m e d i a t e l y d r a w s t h e c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t a
"deeper solidarity" between the two "totalitarianisms." S u c h a proce­
d u r e , t h e v e r y p r o t o t y p e of i d e o l o g i c a l l i b e r a l i s m , m i s s e s t h e p o i n t : not
o n l y a r e s u c h m a s s p e r f o r m a n c e s n o t I n h e r e n t l y f a s c i s t ; t h e y a r e not
e v e n " n e u t r a l , " w a i t i n g to b e a p p r o p r i a t e d b y L e f t o r R i g h t — i t w a s
N a z i s m t h a t stole t h e m a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d
t h e m from
the w o r k e r s '
m o v e m e n t , t h e i r o r i g i n a l c r e a t o r . N o n e of t h e " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " e l e m e n t s
is per se fascist, w h a t m a k e s t h e m " f a s c i s t " i s o n l y t h e i r s p e c i f i c a r t i c u l a ­
t i o n — o r , to p u t it in S t e p h e n J a y G o u l d ' s t e r m s , a l l t h e s e e l e m e n t s a r e
" e x - a p t e d " b y f a s c i s m . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e i s n o " f a s c i s m asant la lettre, "
b e c a u s e it is the letter itself (':he nomination) which makes out of the bundle of
elements fascLnn proper.
Along the s a m e lines, one should radically reject the notion
that
d i s c i p l i n e (from self-control to b o d y t r a i n i n g ) i s a " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " fea­
t u r e — t h e v e r y p r e d i c a t e " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " s h o u l d b e a b a n d o n e d : it i s t h e
e x e m p l a r y c a s e of a p s e u d o - c o n c e p t w h o s e function i s to b l o c k con­
c e p t u a l a n a l y s i s . W h e n w e s a y t h a t t h e o r g a n i z e d s p e c t a c l e of t h o u s a n d s
of b o d i e s (or, s a y , t h e a d m i r a t i o n of s p o r t s w h i c h d e m a n d i n t e n s e efforts
a n d self-control such a s m o u n t a i n - c l i m b i n g ) is "proto-fascist," w e s a y
strictly nothing, w e just express a v a g u e association w h i c h m a s k s our
i g n o r a n c e . S o w h e n , t h r e e d e c a d e s a g o , K u n g F u films w e r e p o p u l a r
( B r u c e L e e a n d so f o r t h ) , w a s it not o b v i o u s t h a t w e w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h a
g e n u i n e w o r k i n g - c l a s s i d e o l o g y of y o u n g s t e r s w h o s e o n l y m e a n s of
s u c c e s s w a s t h e d i s c i p l i n e d t r a i n i n g of t h e i r o n l y p o s s e s s i o n , t h e i r b o d i e s ?
S p o n t a n e i t y a n d t h e " l e t it a l l h a n g o u t " a t t i t u d e of i n d u l g i n g In e x c e s s i v e
f r e e d o m s b e l o n g to t h o s e w h o c a n afford i t — t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t h i n g
h a v e o n l y t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e . T h e " b a d " form of c o r p o r e a l d i s c i p l i n e , if t h e r e
138
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
is o n e , is not c o l l e c t i v e t r a i n i n g , but, r a t h e r , j o g g i n g a n d b o d y - b u i l d i n g a s
p a r t of t h e N e w A g e m y t h of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e self's i n n e r p o t e n t i a l —
no w o n d e r that the obsession w i t h one's b o d y is an almost obligatory part
of t h e p a s s a g e of ex-leftist r a d i c a l s i n t o t h e " m a t u r i t y " of p r a g m a t i c
p o l i t i c s : from J a n e F o n d a t o J o s c h k a F i s c h e r , t h e " p e r i o d of l a t e n c y "
b e t w e e n t h e t w o p h a s e s w a s m a r k e d b y t h e focus on o n e ' s o w n b o d y .
S o , b a c k t o R i e f e n s t a h l , w h a t t h i s m e a n s i s not t h a t o n e s h o u l d d i s m i s s
her Nazi engagement as a limited a n d unfortunate
episode. The true
problem is to sustain the tension w h i c h cuts through
her work: the
t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t i o n of h e r p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e i d e o ­
logical project w h i c h "co-opted" them. W h y should h e r case be different
from t h a t of E z r a P o u n d , W . B . Y e a t s , a n d o t h e r m o d e r n i s t s w i t h fascist
t e n d e n c i e s w h o l o n g a g o b e c a m e p a r t of o u r a r t i s t i c c a n o n ? P e r h a p s , t h e
s e a r c h for t h e " t r u e i d e o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y " of R i e f e n s t a h l i s m i s l e a d i n g :
t h e r e is n o s u c h i d e n t i t y , s h e w a s g e n u i n e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t , b l o w n t h i s w a y
a n d t h a t a s s h e w a s c a u g h t u p i n a c o n f l i c t u a l forcefield.
T o r e t u r n to H e i d e g g e r , in h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , h e w a s n o t " t o t a l l y
wrong"^—the t r a g e d y is t h a t h e w a s almost right, d e p l o y i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e
of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t a n d t h e n d i s t o r t i n g it b y g i v i n g it a fascist t w i s t .
H e i d e g g e r w a s c l o s e s t t o t r u t h p r e c i s e l y w h e r e h e e r r e d most, i n h i s
w r i t i n g s from t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s to t h e m i d - 1 9 3 0 s . O u r t a s k t h u s is to repeat
H e i d e g g e r a n d r e t r i e v e t h i s lost d i m e n s i o n / p o t e n t i a l of h i s t h o u g h t . In
1937-38, Heidegger wrote:
W h a t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e r e m a i n s b o g g e d d o w n in t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l ;
o n l y w h a t i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a t t a i n s t h e d e p t h of h i s t o r y . R e v o l u t i o n d o e s
not m e a n h e r e m e r e s u b v e r s i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n b u t a n u p h e a v a l a n d
r e c r e a t i n g of t h e c u s t o m a r y s o t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g m i g h t be r e s t r u c ­
t u r e d . A n d b e c a u s e t h e o r i g i n a l b e l o n g s to t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e ­
s t r u c t u r i n g of t h e b e g i n n i n g i s n e v e r t h e p o o r i m i t a t i o n of w h a t w a s
earlier; it is entirely other a n d nevertheless the same.
In itself, i s t h i s n o t a w h o l l y p e r t i n e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l o n g
Benjaminian lines? Recall the e x a m p l e provided b y W a l t e r Benjamin: the
October Revolution repeated
the French
Revolution, redeeming its
f a i l u r e , u n e a r t h i n g a n d r e p e a t i n g t h e s a m e i m p u l s e . A l r e a d y for K i e r k e ­
gaard, repetition is "inverted m e m o r y , " a movement forward, the pro­
d u c t i o n of t h e N e w , a n d n o t t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n
of t h e O l d . " T h e r e i s
n o t h i n g n e w u n d e r t h e s u n " is t h e s t r o n g e s t c o n t r a s t to t h e m o v e m e n t of
139
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
r e p e t i t i o n . S o , it i s not o n l y t h a t r e p e t i t i o n i s ( o n e of t h e m o d e s of) t h e
e m e r g e n c e of t h e N e w — the New can oniy emerge through répétition. T h e k e y
to t h i s p a r a d o x i s , of c o u r s e , w h a t D e l e u z e d e s i g n a t e s a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n the virtual a n d the actual ( a n d w h i c h — w h y not? —one can also
determine as the difference b e t w e e n the Spirit a n d the L e t t e r ) . Let us
t a k e a g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s u c h a s K a n t — t h e r e a r e t w o m o d e s of r e p e a t i n g
h i m : e i t h e r o n e s t i c k s to t h e l e t t e r a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e s o r c h a n g e s h i s
s y s t e m , in t h e s p i r i t of t h e n e o - K a n t i a n s ( u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g H a b e r m a s
a n d L u c F e r r y ) ; or, o n e t r i e s to r e g a i n t h e c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e t h a t K a n t
h i m s e l f b e t r a y e d in t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of h i s s y s t e m ( t h a t i s , to c o n n e c t to
w h a t w a s a l r e a d y "in K a n t m o r e t h a n
Kant himself," more than
his
e x p l i c i t s y s t e m , i t s e x c e s s i v e c o r e ) . T h e r e a r e , a c c o r d i n g l y , t w o m o d e s of
b e t r a y i n g t h e p a s t . T h e t r u e b e t r a y a l i s a n e t h i c o - t h e o r e t i c a l a c t of t h e
h i g h e s t fidelity: o n e h a s to b e t r a y t h e l e t t e r of K a n t in o r d e r to r e m a i n
faithful to ( a n d r e p e a t ) t h e " s p i r i t " of h i s t h o u g h t . It i s p r e c i s e l y w h e n o n e
r e m a i n s faithful to t h e l e t t e r of K a n t t h a t o n e r e a l l y b e t r a y s t h e c o r e of h i s
thought,
the
c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e u n d e r l y i n g it. O n e
should
bring
this
p a r a d o x to Its c o n c l u s i o n : it is not o n l y t h a t o n e c a n r e m a i n r e a l l y faithful
to a n a u t h o r b y w a y of b e t r a y i n g h i m ( t h e a c t u a l l e t t e r of h i s t h o u g h t ) ; a t
a more radical level, the Inverse statement holds even more —one can
o n l y t r u l y b e t r a y a n a u t h o r b y w a y of r e p e a t i n g h i m , b y r e m a i n i n g
faithful to t h e c o r e of h i s t h o u g h t . If o n e d o e s not r e p e a t a n a u t h o r (in t h e
a u t h e n t i c K l e r k e g a a r d i a n s e n s e of t h e t e r m ) , b u t m e r e l y " c r i t i c i z e s " h i m ,
m o v e s e l s e w h e r e , t u r n s h i m a r o u n d , a n d so forth, t h i s e f f e c t i v e l y m e a n s
that one u n k n o w i n g l y r e m a i n s w i t h i n his horizon, his conceptual
When
G.K.
Chesterton
describes his conversion
field.''^
to C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
he
c l a i m s t h a t h e " t r i e d to b e s o m e t e n m i n u t e s in a d v a n c e of t h e t r u t h .
A n d I f o u n d t h a t I w a s e i g h t e e n y e a r s b e h i n d it."'^^ D o e s t h e s a m e not
h o l d e v e n m o r e for t h o s e w h o , t o d a y , d e s p e r a t e l y t r y to c a t c h u p w i t h t h e
New
b y w a y of f o l l o w i n g t h e
l a t e s t " p o s t - " fashion,
and
are
thus
c o n d e m n e d to r e m a i n f o r e v e r e i g h t e e n y e a r s b e h i n d t h e t r u l y N e w ?
In h i s i r o n i c c o m m e n t s on t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , M a r x o p p o s e s t h e
r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m to t h e s o b e r i n g effect of t h e " m o r n i n g
after":
t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t of t h e s u b l i m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n , of t h e E v e n t of
freedom, e q u a l i t y , a n d brotherhood, is the m i s e r a b l e utilitarian/egotistic
u n i v e r s e of m a r k e t c a l c u l a t i o n . ( A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , is not t h i s g a p e v e n
w i d e r in t h e c a s e of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n ? ) H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d not
s i m p l i f y M a r x : h i s p o i n t i s not t h e r a t h e r c o m m o n s e n s i c a l i n s i g h t i n t o
h o w t h e v u l g a r r e a l i t y of c o m m e r c e i s t h e " t r u t h " of t h e t h e a t e r
140
of
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m . In t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n a s a n E v e n t ,
a n o t h e r Utopian d i m e n s i o n s h i n e s t h r o u g h , t h e d i m e n s i o n of u n i v e r s a l
e m a n c i p a t i o n w h i c h , p r e c i s e l y , is the e x c e s s b e t r a y e d b y the m a r k e t
r e a l i t y w h i c h t a k e s o v e r "the d a y a f t e r " — a s s u c h , t h i s e x c e s s is not s i m p l y
a b o l i s h e d , d i s m i s s e d a s i r r e l e v a n t , b u t , a s it w e r e , transpoéed'intothe virtual
state, c o n t i n u i n g t o h a u n t the e m a n c i p a t o r y i m a g i n a r y a s a d r e a m w a i t i n g
to b e r e a l i z e d . T h e e x c e s s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m o v e r its o w n
" a c t u a l s o c i a l b a s e " o r s u b s t a n c e i s t h u s l i t e r a l l y that of a n a t t r i b u t e - e f f e c t
o v e r its o w n s u b s t a n t i a l c a u s e , a s p e c t r a l E v e n t w a i t i n g for i t s p r o p e r
embodiment.
O n l y repetition
brings out pure
difference. W h e n ,
in his famous
a n a l y s i s in Being and Time, H e i d e g g e r d e s c r i b e s t h e e x - s t a t i c s t r u c t u r e
of Daseins t e m p o r a l i t y a s the c i r c u l a r m o v e m e n t w h i c h g o e s from
future
t h r o u g h t h e p a s t to t h e p r e s e n t , it i s not e n o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a s a
m o v e m e n t i n w h i c h I, s t a r t i n g from t h e f u t u r e ( t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o p e n e d t o
m e , m y p r o j e c t s , and so o n ) , g o b a c k t o the p a s t ( a n a l y z e t h e t e x t u r e of
the historical situation into w h i c h I w a s " t h r o w n , "
in which I
find
m y s e l f ) ' a n d , from t h e r e , e n g a g e in m y p r e s e n t in o r d e r to r e a l i z e m y
p r o j e c t s . W h e n H e i d e g g e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s f u t u r e itself a s " h a v i n g - b e e n "
(gesewene) or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , s o m e t h i n g that " i s a s h a v i n g - b e e n " (gewe­
sende), h e l o c a t e s t h e future i t s e l f into t h e p a s t — n o t ,
of c o u r s e , i n t h e
s e n s e t h a t w e l i v e i n a c l o s e d u n i v e r s e in w h i c h e v e r y f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y i s
a l r e a d y contained in the past, so that w e c a n o n l y repeat, realize, w h a t
a l r e a d y i s p r e s e n t i n t h e i n h e r i t e d t e x t u r e , but i n t h e m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l
s e n s e of t h e " o p e n n e s s " of t h e p a s t itself: t h e p a s t itself i s n o t s i m p l y " w h a t
t h e r e was," i t c o n t a i n s h i d d e n , n o n - r e a l i z e d p o t e n t i a l s , a n d the a u t h e n t i c
f u t u r e i s t h e r e p e t i t i o n / r e t r i e v a l of this p a s t , not of the p a s t a s it w a s , b u t of
t h o s e e l e m e n t s i n t h e p a s t w h i c h the p a s t itself, i n its r e a l i t y , b e t r a y e d ,
stifled, f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e . It i s in t h i s s e n s e that one s h o u l d t o d a y " r e p e a t
L e n i n " : c h o o s i n g L e n i n a s o n e ' s h e r o ( t o p a r a p h r a s e H e i d e g g e r ) not i n
o r d e r to follow him a n d d o t h e s a m e t o d a y , but to r e p e a t / r e t r i e v e him in
t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of b r i n g i n g o u t the n o n - r e a l i z e d p o t e n t i a l s of L e n i n i s m .
A n d o n e s h o u l d n o t b e a f r a i d to c o n c e i v e i n t h e s e t e r m s t h e v e r y
s e n s i t i v e t o p i c of H e i d e g g e r ' s r e l a t i o n to N a z i s m . A l t h o u g h it i s t r u e that,
m c o n t r a s t to " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m , " o n e d o e s not t a l k a b o u t " r e a l l y e x i s t i n g f a s c i s m " ( s i n c e w e d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e " a c t u a l " f a s c i s m a s the
b e t r a y a l of its i n h e r e n t e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l ) , t h e r e i s n o n e t h e l e s s a
p h i l o s o p h e r w h o p r e c i s e l y did e n g a g e in a k i n d of c r i t i q u e of " r e a l l y e x i s t i n g N a z i s m " on b e h a l f of i t s t r u e p o t e n t i a l ( i t s " i n n e r g r e a t n e s s " )
141
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
b e t r a y e d b y its r a c i s t - t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s t i c r e a l i t y — n o n e o t h e r
H e i d e g g e r himself, of c o u r s e . After h i s m u c h - d e b a t e d
than
disappointment
w i t h t h e r e a l i t y of t h e N a z i r e g i m e in 1 9 3 4 , H e i d e g g e r ' s effort
throughout
t h e 1 9 3 0 s w a s e f f e c t i v e l y to s a l v a g e t h i s b e t r a y e d " i n n e r g r e a t n e s s , " the
world-historic potential,
of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t — t h e r e i n
resides
the
u l t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l w a g e r of H e i d e g g e r ' s e n d l e s s v a r i a t i o n s on t h e t o p i c
of H ö l d e r l i n a n d t h e fate of G e r m a n y .
A c c o r d i n g to t h e m e m o i r s of a l e a d i n g m e m b e r of t h e G e r m a n
student
m o v e m e n t i n t h e l a t e 1960s,''* a d e l e g a t i o n of s t u d e n t p r o t e s t e r s v i s i t e d
H e i d e g g e r in 1 9 6 8 , a n d h e p r o f e s s e d h i s full s y m p a t h y a n d s u p p o r t for
t h e s t u d e n t s , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g t h e n w h a t h e h a d t r i e d to d o
in 1 9 3 3 a s r e c t o r in F r e i b u r g , a l t h o u g h from a different p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n .
O n e s h o u l d not d i s m i s s t h i s c l a i m a s H e i d e g g e r ' s h y p o c r i t i c a l i l l u s i o n .
W h a t H e i d e g g e r w a s l o o k i n g for in N a z i s m (to a v o i d a m i s u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing: not o n l y d u e to a n a c c i d e n t a l e r r o r in h i s p e r s o n a l j u d g m e n t , b u t d u e
to t h e flaws of h i s t h e o r e t i c a l e d i f i c e itself) w a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y E v e n t , so
t h a t e v e n s o m e m e a s u r e s h e I m p o s e d on t h e F r e i b u r g u n i v e r s i t y d u r i n g
his b r i e f t e n u r e a s its r e c t o r b e a r w i t n e s s to h i s i n t e n t i o n to e n a c t t h e r e a
k i n d of " c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n " ( b r i n g i n g s t u d e n t s t o g e t h e r w i t h w o r k e r s
a n d s o l d i e r s — w h i c h . In itself, i s not a fascist m e a s u r e , b u t
something
M a o i s t s t r i e d to d o in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ) . O n e i s t h u s t e m p t e d to
a p p l y to H e i d e g g e r A n d r é G i d e ' s s a r c a s t i c c o m m e n t a s r e g a r d s T h é o p h i l e
G a u t i e r : in 1 9 3 3 , h e p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e in G e r m a n a c a d e m i c p o l i t i c s , it
Is j u s t t h a t h e w a s n o t w o r t h y of t h e r o l e .
From Heidegger to the drive
A l t h o u g h H e i d e g g e r ' s a l m o s t p h o b i c o v e r s e n s i t i v i t y to m o r a l i t y c a n b e
easily accounted
for
as an
implicit admission
of h i s o w n
ethically
r e p u l s i v e b e h a v i o r a n d l a c k of e l e m e n t a r y e t h i c a l a t t i t u d e s , h i s o p p o ­
n e n t s ' i n s i s t e n c e on t h e s e s a m e f e a t u r e s of H e i d e g g e r a s a p e r s o n i s a l s o
false — a s if, b y d e m o n s t r a f i n g H e i d e g g e r ' s p e r s o n a l l a c k of e t h i c s , o n e
c a n a v o i d the h a r d t a s k of c o n f r o n t i n g t h e i s s u e s p o s e d b y H e i d e g g e r ' s
thought.
There
is nonetheless
something
disturbing
in
Heidegger's
p r o v e r b i a l a l l e r g y a g a i n s t a n y m e n t i o n of m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; in h i s
r e a d i n g of P l a t o in t h e 1951—32 s e m i n a r , h e e v e n t r i e s to p u r i f y
the
P l a t o n i c to agathon from a l l l i n k s w i t h m o r a l g o o d n e s s t h r o u g h a s k i l l f u l
reference
to o n e of t h e e v e r y d a y u s e s of the e x c l a m a t i o n
"Good!":
" ' g o o d ! ' m e a n s : It w i l l b e d o n e ! It Is d e c i d e d ! It h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h
142
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
t h e m e a n i n g of moral g o o d n e s s ; e t h i c s h a s r u i n e d t h e g r o u n d i n g m e a n i n g
of t h i s w o r d . " O n e c a n t h u s e a s i l y i m a g i n e , at t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e
W a h n s e e c o n f e r e n c e , H e y d r i c h e x c l a i m i n g : " G o o d ! " , u s i n g t h e t e r m in
t h e " a u t h e n t i c " P l a t o n i c s e n s e ("It w i l l b e d o n e ! It is d e c i d e d ! " ) . . . T h e
fact t h a t t h e r e i s a r e a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m h e r e c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d
b y a c l o s e r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r ' s s e m i n a r on S c h e l l i n g ' s " P h i l o s o p h i c a l
E n q u i r i e s i n t o t h e N a t u r e of H u m a n F r e e d o m , " in w h i c h H e i d e g g e r h a s
to a d m i t a d i m e n s i o n of r a d i c a l Evil w h i c h c a n n o t b e h i s t o r i c i z e d , t h a t i s ,
r e d u c e d to t h e n i h i l i s m of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y . It i s t h e m e r i t of B r e t
D a v i s to h a v e a n a l y z e d m d e t a i l t h i s d e a d l o c k of H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t .
In h i s c l o s e r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r , D e r r i d a t r i e d to d e m o n s t r a t e
" S p i r i t " (GeLit) i s the u n d e c o n s t r u c t e d
philosophical edifice;
how
s y m p t o m a l p o i n t in H e i d e g g e r ' s
B r e t D a v i s h a s d o n e t h e s a m e t h i n g for t h e n o t i o n
of t h e W i l l . ' ^ A c o n s e n s u s is g r a d u a l l y e m e r g i n g in H e i d e g g e r s t u d i e s
t h a t t h e r e a r e not t w o , but, r a t h e r , t h r e e d i s t i n c t p h a s e s of h i s t h o u g h t : t h e
e a r l y p h a s e of t h e djaalytxc oî Dasein (Sein und Zeit); the m i d d l e p h a s e of
t h e a s s e r t i o n of h e r o i c h i s t o r i c i t y (from t h e c o n f e r e n c e " W h a t Is M e t a ­
p h y s i c s ? " to t h e m a n u s c r i p t
Vom Ereignis— the k e y t e x t p u b l i s h e d
Introduction to Metaphysics); a n d t h e l a s t p h a s e of the w i t h d r a w a l
in
from
t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s m i n t o p o e t r y a n d t h o u g h t , u n d e r t h e s i g n of Gelas­
senheit. In h i s first p h a s e , H e i d e g g e r i g n o r e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n of t h e W i l l ;
in t h e s e c o n d p h a s e , it is f o r c e f u l l y a s s e r t e d , a n d w e l l b e y o n d H e i d e g g e r ' s
N a z i e n g a g e m e n t (in t h e Vom Ereignis m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h is u s u î d l y r e a d
a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of l a t e H e i d e g g e r ,
h e still s p e a k s of the
Ereignis"); i n t h e l a s t p h a s e , a s t h e r e s u l t of H e i d e g g e r ' s
"will
to
confrontation
w i t h N i e t z s c h e , t h e w i l l i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p o s i t e d a s t h e v e r y c o r e of
modern
s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d t h u s a s t h a t w h i c h h a s to b e o v e r c o m e
if
m a n k i n d is to l e a v e b e h i n d t h e n i h i l i s m t h a t t h r e a t e n s its v e r y e s s e n c e .
Through
a detailed and perceptive analysis,
Davis shows how
this
tripartite division is not self-evident: a l t h o u g h not explicitly thematized,
t h e w i l l i s not o n l y l u r k i n g in t h e b a c k g r o u n d a l r e a d y in t h e first p h a s e ;
m u c h m o r e c r u c i a l l y , it p e r s i s t s to t h e e n d , m y s t e r i o u s l y p o p p i n g u p in
unexpected ways.
Where
I d i s a g r e e w i t h D a v i s is in h o w to i n t e r p r e t
this
strange
p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e W i l l , w h i c h c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t H e i d e g g e r e v e n w h e n
Its o v e r c o m i n g b e c o m e s t h e v e r y focus of h i s t h o u g h t . U n d e r t h e c l e a r
Influence of h i s i n - d e p t h k n o w l e d g e of J a p a n e s e Z e n B u d d h i s m , D a v i s
r e a d s t h i s p e r s i s t e n c e as a s i g n QVGelassenheit
as. an u n f i n i s h e d p r o j e c t " : it
b a s i c a l l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t H e i d e g g e r did not s u c c e e d in t h o r o u g h l y " d e 143
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
c o n s t r u c t i n g " t h e w i l l , so t h a t it is u p to u s , w h o c o n t i n u e in h i s p a t h , to
finish t h e j o b a n d d r a w all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from GelMjenheit.
Our wager
is, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e W i l l e v e n in t h e l a t e r H e i d e g g e r ,
so b r i l l i a n t l y d i s c e r n e d b y D a v i s , r a t h e r d e m o n s t r a t e s the i n s u f f i c i e n c y of
H e i d e g g e r ' s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y — not i n t h e s e n s e t h a t
" H e i d e g g e r d i d n ' t g o far e n o u g h , a n d t h u s r e m a i n e d h i m s e l f m a r k e d b y
subjectivity," but in the sense that he o v e r l o o k e d a n o n - m e t a p h y s i c a l core
of m o d e r n
s u b j e c t i v i t y itself: t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l
d i m e n s i o n of t h e
a b y s s of s u b j e c t i v i t y c a n n o t b e g r a s p e d t h r o u g h t h e l e n s of t h e n o t i o n of
s u b j e c t i v i t y a s t h e a t t i t u d e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o m i n a t i o n .
it is t h e symptom
of GelaMenheit,
In o t h e r w o r d s ,
a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s
n o t i o n itself, not o n l y of o u r f a i l u r e to f u l l y d e v e l o p its potential.'"^
D a v i s proposes the distinction
b e t w e e n ( 1 ) w h a t H e i d e g g e r c a l l s " t h e w i l l " of s u b j e c t i v i t y , a f u n d a ­
m e n t a l ( d i s ) a t t u n e m e n t that h a s risen u p a n d p r e v a i l e d in a p a r t i c u l a r
e p o c h a l h i s t o r y of m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d ( 2 ) w h a t w e h a v e ( i n t e r p r e t i v e l y
supplementing H e i d e g g e r ) called "ur-willing," a non-historical
dis­
s o n a n t e x c e s s w h i c h h a u n t s t h e p r o p e r e s s e n c e of non-willing.*^''
H e i d e g g e r d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h e s t h i s p o i n t in h i s r e a d i n g of a f r a g m e n t of
A n a x i m a n d e r on o r d e r a n d d i s o r d e r , w h e r e h e c o n s i d e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
that an entity
m a y insist \he<iteheii\ u p o n Its w h i l e s o l e l y to r e m a i n m o r e p r e s e n t . In t h e
s e n s e of p e r d u r i n g {Beständlgeii].
T h a t w h i c h l i n g e r s p e r s i s t s [beharrt^
in its p r e s e n c l n g . In t h i s w a y it e x t r i c a t e s i t s e l f from its t r a n s i t o r y
w h i l e . It s t r i k e s t h e w i l l u l p o s e of p e r s i s t e n c e , n o l o n g e r c o n c e r n i n g
i t s e l f w i t h w h a t e v e r e l s e Is p r e s e n t . It stiffens — a s if t h i s w e r e t h e o n l y
way
to l i n g e r — a n d a i m s s o l e l y for c o n t i n u a n c e a n d s u b s i s t e n c e . ^ '
D a v i s ' s t h e s i s is t h a t t h i s ' r e b e l l i o u s w h i l i n g " r e f e r s to a n o n - h i s t o r i c a l u r w i l l i n g , a w i l l i n g w h i c h i s not l i m i t e d to the e p o c h of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y
a n d its w i l l t o p o w e r , b u t b e l o n g s to t h e c o r e of B e i n g itself. T h i s is a l s o
why
D a v i s is right in dismissing H a n n a h
Arendt's
r e a d i n g of thLs
" c r a v i n g to p e r s i s t " w h i c h r e d u c e s it to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o l o g i c a l n o t i o n
of a " w i l f u l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t h e ' o r d e r ' of C r e a t i o n a s s u c h "
: this ur-
w i l l i n g is not t h e e g o t i s t i c w i t h d r a w a l - I n t o - i t s e l f of a p a r t i c u l a r c r e a t u r e
from t h e g l o b a l O r d e r , it is a " p e r v e r s i o n " i n s c r i b e d into t h i s O r d e r itsell;
144
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
Is t h e r e not a p r o b l e m of " w i l h n g " t h a t i s a n i n e r a d i c a b l e a s p e c t of
man's ineradicable
finitude?
W o u l d not a p r o b l e m of " w i l l i n g " — e v e n
if not t h a t of i t s s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s / e x a c e r b a t i o n s in t h e
e p o c h s of m e t a p h y s i c s — r e m a i n e v e n in t h e o t h e r b e g i n n i n g ? ^ ^
What
Heidegger
c l e a r l y s a w is w h a t
the
great
Rheinland
mystics
( E c k h a r t , B ö h m e ) a l s o s a w : t h e f o r m u l a of evil a s t h e d i s t a n c e or F a l l
from d i v i n e g o o d n e s s i s not e n o u g h ; t h e q u e s t i o n to b e a s k e d i s , h o w c a n
this d i s t a n c e o c c u r ? T h e o n l y c o n s i s t e n t a n s w e r i s : t h e r e h a s to b e a n
" i n v e r s i o n " in G o d h i m s e l f a s t r u g g l e , d i s s o n a n c e , a l r e a d y in t h e v e r y
h e a r t of t h e d i v i n e O r i g i n . In the s a m e w a y , H e i d e g g e r g r o u n d s
e x c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i t y , its n i h i l i s t i c f o r g e t f u l n e s s
the
of B e i n g , in a s t r i l e /
d i s c o r d in t h e v e r y h e a r t of B e i n g . D a v i s d r a w s t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n from
H e i d e g g e r ' s o s c i l l a t i o n s in h i s r e a d i n g of S c h e l l i n g ' s Treatuc on Freedom:
r a d i c a l Evil i s m o s t b r u t a l l y e x p o s e d
not in Ûxe faœlùào defacing t e c h n o l o g y of t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n c a m p s , b u t
r a t h e r in t h e fact t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e [. . . ] for a p e r s o n to l o o k a n o t h e r
p e r s o n i n t h e f a c e a n d , c l e a r l y s e n s i n g t h e w i t h d r a w a l of i n t e r i o r i t y ,
w i l f u l l y p u l l t h e t r i g g e r , o r p o i n t a finger i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e g a s
c h a m b e r s . T h e w i c k e d n e s s of Û\\s face-lo-face defacement—dms w i c k e d
w i l l to p o w e r t h a t w i l l s t h e m u r d e r of t h e O t h e r a s Other, i n o t h e r w o r d s ,
t h a t w i l l s to m a i n t a i n a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e O t h e r p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r to t a k e
d i a b o l i c a l p l e a s u r e in a n n i h i l a t i n g h i s o r h e r o t h e r n e s s ^—radically e x c e e d s t h e evil of t h e c a l c u l a t i n g m a c h i n a t i o n s of t e c h n o l o g y .
[. . . ] T h e t h o u g h t l e s s r e d u c t i o n of t h e O t h e r to a c o g in t h e w h e e l of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l m a c h i n a t i o n is not y e t the w i c k e d w i l l to p o w e r
that
m a i n t a i n s a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e a l t e r i t y of t h e O t h e r p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r to
t a k e d i a b o l i c a l p l e a s u r e in c o n q u e r i n g h e r r e s i s t a n c e a n d w i t n e s s i n g h e r
p a i n . T h i s t e r r i b l e fact of evil c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y .
H e i d e g g e r ' s h i s t o r y of m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i c h p r o c e e d s to c u l m i n a t e in
t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l w i l l to w i l l [. . . ] p a s s e s b y the a b y s s of t h i s w i c k e d w i l l
to p o w e r . After H e i d e g g e r therefore, w e m u s t s t e p b a c k to t h i n k t h e
o r i g i n a i y d i s s o n a n t e x c e s s of u r - w i l l i n g a s t h e root p o t e n t i a l , not j u s t of
t h e f a c e l e s s d e f a c i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l w i l l to w ü l , b u t a l s o of this w i c k e d
face-to-face d e f a c i n g w i l l to p o w e r . M o r e o v e r , insofar a s h u m a n freed o m c o u l d not b e d e t a c h e d from a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s n o n t e c h n o l o g i c a l evil w i l l to p o w e r , a limit in H e i d e g g e r ' s t h i n k i n g of evil
w o u l d a l s o m a r k a l i m i t in h i s t h i n k i n g of h u m a n
freedom.
145
IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES
T h i s , t h e n , i s w h e r e H e i d e g g e r w a s w r o n g in h i s i n f a m o u s i n s e r t i o n of t h e
Holocaust in t h e same series a s the a g r i c u l t u r a l exploitation of nature:
W h a t is "scandalously i n a d e q u a t e " here is that H e i d e g g e r ' s
thought
a p p e a r s u n a b l e to m a r k a n essential difference b e t w e e n t h e reduction
of v e g e t a b l e s t o s t a n d i n g - r e s e r v e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n
of foodstuffs a n d t h e l i n i n g u p o f p e r s o n s t o b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y m u r dered.^^
So, w h a t about t h e c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t in H e i d e g g e r ' s defense according
to w h i c h it IS n o t H e i d e g g e r b u t m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y ' i t s e l f w h i c h r e d u c e s
v e g e t a b l e s a n d h u m a n s t o t h e s a m e l e v e l of a v a i l a b l e / d i s p o s a b l e o b j e c t s ?
T h e a n s w e r i s c l e a r : H e i d e g g e r i s s i m p l y ( a n d c r u c i a l l y ) wrong i n r e d u c i n g
the Holocaust to a technological production of corpses; there is, in events
l i k e t h e H o l o c a u s t , a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t o f the w i l l t o h u m i l i a t e a n d h u r t t h e
o t h e r . T h e v i c t i m i s t r e a t e d a s a n o b j e c t in a r e f l e x i v e w a y , i n o r d e r to
h u m i l i a t e h i m further,
vegetable, where
in clear contrast to t h e industrially
this intention
t o h u r t i s a b s e n t — in
produced
industrialized
a g r i c u l t u r e , a v e g e t a b l e s i m p l y u r e d u c e d to a n o b j e c t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l
manipulation.
T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e notion of t r a u m a h a s n o p l a c e i n h i s u n i v e r s e : d o e s ,
in H e i d e g g e r i a n t e r m s , t h e c o n c e p t o f t r a u m a , of a t r a u m a t i c
encounter,
not d e s i g n a t e p r e c i s e l y t h e u n t h i n k a b l e p o i n t a t w h i c h a n ontic i n t r u s i o n
g e t s so e x c e s s i v e l y p o w e r f u l t h a t it s h a t t e r s t h e v e r y o n t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n
w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s w i t h i n w h i c h r e a l i t y i s d i s c l o s e d to u s ?
T h i s i s w h y a t r a u m a t i c e n c o u n t e r e n t a i l s a " l o s s of r e a l i t y " w h i c h h a s t o
b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e s t r o n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e o f t h e loss of o n t o l o g i c a l
h o r i z o n — i n t r a u m a , w e a r e m o m e n t a r i l y e x p o s e d t o t h e " r a w " ontic
thing not y e t covered/screened
b y the ontological horizon.
T h i s , of
course, is w h a t happens w h e n w e witness something like the Holocaust:
t h e e c l i p s e of t h e W o r l d itself. O n e h a s t o t a k e t h i s s t a t e m e n t a t its m o s t
l i t e r a l : a n a c t of t h o r o u g h Evil t h r e a t e n s t h e v e r y W o r l d - d i s c l o s u r e .
D a v i s ' s s o l u t i o n — t o " c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h [. . . ] b e t w e e n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l
necessity of e r r a n c y a n d t h e inordinate e x c e s s of 'letting oneself b e l e d
a s t r a y ' " " — comes d a n g e r o u s l y close to the all-too-simple
between
distinction
t h e o n t o l o g i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y " n o r m a l " l e v e l o f Evil a n d t h e
ontic " e x c e s s " o v e r t h i s " n o r m a l " l e v e l ( s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o o l d H e r b e r t
M a r c u s e s distinction between " n e c e s s a r y " libidinal repression a n d the
u n n e c e s s a r y excessive repression). The problem w i t h this solution is that
146
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
it d o u b l y m i s s e s t h e p o i n t . F i r s t , it o b v i o u s l y m i s s e s H e i d e g g e r ' s p o i n t ,
w h i c h i s , to t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e t r u e e x c e s s is t h e o n t o l o g i c a l " e v i l " of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s m — c o m p a r e d w i t h it, " o n t i c " e x c e s s e s a r e a m i n o r
m i s h a p , so t h a t o n e m i g h t e v e n r i s k a t a s t e l e s s H e i d e g g e r i a n p a r a p h r a s e
of B r e c h t : " W h a t i s t h e s l a u g h t e r of t h o u s a n d s of e n e m i e s c o m p a r e d to
t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n of m a n h i m s e l f to a n o b j e c t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l
m a n i p u l a t i o n ? " S e c o n d , it m i s s e s a d i m e n s i o n i s o l a t e d a l r e a d y b y t h e
G e r m a n m y s t i c s from E c k h a r t o n w a r d s : t h e v e r y n o n - h i s t o r i c a l " e x c e s ­
s i v e " b a s i c h u m a n evil ( t h e i n t e n t i o n to h u r t a n d h u m i l i a t e t h e o t h e r ) is
not a s i m p l e falling-off from m a n ' s o n t o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e , b u t h a s to b e
g r o u n d e d in t h i s o n t o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e .
T w o f u r t h e r ( i n t e r c o n n e c t e d ) q u e s t i o n s a r e to b e r a i s e d h e r e . T h e first
one, n a i v e b u t n e c e s s a r y : d o e s t h i s not u l t i m a t e l y a b s o l v e m a n
from
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for c o n c r e t e Evil, w h e n E v i l i s g r o u n d e d in the c o n v o l u ­
t i o n s of B e i n g itself? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e q u e s t i o n i s " w h e t h e r H e i d e g g e r ,
in a s c r i b i n g t h e o r i g i n of e v i l to a n e g a t i v i t y in b e i n g itself, i m p l i c i t l y
j u s t i f i e s evil a s a n o n t o l o g i o c a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e d e r r a n c y . "
The
second,
m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l - o n t o l o g i c a l : i s t h i s strife in the h e a r t of B e i n g p a r t of
its H a r m o n y itself, i n t h e s e n s e t h a t b e i n g i s t h e v e r y h i d d e n c o n c o r d of
t h e s t r u g g l i n g p o l e s , or i s it a m o r e r a d i c a l d i s c o r d , s o m e t h i n g
which
d e r a i l s t h e v e r y H a r m o n y of B e i n g ? Or, a s D a v i s p u t s it: " I s b e i n g a
f u g u e i n t o w h i c h all d i s s o n a n c e i s in t h e e n d n e c e s s a r r l y h a r m o n i z e d ?
Or
d o e s e v i l h a u n t t h e gift of b e i n g a s its n o n - s u b l a t a b l e d i s s o n a n t e x c e s s ? "^^
H o w e v e r , a g a i n s t D a v i s ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e first o p t i o n " p u l l s H e i d e g g e r ' s
t h o u g h t b a c k t o w a r d s t h e s y s t e m a t i c i t y of i d e a l i s m , "
t h a t it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p r e - m o d e r n
one should insist
(pre-ideahst) "paganism" whose
u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n i s t h e h i g h e r H a r m o n y of t h e s t r u g g l i n g forces, a n d t h a t
"subjectivity," at its most fundamental, d e s i g n a t e s p r e c i s e l y a "dissonant
e x c e s s " w h i c h c a n n o t b e c o - o p t e d i n t o a h i g h e r H a r m o n y of the s u b ­
s t a n t i a l o r d e r of B e i n g .
T o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , it i s not e n o u g h to t h i n k " w i t h H e i d e g g e r
a g a i n s t H e i d e g g e r , " t h a t i s , to p u s h t h e " u n f i n i s h e d H e i d e g g e r p r o j e c t " to
Its e n d . In o t h e r w o r d s , i m m a n e n t c r i t i q u e i s not e n o u g h h e r e ; o n e h a s to
a b a n d o n H e i d e g g e r ' s b a s i c p r e m i s e of a d i a b o l i c a l i n v e r s i o n of t h e " f u g u e
of b e i n g " . L e t u s g o b a c k to H e i d e g g e r ' s r e a d i n g of A n a x i m a n d e r . F o r
a n y o n e m i n i m a l l y v e r s e d in F r e u d a n d L a c a n , H e i d e g g e r ' s r e a d i n g of
Anaximander's
"disorder"
cannot
but
e v o k e the
Freudian
àrive: h i s
f o r m u l a t i o n r e n d e r s p e r f e c t l y t h e " s t u c k n e s s , " t h e f i x a t i o n , of t h e d r i v e
on a c e r t a i n i m p o s s i b l e p o i n t a r o u n d
w h i c h it c i r c u l a t e s , o b e y i n g
a
147
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
" c o m p u l s i o n to r e p e a t . " A t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y , t h e d r i v e is a " r e b e l l i o u s
w h i l i n g " w h i c h d e r a i l s t h e " n a t u r a l " flow. S o , w h a t if t h e r e is dtricto
seiuti
no w o r l d , no d i s c l o s u r e of b e i n g , p r i o r to t h i s " s t u c k n e s s " ? W h a t if t h e r e
is n o Gelcudenheit w h i c h i s d i s t u r b e d b y t h e e x c e s s of w i l l i n g , w h a t if it is
t h i s v e r y e x c e s s - s t u c k n e s s w h i c h o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for GeUudenheit'l
W h a t if it i s o n l y a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h i s s t u c k n e s s t h a t a h u m a n
b e i n g c a n e x p e r i e n c e h i m - o r h e r s e l f a s f i n i t e / m o r t a l , in c o n t r a s t to a n
animal w h i c h s i m p l y is m o r t a l ?
T h e p r i m o r d i a l fact is t h u s not t h e f u g u e of b e i n g ( o r t h e i n n e r p e a c e of
Geiasdenheit), w h i c h c a n t h e n b e d i s t u r b e d / p e r v e r t e d b y t h e r i s e of u r w i l l i n g ; t h e p r i m o r d i a l fact i s t h i s u r - w i l l i n g itself, i t s d i s t u r b a n c e of the
" n a t u r a l " f u g u e . T o p u t it in y e t a n o t h e r w a y : in o r d e r for a h u m a n b e i n g
to b e a b l e to w i t h d r a w from i m m e r s i o n in t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d to t h e i n n e r
p e a c e of Gelasdenheit, t h i s i m m e r s i o n h a s first to b e b r o k e n
by
the
e x c e s s i v e " s t u c k n e s s " of t h e d r i v e .
T w o further
c o n s e q u e n c e s s h o u l d b e d r a w n from
t h i s . First,
that
h u m a n finitude strictly e q u a l s infinity: the obscene "immortallty"/infinity
of t h e d r i v e w h i c h i n s i s t s " b e y o n d life a n d d e a t h . " S e c o n d : t h e n a m e of
t h i s d i a b o l i c a l e x c e s s of w i l l i n g w h i c h " p e r v e r t s " t h e o r d e r of b e i n g is the
s u b j e c t . T h e s u b j e c t t h u s c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to a n e p o c h of B e i n g , to
m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y b e n t on t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o m i n a t i o n — t h e r e i s , u n d e r ­
l y i n g it, a " n o n - h i s t o r i c a l " s u b j e c t .
Heidegtjer'd "divine violence"
Tf t h e r e i s a p r o p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h o u r e n t i r e r e a d i n g i s a i m e d , it is t h e
notion that " f i e i d e g g e r a b a n d o n e d his romantic infatuation w i t h strug­
g l e , a n d m y t h i c a l p o l i t i c a l d e e d s a n d s a c r i f i c e s in favor of a m o r e g e n t l e
a n d r e c e p t i v e form
divinities."
of o p e n n e s s to t h e e a r t h a n d s k y , m o r t a l s
and
A s u b t i t l e to t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r c o u l d w e l l h a v e b e e n :
" B e w a r e of G e n t l e
Openness!"
W h a t t h i s m e a n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t h r e e p h a s e s of H e i d e g g e r ' s
t h o u g h t is that there
Is a p o t e n t i a l
breakthrough
towards
another
d i m e n s i o n in p h a s e 2, w h i c h g e t s lost in p h a s e 3: w h e r e H e i d e g g e r e r r e d
m o s t ( h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t ) , h e c a m e c l o s e s t to t r u t h . F a r from r e s o l v i n g
t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of p h a s e 2, p h a s e 3 p r o p o s e s a n e w p a r a d i g m w h i c h
r e n d e r s t h e m i n v i s i b l e . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s a s s e r t i o n of t h e l a t e , g r e e n Geloddenheit H e i d e g g e r , o n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e e x p l o r e for n e w o p e n i n g s
t h e v e r y H e i d e g g e r of v i o l e n c e , p o l i t i c a l d e e d s , a n d s a c r i f i c e s . A t t h e l e v e l
148
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
of t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s , G r e g o r y F r i e d ^ ' h a s a l r e a d y d o n e a lot of s p a d e w o r k
In h i s d e e p a n d p e r t i n e n t r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r ' s e n t i r e o p u s t h r o u g h t h e
i n t e r p r e t i v e l e n s of h i s r e f e r e n c e t o H e r a c l i t u s ' s poienws ( s t r u g g l e — i n
G e r m a n , Krieg, Kampf, or, p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n H e i d e g g e r , Aujeinanderdetxung) from t h e l a t t e r ' s f a m o u s F r a g m e n t 5 3 : " W a r i s b o t h f a t h e r of a l l a n d
k i n g of all: it r e v e a l s t h e g o d s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d h u m a n s o n t h e o t h e r ,
m a k e s s l a v e s o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e free o n t h e o t h e r . "^^
A s e v e r y i n t e r p r e t e r of H e r a c l i t u s k n o w s , t h i s f r a g m e n t i s t o b e r e a d a s
t h e i n v e r s i o n of t h e r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n of t h e u n i v e r s e a s g e n e r a t e d a n d r u l e d
b y a d i v i n e p o t e n c y : for s o m e o n e l i k e H e s i o d , G o d ( Z e u s ) " t h e f a t h e r a n d
k i n g o f a l l i s " ! If w e r e p l a c e Z e u s w i t h s t r u g g l e ( w a r ) , w e g e t a t o t a l l y
different o v e r a l l m a p of t h e u n i v e r s e : n o t a h i e r a r c h i c a l w h o l e w h o s e l o c a l
t e n s i o n s a n d s t r u g g l e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p a t e r n a l force of t h e o v e r ­
w h e l m i n g d i v i n e O n e , b u t t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s of s t r u g g l e i t s e l f a s t h e
u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y , a s t h e p r o c e s s o u t of w h i c h all e n t i t i e s a s w e l l a s t h e i r
( t e m p o r a r y ) o r d e r e m e r g e . It i s n o t o n l y t h a t e a c h s t a b l e i d e n t i t y of e a c h
entity is only temporary, that they all sooner or later disappear, disin­
tegrate, return to t h e primordial chaos; their ( t e m p o r a r y ) identity itself
emerges through s t m g g l e , that is, stable identity is something one should
g a i n t h r o u g h t h e o r d e a l of s t r u g g l e , o n e a s s e r t s i n c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e
other(s) . . . P e r h a p s this s o u n d s familiar? O n e can insist that it does —
w h e n H e i d e g g e r , i n h i s r e a d i n g of t h e f r a g m e n t , i n s i s t s o n h o w t h e
" s t r u g g l e m e a n t h e r e i s o r i g i n a r y s t r u g g l e , for it a l l o w s t h o s e w h o s t r u g g l e
to o r i g i n a t e a s s u c h i n t h e first p l a c e , "^^ d o w e n o t h a v e h e r e n o t so m u c h
t h e u s u a l Heidegger avec Hitler, b u t , r a t h e r , t h e u n e x p e c t e d Heidegger avec
Staline! F o r S t a l i n a l s o , n a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y a r e a g r e a t o n g o i n g p r o c e s s of
eternal "struggle between t h e opposites":
C o n t r a r y to metaphysics, dialectics holds that internal contradictions
a r e i n h e r e n t i n a l l t h i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e , for t h e y a l l h a v e
t h e i r n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e s i d e s , a p a s t a n d a future, s o m e t h i n g d y i n g
a w a y a n d something developing; a n d that the struggle between these
opposites, t h e struggle between t h e old a n d t h e n e w , b e t w e e n that
w h i c h is d y i n g a w a y a n d that w h i c h is being born, between that w h i c h
is d i s a p p e a r i n g a n d t h a t w h i c h i s d e v e l o p i n g , c o n s t i t u t e s t h e i n t e r n a l
c o n t e n t of t h e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e i n t e r n a l c o n t e n t of t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a n g e s i n t o q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s .
The dialectical method therefore holds that t h e process of devel­
o p m e n t from t h e l o w e r t o t h e h i g h e r t a k e s p l a c e n o t a s a h a r m o n i o u s
149
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
u n f o l d i n g of p h e n o m e n a , b u t a s a d i s c l o s u r e of t h e
contradictions
i n h e r e n t in t h i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a , a s a " s t r u g g l e " of o p p o s i t e
ten­
d e n c i e s w h i c h o p e r a t e on t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . ^ ^
E v e n t h e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " is a l r e a d y t h e r e in H e r a c l i t u s , in t h e g u i s e of t h e
s t r u g g l e w h i c h " m a k e s s l a v e s on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e free on t h e o t h e r " . . .
A c c o r d i n g to s o m e s o u r c e s , o n e of H e i d e g g e r ' s v i s i t o r s i n t h e l a s t y e a r s of
W o r l d W a r II w a s s u r p r i s e d to s e e on d e s k s o m e b o o k s on M a r x i s t
p h i l o s o p h y ; h e r e p l i e d that, s i n c e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w a s g o i n g to w i n t h e
w a r , h e w a s g e t t i n g r e a d y to p l a y h i s r o l e in a n e w s o c i e t y . . . A p o c r y p h a l
or not, w e c a n s e e t h e i n n e r l o g i c of t h i s a n e c d o t e , w h i c h r e s i d e s in t h e
u n e x p e c t e d reverberation b e t w e e n the highest a n d the lowest, the terse
p o e t i c b e a u t y a n d p r e c i s i o n of H e r a c l i t u s ' s a n c i e n t w i s d o m , a n d
the
s i m p l e b r u t a l i t y of S t a l i n ' s d i a l e c t i c a l - m a t e r i a l i s t " w o r l d - v i e w . "
T h e o t h e r k e y G r e e k p a s s a g e on v i o l e n c e to w h i c h H e i d e g g e r r e p e a t ­
e d l y r e t u r n s is the famous
Chorus
from Antigone on t h e
"uncanny/
d e m o n i c " c h a r a c t e r of m a n . In h i s r e a d i n g of t h i s c h o r u s in t h e Introduc­
tion to Metaphyöwö, H e i d e g g e r d e p l o y s t h e notion of " o n t o l o g i c a l " v i o l e n c e
t h a t p e r t a i n s to e v e r y f o u n d i n g g e s t u r e of t h e n e w c o m m u n a l W o r l d of a
people, accomplished b y poets, thinkers, a n d statesmen:
V i o l e n c e i s u s u a l l y s e e n in t e r m s of t h e d o m a i n in w h i c h c o n c u r r i n g
c o m p r o m i s e a n d m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e set t h e s t a n d a r d for D a s e i n , a n d
a c c o r d i n g l y all violence is n e c e s s a r i l y d e e m e d only a d i s t u r b a n c e a n d
a n offense. [. . . ] T h e v i o l e n t one, t h e c r e a t i v e o n e w h o sets forth i n t o
the unsaid, w h o b r e a k s into the unthought, w h o compels w h a t has
n e v e r h a p p e n e d a n d m a k e s a p p e a r w h a t i s unseen—^this v i o l e n t o n e
s t a n d s a t a l l t i m e s in d a r i n g . [. . . ] T h e r e f o r e t h e v i o l e n c e - d o e r k n o w s
no k i n d n e s s a n d c o n c i l i a t i o n (in t h e o r d i n a r y s e n s e ) , n o a p p e a s e m e n t
and mollification b y success or prestige a n d b y their
confirmation.
[. . . ] F o r s u c h a one, d i s a s t e r i s t h e d e e p e s t a n d b r o a d e s t Y e s to t h e
O v e r w h e l m i n g . [. . . ] E s s e n t i a l d e - c i s i o n , w h e n it is c a r r i e d o u t a n d
w h e n it r e s i s t s t h e c o n s t a n t l y p r e s s i n g e n s n a r e m e n t in t h e e v e r y d a y
a n d t h e c u s t o m a r y , h a s to u s e v i o l e n c e . T h i s a c t of v i o l e n c e , t h i s d e ­
c i d e d s e t t i n g o u t u p o n the w a y to t h e B e i n g of b e i n g s , m o v e s h u m a n i t y
o u t of t h e h o m i n e s s of w h a t is m o s t d i r e c t l y n e a r b y a n d w h a t i s u s u a l .
A s s u c h , t h e C r e a t o r i s "hupsipolLi apolLi" {Antigone, l i n e 3 7 0 ) : h e s t a n d s
o u t s i d e a n d a b o v e poLu) a n d its ethod, h e i s u n b o u n d b y a n y r u l e s of
ISO
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
" m o r a l i t y " ( w h i c h a r e o n l y a d e g e n e r a t i v e form oîethoii); o n l y a s s u c h c a n
h e g r o u n d a n e w form of ethos, of c o m m u n a l B e i n g in a poib . . . — o f
c o u r s e , w h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s h e r e i s t h e t o p i c of a n " i l l e g a l " v i o l e n c e t h a t
f o u n d s t h e r u l e of t h e l a w itself, d e p l o y e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e in different
f o r m s b y W a l t e r B e n j a m i n a n d C a r l S c h m i t t . ^ ^ W h a t a c c o u n t s for t h e
c h i l l i n g c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e p a s s a g e s i s t h a t , h e r e , f i e i d e g g e r d o e s
m e r e l y p r o v i d e a n e w v a r i a t i o n on h i s s t a n d a r d r h e t o r i c a l
figure
not
of
i n v e r s i o n ( " T h e e s s e n c e of v i o l e n c e h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h o n t i c v i o l e n c e ,
suffering, w a r , d e s t r u c t i o n , etc.; t h e e s s e n c e of v i o l e n c e r e s i d e s in t h e
v i o l e n t c h a r a c t e r of t h e v e r y i m p o s i t i o n / f o u n d i n g of t h e n e w m o d e of t h e
E s s e n c e — d i s c l o s u r e of c o m m u n a l B e i n g — i t s e l f " ) ; h e r e , H e i d e g g e r ( i m ­
plicitly, but
clearly) reads this essential violence as something
that
g r o u n d s — o r , a t l e a s t , o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e f o r — t h e e x p l o s i o n s of o n t i c
v i o l e n c e t h e m s e l v e s . . . L i b e r a l c r i t i c s of H e i d e g g e r l i k e to d w e l l on t h e s e
Unes, e m p h a s i z i n g h o w ,
in s u s p e n d i n g
even minimal moral
criteria,
H e i d e g g e r l e g i t i m i z e s the m o s t b r u t a l " o n t i c " v i o l e n c e of the s t a t e s ­
m a n - c r e a t o r , a n d t h u s p a v e s t h e w a y for h i s o w n N a z i e n g a g e m e n t a n d
s u p p o r t for H i t l e r a s s u c h a s t a t e s m a n - c r e a t o r w h o , s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e a n d
a b o v e t h e c o m m u n a l s p a c e of t h e m o r i b u n d W e i m a r R e p u b l i c , f e a r l e s s l y
shattered its coordinates and thus violently g r o u n d e d a n e w c o m m u n a l
B e i n g , t h a t of t h e
Germany
reawakened
in t h e
National
Socialist
revolution . . .
H o w e v e r , w h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to a d d h e r e i s that, in t h e c a s e of N a z i s m
( a n d f a s c i s m in g e n e r a l ) , t h e
c o n s t e l l a t i o n of v i o l e n c e is r a t h e r
the
o p p o s i t e : c r a z y , t a s t e l e s s e v e n , a s it m a y s o u n d , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h H i t l e r
W a s t h a t he was not violent enough, t h a t h i s v i o l e n c e w a s not " e s s e n t i a l "
e n o u g h . N a z i s m w a s not r a d i c a l e n o u g h , it d i d not d a r e to d i s t u r b t h e
b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of t h e m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l s p a c e ( w h i c h i s w h y it h a d
to focus on d e s t r o 3 à n g a n i n v e n t e d e x t e r n a l e n e m y , J e w s ) .
This is w h y one should oppose the fascination w i t h Hitler w h i c h c l a i m s
that, of c o u r s e , h e w a s a n evil m a n , r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e a t h of m i l l i o n s —
but that he definitely had courage, that he pursued w h a t he w a n t e d w i t h
a n i r o n w i l l . . . T h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h i s i s not o n l y e t h i c a l l y r e p u l s i v e , b u t
s i m p l y wrong: no. H i t l e r d i d ru)t " h a v e t h e c o u r a g e " to r e a l l y c h a n g e
t h i n g s ; h e d i d not r e a l l y act, a l l h i s a c t i o n s w e r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y
restions,
t h a t i s , h e a c t e d so t h a t n o t h i n g w o u l d r e a l l y c h a n g e , h e s t a g e d a g r e a t
s p e c t a c l e of R e v o l u t i o n so t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r c o u l d s u r v i v e . If o n e
r e a l l y w a n t s to c o m e u p w i t h a n a c t w h i c h w a s t r u l y d a r i n g , for w h i c h o n e
t r u l y h a d to " h a v e t h e c o u r a g e " to t r y t h e i m p o s s i b l e , b u t w h i c h w a s
151
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a horrific act, an act w h i c h c a u s e d suffering
comprehension,
beyond
o n e c o u l d n o m i n a t e S t a l i n ' s f o r c e d c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n at
t h e e n d of 1 9 2 0 s i n t h e S o v i e t Union—^but e v e n h e r e , t h e s a m e r e p r o a c h
h o l d s : t h e p a r a d o x of t h e 1 9 2 8 " S t a l i n i s t r e v o l u t i o n " w a s r a t h e r t h a t , in all
its b r u t a l r a d i c a l i t y , it
not radical enough in e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s f o r m i n g the
s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e . Its b r u t a l d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s h a s t o b e r e a d a s a n i m p o t e n t
pockiage à l'acte.
F a r from
s i m p l y s t a n d i n g for a t o t a l f o r c i n g
of the
u n n a m a b l e R e a l on b e h a l f of t h e T r u t h , S t a l i n i s t " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " r a t h e r
d e s i g n a t e s t h e a t t i t u d e of a b s o l u t e l y r u t h l e s s " p r a g m a t i s m , " of m a n i p ­
u l a t i n g a n d s a c r i f i c i n g a l l " p r i n c i p l e s " o n b e h a l f of m a i n t a i n i n g p o w e r .
F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e i r o n y of H i t l e r w a s t h a t h i s g r a n d g e s t u r e s
of d e s p i s i n g b o u r g e o i s s e l f - c o m p l a c e n c y a n d so on w e r e u l t i m a t e l y in
t h e s e r v i c e of e n a b l i n g t h i s c o m p l a c e n c y t o c o n t i n u e : far from
effec­
t i v e l y d i s t u r b i n g t h e m u c h d i s p a r a g e d " d e c a d e n t " b o u r g e o i s o r d e r , far
from a w a k e n i n g t h e G e r m a n s from i m m e r s i o n in its d e g e n e r a c y , N a z ­
i s m w a s a d r e a m w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o c o n t i n u e w a l l o w i n g in it a n d to
p o s t p o n e an a w a k e n i n g — G e r m a n y r e a l l y a w a k e n e d o n l y in the defeat
of 1 9 4 5 . T h e w o r r y t h a t B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of " c o u r a g e " ( w h i c h o n e n e e d s
in o r d e r to p r a c t i c e t h e
fidelity
t o t h e E v e n t ) r a i s e s in l i b e r a l m i n d s i s :
b u t h o w a r e w e to d i s t i n g u i s h " g o o d " ( p r o p e r l y e v e n t a l ) c o u r a g e from
" b a d " courage — say, w e r e the Nazis w h o defended Berlin m the winter
of 1 9 4 4 ^ 5 o r t h e M u s l i m t e r r o r i s t s w h o b l o w t h e m s e l v e s u p w h e n t h e v
p e r f o r m s u i c i d a l a t t a c k s a l s o not t r u l y c o u r a g e o u s ? O n e s h o u l d n o n e ­
theless insist that there is no " b a d c o u r a g e " : b a d c o u r a g e is a l w a y s a
form of c o w a r d i c e . T h e " c o u r a g e " of t h e N a z i s w a s s u s t a i n e d b y t h e i r
c o w a r d i c e c o n c e r n i n g a t t a c k i n g t h e k e y f e a t u r e of t h e i r s o c i e t y , t h e
c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ; t h e " c o u r a g e " of t h e t e r r o r i s t s r e l i e s
o n t h e " b i g O t h e r " w h o s e i n s t r u m e n t s t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s to b e .
The
true
courage
of a n
act
is a l w a y s
the
courage
to a c c e p t
the
i n e x i s t e n c e of t h e b i g O t h e r , t h a t i s , to a t t a c k t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r at
t h e p o i n t of its s y m p t o m a l k n o t .
B a c k o n c e m o r e to H e i d e g g e r : w h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t H i t l e r ' s v i o l e n c e ,
e v e n a t its m o s t t e r r i f y i n g ( t h e m u r d e r of m i l l i o n s of J e w s ) , w a s all too
" o n t i c , " t h a t i s , it too w a s a n i m p o t e n t pa^uage ci l'acte t h a t r e v e a l e d the
i n a b i l i t y of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t t o b e r e a l l y "apolu,"
to
question-con­
front—shatter t h e b a s i c c o o r d i n a t e s of b o u r g e o i s c o m m u n a l b e i n g . A n d
w h a t if H e i d e g g e r ' s o w n N a z i e n g a g e m e n t i s a l s o to b e r e a d a s a paMage à
l'acte: a v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t t h a t b e a r s w i t n e s s to H e i d e g g e r ' s i n a b i l i t y to
r e s o l v e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e a d l o c k h e f o u n d h i m s e l f i n ? T h e q u e s t i o n of h o w
152
RADICAL INTELLECTUALS
H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i c o m m i t m e n t r e l a t e s to h i s p h i l o s o p h y s h o u l d t h u s b e
r e c a s t : it is no l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n of adequat'w ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e )
between
H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t a n d h i s p o l i t i c a l a c t s , b u t of a n i n h e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l
d e a d l o c k ( w h i c h , in itself, h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h N a z i s m ) , a n d
the
v i o l e n t passage a s t h e o n l y w a y of e s c a p i n g it.
This is h o w one should also reframe the old d i l e m m a . W h i c h w a s m the
b e g i n n i n g t h e W o r d o r t h e A c t ? L o g i c a l l y , it all b e g a n w i t h t h e W o r d ; t h e
A c t t h a t f o l l o w e d w a s a flailing o u t b u r s t t h a t b o r e w i t n e s s to t h e d e a d l o c k
o f t h e W o r d . A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for t h e Act par excellence, t h e d i v i n e a c t of
C r e a t i o n : it a l s o s i g n a l s t h e i m p a s s e of G o d ' s r a t i o c i n a t i o n s . In short, h e r e
t o o , t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t of o n t o l o g i c a l p r o o f h o l d s : t h e fact t h a t
c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d d o e s not d i s p l a y H i s o m n i p o t e n c e
God
a n d e x c e s s of
goodness, but rather His debilitating limitations.
153
LESSONS FROM THE PAST
4
Revolutionary Terror from Robespierre to Mao
"What do you want?"
In h i s LoglquM ded mondes, A l a i n B a d i o u ^ e l a b o r a t e s t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of
t h e p o h t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e at w o r k from t h e a n c i e n t C h i n e s e
" l e g i s t s " t h r o u g h t h e J a c o b i n s to L e n i n a n d M a o . It c o n s i s t s of four
moments:
voluntar'uitn ( t h e
belief that
one
can
"move
mountains,"
i g n o r i n g " o b j e c t i v e " l a w s a n d o b s t a c l e s ) ; terror ( a r u t h l e s s w i l l to c r u s h
the
enemy
of
imposition, w i t h
the
p e o p l e ) ; egalitarian
no u n d e r s t a n d i n g
jiutice
(its i m m e d i a t e
brutal
for t h e " c o m p l e x c i r c u m s t a n c e s '
w h i c h a l l e g e d l y c o m p e l u s to p r o c e e d g r a d u a l l y ) ; a n d , l a s t b u t not l e a s t ,
truàt in the people—svS£\ce it to r e c a l l t w o e x a m p l e s h e r e ,
Robespierre
himself, h i s " a g r e a t t r u t h " ( " t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t i s
to b e trustful t o w a r d s t h e p e o p l e a n d s e v e r e t o w a r d s i t s e l f " ) , a n d M a o ' s
c r i t i q u e of S t a l i n ' s Economic Probleme of Socialism in the USSR, w h e r e h e
q u a l i f i e s S t a l i n ' s p o i n t of v i e w a s " a l m o s t a l t o g e t h e r w r o n g . T h e b a s i c
e r r o r i s m i s t r u s t of t h e p e a s a n t s " . ^
In m o d e r n
European
h i s t o r y , t h e first to fully e n a c t t h e p o l i t i c s of
r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e w e r e t h e J a c o b i n s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e
French
Revolution.^ W h e n , in 1953, Z h o u Enlai, the Chinese P r i m e M i n i s t e r ,
w a s in G e n e v a for t h e p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s to e n d t h e K o r e a n w a r , a F r e n c h
journalist asked him w h a t he thought about the French Revolution; Zhou
r e p l i e d : "It i s still too e a r l y to t e l l . " In a w a y , h e w a s r i g h t : w i t h t h e
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e " p e o p l e ' s d e m o c r a c i e s " in t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , t h e s t r u g g l e
for t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n flared u p a g a i n .
T h e l i b e r a l r e v i s i o n i s t s t r i e d to i m p o s e t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e d e m i s e of
C o m m u n i s m i n 1 9 8 9 o c c u r r e d at e x a c t l y t h e r i g h t m o m e n t : it m a r k e d t h e
e n d of t h e e r a w h i c h b e g a n in 1 7 8 9 , t h e
final
f a i l u r e of t h e
statist-
r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o d e l w h i c h first e n t e r e d t h e s c e n e w i t h t h e J a c o b i n s .
N o w h e r e i s t h e d i c t u m " e v e r y h i s t o r y i s a h i s t o r y of t h e p r e s e n t " m o r e
t r u e t h a n in t h e c a s e of t h e F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n : its h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l
157
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
r e c e p t i o n h a s a l w a y s c l o s e l y m i r r o r e d t h e t w i s t s a n d t u r n s of p o l i t i c a l
s t r u g g l e s . T h e i d e n t i f y i n g m a r k of a l l k i n d s of c o n s e r v a t i v e s i s its flat
rejection: the
French
Revolution
w a s a catastrophe
from
the
very
b e g i n n i n g , t h e p r o d u c t of t h e g o d l e s s m o d e r n m i n d , it i s to b e I n t e r p r e t e d
a s G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t for h u m a n i t y ' s w i c k e d w a y s , so its t r a c e s s h o u l d b e
effaced
as thoroughly
as possible. The
typical liberal attitude
is a
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o n e : its f o r m u l a i s " 1 7 8 9 w i t h o u t 1 7 9 3 . " In short, w h a t
the sensitive liberals w a n t is a decaffeinated revolution, or a revolution
w h i c h d o e s not s m e l l of a r e v o l u t i o n . F r a n ç o i s F u r e t a n d o t h e r s t h u s t r y
to d e p r i v e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n of i t s s t a t u s a s t h e f o u n d i n g e v e n t of
m o d e r n d e m o c r a c y , r e l e g a t i n g it to a h i s t o r i c a l a n o m a l y : t h e r e w a s a
h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y to a s s e r t t h e m o d e r n p r i n c i p l e s of p e r s o n a l
freedom
a n d so forth, but, a s t h e E n g l i s h e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s , t h e s a m e c o u l d
h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y a c h i e v e d in a m o r e p e a c e f u l w a y . . .
R a d i c a l s a r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p o s s e s s e d b y w h a t A l a i n B a d i o u c a l l s the
" p a s s i o n of t h e R e a l " : if y o u s a y ^ — e q u a l i t y , h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d freed o m — y o u s h o u l d n o t s h i r k from its c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d g a t h e r t h e c o u r a g e
to s a y ß — t h e t e r r o r n e e d e d to r e a l l y d e f e n d a n d a s s e r t t h e A.
A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for t h e m e m o r y of M a y 1 9 6 8 . D a y s b e f o r e
the
s e c o n d r o u n d of t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s in M a y 2 0 0 7 , N i c o l a s S a r k o z y
f o r m u l a t e d t h e e x o r c i s m of t h e g h o s t of M a y 6 8 a s t h e t r u e c h o i c e f a c i n g
the electorate: "In this election, w e should l e a r n w h e t h e r the inheritance
of M a y 6 8 i s to b e p e r p e t u a t e d , o r w h e t h e r it s h o u l d b e l i q u i d a t e d o n c e
a n d for a l l . I w a n t to t u r n t h e p a g e of M a y 6 8 . " W h i l e o n e s h o u l d d e f e n d
t h e m e m o r y of 6 8 , o n e s h o u l d a l s o b e a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e c o n t e n t of t h i s
m e m o r y i s t h e s t a k e of a n i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e — a s D a n i e l B e n s a ï d a n d
Alain Krivine pointed out recently: "There is their M a y and ours."
The
predominant liberal discourse appropriated the M a y 68 events as the
b e g i n n i n g of t h e e n d of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Left, a s t h e e x p l o s i o n of y o u t h f u l
e n e r g y a n d creativity, a s F r a n c e ' s " b e l a t e d e n t r a n c e into hedonist mode r n i t y . " F o r t h e Left, on t h e c o n t r a r y , M a y 6 8 w a s t h e u n i q u e m o m e n t of
a g e n e r a l s t r i k e w h i c h p a r a l y z e d F r a n c e a n d e v o k e d t h e s p e c t e r of t h e
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of s t a t e p o w e r , t h e m o m e n t of u n i f i c a t i o n of t h e s t u d e n t s '
c o n t e s t a t i o n w i t h t h e w o r k e r s ' p r o t e s t s , p a r t of t h e l a r g e r
movement
w h i c h encompassed student movements in the U S , Germany, a n d Italy.
H o w e v e r , it i s a l l too e a s y to s a y t h a t t o d a y ' s Left s h o u l d s i m p l y
c o n t i n u e a l o n g t h i s p a t h . S o m e t h i n g , s o m e k i n d of h i s t o r i c a l r u p t u r e ,
e f f e c t i v e l y t o o k p l a c e in 1 9 9 0 : e v e r y o n e , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y " r a d i c a l L e f t "
i n c l u d e d , i s s o m e h o w a s h a m e d of t h e J a c o b i n l e g a c y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y
t58
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
t e r r o r w i t h i t s s t a t e - c e n t r a h z e d c h a r a c t e r , so t h a t t h e c u r r e n t doxa i s t h a t
t h e Left, if it is to r e g a i n p o h t i c a l e f f i c a c y , s h o u l d t h o r o u g h l y r e i n v e n t
itself,
finally a b a n d o n i n g
the
s o - c a l l e d " J a c o b i n p a r a d i g m . " In
our
p o s t m o d e r n e r a of " e m e r g e n t p r o p e r t i e s , " c h a o t i c i n t e r a c t i o n of m u l t i p l e
s u b j e c t i v i t i e s , of free i n t e r a c t i o n i n s t e a d of c e n t r a l i z e d h i e r a r c h y , of a
m u l t i t u d e of o p i n i o n s i n s t e a d of o n e T r u t h , t h e J a c o b i n d i c t a t o r s h i p i s
f u n d a m e n t a l l y " n o t to o u r t a s t e " ( t h e t e r m " t a s t e " s h o u l d b e g i v e n a l l i t s
historical weight, as a w o r d capturing a basic ideological disposition).
C a n o n e i m a g i n e a n y t h i n g m o r e foreign to o u r u n i v e r s e of t h e f r e e d o m of
o p i n i o n s , of m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n , of n o m a d i c p l u r a l i s t i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d so
on a n d so forth, t h a n R o b e s p i e r r e ' s p o l i t i c s of T r u t h ( w i t h a c a p i t a l T, of
c o u r s e ) , w h o s e p r o c l a i m e d g o a l i s "to r e t u r n t h e d e s t i n y of l i b e r t y i n t o t h e
h a n d s of t h e t r u t h " ? S u c h a T r u t h c a n o n l y b e e n f o r c e d in a t e r r o r i s t
manner:
If t h e m a i n s p r i n g of p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t in p e a c e t i m e i s v i r t u e , a m i d
r e v o l u t i o n it i s a t t h e s a m e t i m e v i r t u e a n d t e r r o r : v i r t u e , w i t h o u t w h i c h
t e r r o r i s fatal; t e r r o r , w i t h o u t w h i c h v i r t u e i s i m p o t e n t .
nothing
but
Terror is
p r o m p t , s e v e r e , i n f l e x i b l e j u s t i c e ; it i s t h e r e f o r e
an
e m a n a t i o n of v i r t u e . It i s l e s s a s p e c i a l p r i n c i p l e t h a n a c o n s e q u e n c e
of t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e of d e m o c r a c y a p p l i e d to o u r c o u n t r y ' s m o s t
pressing needs.
T h i s l i n e of a r g u m e n t a t i o n r e a c h e s its c l i m a x in t h e p a r a d o x i c a l i d e n t i ­
fication
of t h e o p p o s i t e s : r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r " s u b l a t e s " t h e
opposition
b e t w e e n p u n i s h m e n t a n d c l e m e n c y — j u s t a n d s e v e r e p u n i s h m e n t of t h e
e n e m i e s i> t h e h i g h e s t form of c l e m e n c y , so t h a t r i g o r a n d c h a r i t y c o i n c i d e
in t e r r o r :
T o p u n i s h t h e o p p r e s s o r s of h u m a n i t y i s c l e m e n c y ; to p a r d o n t h e m i s
b a r b a r i t y . T h e r i g o r of t y r a n t s h a s o n l y rigor for a p r i n c i p l e ; t h e
rigor
of t h e r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t c o m e s from c h a r i t y .
D o w e still h a v e e a r s for s u c h a r e v o l u t i o n a r y " c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e
o p p o s i t e s " —of p u n i s h m e n t
a n d c h a r i t y , of t e r r o r a n d f r e e d o m ?
The
p o p u l a r i m a g e of R o b e s p i e r r e i s t h a t of a k i n d of i n v e r t e d E l e p h a n t M a n :
while the latter h a d a terribly deformed
body hiding a gentle
and
i n t e l l i g e n t soul, R o b e s p i e r r e w a s a k i n d a n d p o l i t e p e r s o n h i d i n g i c e cold cruel determination as signaled b y his green e y e s . As such, Robe159
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s p i e r r e s e r v e s p e r f e c t l y t o d a y ' s a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n l i b e r a l s w h o no l o n g e r
n e e d to p o r t r a y h i m a s a c r u e l m o n s t e r w i t h a s n e e r i n g evil s m i l e , a s w a s
the
c a s e for
nineteenth-century
reactionaries: e v e r y o n e is r e a d y
to
r e c o g n i z e h i s m o r a l i n t e g r i t y a n d full d e v o t i o n to t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a u s e ,
s i n c e h i s v e r y p u r i t y i s t h e p r o b l e m , t h e s o u r c e of a l l t r o u b l e , a s is
i n d i c a t e d b y t h e t i t l e of t h e l a t e s t b i o g r a p h y of R o b e s p i e r r e , R u t h S c u r r ' s
Fatal Purity.
A n d , so t h a t n o o n e m i s s e s t h e point, A n t o n i a F r a s e r , in h e r
r e v i e w , d r a w s " a c h i l l i n g l e s s o n for u s t o d a y " : R o b e s p i e r r e w a s p e r s o n ­
ally honest a n d sincere, but " [ t ] h e bloodlettings brought about b y this
s i n c e r e ' m a n s u r e l y w a r n u s t h a t b e l i e f in y o u r o w n
righteousness
to the
e x c l u s i o n of a l l e l s e c a n b e a s d a n g e r o u s a s t h e m o r e c y n i c a l m o t i v a t i o n of
a deliberate tyrant."
H a p p y a r e w e w h o live u n d e r cynical public-
o p i n i o n m a n i p u l a t o r s , not u n d e r t h e s i n c e r e M u s l i m
fundamentalists
r e a d y to fully e n g a g e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r p r o j e c t s . . . w h a t b e t t e r p r o o f of
t h e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l m i s e r y of o u r e p o c h w h o s e u l t i m a t e m o b i l i z i n g motif
is t h e m i s t r u s t of v i r t u e !
W h a t , t h e n , s h o u l d t h o s e w h o r e m a i n faithful to t h e l e g a c y of t h e
r a d i c a l Left d o w i t h a l l t h i s ? T w o t h i n g s , at t h e v e r y l e a s t . First, the
t e r r o r i s t p a s t h a s to b e a c c e p t e d a s our^, e v e n —or p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e —it is
c r i t i c a l l y r e j e c t e d . T h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e h a l l - h e a r t e d
defensive
p o s i t i o n of f e e l i n g g u i l t y f a c e d w i t h o u r l i b e r a l o r r i g h t i s t c r i t i c s i s : w e
h a v e to d o t h e c r i t i c a l j o b b e t t e r t h a n o u r o p p o n e n t s . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is not
t h e e n t i r e s t o r y : o n e s h o u l d a l s o not a l l o w o u r o p p o n e n t s to d e t e r m i n e the
t e r m s a n d t o p i c of t h e s t r u g g l e . W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t r u t h l e s s selfc r i t i c i s m s h o u l d g o h a n d in h a n d w i t h a f e a r l e s s a d m i s s i o n of w h a t , to
p a r a p h r a s e M a r x ' s j u d g m e n t on H e g e l ' s d i a l e c t i c s , o n e i s t e m p t e d to call
t h e " r a t i o n a l k e r n e l " of t h e J a c o b i n
Terror:
M a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s a s s u m e s , w i t h o u t p a r t i c u l a r j o y , t h a t , till n o w , no
p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t w a s a b l e to a r r i v e a t t h e e t e r n i t y of t h e t r u t h it w a s
d e p l o y i n g w i t h o u t m o m e n t s of t e r r o r . For, a s S a i n t - J u s t a s k e d : " W h a t
do those w h o w a n t neither V i r t u e nor T e r r o r w a n t ? " H i s a n s w e r is
w e l l k n o w n : t h e y w a n t c o r r u p t i o n — a n o t h e r n a m e for t h e
subject's
defeat.'"
O r , a s S a i n t - J u s t p u t it s u c c i n c t l y e l s e w h e r e : " T h a t w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e
g e n e r a l g o o d is a l w a y s t e r r i b l e . "
T h e s e w o r d s s h o u l d not b e i n t e r p r e t e d
a s a w a r n i n g a g m n s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n to v i o l e n t l y i m p o s e t h e g e n e r a l g o o d
on a s o c i e t y , but, on t h e c o n t r a i y , a s a b i t t e r t r u t h to b e fully e n d o r s e d .
160
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
The further
c r u c i a l p o i n t to b e a r in m i n d i s t h a t , for R o b e s p i e r r e ,
r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r i s t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of w a r : R o b e s p i e r r e w a s a
pacifist, not o u t of h y p o c r i s y o r h u m a n i t a r i a n s e n s i t i v i t y , b u t b e c a u s e
h e w a s w e l l a w a r e t h a t w a r between n a t i o n s a s a r u l e s e r v e s a s t h e m e a n s to
o b f u s c a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e within e a c h n a t i o n . R o b e s p i e r r e ' s s p e e c h
" O n W a r " i s of s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e t o d a y : it s h o w s h i m a s a t r u e p e a c e l o v e r w h o r u t h l e s s l y d e n o u n c e s t h e p a t r i o t i c c a l l to w a r , e v e n if t h e w a r i s
f o r m u l a t e d a s t h e d e f e n s e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n , for it i s t h e a t t e m p t of t h o s e
w h o w a n t " r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t r e v o l u t i o n " to d i v e r t t h e r a d i c a l i z a t i o n of
t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . H i s s t a n c e is t h u s t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of t h o s e
w h o n e e d w a r to m i l i t a r i z e s o c i a l life a n d t a k e d i c t a t o r i a l c o n t r o l o v e r it.
W h i c h i s w h y R o b e s p i e r r e a l s o d e n o u n c e d t h e t e m p t a t i o n to
export
r e v o l u t i o n to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , f o r c e f u l l y " l i b e r a t i n g " t h e m :
T h e F r e n c h a r e not afflicted w i t h a m a n i a for r e n d e r i n g a n y n a t i o n
h a p p y a n d free a g a i n s t i t s w i l l . A l l t h e k i n g s c o u l d h a v e v e g e t a t e d o r
d i e d u n p u n i s h e d on t h e i r b l o o d - s p a t t e r e d t h r o n e s , if t h e y h a d b e e n
a b l e to r e s p e c t t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e . ^ ^
J a c o b i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y terror is sometimes (half) justified a s the "found­
i n g c r i m e " of t h e b o u r g e o i s u n i v e r s e of l a w a n d o r d e r , in w h i c h c i t i z e n s
a r e a l l o w e d to p u r s u e t h e i r i n t e r e s t s in p e a c e , b u t o n e s h o u l d r e j e c t t h i s
c l a i m on t w o a c c o u n t s . N o t o n l y i s it f a c t u a l l y w r o n g ( m a n y c o n s e r v a t i v e s
w e r e q u i t e r i g h t to p o i n t o u t t h a t o n e c a n a c h i e v e b o u r g e o i s l a w a n d
o r d e r w i t h o u t t e r r o r i s t e x c e s s e s , a s w a s t h e c a s e in G r e a t B r i t a i n —
a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s C r o m w e l l to r e m e m b e r . . . ) ; m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e
r e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r of 1792—94 w a s n o t a c a s e of w h a t W a l t e r B e n j a m i n
a n d o t h e r s c a l l s t a t e - f o u n d i n g v i o l e n c e , b u t a c a s e of " d i v i n e violence."'"^
I n t e r p r e t e r s of B e n j a m i n w o n d e r w h a t " d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y
m e a n — i s it y e t a n o t h e r leftist d r e a m of a " p u r e " e v e n t w h i c h n e v e r r e a l l y
t a k e s p l a c e ? O n e s h o u l d r e c a l l h e r e F r i e d r i c h E n g e l s ' s r e f e r e n c e to t h e
P a r i s C o m m u n e a s a n e x a m p l e of t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t :
Of late, the S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c philistine has once more b e e n
filled
w i t h w h o l e s o m e t e r r o r a t t h e w o r d s : D i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e P r o l e t a r i a t .
W e l l a n d g o o d , g e n t l e m e n , d o y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t t h i s d i c t a t o r s h i p
l o o k s l i k e ? L o o k a t t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e . T h a t w a s t h e D i c t a t o r s h i p of
the Proletariat.
161
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
O n e s h o u l d r e p e a t t h i s , mutatut mutandui, a p r o p o s d i v i n e v i o l e n c e : " W e l l
a n d g o o d , g e n t l e m e n c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s , d o y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t t h i s
d i v i n e v i o l e n c e l o o k s l i k e ? L o o k a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r of 1 7 9 2 - 9 4 .
That w a s Divine Violence." ( A n d the series can continue: the R e d Terror
of 1 9 1 9 . . . ) T h a t i s to s a y , o n e s h o u l d f e a r l e s s l y i d e n t i f y d i v i n e v i o l e n c e
with positively existing historical phenomena, thus avoiding all obscur­
a n t i s t m y s t i f i c a t i o n . W h e n t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e d s o c i a l field s t r i k e
" b l i n d l y , " d e m a n d i n g and e n a c t i n g i m m e d i a t e j u s t i c e / v e n g e a n c e , t h i s i s
" d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " — r e c a l l , a d e c a d e o r so a g o , t h e p a n i c in R i o d e J a n e i r o
w h e n c r o w d s d e s c e n d e d from t h e f a v e l a s i n t o t h e w e a l t h y p a r t of t h e c i t y
a n d started looting a n d burning s u p e r m a r k e t s — w a s "divine vio­
l e n c e " . . . L i k e b i b l i c a l l o c u s t s , d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t for m e n ' s sinful w a y s ,
it s t r i k e s from o u t of n o w h e r e , a m e a n s w i t h o u t a n e n d —or, a s R o b e ­
s p i e r r e p u t it in h i s s p e e c h in w h i c h h e d e m a n d e d t h e e x e c u t i o n of L o u i s
XVI:
P e o p l e s d o n o t j u d g e i n t h e s a m e w a y a s c o u r t s of l a w ; t h e y d o not
h a n d d o w n s e n t e n c e s , t h e y t h r o w t h u n d e r b o l t s ; t h e y d o not c o n d e m n
kings, they drop them back into the void; and this justice is w o r t h just
a s m u c h a s t h a t of t h e c o u r t s .
T h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " i s t h u s a n o t h e r n a m e for B e n j a m i nian "divine violence" w h i c h is outside the law, a violence exerted as
brutal revenge/justice —but w h y " d i v i n e " ? " D i v i n e " points t o w a r d s the
d i m e n s i o n of t h e " i n h u m a n " ; o n e s h o u l d t h u s p o s i t a d o u b l e e q u a t i o n :
divine violence = inhuman
Benjaminian
terror
= dictatorship
of t h e
proletariat.
" d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " s h o u l d b e c o n c e i v e d a s d i v i n e in t h e
p r e c i s e s e n s e of t h e o l d L a t i n m o t t o vox popuU, vox del: n o t in t h e p e r v e r s e
s e n s e of " w e a r e d o i n g it a s m e r e i n s t r u m e n t s of t h e P e o p l e ' s W i l l , " b u t a s
t h e h e r o i c a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s o l i t u d e of a s o v e r e i g n d e c i s i o n . It i s a
d e c i s i o n (to k i l l , to risk o r l o s e o n e ' s o w n l i f e ) m a d e in a b s o l u t e s o l i t u d e ,
w i t h no c o v e r from t h e b i g O t h e r . If it i s e x t r a - m o r a l , it i s n o t " i m m o r a l , "
it d o e s not g i v e t h e a g e n t t h e l i c e n s e j u s t to k i l l w i t h s o m e k i n d of a n g e l i c
i n n o c e n c e . T h e m o t t o of d i v i n e v i o l e n c e is fiat iuàtitia, pereat mundiuf: it i s
t h r o u g h jiutice,
t h e p o i n t of n o n - d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n j u s t i c e a n d v e n ­
g e a n c e , t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " ( t h e a n o n y m o u s p a r t of n o - p a r t ) i m p o s e s i t s
t e r r o r a n d m a k e s o t h e r p a r t s p a y t h e p r i c e — J u d g m e n t D a y for t h e l o n g
h i s t o r y of o p p r e s s i o n , e x p l o i t a t i o n , s u f f e r i n g — o r , a s R o b e s p i e r r e h i m s e l f
p u t it in a p o i g n a n t m a n n e r :
162
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
W h a t d o y o u w a n t , y o u w h o w o u l d h k e t r u t h to b e p o w e r l e s s on t h e
l i p s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e ? T r u t h u n d o u b t e d l y h a s its
p o w e r , it h a s its a n g e r , i t s o w n d e s p o t i s m ; it h a s t o u c h i n g a c c e n t s a n d
t e r r i b l e o n e s , t h a t r e s o u n d w i t h force in p u r e h e a r t s a s i n g u i l t y
consciences, a n d that untruth can no more imitate than S a l o m e can
i m i t a t e t h e t h u n d e r b o l t s of h e a v e n ; b u t a c c u s e n a t u r e of it, a c c u s e t h e
p e o p l e , w h i c h w a n t s it a n d l o v e s it.
A n d t h i s i s w h a t R o b e s p i e r r e i s t a r g e t i n g in h i s f a m o u s a c c u s a t i o n to t h e
moderates that w h a t t h e y r e a l l y w a n t is a "revolution w i t h o u t a revolu­
t i o n " : t h e y w a n t a r e v o l u t i o n d e p r i v e d of t h e e x c e s s in w h i c h d e m o c r a c y
a n d t e r r o r c o i n c i d e , a r e v o l u t i o n r e s p e c t i n g s o c i a l r u l e s , s u b o r d i n a t e d to
p r e e x i s t i n g n o r m s , a r e v o l u t i o n in w h i c h v i o l e n c e i s d e p r i v e d of t h e
" d i v i n e " d i m e n s i o n a n d t h u s r e d u c e d to a s t r a t e g i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s e r v i n g
precise and limited goals:
Citizens, d i d y o u w a n t a revolution w i t h o u t a revolution? W h a t is this
s p i r i t of p e r s e c u t i o n t h a t h a s c o m e to r e v i s e , so to s p e a k , t h e o n e t h a t
b r o k e o u r c h a i n s ? B u t w h a t s u r e j u d g e m e n t c a n o n e m a k e of t h e
effects t h a t c a n f o l l o w t h e s e g r e a t c o m m o t i o n s ? W h o c a n m a r k , after
t h e e v e n t , t h e e x a c t p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e w a v e s of p o p u l a r i n s u r r e c t i o n
s h o u l d b r e a k ? A t t h a t p r i c e , w h a t p e o p l e c o u l d e v e r h a v e s h a k e n off
t h e y o k e of d e s p o t i s m ? F o r w h i l e it i s t r u e t h a t a g r e a t n a t i o n c a n n o t
r i s e in a s i m u l t a n e o u s m o v e m e n t , a n d t h a t t y r a n n y c a n o n l y b e h i t b y
t h e p o r t i o n of c i t i z e n s t h a t i s c l o s e s t to it, h o w w o u l d t h e s e e v e r d a r e to
a t t a c k it if, after t h e v i c t o r y , d e l e g a t e s from r e m o t e p a r t s c o u l d h o l d
t h e m r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d u r a t i o n o r v i o l e n c e of t h e p o l i t i c a l t o r m e n t
t h a t h a d s a v e d t h e h o m e l a n d ? T h e y o u g h t to b e r e g a r d e d a s j u s t i f i e d
b y t a c i t p r o x y for t h e w h o l e of s o c i e t y . T h e F r e n c h , f r i e n d s of l i b e r t y ,
m e e t i n g in P a r i s l a s t A u g u s t , a c t e d in t h a t r o l e , in t h e n a m e of a l l t h e
d e p a r t m e n t s . T h e y s h o u l d either be a p p r o v e d or r e p u d i a t e d entirely.
To m a k e them
c r i m i n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for a f e w a p p a r e n t
d i s o r d e r s , i n s e p a r a b l e from
so g r e a t a s h o c k , w o u l d b e to
or
real
punish
t h e m for t h e i r d e v o t i o n .
T h i s a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y l o g i c c a n b e d i s c e r n e d a l r e a d y a t t h e l e v e l of
r h e t o r i c a l figures, w h e r e R o b e s p i e r r e l i k e s to t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d
p r o c e d u r e of first e v o k i n g a n a p p a r e n t l y " r e a l i s t i c " p o s i t i o n a n d t h e n
d i s p l a y i n g its i l l u s o r y n a t u r e : h e often s t a r t s w i t h p r e s e n t i n g a p o s i t i o n o r
163
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
d e s c r i p t i o n of a s i t u a t i o n a s a n a b s u r d e x a g g e r a t i o n , a fiction, a n d t h e n
g o e s on to r e m i n d u s t h a t w h a t , in a first a p p r o a c h , c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s a
fiction,
is a c t u a l l y t r u t h itself: " B u t w h a t a m I s a y i n g ? W h a t I h a v e j u s t
p r e s e n t e d a s a n a b s u r d h y p o t h e s i s i s a c t u a l l y a v e i y c e r t a i n reedity. " It is
this radical revolutionary stance w h i c h also enables Robespierre
denounce
to
t h e " h u m a n i t a r i a n " c o n c e r n w i t h v i c t i m s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y
"divine violence": " A sensibility that w a i l s almost e x c l u s i v e l y over the
e n e m i e s of l i b e r t y s e e m s s u s p e c t to m e . S t o p s h a k i n g t h e t y r a n t ' s b l o o d y
r o b e i n m y face, o r I w i l l b e l i e v e t h a t y o u w i s h to p u t R o m e in c h a i n s . " ' ^
Averting
the inhuman
C r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e h i s t o r i c a l l e g a c y of
J a c o b i n s o v e r l a p i n t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d : d o e s t h e
the
(often
d e p l o r a b l e ) a c t u a l i t y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c o m p e l u s to r e j e c t t h e v e r y
i d e a of T e r r o r , o r i s t h e r e a w a y to repeat it in t o d a y ' s d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l
c o n s t e l l a t i o n , to r e d e e m its v i r t u a l c o n t e n t from its a c t u a l i z a t i o n ? W e
c l a i m h e r e t h a t it can a n d dhouß b e d o n e , a n d t h e m o s t c o n c i s e f o r m u l a of
r e p e a t i n g t h e e v e n t d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e n a m e " R o b e s p i e r r e " i s to p a s s from
( R o b e s p i e r r e ' s ) h u m a n i s t t e r r o r to a n t i - h u m a n i s t (or, r a t h e r , i n h u m a n )
terror.
In h i s Le Siècle, A l a i n B a d i o u d e t e c t s a s i g n of t h e p o l i t i c a l r e g r e s s i o n
t h a t o c c u r r e d t o w a r d s the e n d of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y in t h e shift from
" h u m a n i s m and t e r r o r " to " h u m a n i s m or terror."^** In 1 9 4 6 , M a u r i c e
M e r l e a u - P o n t y w r o t e Humanism and Terror, h i s d e f e n s e of S o v i e t C o m m u n i s m a s i n v o l v i n g a k i n d of P a s c a l e a n w a g e r t h a t a n n o u n c e s t h e t r o p e
w h i c h B e r n a r d W i l l i a m s later called "moral luck": the present terror will
b e r e t r o a c t i v e l y j u s t i f i e d if t h e s o c i e t y t h a t e m e r g e s from it i s t r u l y h u m a n ;
t o d a y , s u c h a c o n j u n c t i o n of t e r r o r a n d h u m a n i s m i s p r o p e r l y u n t h i n k able, the predominant
l i b e r a l v i e w r e p l a c e s " a n d " w i t h "or":
either
h u m a n i s m o r t e r r o r . . . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e r e a r e f o u r v a r i a t i o n s on
t h i s motif: h u m a n i s m an? t e r r o r , h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , e a c h e i t h e r in a
" p o s i t i v e " o r i n a " n e g a t i v e " s e n s e . " H u m a n i s m a n d t e r r o r " in a p o s i t i v e
sense
is w h a t
M e r l e a u - P o n t y e l a b o r a t e d : it s u s t a i n s S t a l i n i s m
(the
forceful — " t e r r o r i s t " — e n g e n d e r i n g of t h e N e w M a n ) , a n d is a l r e a d y
c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , in t h e g u i s e of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s
c o n j u n c t i o n of v i r t u e a n d t e r r o r . T h i s c o n j u n c t i o n c a n b e n e g a t e d in t w o
w a y s . It c a n i n v o l v e t h e c h o i c e " h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , " t h a t i s , t h e l i b e r a l h u m a n i s t p r o j e c t in all its v e r s i o n s , from d i s s i d e n t a n t i - S t a l i n i s t h u m a n 164
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
ism u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t o d a y ' s n e o - H a b e r m a s i a n s ( s u c h a s L u c F e r r y
a n d A l a i n R e n a u t in F r a n c e ) a n d o t h e r d e f e n d e r s of h u m a n r i g h t s against
( t o t a l i t a r i a n , f u n d a m e n t a l i s t ) t e r r o r . O r it c a n r e t a i n t h e
conjunction
" h u m a n i s m and t e r r o r , " b u t in a n e g a t i v e m o d e : a l l t h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
a n d i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s , from H e i d e g g e r a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e C h r i s t i a n s
to p a r t i s a n s of O r i e n t a l s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d d e e p e c o l o g y , w h o p e r c e i v e t e r r o r
a s t h e t r u t h — t h e u l t i m a t e c o n s e q u e n c e —of t h e h u m a n i s t p r o j e c t itself, of
its h u b r i s .
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a f o u r t h v a r i a t i o n , u s u a l l y left a s i d e : t h e c h o i c e
" h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , " b u t w i t h terror, not h u m a n i s m , a s a p o s i t i v e t e r m .
T h i s i s a r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n w h i c h i s difficult to s u s t a i n , b u t , p e r h a p s , o u r
o n l y h o p e : it d o e s n o t a m o u n t to t h e o b s c e n e m a d n e s s of o p e n l y p u r s u i n g
a " t e r r o r i s t a n d i n h u m a n p o l i t i c s , " b u t s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e difficult to
t h i n k t h r o u g h . In c o n t e m p o r a r y " p o s t - d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t " t h o u g h t (if o n e
risks
t h i s r i d i c u l o u s d e s i g n a t i o n w h i c h c a n n o t b u t s o u n d l i k e its o w n
p a r o d y ) , the term " i n h u m a n " has g a i n e d n e w weight, especially through
t h e w o r k of A g a m b e n a n d B a d i o u . T h e b e s t w a y to a p p r o a c h it i s v i a
F r e u d ' s r e l u c t a n c e to e n d o r s e t h e m j u n c t i o n " L o v e t h y
neighbor!—the
t e m p t a t i o n to b e r e s i s t e d h e r e i s t h e e t h i c a l p r e t t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n e i g h b o r
t h a t w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d in t h e w o r k of E m m a n u e l
L e v i n a s . In a
p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l p a r a d o x , w h a t L e v i n a s , w i t h a l l h i s c e l e b r a t i o n of
O t h e r n e s s , fails to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i s not s o m e u n d e r l y i n g S a m e n e s s of
all h u m a n s b u t r a d i c a l l y " i n h u m a n " O t h e r n e s s itself: t h e O t h e r n e s s of a
h u m a n b e i n g r e d u c e d to i n h u m a n i t y , t h e O t h e r n e s s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e
t e r r i f y i n g figure of t h e MMelnmnn, t h e " l i v i n g d e a d " in t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
c a m p s . A t a d i f f e r e n t level, t h e s a m e g o e s for S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s m . In t h e
s t a n d a r d S t a l i n i s t n a r r a t i v e , e v e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s w e r e a l o c u s of
t h e fight a g a i n s t f a s c i s m w h e r e i m p r i s o n e d C o m m u n i s t s w e r e o r g a n i z i n g
n e t w o r k s of h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e — i n s u c h a u n i v e r s e , of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s n o
p l a c e for t h e l i m i t - e x p e r i e n c e of t h e Miueimann,
of t h e l i v i n g d e a d
d e p r i v e d of t h e c a p a c i t y for h u m a n e n g a g e m e n t — n o w o n d e r t h a t S t a ­
linist C o m m u n i s t s w e r e so e a g e r to " n o r m a l i z e " t h e c a m p s i n t o j u s t
a n o t h e r site o l t h e a n t i - f a s c i s t s t r u g g l e , d i s m i s s i n g t h e Muöeimänner a s
s i m p l y t h o s e w h o w e r e too w e a k to e n d u r e t h e s t r u g g l e .
It i s a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d
w h y Lacan
s p e a k s of t h e itihuman c o r e of t h e n e i g h b o r . B a c k i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e e r a of
s t r u c t u r a l i s m , L o u i s A l t h u s s e r l a u n c h e d t h e n o t o r i o u s f o r m u l a of " t h e ­
o r e t i c a l a n t i - h u m a n i s m , " a l l o w i n g , d e m a n d i n g e v e n , t h a t it b e s u p p l e niented
b y practical
hiimaniiin.
In
our
practice,
we
should
act
as
165
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
h u m a n i s t s , r e s p e c t i n g t h e o t h e r s , t r e a t i n g t h e m a s free p e r s o n s w i t h full
d i g n i t y , c r e a t o r s of t h e i r w o r l d , f i o w e v e r , in t h e o r y , w e s h o u l d e q u a l l y
a l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t h u m a n i s m i s a n i d e o l o g y , t h e w a y w e s p o n t a ­
n e o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e o u r p r e d i c a m e n t , a n d t h a t t r u e k n o w l e d g e of h u m a n s
a n d t h e i r h i s t o r y s h o u l d t r e a t i n d i v i d u a l s not a s a u t o n o m o u s s u b j e c t s , b u t
a s e l e m e n t s i n a s t r u c t u r e w h i c h f o l l o w s i t s o w n l a w s . In c o n t r a s t to
A l t h u s s e r , L a c a n a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e p a s s a g e from t h e o r e t i c a l to practical
anti-humanidrn, t h a t i s , to a n e t h i c s t h a t g o e s b e y o n d t h e d i m e n s i o n of
w h a t N i e t z s c h e c a l l e d t h e " h u m a n , all t o o h u m a n , " a n d c o n f r o n t s
the
i n h u m a n c o r e of h u m a n i t y . T h i s d o e s not o n l y m e a n a n e t h i c s w h i c h n o
l o n g e r d e n i e s , b u t f e a r l e s s l y t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e l a t e n t m o n s t r o s i t y of
b e i n g - h u m a n , t h e d i a b o l i c a l d i m e n s i o n w h i c h e x p l o d e d in
phenomena
u s u a l l y covered b y the c o n c e p t - n a m e " A u s c h w i t z " — an ethics that w o u l d
b e still p o s s i b l e after A u s c h w i t z , to p a r a p h r a s e A d o r n o . T h i s i n h u m a n
d i m e n s i o n i s for L a c a n , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e u l t i m a t e b e d r o c k of e t h i c s .
In p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s , t h i s " i n h u m a n " d i m e n s i o n c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h a t of
a s u b j e c t s u b t r a c t e d from a l l forms of h u m a n " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " or " p e r s o n a l i t y "
( w h i c h i s w h y , in c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , o n e of t h e e x e m p l a r y
figures
of t h e p u r e s u b j e c t i s a n o n - h u m a n — a l i e n , c y b o r g — w h o d i s p l a y s
m o r e fidelity to t h e t a s k , m o r e d i g n i t y a n d f r e e d o m them its h u m a n c o u n t e r ­
p a r t s , from t h e R u t g e r - H a u e r a n d r o i d i n Blade Runner to t h e S c h w a r z e ­
n e g g e r - f i g u r e in Terminator). It i s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h i s t o p i c of t h e
s o v e r e i g n a c c e p t a n c e of d e a t h t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e r e a d t h e r h e t o r i c a l t u r n
often r e f e r r e d to a s t h e p r o o f of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s " t o t a l i t a r i a n " m a n i p u l a t i o n
of h i s a u d i e n c e .
T h i s t u r n t o o k p l a c e in t h e m i d s t of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s s p e e c h
in t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y on I I G e r m i n a l Y e a r II ( M a r c h 3 1 , 1 7 9 4 ) ; t h e
previous night, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and some others h a d been
a r r e s t e d , s o m a n y m e m b e r s of t h e A s s e m b l y w e r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y a f r a i d
that their turn w o u l d also come. Robespierre directly addresses the
m o m e n t a s p i v o t a l : " C i t i z e n s , t h e m o m e n t h a s c o m e to s p e a k t h e t r u t h . "
H e t h e n g o e s on to e v o k e t h e f e a r floating in t h e r o o m :
O n e w a n t s [on veut] to m a k e y o u f e a r a b u s e s of p o w e r , of t h e n a t i o n a l
p o w e r y o u h a v e e x e r c i s e d [. . . ] O n e w a n t s to m a k e u s fear t h a t t h e
p e o p l e w i l l fall v i c t i m to t h e C o m m i t t e e s [. . . ] O n e f e a r s t h a t t h e
p r i s o n e r s a r e b e i n g o p p r e s s e d [. . . ] .
T h e o p p o s i t i o n i s h e r e b e t w e e n t h e i m p e r s o n a l " o n e " ( t h e i n s t i g a t o r s of
fear a r e n o t p e r s o n i f i e d ) a n d t h e c o l l e c t i v e t h u s p u t u n d e r
166
pressure,
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
w h i c h a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y shifts from t h e p l u r a l s e c o n d - p e r s o n
"you"
(voiy) to t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n " u s " ( R o b e s p i e r r e g a l l a n t l y I n c l u d e s h i m s e l f i n t o
t h e c o l l e c t i v e ) . H o w e v e r , t h e final f o r m u l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e s a n
ominous
t w i s t : it i s n o l o n g e r t h a t " o n e w a n t s t o m a k e y o u / u s f e a r , " b u t t h a t " o n e
f e a r s , " w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e e n e m y s t i r r i n g u p f e a r is n o l o n g e r o u t s i d e
" y o u / u s , " m e m b e r s of t h e A s s e m b l y , it i s h e r e , a m o n g s t u s , a m o n g s t t h e
" y o u " a d d r e s s e d b y R o b e s p i e r r e , c o r r o d i n g o u r u n i t y from w i t h i n . A t t h i s
precise moment,
R o b e s p i e r r e , in a t r u e
master stroke, assumes
full
s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n — w a i t i n g a l i t t l e b i t for t h e o m i n o u s effect of h i s w o r d s
to b e felt, h e t h e n c o n t i n u e d i n t h e first p e r s o n
duigidar:
I s a y t h a t a n y o n e w h o t r e m b l e s a t t h i s m o m e n t i s g u i l t y ; for i n n o c e n c e
never fears public scrutiny.
W h a t c a n b e m o r e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " t h a n t h i s c l o s e d l o o p of " y o u r v e r y f e a r of
b e i n g g u i l t y m a k e s y o u g u i l t y " — a w e i r d s u p e r e g o - t w i s t e d v e r s i o n of t h e
w e l l - k n o w n m o t t o " t h e o n l y t h i n g to f e a r i s f e a r i t s e l f " ? O n e
should
n o n e t h e l e s s m o v e b e y o n d t h e facile d i s m i s s a l of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s r h e t o r i c a l
s t r a t e g y a s t h e s t r a t e g y of " t e r r o r i s t
culpabilizatlon" a n d discern its
m o m e n t of t r u t h : t h e r e a r e n o i n n o c e n t b y s t a n d e r s i n t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t s
of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e c i s i o n , b e c a u s e , i n s u c h m o m e n t s , i n n o c e n c e itself—
e x e m p t i n g o n e s e l f from t h e d e c i s i o n , g o i n g o n a s if t h e s t r u g g l e I a m
w i t n e s s i n g d o e s not r e a l l y c o n c e r n m e — ^ t h e h i g h e s t t r e a s o n . T h a t i s t o
s a y , t h e f e a r of b e i n g a c c u s e d of t r e a s o n u m y t r e a s o n , b e c a u s e , e v e n if 1
" d i d not d o a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t t h e r e v o l u t i o n , " t h i s f e a r itself, t h e fact t h a t it
e m e r g e d in m e , d e m o n s t r a t e s that m y subjective position is e x t e r n a l to the
revolution,
that
I experience the
"revolution" as an
external
force
threatening me.
B u t w h a t h a p p e n s s u b s e q u e n t l y in this u n i q u e speech is e v e n more
revealing: R o b e s p i e r r e d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e s the t o u c h y q u e s t i o n that h a s to
a r i s e in t h e m i n d of h i s p u b l i c — h o w c a n h e h i m s e l f b e s u r e t h a t h e w i l l
not b e t h e n e x t i n l i n e to b e a c c u s e d ? H e i s not t h e m a s t e r e x e m p t e d from
the collective, the " I " outside " w e " — a f t e r all, he w a s once v e r y close to
Danton, a powerful
p r o x i m i t y to
figure
n o w u n d e r a r r e s t , so w h a t if, t o m o r r o w ,
D a n t o n w i l l b e u s e d a g a i n s t h i m ? In
short,
how
his
can
R o b e s p i e r r e b e s u r e t h a t t h e p r o c e s s h e u n l e a s h e d w i l l not s w a l l o w
h i m ? It i s h e r e t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n a c h i e v e s s u b l i m e g r e a t n e s s — h e
accepts that
the d a n g e r
that
now
threatens
Danton will
fully
tomorrow
t h r e a t e n h i m . T h e r e a s o n t h a t h e i s so s e r e n e , t h a t h e i s not a f r a i d of
167
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t h i s fate, i s not t h a t D a n t o n w a s a t r a i t o r , w h i l e he, R o b e s p i e r r e , is p u r e , a
d i r e c t e m b o d i m e n t of t h e p e o p l e ' s W i l l ; it is t h a t h e , R o b e s p i e r r e , id not
afraid to die — h i s e v e n t u a l d e a t h w i l l b e a m e r e a c c i d e n t w h i c h c o u n t s for
nothing:
W h a t d o e s d a n g e r m a t t e r to m e ? M y life b e l o n g s to t h e F a t h e r l a n d ; m y
h e a r t i s free from fear; a n d if 1 w e r e to d i e , I w o u l d d o so w i t h o u t
r e p r o a c h a n d w i t h o u t ignominy.'^'*
C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n s o f a r a s t h e shift from " w e " to " I " c a n e f f e c t i v e l y b e
d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e d e m o c r a t i c m a s k falls off a n d w h e n
R o b e s p i e r r e o p e n l y a s s e r t s h i m s e l f a s a M a s t e r ( u p to t h i s point, w e
follow L e f o r t ' s a n a l y s i s ) , t h e v e r y t e r m " M a s t e r " h a s to b e g i v e n h e r e its
full H e g e l i a n w e i g h t : t h e M a s t e r i s t h e figure of s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e o n e w h o
is not a f r a i d t o d i e , w h o i s r e a d y to r i s k e v e r y t h i n g . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s
first-person
s i n g u l a r ( " I " ) i s : I a m not
a f r a i d to d i e . W h a t a u t h o r i z e s h i m i s s i m p l y t h i s , not a n y k i n d of d i r e c t
a c c e s s to t h e b i g O t h e r , t h a t i s , h e d o e s n o t c l a i m t h a t h e h a s d i r e c t a c c e s s
to t h e p e o p l e ' s W i l l w h i c h s p e a k s t h r o u g h h i m . It i s a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k ­
g r o u n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e c a l l M a o Z e d o n g ' s m e s s a g e to t h e h u n d r e d s of
m i l l i o n s of d o w n t r o d d e n , a s i m p l e a n d t o u c h i n g m e s s a g e of c o u r a g e —do
not b e a f r a i d of t h e B i g P o w e r s : " B i g n e s s i s n o t h i n g to b e a f r a i d of. T h e
big will be overthrown b y the small. The small will become big." The
s a m e m e s s a g e of c o u r a g e s u s t a i n s a l s o M a o ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s s t a n c e t o w a r d s
t h e p r o s p e c t of a n e w a t o m i c w o r l d w a r :
W e s t a n d firmly for p e a c e a n d a g a i n s t w a r . B u t if t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s insist
on u n l e a s h i n g a n o t h e r w a r , w e s h o u l d n o t b e a f r a i d of it. O u r a t t i t u d e
on t h i s q u e s t i o n is the s a m e a s o u r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a n y d i s t u r b a n c e :
first, w e a r e a g a i n s t it; s e c o n d , w e a r e not a f r a i d of it. T h e F i r s t W o r l d
W a r w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e b i r t h of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of
2 0 0 m i l l i o n . T h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e e m e r g e n c e of
t h e s o c i a l i s t c a m p w i t h a c o m b i n e d p o p u l a t i o n of 9 0 0 m i l l i o n . If t h e
i m p e r i a l i s t s i n s i s t on l a u n c h i n g a t h i r d w o r l d w a r , it i s c e r t a i n t h a t
s e v e r a l h u n d r e d m i l l i o n m o r e w i l l t u r n to s o c i a l i s m , a n d t h e n t h e r e w i l l
n o t b e m u c h r o o m left on e a r t h for t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s [. . .J"^^
It i s a l l too e a s y to d i s m i s s t h e s e l i n e s a s t h e e m p t y p o s t u r i n g of a l e a d e r
r e a d y to s a c r i f i c e m i l l i o n s for h i s p o l i t i c a l g o a l s ( t h e e x t e n s i o n ad ahdur()utn
168
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
of M a o ' s r u t h l e s s d e c i s i o n to s t a r v e t e n s of m i l l i o n s to d e a t h in t h e l a t e
1 9 5 0 s ) — t h e f l i p s i d e of t h i s d i s m i s s i v e a t t i t u d e is t h e b a s i c m e s s a g e : " w e
s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d . " Is t h i s not t h e only c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e a p r o p o s w a r :
"first, w e a r e a g a i n s t it; s e c o n d , w e a r e not a f r a i d of i t " ? ( T h e l o g i c of
M a o ' s a r g u m e n t is v e r y precise here: his "although w e are against w a r ,
w e a r e not a f r a i d of i t " i n v e r t s t h e " i m p e r i a l i s t s ' " t r u e a t t i t u d e , w h i c h i s
"although
we
are
for
war,
we
are
afraid
of i t " — i m p e r i a l i s t s
are
N i e t z s c h e a n s l a v e s , t h e y n e e d w a r s , b u t a r e a f r a i d to l o s e t h e i r p o s s e s ­
s i o n s to w h i c h t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d , w h i l e t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s a r e t h e
true
a r i s t o c r a t i c M a s t e r s w h o d o not w a n t w a r ( t h e y d o not n e e d i t ) , b u t a r e
not a f r a i d of it, b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g to l o s e . . . ) M a o ' s a r g u m e n t
g o e s on to its t e r r i f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n :
The U n i t e d S t a t e s cannot annihilate the C h i n e s e nation w i t h its small
s t a c k of a t o m b o m b s . E v e n if t h e U S a t o m b o m b s w e r e so p o w e r f u l
that, w h e n d r o p p e d on C h i n a , t h e y w o u l d m a k e a h o l e r i g h t t h r o u g h
t h e e a r t h , o r e v e n b l o w it u p , t h a t w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e
u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e , t h o u g h it m i g h t b e a m a j o r e v e n t for t h e s o l a r
26
system.
T h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y a n " i n h u m a n m a d n e s s " in t h i s a r g u m e n t : i s t h e fact
t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of p l a n e t E a r t h " w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e
universe as a w h o l e " not
rather
p o o r s o l a c e for
the
extinction
of
h u m a n i t y ? T h e a r g u m e n t o n l y w o r k s if, in a K a n t i a n w a y , o n e p r e ­
supposes a p u r e transcendental subject unaffected b y this catastrophe — a
s u b j e c t w h i c h , a l t h o u g h n o n - e x i s t e n t in r e a l i t y , L) o p e r a t i v e a s a v i r t u a l
point
of r e f e r e n c e . R e c a l l H u s s e r l ' s d a r k d r e a m , from
Meditatwtu,
his
of h o w t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l cogito w o u l d r e m a i n
Cartesian
unaffected
b y a p l a g u e t h a t w o u l d a n n i h i l a t e a l l h u m a n i t y : it i s e a s y , a p r o p o s t h i s
e x a m p l e , to s c o r e c h e a p p o i n t s a b o u t t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e b a c k g r o u n d of
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d a b o u t h o w H u s s e r l m i s s e s t h e p a r a d o x of
w h a t F o u c a u l t , in h i s Led MoLi et
choéeà, c a l l e d t h e
"transcendental-
e m p i r i c a l d o u b l e t , " of t h e l i n k t h a t f o r e v e r a t t a c h e s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
e g o to t h e e m p i r i c a l e g o , so t h a t t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e l a t t e r b y d e f i n i t i o n
l e a d s to t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e first. H o w e v e r , w h a t if, fully r e c o g n i z i n g
t h i s d e p e n d e n c e a s a fact ( a n d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h i s — a b a l d fact of
b e i n g ) , o n e n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t s on t h e t r u t h of i t s n e g a t i o n , t h e t r u t h of t h e
a s s e r t i o n of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e s u b j e c t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e e m p i r i c a l
i n d i v i d u a l s qua l i v i n g b e i n g s ? C h e G u e v a r a a p p r o a c h e d t h e s a m e l i n e of
169
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
t h o u g h t w h e n , in t h e m i d s t of t h e u n b e a r a b l e t e n s i o n of t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e
c r i s i s , h e a d v o c a t e d a f e a r l e s s a p p r o a c h of r i s k i n g t h e n e w w o r l d w a r
w h i c h w o u l d i n v o l v e ( a t t h e v e r y l e a s t ) t h e t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e
C u b a n p e o p l e — h e p r a i s e d t h e h e r o i c r e a d i n e s s of t h e C u b a n p e o p l e to
r i s k its o w n d i s a p p e a r a n c e .
A g a i n , there is definitely something terrifying about this attitude —
h o w e v e r , t h i s t e r r o r i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e c o n d i t i o n of f r e e d o m . T h i s is
h o w Y a m a m o t o J o c h o , a Z e n p r i e s t , d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o p e r a t t i t u d e of a
w a r r i o r : " e v e r y d a y w i t h o u t fail h e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a s d e a d .
T h e r e i s a s a y i n g of t h e e l d e r s t h a t g o e s , ' S t e p from u n d e r t h e e a v e s a n d
y o u ' r e a d e a d m a n . L e a v e t h e g a t e a n d t h e e n e m y i s w a i t i n g . ' T h i s i s not a
m a t t e r of b e i n g c a r e f u l . It i s to c o n s i d e r o n e s e l f a s d e a d
beforehand."^^
T h i s i s w h y , a c c o r d i n g to H i l l l s L o i y , m a n y J a p a n e s e s o l d i e r s in W o r l d
War
II p e r f o r m e d t h e i r o w n f u n e r a l s b e f o r e l e a v i n g for t h e b a t t l e f i e l d :
M a n y of t h e s o l d i e r s i n t h e p r e s e n t w a r a r e s o d e t e r m i n e d to d i e on t h e
battlefield that t h e y conduct their o w n public funerals before leaving
for t h e front. T h i s h o l d s n o e l e m e n t of t h e r i d i c u l o u s to t h e J a p a n e s e .
R a t h e r , it i s a d m i r e d a s t h e s p i r i t of t h e t r u e s a m u r a i w h o e n t e r s the
b a t t l e w i t h n o t h o u g h t of r e t u r n .
T h i s p r e e m p t i v e s e l f - e x c l u s i o n from t h e d o m a i n of t h e l i v i n g , of c o u r s e ,
t u r n s t h e s o l d i e r i n t o a p r o p e r l y s u b l i m e figure. I n s t e a d of d i s m i s s i n g t h i s
feature
as part
of f a s c i s t i c m i l i t a r i s m , o n e
should
a s s e r t it a s a l s o
c o n s t i t u t i v e of a r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , w h i c h , a s S e n e c a p u t
it l o n g a g o i n h i s Oedlpud, d e m a n d s of t h e s u b j e c t to " s e a r c h for a w a y to
wander without
m i x i n g with the dead, and y e t removed
from
the
living."
W h e n , in the
flashback
s c e n e from B r y a n S i n g e r ' s The Wual Siupectà,
t h e m y s t e r i o u s K e y s e r S o e z e r e t u r n s h o m e a n d finds h i s w i f e a n d s m a l l
d a u g h t e r h e l d a t g u n p o i n t b y t h e m e m b e r s of a rival m o b , h e s h o o t s h i s
wife a n d d a u g h t e r dead, a n d then declares that he will p u r s u e
m e m b e r s of t h e r i v a l g a n g m e r c i l e s s l y , t r a c k i n g d o w n t h e i r
the
parents,
f a m i l i e s , a n d f r i e n d s , in o r d e r to k i l l t h e m a l l . . . In a s i t u a t i o n of a f o r c e d
c h o i c e , t h e S o e z e - s u b j e c t m a k e s t h e c r a z y , i m p o s s i b l e c h o i c e of, i n a w a y ,
s t r i k i n g a t himself, a t w h a t i s m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m , a n d t h i s act, far from
a m o u n t i n g to a c a s e of i m p o t e n t a g g r e s s i o n t u r n e d t o w a r d s
oneself,
r a t h e r c h a n g e s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t f o u n d
himself: b y w a y of c u t t i n g h i m s e l f l o o s e from t h e p r e c i o u s o b j e c t t h r o u g h
170
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
whose possession t h e e n e m y kept him in check, the subject g a i n s the
s p a c e for a free a c t . T h e p r i c e of t h i s f r e e d o m i s , o f c o u r s e , t e r r i b l e : t h e
o n l y w a y for t h e s u b j e c t t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e g u i l t o f s a c r i f i c i n g h i s m o s t
p r e c i o u s o b j e c t ( s ) i s t o t u r n h i m s e l f i n t o a k i n g of t h e " l i v i n g d e a d , " t o
r e n o u n c e all personal i d i o s y n c r a s i e s a n d p l e a s u r e s a n d to d e d i c a t e h i s
e n t i r e life t o d e s t r o y i n g a l l t h o s e w h o f o r c e d h i m to p e r f o r m t h e s a c r i f i c i a l
a c t . S u c h a n " i n h u m a n " p o s i t i o n of a b s o l u t e f r e e d o m ( i n m y l o n e l i n e s s , I
a m free t o d o w h a t e v e r I w a n t , n o b o d y h a s a n y h o l d o v e r m e ) c o i n c i d i n g
w i t h a b s o l u t e s u b j e c t i o n t o a T a s k ( t h e o n l y p u r p o s e of m y life i s t o e n a c t
v e n g e a n c e ) i s w h a t , p e r h a p s , c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u b j e c t a t its
innermost.
A n o t h e r " i n h u m a n " d i m e n s i o n of t h e c o u p l e V i r t u e — T e r r o r p r o m o t e d
b y R o b e s p i e r r e i s t h e r e j e c t i o n of h a b i t ( i n t h e s e n s e of t h e a g e n c y of
rccJistic c o m p r o m i s e s ) . E v e r y legal o r d e r
( o r e v e r y o r d e r of e x p l i c i t
n o r m a t i v i t y ) h a s t o r e l y o n a c o m p l e x " r e f l e x i v e " n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a l
r u l e s w h i c h tells u s h o w w e a r e to r e l a t e t o t h e e x p l i c i t n o r m s , h o w w e a r e
to a p p l y t h e m : to w h a t e x t e n t w e a r e to t a k e t h e m l i t e r a l l y , h o w a n d w h e n
a r e w e a l l o w e d , s o l i c i t e d e v e n , to d i s r e g a r d t h e m , a n d s o o n — a n d t h i s i s
t h e d o m a i n o f h a b i t . T o k n o w t h e h a b i t s o f a s o c i e t y i s to know the meta­
rules of how to apply Ltd explicit normr. w h e n t o u s e t h e m o r n o t u s e t h e m ;
w h e n t o v i o l a t e t h e m ; w h e n not t o c h o o s e w h a t i s offered; w h e n w e a r e
e f f e c t i v e l y o b l i g e d t o d o s o m e t h i n g , b u t h a v e to p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g
it a s a free c h o i c e ( a s i n t h e c a s e o f p o t l a t c h ) . I ^ t u s refer t o t h e p o l i t e
offer-meant-to-be-refused:
it i s a " h a b i t " t o refuse s u c h a n offer, a n d
cinyone w h o a c c e p t s s u c h a n offer c o m m i t s a v u l g a r b l u n d e r . T h e s a m e
g o e s for m a n y p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h a c h o i c e i s g i v e n on condition
that we make the right choice: w e a r e s o l e m n l y r e m i n d e d t h a t w e c a n s a y
n o — b u t w e a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e j e c t t h i s offer a n d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y s a y y e s .
W i t h m a n y s e x u a l prohibitions, the situation is the opposite: the explicit
"no" effectively functions a s t h e implicit injunction
" d o it, b u t i n a
discreet w a y ! " . M e a s u r e d against this b a c k g r o u n d , revolutionary-egali­
t a r i a n figures from R o b e s p i e r r e t o J o h n B r o w n a r e ( p o t e n t i a l l y , a t l e a s t )
figured without habitd: t h e y r e f u s e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e h a b i t s t h a t
qualify the functioning of a universal rule.
Such is the natural
dominion
of h a b i t t h a t w e r e g a r d t h e m o s t
a r b i t r a r y conventions, sometimes i n d e e d t h e most defective institu­
t i o n s , a s a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e s of t r u t h o r f a l s e h o o d , j u s t i c e o r Injustice.
It d o e s n o t e v e n o c c u r t o u s t h a t m o s t a r e i n e v i t a b l y still c o n n e c t e d
171
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
w i t h t h e p r e j u d i c e s on w h i c h d e s p o t i s m fed u s . W e h a v e b e e n
so
l o n g s t o o p e d u n d e r its y o k e t h a t w e h a v e s o m e d i f f i c u l t y m r a i s i n g
o u r s e l v e s to t h e e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s of r e a s o n ; a n y t h i n g t h a t r e f e r s to
the
sacred
source
of a l l l a w s e e m s to u s to t a k e
on
an
illegal
c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h e v e r y o r d e r of n a t u r e s e e m s to u s a d i s o r d e r .
majestic
movements
of a
great
people,
the
sublime
The
fervours
v i r t u e often a p p e a r to o u r t i m i d e y e s a s s o m e t h i n g l i k e a n
of
erupting
v o l c a n o or t h e o v e r t h r o w of p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y ; a n d it i s c e r t a i n l y not
t h e l e a s t of t h e t r o u b l e s b o t h e r i n g
us, this contradiction
between
t h e w e a k n e s s of o u r m o r a l s , t h e d e p r a v i t y of o u r m i n d s , a n d
p u r i t y of p r i n c i p l e a n d e n e r g y of c h a r a c t e r d e m a n d e d
government
b y the
the
free
to w h i c h w e h a v e d a r e d a s p i r e . ^ "
T o b r e a k t h e y o k e of h a b i t m e a n s : if all m e n a r e e q u a l , t h a n a l l m e n a r e to
b e e f f e c t i v e l y t r e a t e d a s e q u a l ; if b l a c k s a r e a l s o h u m a n , t h e y s h o u l d b e
i m m e d i a t e l y t r e a t e d a s s u c h . L e t u s r e c a l l t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e s t r u g g l e
a g a i n s t s l a v e r y in t h e U S , w h i c h , e v e n p r i o r to t h e C i v i l W a r , c u l m i n a t e d
in t h e a r m e d conflict b e t w e e n t h e g r a d u a l i s m of c o m p a s s i o n a t e l i b e r a l s
and the unique
figure
of J o h n
Brown:
A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s w e r e c a r i c a t u r e s of p e o p l e , t h e y w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
a s buffoons a n d m i n s t r e l s , t h e y w e r e t h e b u t t - e n d of j o k e s in A m e r i c a n
society. A n d even the abolitionists, as a n t i s l a v e i y as t h e y w e r e , the
m a j o r i t y of t h e m d i d not s e e A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s a s e q u a l s . T h e m a j o r i t y
of t h e m , a n d t h i s w a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s c o m p l a i n e d
a b o u t all t h e t i m e , w e r e w i l l i n g to w o r k for t h e e n d of s l a v e r y in t h e
S o u t h b u t t h e y w e r e not w i l l i n g to w o r k to e n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in t h e
North.
[. . . ] J o h n
Brown
wasn't
like that. For
him,
practicing
e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w a s a first s t e p t o w a r d e n d i n g s l a v e r y . A n d
African
A m e r i c a n s w h o c a m e in c o n t a c t w i t h h i m k n e w t h i s i m m e d i a t e l y . H e
m a d e it v e r y c l e a r t h a t h e s a w n o d i f f e r e n c e , a n d h e d i d n ' t m a k e t h i s
c l e a r b y s a j n n g it, h e m a d e it c l e a r b y w h a t h e d i d .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , J o h n B r o w n i s a k e y p o l i t i c a l figure in t h e h i s t o r y of t h e
U S : in h i s f e r v e n t l y C h r i s t i a n " r a d i c a l a b o l i t i o n i s m , " h e c a m e c l o s e s t to
introducing the J a c o b i n logic into the A m e r i c a n political landscape:
J o h n B r o w n c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f a c o m p l e t e e g a l i t a r i a n . A n d it w a s
v e r y i m p o r t a n t for h i m to p r a c t i c e e g a l i t a r i a n i s m on e v e r y l e v e l . [. . . ]
172
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
H e m a d e it v e r y c l e a r t h a t h e s a w n o d i f f e r e n c e , a n d h e d i d n ' t m a k e
t h i s c l e a r b y s a y i n g it, h e m a d e it c l e a r b y w h a t h e did.'^^
E v e n t o d a y , l o n g after s l a v e r y h a s b e e n a b o l i s h e d . B r o w n i s t h e p o l a r i z ­
ing
figure
in A m e r i c a n c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y ; t h o s e w h i t e s w h o
support
B r o w n are all the more precious —among them, surprisingly,
D a v i d T h o r e a u , t h e g r e a t o p p o n e n t of v i o l e n c e : a g a i n s t t h e
Henry
standard
d i s m i s s a l of B r o w n a s bloodthirsty^ foolish, a n d i n s a n e , T h o r e a u p a i n t e d
a p o r t r a i t of a p e e r l e s s m a n w h o s e e m b r a c e m e n t of a c a u s e w a s u n p a r ­
a l l e l e d ; h e e v e n g o e s a s far a s to l i k e n B r o w n ' s e x e c u t i o n ( h e s t a t e s t h a t h e
r e g a r d s B r o w n a s d e a d b e f o r e h i s a c t u a l d e a t h ) to
Christ.Thoreau
v e n t s h i s rcige at t h e s c o r e s of t h o s e w h o v o i c e d t h e i r s c o r n for
John
B r o w n : t h e y c o u l d not u n d e r s t a n d B r o w n d u e to t h e i r c o n c r e t e s t a n c e s
a n d " d e a d " e x i s t e n c e s ; t h e y a r e not t r u l y a l i v e , o n l y a h a n d f u l of m e n c a n
b e s a i d to h a v e l i v e d .
It i s , h o w e v e r , t h i s v e r y c o n s i s t e n t e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w h i c h a l s o c o n s t i t u t e s
t h e l i m i t a t i o n of J a c o b i n p o l i t i c s . R e c a l l M a r x ' s f u n d a m e n t a l
about
the
" b o u r g e o i s " l i m i t a t i o n of t h e
insight
l o g i c of e q u a l i t y : c a p i t a l i s t
i n e q u a l i t i e s ( " e x p l o i t a t i o n " ) a r e not t h e " u n p r i n c i p l e d v i o l a t i o n s of t h e
p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y , " b u t a r e a b s o l u t e l y i n h e r e n t to t h e l o g i c of e q u a l i t y ,
t h e y a r e t h e p a r a d o x i c a l r e s u l t of its c o n s i s t e n t r e a l i z a t i o n . W h a t w e h a v e
in m i n d h e r e i s not o n l y t h e w e a r i s o m e o l d m o t i f of h o w m a r k e t e x c h a n g e
p r e s u p p o s e s f o r m a l l y / l e g a l l y e q u a l s u b j e c t s w h o m e e t a n d i n t e r a c t in t h e
m a r k e t ; t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t of M a r x ' s c r i t i q u e of " b o u r g e o i s " s o c i a l i s t s i s
that capitalist exploitation
does not
involve a n y kind
of
"unequal"
e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n the w o r k e r and the c a p i t a l i s t — t h i s e x c h a n g e is fully
equal a n d "just, " i d e a l l y (in p r i n c i p l e ) , t h e w o r k e r g e t s p a i d t h e full v a l u e
of t h e c o m m o d i t y h e i s s e l l i n g ( h i s l a b o r - p o w e r ) . O f c o u r s e , r a d i c a l
b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a r e a w a r e of t h i s l i m i t a t i o n ; h o w e v e r , t h e w a y
t h e y t r y to c o u n t e r a c t it i s t h r o u g h a d i r e c t " t e r r o r i s t i c " i m p o s i t i o n of
m o r e a n d m o r e àe facto e q u a l i t y ( e q u a l s a l a r i e s , e q u a l a c c e s s to h e a l t h
s e r v i c e s . . . ) , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e i m p o s e d t h r o u g h n e w f o r m s of f o r m a l
i n e q u a l i t y (different s o r t s of p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t s for t h e u n d e r p r i v i ­
l e g e d ) . In s h o r t , t h e a x i o m of " e q u a l i t y " m e a n s e i t h e r not e n o u g h
r e m a i n s t h e a b s t r a c t form of a c t u a l i n e q u a l i t y ) o r too m u c h
(it
(enforce
" t e r r o r i s t i c " e q u a l i t y ) — i t i s a f o r m a l i s t i c n o t i o n in a strict d i a l e c t i c a l
s e n s e , t h a t i s , its l i m i t a t i o n i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t i t s form i s not
concrete
e n o u g h , b u t a m e r e n e u t r a l c o n t a i n e r of s o m e c o n t e n t t h a t e l u d e s t h i s
form.
173
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
T h e p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t t e r r o r a s s u c h — o u r t a s k t o d a y i s p r e c i s e l y
to r e i n v e n t e m a n c i p a t o r y t e r r o r . T h e p r o b l e m l i e s e l s e w h e r e ; e g a l i t a r ­
ian
political " e x t r e m i s m " or "excessive r a d i c a l i s m " should a l w a y s be
read as a phenomenon
of i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l déplacement: a s a n i n d e x
of its o p p o s i t e , of a l i m i t a t i o n , of a r e f u s a l e f f e c t i v e l y to " g o to t h e
e n d . " W h a t w a s t h e J a c o b i n s ' r e c o u r s e to r a d i c a l " t e r r o r " if n o t a
kind
of h y s t e r i c a l a c t i n g - o u t
bearing
disturb the very fundamentals
witness to their
of e c o n o m i c o r d e r
i n a b i l i t y to
(private
property,
e t c . ) ? A n d d o e s t h e s a m e n o t g o e v e n for t h e s o - c a l l e d " e x c e s s e s " of
political
correctness?
Do
d i s t u r b i n g t h e effective
they
also
not
display the
retreat
from
( e c o n o m i c a n d o t h e r ) c a u s e s of r a c i s m a n d
s e x i s m ? P e r h a p s , t h e n , t h e t i m e h a s c o m e to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e
s t a n d a r d t o p o s , s h a r e d b y p r a c t i c a l l y a l l " p o s t m o d e r n " leftists, a c c o r d ­
ing
to w h i c h
predominance
jective
political "totalitarianism" somehow
of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n
communication
and/or
results
a n d technology over
from
the
intersub­
s y m b o l i c p r a c t i c e , a s if t h e r o o t of
p o l i t i c a l t e r r o r r e s i d e s i n t h e fact t h a t t h e " p r i n c i p l e " of i n s t r u m e n t a l
r e a s o n , of t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r e , i s e x t e n d e d a l s o to
s o c i e t y , s o t h a t p e o p l e a r e t r e a t e d a s r a w stuff t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d
New
Men. What
into
if it i s t h e e x a c t opposite w h i c h h o l d s ? W h a t if
p o l i t i c a l " t e r r o r " s i g n a l s p r e c i s e l y t h a t t h e s p h e r e of ( m a t e r i a l ) p r o ­
d u c t i o n is denied i t s a u t o n o m y a n d dubordinated to p o l i t i c a l l o g i c ? Is it
not t h a t a l l p o l i t i c a l " t e r r o r , " from t h e J a c o b i n s to t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l
Revolution,
reduction
presupposes
to t h e t e r r a i n
the
foreclosure
of p r o d u c t i o n
proper,
of t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e ? In o t h e r
its
words,
w h a t such a postmodern perspective effectively amounts to is nothing
l e s s t h a n t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of M a r x ' s k e y I n s i g h t i n t o h o w t h e p o l i t i c a l
s t r u g g l e i s a s p e c t a c l e w h i c h , i n o r d e r to b e d e c i p h e r e d , h a s t o b e
r e f e r r e d t o t h e s p h e r e of t h e e c o n o m y ( " i f M a r x i s m h a d a n y a n a l y t i c a l
v a l u e for political t h e o r y , w a s it n o t i n t h e i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m
of f r e e d o m
w a s contained in the social relations implicitly declared
'unpolitical' —that is, n a t u r a l i z e d — i n liberal d i s c o u r s e ? " ) ^ ^
It i s a t t h i s l e v e l t h a t o n e s h o u l d s e a r c h for t h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t of a
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s : s a y , i n t h e c a s e of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , n o t t h e
e x p l o s i o n of 1917—18, n o t e v e n t h e civil w a r t h a t f o l l o w e d , b u t t h e i n t e n s e
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n of t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s , t h e ( d e s p e r a t e , often r i d i c u l o u s )
a t t e m p t s to i n v e n t n e w r i t u a l s of d a i l y life: h o w t o r e p l a c e t h e p r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m a r r i a g e a n d f u n e r a l r i t u a l s ? H o w to o r g a n i z e t h e m o s t
c o m m o n p l a c e i n t e r a c t i o n i n a f a c t o r y , i n a n a p a r t m e n t b l o c k ? It i s a t t h i s
174
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
l e v e l of w h a t , a s o p p o s e d to t h e " a b s t r a c t t e r r o r " of t h e " g r e a t " p o l i t i c a l
r e v o l u t i o n , o n e is t e m p t e d to c a l l the " c o n c r e t e t e r r o r " of i m p o s i n g a n e w
o r d e r on q u o t i d i a n r e a l i t y , t h a t t h e J a c o b i n s a n d b o t h t h e S o v i e t a n d t h e
C h i n e s e r e v o l u t i o n s u l t i m a t e l y f a i l e d — n o t for l a c k of a t t e m p t s in t h i s
d i r e c t i o n , for s u r e . T h e J a c o b i n s w e r e a t t h e i r b e s t not i n t h e t h e a t r i c s of
T e r r o r , b u t in t h e Utopian e x p l o s i o n s of p o l i t i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n a p r o p o s t h e
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e e v e r y d a y : e v e r y t h i n g w a s t h e r e , p r o p o s e d in t h e
c o u r s e of t h e f r a n t i c a c t i v i t y c o n d e n s e d i n t o a c o u p l e of y e a r s , from t h e
s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of w o m e n to c o m m u n a l h o m e s in w h i c h t h e o l d w e r e to
b e a b l e to s p e n d t h e i r l a s t y e a r s i n p e a c e a n d d i g n i t y .
consequence
to b e
accepted
The
harsh
h e r e i s t h a t t h i s e x c e s s of e g a l i t a r i a n
democracy over and above the democratic procedure can only "institu­
t i o n a l i z e " i t s e l f in t h e g u i s e of i t s o p p o s i t e , a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y - d e m o c r a t i c
terror.
Traiuubdtantiatioru
of
Marxljm
In m o d e r n h i s t o r y , t h e p o l i t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c a s t s i t s s h a d o w
o v e r t h e e p o c h w h i c h s p a n s from R o b e s p i e r r e to M a o , or, m o r e g e n e r a l l y ,
t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i s t b l o c in 1 9 9 0 — i t s l a s t i n s t a l l m e n t w a s
the Maoist Cultural Revolution.
Obviously, the socio-historical context h a d c h a n g e d radically between
t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n — t o p u t it in P l a t o n i s t
t e r m s , w h a t u n i t e s t h e t w o i s p r e c i s e l y a n d o n l y t h e s a m e " e t e r n a l " I d e a of
r e v o l u t i o n a r y J u s t i c e . In t h e c a s e of M a o , t h e q u e s t i o n i s e v e n w h e t h e r
o n e c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y c o u n t h i m a s a M a r x i s t , s i n c e t h e s o c i a l b a s e of t h e
M a o i s t revolution w a s not the w o r k i n g class.
O n e of t h e m o s t d e v i o u s t r a p s w h i c h l u r k for M a r x i s t t h e o r i s t s i s t h e
s e a r c h for t h e m o m e n t of t h e F a l l , w h e n t h i n g s t o o k t h e w r o n g t u r n i n g i n
t h e h i s t o r y of M a r x i s m : w a s it a l r e a d y t h e l a t e E n g e l s w i t h h i s m o r e
p o s i t i v i s t - e v o l u t i o n a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m ? W a s it
t h e r e v i s i o n i s m a n d t h e o r t h o d o x y of t h e S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l ? W a s it
L e n i n ? ^ ^ O r w a s it M a r x h i m s e l f in h i s l a t e w o r k , after h e h a d a b a n d o n e d
his y o u t h f u l h u m a n i s m ( a s s o m e " h u m a n i s t M a r x i s t s " c l a i m e d d e c a d e s
a g o ) ? T h i s e n t i r e t r o p e h a s to b e r e j e c t e d : t h e r e i s n o o p p o s i t i o n h e r e , t h e
F a l l i s to b e i n s c r i b e d in t h e v e r y o r i g i n s . ( T o p u t it e v e n m o r e p o i n t e d l y ,
s u c h a s e a r c h for t h e i n t r u d e r w h o i n f e c t e d t h e o r i g i n a l m o d e l a n d set in
m o t i o n its d e g e n e r a t i o n c a n n o t b u t r e p r o d u c e t h e l o g i c of a n t i - S e m i t i s m . )
W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t , e v e n if—or, r a t h e r , e s p e c i a l l y i f — o n e s u b m i t s
175
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t h e M a r x i s t p a s t to r u t h l e s s c r i t i q u e , o n e h a s first to a c k n o w l e d g e it a s
" o n e ' s o w n , " t a k i n g full r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for it, not to c o m f o r t a b l y r e j e c t t h e
" b a d " s i d e of t h i n g s b y a t t r i b u t i n g it to a f o r e i g n e l e m e n t ( t h e " b a d "
E n g e l s w h o w a s too s t u p i d to u n d e r s t a n d M a r x ' s d i a l e c t i c s , t h e " b a d "
L e n i n w h o d i d not g r a s p t h e c o r e of M a r x ' s t h e o r y , t h e " b a d " S t a l i n w h o
spoilt t h e n o b l e p l a n s of t h e " g o o d " L e n i n , a n d so o n ) .
T h e first t h i n g w e m u s t d o i s to fully e n d o r s e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t in the
h i s t o r y of M a r x i s m c o n c e n t r a t e d in t w o g r e a t p a s s a g e s (or, r a t h e r , v i o l e n t
c u t s ) : t h e p a s s a g e from M a r x to L e n i n , a s w e l l a s t h e p a s s a g e from L e n i n
to M a o . In e a c h c a s e , t h e r e i s a d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n :
from t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d c o u n t r y
(as M a r x e x p e c t e d ) to a relatively
b a c k w a r d c o u n t r y — t h e r e v o l u t i o n " t o o k p l a c e in t h e w r o n g
country";
from w o r k e r s to ( p o o r ) p e a s a n t s a s t h e m a i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e n t . In t h e
s a m e w a y a s C h r i s t n e e d e d P a u l ' s " b e t r a y a l " in o r d e r for C h r i s t i a n i t y to
e m e r g e a s a u n i v e r s a l C h u r c h ( r e c a l l that, a m o n g s t the t w e l v e a p o s t l e s ,
P a u l o c c u p i e s t h e p l a c e of J u d a s t h e t r a i t o r , r e p l a c i n g h i m ! ) , M a r x
n e e d e d L e n i n ' s " b e t r a y a l " in o r d e r to e n a c t t h e first M a r x i s t r e v o l u t i o n : it
is a n i n n e r n e c e s s i t y of t h e " o r i g i n a l " t e a c h i n g to s u b m i t to a n d s u r v i v e
t h i s " b e t r a y a l " ; t o s u r v i v e t h i s v i o l e n t a c t of b e i n g t o r n o u t of o n e ' s
o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d t h r o w n i n t o a f o r e i g n l a n d s c a p e w h e r e it h a s to
r e i n v e n t itself—öw/y in thui way id universality born.
S o , a p r o p o s t h e s e c o n d v i o l e n t t r a n s p o s i t i o n , t h a t of M a o , it i s too e a s y
e i t h e r to c o n d e m n h i s r e i n v e n t i o n of M a r x i s m a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y " i n a d e ­
q u a t e , " a s a r e g r e s s i o n w i t h r e g a r d to M a r x ' s s t a n d a r d s (it i s e a s y to s h o w
t h a t p e a s a n t s l a c k s u b s t a n c e l e s s p r o l e t a r i a n s u b j e c t i v i t y ) , b u t it i s e q u a l l y
too facile to b l u r t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e c u t a n d to a c c e p t M a o ' s r e f o r m u l a t i o n
as a logical continuation
o r " a p p l i c a t i o n " of M a r x i s m ( r e l y i n g , a s i s
u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , o n t h e s i m p l e m e t a p h o r i c e x p a n s i o n of c l a s s s t r u g g l e :
"today's predominant class struggle is no longer b e t w e e n capitalists and
p r o l e t a r i a t in e a c h c o u n t r y , it h a s shifted to t h e T h i r d v e r s u s t h e F i r s t
W o r l d , b o u r g e o i s v e r s u s p r o l e t a r i a n n a t i o n s " ) . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t of M a o
is h e r e t r e m e n d o u s : h i s n a m e s t a n d s for t h e p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e
hundreds
of m i l l i o n s of a n o n y m o u s
Third W o r l d layers whose
labor
p r o v i d e s t h e i n v i s i b l e " s u b s t a n c e , " t h e b a c k g r o u n d , of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l ­
opment—the
mobilization
of all t h o s e w h o m
even
such
a poet
of
" o t h e r n e s s " a s L e v i n a s d i s m i s s e d a s t h e " y e l l o w p e r i l " , a s w e see in
w h a t is a r g u a b l y his w e i r d e s t text, " T h e R u s s o - C h i n e s e D e b a t e a n d the
D i a l e c t i c " ( 1 9 6 0 ) , a c o m m e n t on t h e S o v i e t — C h i n e s e conflict:
176
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
T h e y e l l o w p e r i l ! It i s n o t r a c i a l , it i s s p i r i t u a l . It d o e s not i n v o l v e
i n f e r i o r v a l u e s ; it i n v o l v e s a r a d i c a l s t r a n g e n e s s , a s t r a n g e r to t h e
w e i g h t of its p a s t , from w h e r e t h e r e d o e s n o t filter a n y f a m i l i a r v o i c e o r
inflection, a l u n a r or M a r t i a n p a s t .
Does this not recall H e i d e g g e r ' s insistence, throughout the 1930s, that
the m a i n t a s k of W e s t e r n
thought
t o d a y w a s to d e f e n d
the
Greek
b r e a k t h r o u g h , t h e f o u n d i n g g e s t u r e of t h e " W e s t , " t h e o v e r c o m i n g of
the p r e - p h i l o s o p h i c a l , m y t h i c a l , " A s i a t i c " u n i v e r s e , to s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e
r e n e w e d " A s i a t i c " t h r e a t — t h e g r e a t e s t a d v e r s a r y of t h e W e s t w a s " t h e
mythical in general a n d the Asiatic in p a r t i c u l a r " ?
It i s thid A s i a t i c
"radical strangeness" w h i c h is mobilized, politicized, b y M a o Zedong's
C o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t . In h i s Phenomenology of Spirit, H e g e l i n t r o d u c e s
his n o t o r i o u s
notion
of w o m a n k i n d a s " t h e e v e r l a s t i n g i r o n y of t h e
community": womankind
" c h a n g e s b y i n t r i g u e t h e u n i v e r s a l e n d of
the g o v e r n m e n t i n t o a p r i v a t e e n d , t r a n s f o r m s i t s u n i v e r s a l a c t i v i t y i n t o
a w o r k of s o m e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l , a n d p e r v e r t s t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o p e r t y
of t h e s t a t e i n t o a p o s s e s s i o n a n d o r n a m e n t for t h e f a m i l y . "^^ In c o n t r a s t
to m a l e a m b i t i o n , a w o m a n w a n t s p o w e r i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e h e r o w n
n a r r o w f a m i l y i n t e r e s t s or, e v e n w o r s e , h e r p e r s o n a l c a p r i c e , i n c a p a b l e a s
she i s of p e r c e i v i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of state p o l i t i c s . H o w a r e w e
not to r e c a l l F . W . J . S c h e l l i n g ' s c l a i m t h a t " t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e c a r r i e s a n d
h o l d s u s i n i t s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s w h i c h w o u l d c o n s u m e a n d d e s t r o y u s in i t s
effectiveness"?'*'^ A p o w e r w h i c h , w h e n it i s k e p t i n i t s p r o p e r p l a c e , c a n
be b e n i g n a n d p a c i f y i n g , t u r n s i n t o i t s r a d i c a l o p p o s i t e , i n t o t h e m o s t
d e s t r u c t i v e fury, t h e m o m e n t it i n t e r v e n e s a t a h i g h e r l e v e l , t h e l e v e l
w h i c h i s n o t i t s o w n : the .tame f e m i n i n i t y w h i c h , w i t h i n t h e c l o s e d c i r c l e of
f a m i l y life, i s t h e p o w e r of p r o t e c t i v e l o v e , t u r n s i n t o o b s c e n e f r e n z y w h e n
d i s p l a y e d a t t h e l e v e l of p u b l i c a n d s t a t e a f f a i r s . . . I n short, it i s
a c c e p t a b l e for a w o m a n to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t p u b l i c s t a t e p o w e r o n b e h a l f
of t h e r i g h t s of t h e f a m i l y a n d k i n s h i p ; b u t w o e t o a s o c i e t y in w h i c h
w o m e n e n d e a v o r d i r e c t l y to i n f l u e n c e d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a f f a i r s of
state, m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r w e a k m a l e p a r t n e r s , e f f e c t i v e l y e m a s c u l a t i n g
t h e m . . . Is t h e r e n o t s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r in t h e t e r r o r a r o u s e d b y t h e
p r o s p e c t of t h e a w a k e n i n g of t h e a n o n y m o u s A s i a n m a s s e s ? T h e y a r e fine
if t h e y p r o t e s t a t t h e i r fate a n d a l l o w u s to h e l p t h e m ( t h r o u g h l a r g e - s c a l e
h u m a n i t a r i a n activity), b u t not w h e n t h e y " e m p o w e r " themselves, to the
h o r r o r of s y m p a t h e t i c l i b e r a l s , a l w a y s r e a d y to s u p p o r t t h e r e v o l t of t h e
p o o r a n d d i s p o s s e s s e d , s o l o n g a s it i s d o n e w i t h g o o d m a n n e r s . . .
177
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
G e o r g i M . D e r l u g u i a n ' s Bourdieu'é Secret Admirer in the CaucMiij t e l l s t h e
e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t o r y of M u s a S h a n i b from A b k h a z i a , t h e l e a d i n g intell e c t u a l of t h i s t u r b u l e n t
region whose incredible career passed
from
Soviet dissident intellectual through democratic political reformer
and
M u s l i m f u n d a m e n t a l i s t w a r l e a d e r u p to r e s p e c t e d p r o f e s s o r of p h i l o s o p h y , h i s e n t i r e c a r e e r m a r k e d b y a s t r a n g e a d m i r a t i o n for
Pierre
B o u r d i e u ' s thought.'^' T h e r e a r e t w o w a y s to a p p r o a c h s u c h a
figure.
T h e first r e a c t i o n i s to d i s m i s s it a s a l o c a l e c c e n t r i c i t y , to t r e a t it w i t h
benevolent i r o n y — " w h a t a strange choice, B o u r d i e u — w h o k n o w s w h a t
t h i s f o l k l o r i c g u y s e e s in B o u r d i e u . . . ? " T h e s e c o n d r e a c t i o n is to
d i r e c t l y a s s e r t t h e u n i v e r s a l s c o p e of t h e o r y — " s e e h o w u n i v e r s a l t h e o r y
is: e v e r y i n t e l l e c t u a l from P a r i s to C h e c h n y a a n d A b k h a z i a c a n d e b a t e
B o u r d i e u ' s c o n c e p t s . . . " T h e t r u e t a s k , of c o u r s e , i s to a v o i d b o t h t h e s e
o p t i o n s a n d to a s s e r t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of a t h e o r y a s t h e r e s u l t of h a r d
t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k a n d s t r u g g l e , a s t r u g g l e t h a t i s n o t e x t e r n a l to t h e o r y : t h e
p o i n t i s not ( o n l y ) t h a t S h a n i b h a d to d o a lot of w o r k to b r e a k the
c o n s t r a i n t s of h i s l o c a l c o n t e x t a n d g r a s p B o u r d i e u — t h i s
appropriation
of B o u r d i e u b y a n A b k h a z i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a l s o affects t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e
theory
itself,
transposing
mutandis^Lenin
it i n t o
not do something
a d i i ï e r e n t u n i v e r s e . Y^\à—-mutatis
s i m i l a r w i t h M a r x ? T h e shift
of
M a o w i t h r e g a r d to L e n i n and S t a l i n c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
the w o r k i n g class a n d the p e a s a n t r y . Both L e n i n a n d S t a l i n w e r e d e e p l y
d i s t r u s t f u l of t h e p e a s a n t r y , t h e y s a w b r e a k i n g t h e i n e r t i a of t h e p e a s a n t r y
a s o n e of t h e m a i n t a s k s of S o v i e t p o w e r : to u p r o o t t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l
a t t a c h m e n t to l a n d , to " p r o l e t a r i a n i z e " t h e m a n d t h u s f u l l y e x p o s e t h e m
to t h e d y n a m i c s of m o d e r n i z a t i o n — i n c l e a r c o n t r a s t to M a o w h o , a s w e
h a v e n o t e d , i n h i s c r i t i c a l n o t e s o n S t a l i n ' s Economic Problems of Socialism in
the USSR (from
1 9 5 8 ) r e m a r k e d t h a t " S t a l i n ' s p o i n t of v i e w [. . . ] i s
a l m o s t a l t o g e t h e r w r o n g . T h e b a s i c e r r o r i s m i s t r u s t of t h e p e a s a n t s . " T h e
t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s shift a r e p r o p e r l y s h a t t e r ing: t h e y i m p l y n o l e s s t h a n a t h o r o u g h r e w o r k i n g of M a r x ' s H e g e l i a n
n o t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t a s t h a t of " s u b s t a n c e l e s s s u b j e c t i v i t y , " of t h o s e w h o a r e r e d u c e d to t h e a b y s s of t h e i r s u b j e c t i v i t y .
A s i s w e l l k n o w n b y t h o s e w h o still r e m e m b e r t h e i r M a r x i s m , t h e
a m b i g u o u s centred p o i n t of i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e c o n c e r n s i t s p r e m i s e
t h a t c a p i t a l i s m Itself c r e a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s for its t r a n s c e n d e n c e t h r o u g h
p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n — h o w a r e w e to r e a d t h i s ? Is it to b e r e a d in a
linear evolutionary w a y : revolution should take place w h e n capitalism
fully d e v e l o p s all its p o t e n t i a l
178
a n d e x h a u s t s a l l its p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
j n y t h i c a l p o i n t a t w h i c h it c o n f r o n t s i t s c e n t r a l a n t a g o n i s m
("contra­
d i c t i o n " ) at its p u r e s t , in i t s n a k e d f o r m ? A n d is it e n o u g h to a d d t h e
" s u b j e c t i v e " a s p e c t a n d to e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s s h o u l d not
j u s t sit a n d w a i t for t h e " r i p e m o m e n t , " b u t " e d u c a t e " i t s e l f t h r o u g h l o n g
s t r u g g l e ? A s i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n , L e n i n ' s t h e o r y of t h e " w e a k e s t l i n k in t h e
c h a i n " i s a k i n d of c o m p r o m i s e s o l u t i o n : a l t h o u g h it a c c e p t s t h a t t h e first
r e v o l u t i o n c a n t a k e p l a c e , n o t i n t h e m o s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r y , b u t in a
c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e a n t a g o n i s m s of c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t a r e m o s t
a g g r a v a t e d , e v e n if it i s l e s s d e v e l o p e d ( R u s s i a , w h i c h c o m b i n e d c o n ­
centrated modern capitalist-industrial islands with agrarian b a c k w a r d ­
n e s s a n d p r e - d e m o c r a t i c a u t h o r i t a r i a n g o v e r n m e n t ) , it still p e r c e i v e d t h e
O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n a s a r i s k y b r e a k t h r o u g h w h i c h c o u l d o n l y s u c c e e d if
it w a s s o o n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a l a r g e - s c a l e W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n r e v o l u t i o n
(all e y e s w e r e f o c u s e d on G e r m a n y i n t h i s r e s p e c t ) . T h e r a d i c a l a b a n ­
d o n m e n t of t h i s m o d e l o c c u r r e d o n l y w i t h M a o , for w h o m t h e p r o l e t a r i a n
r e v o l u t i o n s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e in t h e l e s s d e v e l o p e d p a r t of t h e w o r l d ,
a m o n g t h e w i d e m a s s e s of t h e T h i r d W o r l d ' s i m p o v e r i s h e d p e a s a n t s ,
w o r k e r s , a n d e v e n t h e " p a t r i o t i c b o u r g e o i s i e , " w h o a r e e x p o s e d to t h e
a f t e r s h o c k s of c a p i t a l i s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n , o r g a n i z i n g t h e i r r a g e a n d d e s p a i r .
In a total r e v e r s a l ( p e r v e r s i o n e v e n ) of M a r x ' s m o d e l , t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e is
thus reformulated
a s the
struggle between
First W o r l d
"bourgeois
n a t i o n s " a n d T h i r d W o r l d "proletarian nations." T h e p a r a d o x here is
p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l , p e r h a p s in t h e u l t i m a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of M a o ' s t e a c h i n g
on c o n t r a d i c t i o n s : its v e r y u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ( a n d t h u s " u n r i p e n e s s " for
t h e r e v o l u t i o n ) m a k e s a c o u n t r y " r i p e " for t h e r e v o l u t i o n . S i n c e , h o w ­
e v e r , s u c h " u n r i p e " e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s d o not a l l o w t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
p r o p e r l y post-capitalist socialism, the n e c e s s a r y correlate is the assertion
of t h e " p r i m a c y of p o h t i c s o v e r e c o n o m i c s " : t h e v i c t o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y
s u b j e c t d o e s not a c t a s a n i n s t r u m e n t of e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t y , l i b e r a t i n g i t s
potential w h o s e further development is thwarted b y capitalist contra­
d i c t i o n s ; it i s , r a t h e r , a v o l u n t a r i s t a g e n t w h i c h a c t s agalrut
"spontaneous"
e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t y , i m p o s i n g its v i s i o n on r e a l i t y t h r o u g h r e v o l u t i o n a r y
terror.
O n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d h e r e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
l e s s o n of H e g e l i a n
' c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y " : u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y i s not a t e l e o l o g i c a l force
w^hich, o p e r a t i v e from t h e o u t s e t , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s a n d r u n s t h e p r o c e s s ,
g u a r a n t e e i n g its h a p p y o u t c o m e ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y
IS a l w a y s r e t r o a c t i v e , it e m e r g e s o u t of t h e r a d i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y of t h e
p r o c e s s a n d s i g n a l s t h e m o m e n t of t h e c o n t i n g e n c y ' s se\î-Aufhebung.
One
179
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s h o u l d t h u s s a y t h a t , o n c e t h e ( c o n t i n g e n t ) p a s s a g e from L e n i n i s m to
M a o i s m t o o k p l a c e , it c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s " n e c e s s a r y , " t h a t i s , o n e c a n
( r e ) c o n s t r u c t t h e " i n n e r n e c e s s i t y " of M a o i s m a s t h e n e x t " s t a g e " of t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of M a r x i s m . In o r d e r to g r a s p t h i s r e v e r s a l of c o n t i n g e n c y
into necessity, one should leave b e h i n d the standard linear historical time
s t r u c t u r e d a s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of p o s s i b i l i t i e s ( a t t h e t e m p o r a l m o m e n t X,
there are multiple possible directions history can take, and w h a t actually
t a k e s p l a c e i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of o n e of t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s ) : w h a t t h i s l i n e a r
t i m e i s u n a b l e t o g r a s p i s t h e p a r a d o x of a c o n t i n g e n t a c t u a l e m e r g e n c y
w h i c h r e t r o a c t i v e l y c r e a t e s its o w n p o s s i b i l i t y : o n l y w h e n t h e t h i n g t a k e s
p l a c e c a n w e " s e e " h o w it w a s p o s s i b l e . T h e r a t h e r t i r e s o m e d e b a t e a b o u t
t h e o r i g i n s of M a o i s m ( o r S t a l i n i s m ) o s c i l l a t e s a r o u n d t h r e e m a i n o p t i o n s :
( I ) t h e " h a r d " a n t i - C o m m u n i s t s a n d t h e " h a r d " p a r t i s a n s of S t a l i n i s m
c l a i m t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t i m m a n e n t l o g i c w h i c h l e a d s from M a r x to
L e n i n a n d from L e n i n to S t a l i n ( a n d t h e n from S t a l i n to M a o ) ; ( 2 ) t h e
"soft" c r i t i c s c l a i m t h a t t h e S t a l i n i s t (or, p r i o r to it, L e n i n i s t ) t u r n i s o n e of
t h e h i s t o r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s p r e s e n t in A i a r x ' s t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e — it
could h a v e t u r n e d out otherwise, but the Stalinist catastrophe is none­
t h e l e s s i n s c r i b e d a s a n o p t i o n i n t o t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y itself; ( 5 ) finally, the
defenders
of t h e p u r i t y of t h e
" o r i g i n a l t e a c h i n g of M a r x " d i s m i s s
Stalinism (or indeed L e n i n i s m ) a s a simple distortion, betrayal, insisting
on t h e r a d i c a l b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e t w o : L e n i n a n d / o r
Stalin simply
" k i d n a p p e d " M a r x ' s t h e o r y a n d u s e d it for p u r p o s e s t o t a l l y a t o d d s w i t h
M a r x . O n e s h o u l d r e j e c t a l l t h r e e v e r s i o n s a s b a s e d on t h e s a m e u n d e r ­
l y i n g linear-historicist notion
of t e m p o r a l i t y , a n d opt for t h e
fourth
v e r s i o n , b e y o n d t h e false q u e s t i o n "to w h a t e x t e n t w a s M a r x r e s p o n s i b l e
for t h e S t a l i n i s t c a t a s t r o p h e ? " : M a r x L< e n t i r e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , b u t retro­
actively, t h a t i s , t h e s a m e h o l d s for S t a l i n a s for K a f k a in B o r g e s ' s f a m o u s
formulation: they both created their o w n predecessors.
Thid is t h e m o v e m e n t of " c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y , " t h i s r a d i c a l " t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n " t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y h a s to r e i n v e n t i t s e l f in a
n e w c o n t e x t : o n l y b y w a y of s u r v i v i n g t h i s t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n c a n it e m e r g e
a s e f f e c t i v e l y u n i v e r s a l . A n d , of c o u r s e , t h e p o i n t i s not t h a t w e a r e
d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h t h e p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n p r o c e s s of " a l i e n a t i o n " a n d " d i s a l i e n a t i o n , " of h o w t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y i s " a l i e n a t e d " a n d t h e n h a s to
I n c o r p o r a t e t h e f o r e i g n c o n t e x t , r e a p p r o p r i a t e it, s u b o r d i n a t e it to itself:
w h a t such a p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n notion
m i s s e s is t h e w a y t h i s v i o l e n t
t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n i n t o a n e w c o n t e x t r a d i c a l l y affects t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y
itself, so t h a t , w h e n
180
this theory "returns
to i t s e l f in i t s
otherness"
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
( r e i n v e n t s i t s e l f in t h e f o r e i g n c o n t e x t ) , i t s v e r y s u b s t a n c e c h a n g e s — a n d
y e t t h i s shift i s n o t j u s t t h e r e a c t i o n to a n e x t e r n a l s h o c k , it r e m a i n s a n
i n h e r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e Jame
t h e o r y of t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t -
a l i s m . T h i s i s h o w c a p i t a l i s m i s a " c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y " : it i s n o t t h e
q u e s t i o n of i s o l a t i n g w h a t a l l t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s of c a p i t a l i s m h a v e in
c o m m o n , t h e i r s h a r e d u n i v e r s a l f e a t u r e s , b u t of g r a s p i n g t h i s m a t r i x a s a
jpositive force i n itself, a s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h a l l a c t u a l p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s t r y
to c o u n t e r a c t , t h e d e s t r u c t i v e effects of w h i c h t h e y s t r i v e to c o n t a i n .
The limiU of Mao'ö dialectics
The m o s t r e l i a b l e s i g n of c a p i t a l i s m ' s i d e o l o g i c a l t r i u m p h i s t h e v i r t u a l
d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e v e r y t e r m o v e r t h e l a s t t w o o r t h r e e d e c a d e s : i n t h e
1 9 8 0 s , " v i r t u a l l y n o o n e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a f e w a l l e g e d l y a r c h a i c
M a r x i s t s ( a n ' e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s ' ) , r e f e r r e d to c a p i t a l i s m a n y l o n g e r .
The t e r m w a s s i m p l y s t n i c k from t h e v o c a b u l £ u y of p o l i t i c i a n s , t r a d e
unionists, w r i t e r s a n d journalists — not to mention social scientists, w h o
had c o n s i g n e d it to h i s t o r i c a l oblivion.'"^^ S o w h a t a b o u t t h e u p s u r g e of
the a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t o v e r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s ? D o e s it n o t
clearly contradict this d i a g n o s t i c ? Not at all: a close examination q u i c k l y
demonstrates that this movement also s u c c u m b s to "the temptation
t r a n s f o r m a c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f ( c e n t r e d o n e c o n o m i c
to
mechan-
i s m s , f o r m s of w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d profit e x t r a c t i o n ) i n t o a c r i t i q u e of
'imperialism'."^^ In this w a y , w h e n one t a l k s about "globalization a n d its
a g e n t s , " t h e e n e m y i s e x t e r n a l i z e d (often i n t h e form of v u l g a r a n t i A m e r i c a n i s m ) . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m a i n t a s k t o d a y i s t o fight " t h e
A m e r i c a n e m p i r e , " a n d a n y a l l y i s fine if it i s a n t i - A m e r i c a n ,
thus
unbridled Chinese "Communist" capitalism, violent Islamicist anti-modernism, a s well as the obscene
Lukashenko
regime in Belarus (see
C h a v e z ' s v i s i t to B e l a r u s i n J u l y 2 0 0 6 ) , m a y a p p e a r a s p r o g r e s s i v e
anti-globalist comrades-in-arms . . . W h a t w e have here is thus another
v e r s i o n of t h e i l l - f a m e d n o t i o n of " a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e r n i t y " : i n s t e a d of t h e
c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m a s s u c h , i n s t e a d of c o n f r o n t i n g i t s b a s i c m e c h a n i s m ,
w e h a v e t h e c r i t i q u e of t h e i m p e r i a l i s t " e x c e s s , " w i t h t h e ( t a c i t ) i d e a of
mobilizing capitalist mechanisms within another, more
"progressive,"
framework.
T h i s rs h o w o n e s h o u l d a p p r o a c h w h a t is a r g u a b l y M a o ' s
contribution
central
to M a r x i s t p h i l o s o p h y , h i s e l a b o r a t i o n s o n t h e n o t i o n of
c o n t r a d i c t i o n : o n e s h o u l d not d i s m i s s t h e m a s a w o r t h l e s s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
181
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
r e g r e s s i o n ( w h i c h , a s o n e c a n e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e , r e l i e s on a v a g u e notion
of " c o n t r a d i c t i o n " w h i c h s i m p l y m e a n s " s t r u g g l e of o p p o s i n g
tenden­
c i e s " ) . T h e m a i n t h e s i s of h i s g r e a t t e x t " O n C o n t r a d i c t i o n " r e g a r d i n g t h e
t w o f a c e t s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n o n - p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a ­
d i c t i o n s in a p r o c e s s , a n d t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n o n - p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s of a
c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " d e s e r v e s a c l o s e r e a d i n g . M a o ' s r e p r o a c h to t h e " d o g m a t i c
M a r x i s t s " i s t h a t t h e y " d o not u n d e r s t a n d t h a t it i s p r e c i s e l y in t h e
p a r t i c u l a r i t y of c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of c o n t r a d i c t i o n r e ­
sides":
F o r i n s t a n c e , i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y t h e t w o forces in c o n t r a d i c t i o n , the
p r o l e t a r i a t a n d t h e b o u r g e o i s i e , form t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h e
other contradictions, such a s those b e t w e e n the r e m n a n t feudal class
a n d the bourgeoisie, b e t w e e n the peasant petty bourgeoisie and the
bourgeoisie, between the proletariat a n d the peasant petty bourgeoisie,
b e t w e e n the non-monopoly capitalists a n d the m o n o p o l y capitalists,
b e t w e e n bourgeois d e m o c r a c y a n d bourgeois fascism, a m o n g
the
capitalist countries a n d between imperialism and the colonies, are
all d e t e r m i n e d o r i n f l u e n c e d b y t h i s p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
W h e n i m p e r i a l i s m l a u n c h e s a w a r of a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a
c o u n t r y , a l l i t s v a r i o u s c l a s s e s , e x c e p t for s o m e t r a i t o r s , c a n t e m p o r a ­
r i l y u n i t e in a n a t i o n a l w a r a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m . A t s u c h a t i m e , t h e
contradiction b e t w e e n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d the c o u n t r y c o n c e r n e d
be­
comes the principal contradiction, w h i l e all the contradictions among
the various classes within the
country
(including w h a t w a s
the
principal contradiction, b e t w e e n the feudal system a n d the great
m a s s e s of t h e p e o p l e ) a r e t e m p o r a r i l y r e l e g a t e d to a s e c o n d a r y a n d
subordinate position.
T h i s i s M a o ' s k e y p o i n t : t h e p r i n c i p a l ( u n i v e r s a l ) c o n t r a d i c t i o n d o e s not
o v e r l a p w i t h t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s d o m i n a n t in a
particular situation—the universal dimension
l i t e r a l l y redideo i n
this
p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a d i c t i o n . In e a c h c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n , a d i f f e r e n t " p a r t i ­
c u l a r " c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o n e , in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e that, in
o r d e r to w i n t h e b a t t l e for t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
o n e s h o u l d t r e a t a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a d i c t i o n a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o n e , to
w h i c h a l l o t h e r s t r u g g l e s s h o u l d b e s u b o r d i n a t e d . In C h i n a u n d e r t h e
J a p a n e s e occupation, patriotic unity against the
Japanese was
the
p r e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e if C o m m u n i s t s w a n t e d to w i n in t h e c l a s s s t r u g 182
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
gießen these conditwiw, any directfocuj on cLus struggle harms the clajs struggle
iUelf- ( T h e r e i n , p e r h a p s , r e s i d e s t h e m a i n f e a t u r e of " d o g m a t i c o p p o r t u n i s m " : to i n s i s t on t h e c e n t r a h t y of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n a t t h e
^vvrong m o m e n t . )
T h e f u r t h e r k e y p o i n t c o n c e r n s t h e p r i n c i p a l aspect of a c o n t r a d i c t i o n ;
l o r e x a m p l e , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
forces
productive
a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ,
the p r o d u c t i v e forces, p r a c t i c e a n d t h e e c o n o m i c b a s e g e n e r a l l y p l a y
the p r i n c i p a l a n d d e c i s i v e r o l e ; w h o e v e r d e n i e s t h i s i s not a m a t e r i a l i s t .
But it m u s t a l s o b e a d m i t t e d t h a t in c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h a s p e c t s a s
the r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ,
t h e o r y a n d the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
in t u r n
m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d d e c i s i v e r o l e . W h e n it is
i m p o s s i b l e for t h e p r o d u c t i v e forces to d e v e l o p w i t h o u t a c h a n g e In t h e
r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n t h e c h a n g e in t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n
plays the principal a n d decisive role.
The p o l i t i c a l s t a k e s of t h i s d e b a t e a r e d e c i s i v e : M a o ' s a i m i s to a s s e r t t h e
k e y role, i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , of w h a t t h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n u s u a l l y
refers to a s t h e " s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r " — t h e o r y , t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i s
what, a c c o r d i n g to M a o , S t a l i n n e g l e c t e d :
S t a l i n ' s {Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR] from first to l a s t
says n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . It i s not c o n c e r n e d w i t h p e o p l e ;
it c o n s i d e r s t h i n g s , not p e o p l e . [. . .] [It s p e a k s ] o n l y of t h e p r o d u c t i o n
r e l a t i o n s , n o t of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e n o r p o l i t i c s , n o r t h e r o l e of t h e
people. C o m m u n i s m c a n n o t be r e a c h e d u n l e s s t h e r e is a c o m m u n i s t
movement.
A l a i n B a d i o u , a t r u e M a o i s t h e r e , a p p l i e s t h i s to t h e
contemporary
c o n s t e l l a t i o n , a v o i d i n g t h e focus on t h e a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t s t r u g g l e , e v e n
ridiculing
its m a i n form t o d a y ( t h e a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t ) ,
defining the e m a n c i p a t o r y struggle in strictly political terms, a s
struggle against (liberal) democracy, today's predominant
and
the
ideologico-
p o l i t i c a l form. " T o d a y t h e e n e m y i s not c a l l e d E m p i r e o r C a p i t a l . It's
c a l l e d D e m o c r a c y . " ^ ' ' W h a t , t o d a y , p r e v e n t s t h e r a d i c a l q u e s t i o n i n g of
c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f i s p r e c i s e l y the belief in the democratic form of the struggle
against capitalism. L e n i n ' s s t a n c e a g a i n s t " e c o n o m i s m " a s w e l l a s a g a i n s t
p u r e " p o l i t i c s i s c r u c i a l t o d a y , a p r o p o s t h e split a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e
r83
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
e c o n o m y i n ( w h a t r e m a i n s of) t h e Left: on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e
"pure
p o H t i c i a n s " a b a n d o n t h e e c o n o m y a s t h e site of s t r u g g l e a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n ;
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the " e c o n o m i s t s , " f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of the
contemporary
g l o b a l e c o n o m y , p r e c l u d e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y of a p o l i t i c a l
i n t e r v e n t i o n p r o p e r . W i t h r e g a r d to t h i s split, t o d a y , m o r e t h a n e v e r , w e
s h o u l d r e t u r n to L e n i n : y e s , t h e e c o n o m y i s t h e k e y d o m a i n , t h e b a t t l e w i l l
b e d e c i d e d t h e r e , o n e h a s to b r e a k t h e spell of g l o b a l capitalism—Z;«/^ the
intervention
s h o u l d b e p r o p e r l y poUtical, n o t e c o n o m i c . T o d a y , w h e n
e v e r y o n e i s " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t , " u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e H o l l y w o o d " s o c i o c r i t i c a l " c o n s p i r a c y m o v i e s (from The Enemy of the State to The In,iu)er) In
w h i c h t h e e n e m y a r e t h e b i g c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r r u t h l e s s p u r s u i t of
profit, t h e s i g n i f i e r " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m " h a s lost its s u b v e r s i v e s t i n g . W h a t
o n e s h o u l d p r o b l e m a t i z e i s t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t o p p o s i t e of t h i s " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m " : t h e t r u s t in d e m o c r a c y b y h o n e s t A m e r i c a n s w h o b r e a k u p the
c o n s p i r a c y . Thû i s t h e h a r d k e r n e l of t o d a y ' s g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t u n i v e r s e , its
t r u e J V l a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r : d e m o c r a c y itself.'**^
M a o ' s f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e n o t i o n of c o n t r a d i c t i o n in h i s " O n t h e
C o r r e c t H a n d l i n g of C o n t r a d i c t i o n s A m o n g t h e P e o p l e " ( 1 9 5 7 ) a l s o
c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to i t s b e s t - k n o w n f e a t u r e , t h e r a t h e r
common-sense
p o i n t of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c a n d t h e n o n - a n t a g o n i s t i c
contradictions:
The contradictions between ourselves a n d the e n e m y are antagonistic
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . W i t h i n t h e r a n k s of t h e p e o p l e , t h e
contradictions
among the w o r k i n g people are non-antagonistic, while those between
the exploited a n d the exploiting classes h a v e a non-antagonistic as well
as an antagonistic aspect.
[. . . ] [ U J n J e r t h e p e o p l e ' s
dictatorship
methods,
t w o different
democratic
one dictatorial a n d the
other
d e m o c r a t i c , s h o u l d b e u s e d to r e s o l v e t h e t w o t y p e s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
w h i c h d i f f e r in n a t u r e — t h o s e b e t w e e n o u r s e l v e s a n d t h e e n e m y a n d
t h o s e a m o n g t h e people.'^^
O n e s h o u l d a l w a y s r e a d t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h its m o r e " o m i n o u s "
s u p p l e m e n t , a w a r n i n g t h a t t h e t w o a s p e c t s m a y o v e r l a p : "In o r d i n a r y
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a m o n g t h e p e o p l e a r e not a n t a g o n i s t i c . B u t
if t h e y a r e n o t h a n d l e d p r o p e r l y , or if w e r e l a x o u r v i g i l a n c e a n d l o w e r
our guard, antagonism m a y arise." Democratic dialogue, the
peaceful
c o e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s in t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , i s not s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s s i m p l y g i v e n , a n a t u r a l s t a t e of t h i n g s , it is s o m e t h i n g t h a t is
184
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
^on a n d s u s t a i n e d b y v i g i l a n c e a n d s t r u g g l e . H e r e , t o o , s t r u g g l e h a s
p r i o r i t y o v e r u n i t y : the v e r y s p a c e of u n i t y h a s t o b e w o n t h r o u g h
Struggle.
S o w h a t a r e we t o d o w i t h t h e s e e l a b o r a t i o n s ? O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y
precise i n d i a g n o s i n g , a t t h e v e r y a b s t r a c t l e v e l of t h e o r y , w h e r e M a o w a s
y i g h t a n d w h e r e h e w a s w r o n g . M a o w a s r i g h t in r e j e c t i n g t h e s t a n d a r d
potion of " d i a l e c t i c a l s y n t h e s i s " a s t h e " r e c o n c i l i a t i o n " of t h e o p p o s i t e s , a s
IK higher u n i t y w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s t h e i r s t r u g g l e ; he w a s w r o n g i n
f o r m u l a t i n g t h i s r e j e c t i o n , t h i s i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e p r i o r i t y of s t r u g g l e , of
d i v i s i o n , o v e r e v e r y s y n t h e s i s o r u n i t y , in t e r m s of a g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g y Ontology of t h e " e t e r n a l s t r u g g l e of o p p o s i t e s " — t h i s i s w h y he g o t c a u g h t
tip in t h e s i m p l i s t i c , p r o p e r l y mm-d'uilectical, n o t i o n of t h e " b a d i n f i n i t y " of
struggle. M a o c l e a r l y r e g r e s s e s h e r e t o p r i m i t i v e p a g a n " w i s d o m s " on
how e v e r y c r e a t u r e , e v e r y d e t e r m i n a t e form of life, s o o n e r o r l a t e r m e e t s
its end: " O n e thing destroys another, things emerge, develop, a n d a r e
d e s t r o y e d , e v e r y w h e r e is l i k e t h i s . If t h i n g s a r e n o t d e s t r o y e d b y o t h e r s ,
t h e n they d e s t r o y t h e m s e l v e s . " O n e s h o u l d g i v e M a o h i s d u e a t t h i s l e v e l :
he pushes to t h e e n d i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , a p p l y i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e to c o m ­
munism i t s e l f — ' S e e t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , i n w h i c h M a o a c c o m p l i s h e s a
gigantic ontological "leap forward"
from
t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e a t o m i c
n u c l e u s i n t o p r o t o n s , a n t i - p r o t o n s , a n d so on, to t h e i n e v i t a b l e d i v i s i o n
of c o m m u n i s m i n t o s t a g e s :
I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t c o m m u n i s m w i l l n o t be d i v i d e d i n t o s t a g e s , a n d t h a t
there w i l l be n o q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s . L e n i n s a i d t h a t a l l t h i n g s c a n be
divided. H e g a v e the atom a s a n example, a n d said that not only c a n
the a t o m be d i v i d e d , b u t t h e e l e c t r o n , too, c a n be d i v i d e d . F o r m e r l y ,
h o w e v e r , it w a s h e l d t h a t it c o u l d n o t be d i v i d e d ; t h e b r a n c h of s c i e n c e
d e v o t e d t o s p l i t t i n g t h e a t o m i c n u c l e u s i s still v e r y y o u n g , o n l y t w e n t y
or t h i r t y y e a r s o l d . In r e c e n t d e c a d e s , t h e s c i e n t i s t s h a v e r e s o l v e d t h e
atomic n u c l e u s into its constituents, such a s protons,
anti-protons,
neutrons, anti-neutrons, mesons a n d anti-mesons.'
H e e v e n g o e s a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d m o v e s b e y o n d h u m a n i t y itself,
casting, i n a p r o t o - N i e t z s c h e a n
fore­
w a y , t h e " o v e r c o m i n g " of man^—
T h e life of d i a l e c t i c s i s t h e c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t t o w a r d
opposites.
M a n k i n d w i l l a l s o finally m e e t i t s d o o m . W h e n t h e t h e o l o g i a n s t a l k
about doomsday, they are pessimistic a n d terrify people. W e s a y the
185
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
e n d of m a n k i n d i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h w i l l p r o d u c e
something
more
a d v a n c e d t h a n m a n k i n d . M a n k i n d is still in its i n f a n c y . ^ '
M o r e o v e r , h e e n v i s a g e s t h e r i s e of ( s o m e ) a n i m a l s t h e m s e l v e s t o the
( w h a t w e c o n s i d e r t o d a y a s e x c l u s i v e l y h u m a n ) l e v e l of c o n s c i o u s n e s s :
In t h e f u t u r e , a n i m a l s w i l l c o n t i n u e to d e v e l o p . I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t m e n
a l o n e a r e c a p a b l e of h a v i n g t w o h a n d s . C a n ' t h o r s e s , c o w s , s h e e p
e v o l v e ? C a n o n l y m o n k e y s e v o l v e ? A n d c a n it b e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t of all
the m o n k e y s only one species c a n evolve, a n d all the others
are
i n c a p a b l e of e v o l v i n g ? In a m i l l i o n y e a r s , t e n m i l l i o n y e a r s , w i l l h o r s e s ,
c o w s a n d s h e e p still b e the s a m e a s t h o s e t o d a y ? I t h i n k t h e y w i l l
c o n t i n u e to c h a n g e . H o r s e s , c o w s , s h e e p , a n d i n s e c t s w i l l all c h a n g e .
T w o t h i n g s s h o u l d b e a d d e d to t h i s " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " :
first,
one
s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t M a o is h e r e t a l k i n g to t h e i n n e r c i r c l e of p a r t \ '
i d e o l o g i s t s . T h i s i s w h a t a c c o u n t s for t h e t o n e of s h a r i n g a s e c r e t not t o b e
r e n d e r e d p u b l i c , a s if M a o i s d i v u l g i n g h i s " s e c r e t t e a c h i n g " — a n d , in
fact, M a o ' s s p e c u l a t i o n s c l o s e l y e c h o s o - c a l l e d " b i o c o s m i s m , " t h e s t r a n g e
c o m b i n a t i o n of v u l g a r m a t e r i a l i s m a n d G n o s t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y w h i c h f o r m e d
a n o c c u l t s h a d o w i d e o l o g y , t h e o b s c e n e s e c r e t t e a c h i n g , of S o v i e t M a r x ­
ism.
R e p r e s s e d from p u b l i c s i g h t d u r i n g t h e m a i n p e r i o d of t h e S o v i e t
s t a t e , b i o c o s m i s m w a s o p e n l y p r o p a g a t e d o n l y i n t h e first a n d i n t h e last
t w o d e c a d e s of S o v i e t r u l e ; its m a i n t h e s e s w e r e : t h e g o a l s of r e l i g i o n
(collective paradise, the
overcoming
immortality, the resurrection
of a l l s u f f e r i n g ,
full
individual
of t h e d e a d , t h e v i c t o r y o v e r t i m e
and
d e a t h , t h e c o n q u e s t of s p a c e far b e y o n d t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ) c a n b e r e a l i z e d
in
terrestrial
life
through
the
development
of m o d e r n
science
and
t e c h n o l o g y . In t h e f u t u r e , n o t o n l y w i l l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e b e a b o l i s h e d ,
w i t h t h e r i s e of c h a s t e p o s t - h u m a n s
reproducing themselves
through
d i r e c t b i o t e c h n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n ; it w i l l a l s o b e p o s s i b l e t o r e s u r r e c t all
t h e d e a d of t h e p a s t ( e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a e t h r o u g h t h e i r
r e m a i n s a n d t h e n r e - e n g e n d e r i n g t h e m — D N A h a d not y e t b e e n h e a r d of
. . . ) , thus even e r a s i n g all p a s t injustices, " u n d o i n g " past suffering a n d
d e s t r u c t i o n . In t h i s b r i g h t b i o p o l i t l c a l C o m m u n i s t f u t u r e , n o t o n l y h u ­
m a n s , but also a n i m a l s , all living b e i n g s , will p a r t i c i p a t e in a directly
c o l l e c t i v i z e d R e a s o n of t h e c o s m o s . . . W h a t e v e r o n e m a y s a y a g a i n s t
L e n i n ' s r u t h l e s s c r i t i q u e of M a x i m G o r k y ' s " G o d - b u i l d i n g " {bogograÔLteik'ötvo),
186
t h e d i r e c t d e i f i c a t i o n of m a n , o n e s h o u l d b e a r i n m i n d
that
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
Gorky
h i m s e l f c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h b i o c o s m i s t s . It i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e
resemblances between
this "biocosmism" a n d contemporary
techno-
gnosis.
S e c o n d , t h i s " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " i s for M a o n o t j u s t a n i r r e l e v a n t
p h i l o s o p h i c a l c a v e a t ; it h a s p r e c i s e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . W h e n
jVlao h i g h h a n d e d l y d i s m i s s e s t h e t h r e a t of t h e a t o m i c b o m b , h e i s n o t
d o w n p l a y i n g t h e s c o p e of t h e d a n g e r — h e i s fully a w a r e t h a t s u c h a w a r
tmoy
t°
e x t i n c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a s s u c h , so, t o j u s t i f y h i s d e f i a n c e ,
•'he h a s t o a d o p t t h e " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " from w h i c h t h e e n d o f life o n
g 4 r t h " w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e . " T h i s
; "cosmic perspective" also g r o u n d s M a o ' s dismissive attitude t o w a r d s the
h u m a n c o s t s of e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l e n d e a v o r s . If o n e i s t o b e l i e v e t h e
l a t e s t b i o g r a p h y of M a o ,
h e caused t h e greatest famine in history b y
e x p o r t i n g food t o R u s s i a t o b u y a t o m i c a n d o t h e r t y p e s of a r m s : 3 8
million p e o p l e s t a r v e d o r w e r e s l a v e - d r i v e n t o d e a t h i n 1958—61. M a o
supposedly k n e w e x a c t l y w h a t w a s happening, saying: "half of C h i n a
may w e l l h a v e t o d i e . " T h i s i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l a t t i t u d e a t i t s m o s t r a d i c a l :
k i l l i n g a s p a r t of a r u t h l e s s a t t e m p t t o r e a l i z e a g o a l , r e d u c i n g p e o p l e t o
disposable m e a n s — a n d w h a t one should b e a r i n mind is that the Nazi
H o l o c a u s t w a s not t h e s a m e : t h e m u r d e r of t h e J e w s w a s n o t p a r t of a
rational strategy, but w a s autotelic, a meticulously p l a n n e d "irrational"
e x c e s s ( r e c a l l t h e d e p o r t a t i o n of t h e l a s t J e w s from t h e G r e e k i s l a n d s i n
1944, j u s t b e f o r e t h e G e r m a n r e t r e a t , o r t h e m a s s i v e u s e of t r a i n s for
t r a n s p o r t i n g J e w s i n s t e a d of w a r m a t e r i e l i n 1 9 4 4 ) . T h i s i s w h y H e i ­
degger w a s wrong when h e reduced the Holocaust
to t h e i n d u s t r i a l
p r o d u c t i o n of c o r p s e s : it w a s not t h a t , S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s m r a t h e r c o u l d
be characterized better in this way.^^
T h e c o n c e p t u a l c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s " b a d i n f i n i t y " t h a t p e r t a i n s t o
v u l g a r e v o l u t i o n i s m i s JVlao's c o n s i s t e n t r e j e c t i o n of t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e
negation" as a u n i v e r s a l dialectical l a w . T h u s the explicit polemic a g a i n s t
Engels (incidentally, following Stalin w h o , i n his " O n Dialectical a n d
Historical M a t e r i a l i s m , " also does not mention
t h e "negation of the
n e g a t i o n " a m o n g t h e " f o u r m a i n f e a t u r e s of M a r x i s t d i a l e c t i c s " ) :
E n g e l s t a l k e d a b o u t t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t a s for m e I d o n ' t b e l i e v e
in t w o of t h o s e c a t e g o r i e s . ( T h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s i s t h e m o s t b a s i c
l a w , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y i n t o o n e a n o t h e r i s t h e
u n i t y of t h e o p p o s i t e s q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y , a n d t h e n e g a t i o n o f t h e
n e g a t i o n d o e s n o t e x i s t a t a l l . ) [. . . ] T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s t h e
187
I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n . A f f i r m a t i o n , n e g a t i o n , a f f i r m a t i o n , n e g a t i o n
...
in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i n g s , e v e r y l i n k in t h e c h a i n of e v e n t s is
both affirmation a n d negation. S l a v e - h o l d i n g society n e g a t e d primitive
s o c i e t y , b u t w i t h r e f e r e n c e to f e u d a l s o c i e t y it c o n s t i t u t e d , in t u r n , the
affirmation.
Feudal society constituted
the negation in relation
to
s l a v e - h o l d i n g s o c i e t y b u t it w a s in t u r n t h e a f f i r m a t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e
to c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . C a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y w a s t h e n e g a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to
f e u d a l s o c i e t y , b u t it i s , in t u r n , t h e a f f i r m a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to socialist
• ^
55
society.
Along
similar lines,
Mao
scathingly dismissed the
c a t e g o r y of
the
" d i a l e c t i c a l s y n t h e s i s " of o p p o s i t e s , p r o m o t i n g h i s o w n v e r s i o n of " n e g ­
a t i v e d i a l e c t i c s " — e v e r y s y n t h e s i s w a s for h i m u l t i m a t e l y w h a t A d o r n o in
h i s c r i t i q u e of L u k a c s c a l l e d "erpreßte Verhöhnung" ( e n f o r c e d r e c o n c i l i a ­
t i o n ) , at b e s t a m o m e n t a r y p a u s e in t h e o n g o i n g s t r u g g l e , w h i c h o c c u r s
not w h e n the opposites are united, but w h e n one side s i m p l y w i n s over
the other:
W h a t i s s y n t h e s i s ? Y o u h a v e a l l w i t n e s s e d h o w t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s , the
Kuomintang
a n d the
Communist
P a r t y , w e r e s y n t h e s i z e d on
the
mainland. T h e synthesis took place like this: their a r m i e s came, and
w e d e v o u r e d t h e m , w e a t e t h e m b i t e b y b i t e . [. . . ] O n e t h i n g e a t i n g
a n o t h e r , b i g fish e a t i n g l i t t l e fish, t h i s i s s y n t h e s i s . It h a s n e v e r b e e n p u t
l i k e t h i s i n b o o k s . I h a v e n e v e r p u t it t h i s w a y i n m y b o o k s e i t h e r . F o r
h i s p a r t , Y a n g H s i e n - c h e n b e l i e v e s t h a t t w o c o m b i n e i n t o one, a n d t h a t
s y n t h e s i s i s t h e i n d i s s o l u b l e tie b e t w e e n t w o o p p o s i t e s . W h a t i n d i s ­
s o l u b l e t i e s a r e t h e r e in t h i s w o r l d ? T h i n g s m a y b e t i e d , b u t in t h e e n d
t h e y m u s t b e s e v e r e d . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g w h i c h c a n n o t b e severed.'^'^
( N o t e , a g a i n , t h e t o n e of s h a r i n g a s e c r e t n o t to b e r e n d e r e d p u b l i c , t h e
cruel-realistic lesson that u n d e r m i n e s the h a p p y public optimism . . .)
T h i s w a s a t t h e c o r e of t h e f a m o u s d e b a t e , in t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s , a b o u t t h e
O n e a n d the T w o (are the T w o u n i t e d into One, or is the O n e divided
i n t o T w o ? ) : "In a n y g i v e n t h i n g , t h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s i s c o n d i t i o n a l ,
t e m p o r a r y a n d t r a n s i t o r y , a n d h e n c e r e l a t i v e , w h e r e a s t h e s t r u g g l e of
o p p o s i t e s i s a b s o l u t e . " T h i s b r i n g s u s to w h a t o n e is t e m p t e d to c a l l M a o ' s
e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l injunction—^to
p a r a p h r a s e t h e l a s t w o r d s of
Beckett's
L'lnnomabU: " i n t h e s i l e n c e y o u d o n ' t k n o w , y o u m u s t g o on s e v e r i n g , I
c a n ' t g o on, I'll g o on s e v e r i n g .
188
T h e p a r a d o x of M a o ' s r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s of
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
the e t e r n a l l y o n g o i n g d i v i s i o n w h i c h n e v e r r e a c h e s t h e final p o i n t of
p e a c e i s t h a t i t r e j o i n s i t s o p p o s i t e , t h e rightist s o c i a l - d e m o c r a t i c r e v i s i o n
w h o s e founder Bernstein proposed the w e l l - k n o w n formula: "The goal is
nothing, t h e m o v e m e n t i s e v e r y t h i n g . "
S o w h e r e d o e s M a o fall s h o r t h e r e ?
I n t h e w a y h e opposes t h i s
injunction to sever, to divide, to dialectical synthesis.
W h e n M a o m o c k i n g l y r e f e r s t o " s y n t h e s i z i n g " a s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e
enemy or h i s subordination, his mistake resides in this very mocking
a t t i t u d e — h e d o e s not s e e t h a t t h i s i> t h e t r u e H e g e l i a n s y n t h e s i s . . . A f t e r
aU, w h a t i s t h e H e g e l i a n " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n " ? F i r s t , t h e o l d o r d e r i s
n e g a t e d w i t h i n its o w n i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l form; t h e n , t h i s form i t s e l f h a s
to be n e g a t e d . T h o s e w h o v a c i l l a t e , t h o s e w h o a r e a f r a i d t o t a k e t h e
s e c o n d s t e p of o v e r c o m i n g t h i s form itself, a r e t h o s e w h o ( t o r e p e a t
Robespierre) w a n t a "revolution without
a revolution" —and
Lenin
d i s p l a y s a l l t h e s t r e n g t h of h i s " h e r m e n e u t i c s of s u s p i c i o n " i n d i s c e r n i n g
the different f o r m s of t h i s r e t r e a t . T h e t r u e v i c t o r y ( t h e t r u e " n e g a t i o n o f
the n e g a t i o n " ) o c c u r s w h e n t h e e n e m y t a l k s y o u r l a n g u a g e . I n t h i s s e n s e ,
a t r u e v i c t o r y i s a v i c t o r y in d e f e a t : it o c c u r s w h e n o n e ' s s p e c i f i c m e s s a g e
is a c c e p t e d a s a u n i v e r s a l f r a m e w o r k , e v e n b y t h e e n e m y . F o r e x a m p l e , i n
the c a s e of r a t i o n a l s c i e n c e v e r s u s belief, t h e t r u e v i c t o r y of s c i e n c e t a k e s
p l a c e w h e n t h e C h u r c h s t a r t s to d e f e n d i t s e l f in t h e l a n g u a g e of s c i e n c e .
Or, i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s of t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , a s m a n y a
perspicuous commentator has observed, the Thatcher revolution w a s in
Itself c h a o t i c , i m p u l s i v e , m a r k e d b y u n p r e d i c t a b l e c o n t i n g e n c i e s , a n d i t
w a s o n l y t h e " T h i r d W a y " B l a i r i t e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t w a s a b l e t o institu­
tionalize it, t o s t a b i l i z e i t i n t o n e w i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms, or, t o p u t i t i n
H e g e l e s e , t o r a i s e ( w h a t first a p p e a r e d a s ) a c o n t i n g e n c y , a h i s t o r i c a l
accident, into
necessity. In this sense, Blair
repeated
Thatcherism,
e l e v a t i n g i t i n t o a c o n c e p t , i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t , for H e g e l , A u g u s t u s
repeated Caesar, transforming—sublating a (contingent) personal n a m e
into a c o n c e p t , a t i t l e . T h a t c h e r w a s n o t a T h a t c h e r i t e , s h e w a s j u s t
herself—it w a s only Blair (more than J o h n M a j o r ) w h o t r u l y forged
T h a t c h e r i s m a s a n o t i o n . T h e d i a l e c t i c a l i r o n y of h i s t o r y i s t h a t o n l y a
( n o m i n a l ) i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l e n e m y c a n d o t h i s to y o u , c a n e l e v a t e y o u
m t o a c o n c e p t — t h e e m p i r i c a l i n s t i g a t o r h a s t o b e k n o c k e d off ( J u l i u s
C a e s a r h a d to b e m u r d e r e d , T h a t c h e r h a d t o b e i g n o m i n o u s l y d e p o s e d ) .
T h i s i s t h e s u r p r i s i n g l e s s o n o f t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , t h e l e s s o n of W e s t
European
Third
W a y s o c i a l - d e m o c r a c y , b u t a l s o t h e l e s s o n of t h e
Chinese C o m m u n i s t s p r e s i d i n g over w h a t is a r g u a b l y the most explosive
189
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
d e v e l o p m e n t of c a p i t a l i s m i n t h e e n t i r e t y of h u m a n h i s t o r y : we can do il
better. R e c a l l t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t a c c o u n t of t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t ­
a l i s m : c a p i t a l i s m u n l e a s h e d t h e b r e a t h t a k i n g d y n a m i c s of s e l f - e n h a n c i n g
p r o d u c t i v i t y — i n c a p i t a l i s m , " a l l t h a t i s s o l i d m e l t s i n t o a i r , " c a p i t a l i s m is
t h e g r e a t e s t r e v o l u t i o n i z e r in t h e h i s t o r y of h u m a n i t y ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
this capitalist d y n a m i c is propelled b y its o w n inner obstacle or antagon­
i s m — t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t of c a p i t a l i s m ( o f c a p i t a l i s t s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g p r o ­
d u c t i v i t y ) i s C a p i t a l itself, t h a t i s , c a p i t a l i s m ' s i n c e s s a n t d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g of i t s o w n m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e m a d d a n c e of its
u n c o n d i t i o n a l s p i r a l of p r o d u c t i v i t y , i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t h i n g b u t a d e s p e r a t e
fuite en avant t o e s c a p e i t s o w n d e b i l i t a t i n g i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . . .
M a r x ' s f u n d a m e n t a l m i s t a k e w a s h e r e t o c o n c l u d e , from t h e s e i n s i g h t s ,
that a new, higher social order ( c o m m u n i s m ) w a s possible, a n order that
w o u l d n o t o n l y m a i n t a i n , b u t e v e n r a i s e to a h i g h e r d e g r e e a n d fully
r e l e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e u p w a r d s p i r a l of p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h o u t it b e i n g
t h w a r t e d b y s o c i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e e c o n o m i c c r i s e s . In short, w h a t M a r x
o v e r l o o k e d i s t h a t , to p u t i t i n s t a n d a r d D e r r i d e a n t e r m s , t h i s i n h e r e n t
o b s t a c l e / a n t a g o n i s m a s t h e " c o n d i t i o n of i m p o s s i b i l i t y " of t h e full d e p l o y ­
m e n t of t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i t s " c o n d i t i o n of p o s s i ­
b i l i t y " : if w e a b o l i s h t h e o b s t a c l e , t h e i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m ,
w e d o n o t g e t t h e f u l l y u n l e a s h e d d r i v e f i n a l l y freed from i t s s h a c k l e s , b u t
r a t h e r w e lose p r e c i s e l y this v e r y p r o d u c t i v i t y that s e e m e d to b e simul­
t a n e o u s l y g e n e r a t e d a n d stifled b y c a p i t a l i s m , for it s i m p l y d i s s i p a t e s . . .
A n d it i s a s if t h i s l o g i c of t h e " o b s t a c l e a s a p o s i t i v e c o n d i t i o n " w h i c h
u n d e r l a y t h e f a i l u r e of s o c i a l i s t a t t e m p t s to o v e r c o m e c a p i t a l i s m , is n o w
r e t u r n i n g w i t h a v e n g e a n c e i n c a p i t a l i s m itself: c a p i t a l i s m c a n f u l l y t h r i v e
n o t i n t h e u n e n c u m b e r e d r e i g n of t h e m a r k e t , b u t o n l y w h e n a n o b s t a c l e
(from m i n i m a l w e l f a r e - s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n , u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e d i r e c t
p o l i t i c a l r u l e of t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y , a s i n t h e c a s e of C h i n a ) c o n s t r a i n s
its u n i m p e d e d r a m p a g e .
S o , i r o n i c a l l y , thid i s t h e " s y n t h e s i s " of c a p i t a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m in
M a o ' s s e n s e : i n a u n i q u e k i n d of p o e t i c j u s t i c e on a h i s t o r i c s c a l e , it w a s
c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h " s y n t h e t i z e d " M a o i s t C o m m u n i s m . T h e k e y n e w fea­
t u r e i n C h i n a o v e r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s h a s b e e n t h e e m e r g e n c e of a l a r g e scale w o r k e r s ' movement, protesting against the w o r k conditions which
a r e t h e p r i c e C h i n a p a y s for r a p i d l y b e c o m i n g t h e w o r l d ' s
foremost
manufacturing power, a m o v e m e n t w h i c h h a s faced brutal repression —
n e w proof, if it i s still n e e d e d , t h a t C h i n a i s t o d a y t h e i d e a l c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e :
f r e e d o m for c a p i t a l , w i t h t h e s t a t e d o i n g t h e " d i r t y j o b " of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
190
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
v v o r k e r s . C h i n a a s t h e e m e r g i n g s u p e r p o w e r of the t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y
t h u s s e e m s to e m b o d y a n e w k i n d of c a p i t a l i s m : d i s r e g a r d for e c o l o g i c a l
c o n s e q u e n c e s , d i s d a i n for w o r k e r s ' r i g h t s , e v e r y t h i n g s u b o r d i n a t e d to t h e
r u t h l e s s d r i v e to d e v e l o p a n d b e c o m e t h e n e w w o r l d force. T h e
q u e s t i o n i s : w h a t w i l l t h e C h i n e s e d o w i t h r e g a r d to the
big
biogenetic
r e v o l u t i o n ? Is it not a safe w a g e r t h a t t h e y w i l l h u r l t h e m s e l v e s i n t o
unconstrained
genetic manipulation
of p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , a n d
humans,
bypassing all our " W e s t e r n " moral prejudices a n d limitations?
T h i s i s t h e u l t i m a t e p r i c e for M a o ' s t h e o r e t i c a l m i s t a k e of r e j e c t i n g t h e
" n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n , " of h i s f a i l u r e to g r a s p h o w t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e
n e g a t i o n " i s not a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n a p o s i t i o n a n d its e x c e s s i v e l y
r a d i c a l n e g a t i o n , but, on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e o n l y t r u e n e g a t i o n . A n d it i s
b e c a u s e M a o i s u n a b l e to t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r m u l a t e t h i s s e l f - r e l a t i n g n e g a ­
tion of form i t s e l f t h a t h e g e t s c a u g h t in t h e " b a d i n f i n i t y " of e n d l e s s
n e g a t i n g , s c i s s i o n s i n t o t w o , s u b d i v i s i o n . . . In H e g e l e s e , M a o ' s d i a l e c t i c
r e m a i n s a t t h e l e v e l of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , of fixed n o t i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n s ; it i s
u n a b l e to f o r m u l a t e
t h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l s e l f - r e l a t i n g of
notional
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . It i s t h i s " s e r i o u s m i s t a k e " (to u s e a S t a l i n i s t t e r m ) w h i c h
l e d M a o , w h e n h e w a s c o u r a g e o u s e n o u g h to d r a w a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
fi-om h i s s t a n c e s , to r e a c h a p r o p e r l y n o n s e n s i c a l c o n c l u s i o n that, in o r d e r
to i n v i g o r a t e c l a s s s t r u g g l e , o n e s h o u l d d i r e c t l y o p e n u p t h e field to t h e
enemy:
L e t t h e m g o in for c a p i t a l i s m . S o c i e t y i s v e r y c o m p l e x . If o n e o n l y g o e s
in for s o c i a l i s m a n d not for c a p i t a l i s m , i s n ' t t h a t too s i m p l e ? W o u l d n ' t
w e t h e n l a c k t h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s , a n d b e m e r e l y o n e - s i d e d ? L e t t h e m
d o it. L e t t h e m a t t a c k u s m a d l y , d e m o n s t r a t e in t h e s t r e e t s , t a k e u p
a r m s to r e b e l — • ! a p p r o v e a l l of t h e s e t h i n g s . S o c i e t y is v e r y c o m p l e x ,
t h e r e i s not a s i n g l e c o m m u n e , a s i n g l e hsien, a s i n g l e d e p a r t m e n t of t h e
Central Committee, w h i c h one c a n n o t d i v i d e into t w o .
T h i s n o t i o n of d i a l e c t i c s p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c m a t r i x of M a o ' s p o l i t i c s , its
r e p e a t e d oscillation b e t w e e n " l i b e r a l " openness a n d then the " h a r d Une"
p u r g e : first, l e t t h e p r o v e r b i a l " h u n d r e d f l o w e r s b l o s s o m , " so t h a t the
e n e m i e s w i l l a c t u a l i z e a n d fully e x p r e s s t h e i r r e a c t i o n a r y h i d d e n
ten­
dencies; then, once everyone's true positions are clearly articulated,
e n g a g e in a r u t h l e s s s t r u g g l e . A g a i n , w h a t M a o fails to d o h e r e i s to
p r o c e e d to t h e p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n " i d e n t i t y of o p p o s i t e s , " a n d to r e c o g ­
n i z e in t h e force t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s fighting a n d t r y i n g to a n n i h i l a t e its own
191
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
eddence, a s i s t h e c a s e in G.K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s The Man Who Waj Thurdday, in
w h i c h t h e s e c r e t poHce c h i e f o r g a n i z i n g t h e s e a r c h for t h e
anarchist
l e a d e r a n d t h i s m y s t e r i o u s l e a d e r in t h e e n d a p p e a r to b e o n e a n d the
same person
(God
Himself, i n c i d e n t a l l y ) . A n d d i d M a o h i m s e l f ulti­
m a t e l y not p l a y a s i m i l a r r o l e , t h a t of a s e c u l a r G o d w h o i s at t h e s a m e
time the greatest rebel against himself? W h a t this Chestertonian identity
of t h e g o o d L o r d w i t h t h e a n a r c h i s t R e b e l e n a c t s i s t h e l o g i c of t h e social
carnivaL b r o u g h t to t h e e x t r e m e of s e l f - r e f l e x i o n : a n a r c h i s t o u t b u r s t s a r e
n o t a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of I ^ w a n d O r d e r ; in o u r s o c i e t i e s , a n a r c h i s m a l r e a d y
u) in p o w e r w e a r i n g t h e m a s k of L a w a n d O r d e r — o u r J u s t i c e i s the
t r a v e s t y of J u s t i c e , the s p e c t a c l e of L a w a n d
O r d e r is an
obscene
carnival —the point m a d e clear b y a r g u a b l y the greatest political poem
in
English,
S h e l l e y ' s " T h e M a s k of A n a r c h y " , w h i c h
describes
the
o b s c e n e p a r a d e of t h e f i g u r e s of p o w e r :
And m a n y more Destructions played
In t h i s g h a s t l y m a s q u e r a d e .
All d i s g u i s e d , e v e n to t h e e y e s .
L i k e Bishops, l a w y e r s , peers, or spies.
Last came A n a r c h y : he rode
O n a w h i t e h o r s e , s p l a s h e d w i t h blood;
H e w a s p a l e e v e n to t h e l i p s .
Like Death in the Apocalypse.
And he wore a kingly crown;
A n d in h i s g r a s p a s c e p t r e s h o n e ;
O n his b r o w this m a r k I s a w —
"I A M G O D ,
A N D KING, A N D
LAW!"
T h i s i d e n t i t y i s difficult to a s s u m e , e v e n in c i n e m a . A l t h o u g h Vfor Vendetta
w a s praised (by none other than Toni Negri, a m o n g others) and, even
m o r e , c r i t i c i z e d for its " r a d i c a l " — p r o - t e r r o r i s t , e v e n — s t a n c e . It d o e s not
p u s h t h e l o g i c to t h e e n d : it s h i r k s from d r a w i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from
t h e p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n S u t l e r a n d V, t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n d i c t a t o r a n d
the
a n a r c h i s t - t e r r o r i s t r e b e l . T h e " N o r s e f i r e " p a r t y Is, w e l e a r n , t h e i n s t i g a t o r
of t h e t e r r o r it i s f i g h t i n g — b u t w h a t a b o u t t h e f u r t h e r i d e n t i t y of S u t l e r
a n d V ? In b o t h c a s e s , w e n e v e r s e e t h e i r r e a l f a c e s ( e x c e p t t h e s c a r e d
S u t l e r a t t h e v e r y e n d , w h e n h e i s a b o u t to d i e ) : S u t l e r w e see o n l y on T V
192
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
s c r e e n s , a n d V i s a s p e c i a l i s t in m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e s c r e e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , V ' s
d e a d b o d y i s p l a c e d on t h e t r a i n p a c k e d w i t h e x p l o s i v e s , i n a k i n d of
V i k i n g f u n e r a l s t r a n g e l y e v o k i n g t h e n a m e of t h e r u l i n g p a r t y : N o r s e f i r e .
S o w h e n E v e y i s i m p r i s o n e d a n d t o r t u r e d b y V in o r d e r to l e a r n h o w to
o v e r c o m e f e a r a n d b e free, i s t h i s not p a r a l l e l to w h a t S u t l e r d o e s t o t h e
e n t i r e E n g l i s h p o p u l a t i o n , t e r r o r i z i n g t h e m s o t h a t t h e y b e c o m e free a n d
r e b e l ? B u t t h e film fails t o d r a w t h i s C h e s t e r t o n i a n l e s s o n of t h e u l t i m a t e
identity b e t w e e n V a n d S u t l e r .
Cultural revolution and power
Is n o t t h i s f i e g e l i a n - C h e s t e r t o n i a n shift from t h e c r i m i n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n
of L a w a n d O r d e r to L a w a n d O r d e r i t s e l f a s t h e h i g h e s t c r i m i n a l
t r a n s g r e s s i o n d i r e c t l y e n a c t e d b y M a o ? T h i s is w h y , w h i l e s e t t i n g m
m o t i o n a n d s e c r e t l y p u l l i n g t h e s t r i n g s of t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e c a r n i v a l ,
M a o n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n e d e x e m p t e d from i t s p r o c e s s : a t n o m o m e n t w a s
there ever a serious threat that M a o himself w o u l d be ritualistlcally
deposed, treated as " y e s t e r d a y a king, t o d a y a beggar"—^he w a s not the
tTciditional M a s t e r , b u t t h e " I x ) r d of M i s r u l e " :
In t h e E u r o p e a n M i d d l e A g e s it w a s c u s t o m a r y for g r e a t h o u s e h o l d s to
c h o o s e a " L o r d of M i s r u l e . " T h e p e r s o n
c h o s e n w a s e x p e c t e d to
preside over the revels that briefly reversed or parodied the conven­
t i o n a l s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c h i e r a r c h i e s . [. . . ] W h e n t h e b r i e f r e i g n of
m i s r u l e w a s o v e r , t h e c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s w o u l d b e r e s t o r e d : t h e
L o r d s of M i s r u l e w o u l d g o b a c k t o t h e i r m e n i a l o c c u p a t i o n s , w h i l e
t h e i r s o c i a l s u p e r i o r s r e s u m e d t h e i r w o n t e d s t a t u s . [. . . ] [ S J o m e t i m e s
t h e i d e a of L o r d of M i s r u l e w o u l d spill o v e r from t h e r e a l m of r e v e l to
t h e r e a l m of p o l i t i c s . [. . . ] [ T ] h e a p p r e n t i c e s t o o k o v e r from
their
g u i l d m a s t e r s for a r e c k l e s s d a y o r t w o , [. . . ] g e n d e r r o l e s w e r e
r e v e r s e d for a d a y a s t h e w o m e n t o o k o v e r t h e t a s k s a n d a i r s n o r m a l l y
associated only with men.
C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s a l s o l o v e d t h e p a r a d o x e s of s t a t u s r e v e r s e d ,
t h e w a y s t h a t w i t o r s h a m e c o u l d d e f l a t e p r e t e n s i o n a n d l e a d to s u d d e n
shifts of i n s i g h t . [. . . ] It w a s M a o ' s t e r r i b l e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t to s e i z e on
s u c h i n s i g h t s from e a r l i e r C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s , c o m b i n e t h e m w i t h
e l e m e n t s d r a w n from W e s t e r n s o c i a l i s t t h o u g h t , a n d t o u s e b o t h in
t a n d e m to p r o l o n g t h e l i m i t e d c o n c e p t of m i s r u l e i n t o a l o n g - d r a w n out a d v e n t u r e in u p h e a v a l . To M a o , the former lords a n d masters
193
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s h o u l d n e v e r b e a l l o w e d to r e t u r n ; h e felt t h e y w e r e not h i s b e t t e r s , a n d
that society w a s liberated b y their removal. He also thought
the
c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s s h o u l d n e v e r b e r e s t o r e d . ^ '
Is, h o w e v e r , s u c h a " t e r r i b l e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t " n o t t h e e l e m e n t a r y g e s t u r e
of e v e r y t r u e r e v o l u t i o n a r y ? W h y m a k e a r e v o l u t i o n a t all, if w e d o not
t h i n k t h a t " t h e c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s s h o u l d n e v e r b e r e s t o r e d ? "
W h a t M a o d i d w a s to d e p r i v e t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of its r i t u a l i z e d , l u d i c
c h a r a c t e r b y t a k i n g it s e r i o u s l y : r e v o l u t i o n i s not j u s t a t e m p o r a r y s a f e t y
v a l v e , a c a r n i v a l e s q u e e x p l o s i o n d e s t i n e d to b e f o l l o w e d b y a p r o c e s s of
s o b e r i n g u p . H i s p r o b l e m w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e a b s e n c e of t h e " n e g a t i o n of
t h e n e g a t i o n , " t h e f a i l u r e of t h e a t t e m p t s to t r a n s p o s e
revolutionary
n e g a t i v i t y i n t o a t r u l y n e w p o s i t i v e o r d e r : a l l t e m p o r a r y s t a b i l i z a t i o n s of
t h e r e v o l u t i o n a m o u n t e d to j u s t so m a n y r e s t o r a t i o n s of t h e old o r d e r , so
t h a t t h e o n l y w a y to k e e p t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l i v e w a s t h e " s p u r i o u s i n f i n i t y "
of e n d l e s s l y r e p e a t e d n e g a t i o n w h i c h r e a c h e d its a p e x in t h e
Great
C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . In h i s Logiques deé monèed, B a d i o u e l a b o r a t e d t w o
subjective attitudes w h i c h counter an event: the "reactive subject" and
the "obscure subject."
I n s o f a r a s o n e is r e a d y to a c c e p t t h e r i s k of
o b s c e n e l y d e s i g n a t i n g t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m i n t o C h i n a a k i n d
of e v e n t , o n e c a n c l a i m t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e r e v i s i o n i s m
i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e n a m e " D e n g X i a o p i n g " s t a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , for
the
o b s c u r e a n d t h e r e a c t i v e s u b j e c t : D e n g o r c h e s t r a t e d t h e r e n a i s s a n c e of
c a p i t a l i s m in C o m m u n i s t C h i n a , w h i l e t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a i m e d at
its total a n n i h i l a t i o n a n d w a s a s s u c h p r e c i s e l y w h a t B a d i o u c a l l s un
dédoàlre obscur. B a d i o u h i m s e l f c o n c e d e s t h a t t h e
final
r e s u l t of
the
Cultural Revolution w a s negative:
it a l l b e g a n w h e n , b e t w e e n 1 9 6 6 a n d 1 9 6 8 , s a t u r a t i n g in the real t h e
p r e v i o u s h y p o t h e s e s , t h e R e d G u a r d i s t h i g h - s c h o o l p u p i l s a n d stud e n t s , a n d t h e n t h e w o r k e r s of S h a n g h a i , p r e s c r i b e d for t h e d e c a d e s to
c o m e t h e affirmative realization of t h i s b e g i n n i n g , of w h i c h t h e y t h e m selves, since their fury r e m a i n e d c a u g h t into w h a t t h e y w e r e rising
a g a i n s t , e x p l o r e d o n l y t h e face of p u r e n e g a t i o n .
O n e s h o u l d t a k e a s t e p f u r t h e r h e r e : w h a t if t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s
" n e g a t i v e " n o t o n l y in t h e s e n s e of c l e a r i n g t h e s p a c e a n d o p e n i n g u p t h e
w a y for a n e w b e g i n n i n g , b u t negative in itself, n e g a t i v e a s a n i n d e x of its
impotence in g e n e r a t i n g t h e N e w ? T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k to t h e
194
central
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
w e a k n e s s of M a o ' s t h o u g h t and p o h t i c s . M a n y a c o m m e n t a t o r h a s m a d e
i r o n i c r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e a p p a r e n t s t y h s t i c c l u m s i n e s s o f t h e t i t l e s of
Soviet Communist books a n d articles, such a s their tautological char­
a c t e r , w i t h t h e r e p e a t e d u s e of t h e s a m e w o r d
(like
"revolutionary
d y n a m i c s in the e a r l y stages of the R u s s i a n revolution," or "economic
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e S o v i e t e c o n o m y " ) . H o w e v e r ,
w h a t if t h i s t a u t o l o g y p o i n t s t o w a r d s a n a w a r e n e s s of t h e l o g i c of b e t r a y a l
b e s t r e n d e r e d b y t h e c l a s s i c r e p r o a c h of R o b e s p i e r r e t o t h e D a n t o n i s t
opportunists: " W h a t y o u w a n t is a revolution without a revolution?" T h e
tautological repetition thus signals t h e u r g e to repeat t h e negation, to
relate i t t o i t s e l f — t h e t r u e r e v o l u t i o n i s " r e v o l u t i o n w i t h a r e v o l u t i o n , " a
revolution which, in its course, revolutionizes its o w n starting presup­
p o s i t i o n s . H e g e l h a d a p r e s e n t i m e n t of t h i s n e c e s s i t y w h e n h e w r o t e , "It i s
a m o d e r n folly t o a l t e r a c o r r u p t e t h i c a l s y s t e m , i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d
legislation, without c h a n g i n g the religion, to h a v e a revolution without a
reformation."
H e t h e r e b y a n n o u n c e d the necessity of a cultural revolu­
tion as t h e c o n d i t i o n for t h e s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s , t h e n ,
s h o u l d b e o u r p r e c i s e v e r s i o n of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s r e t o r t : " W h a t y o u w a n t i s
a revolution without a reformation!" T h e problem with revolutionary
a t t e m p t s h i t h e r t o is t h u s n o t t h a t t h e y w e r e " t o o e x t r e m e , " b u t t h a t t h e y
w e r e not radical enongh, t h a t t h e y d i d n o t q u e s t i o n t h e i r o w n p r e s u p p o s i ­
t i o n s . I n a w o n d e r f u l e s s a y o n Chevengur, P l a t o n o v ' s g r e a t p e a s a n t Utopia
w r i t t e n i n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1 9 2 8 (just prior to forced collectivization), F r e d r i c
J a m e s o n d e s c r i b e s t h e t w o m o m e n t s of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . It
begins w i t h t h e gesture of radical negativity:
t h i s first m o m e n t of w o r l d - r e d u c t i o n , of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i d o l s a n d
the s w e e p i n g a w a y of a n old w o r l d in violence a n d pain, i s itself the
p r e c o n d i t i o n for t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s o m e t h i n g e l s e . A first m o m e n t
of a b s o l u t e i m m a n e n c e i s n e c e s s a r y , t h e b l a n k s l a t e of a b s o l u t e p e a s a n t
i m m a n e n c e or ignorance, before n e w a n d undreamed-of-sensatlons
a n d feelings c a n come into being.
T h e n f o l l o w s t h e s e c o n d s t a g e , t h e i n v e n t i o n of a n e w l i f e — n o t o n l y t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e n e w s o c i a l r e a l i t y i n w h i c h o u r Utopian d r e a m s w o u l d
he r e a l i z e d , b u t t h e ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e d r e a m s t h e m s e l v e s :
a p r o c e s s t h a t it w o u l d b e t o o s i m p l e a n d m i s l e a d i n g t o c a l l r e c o n ­
s t r u c t i o n o r U t o p i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n , s i n c e i n effect it i n v o l v e s t h e v e r y
195
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
effort to find a w a y to b e g i n i m a g i n i n g U t o p i a to b e g i n w i t h . P e r h a p s
in a m o r e W e s t e r n k i n d of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c l a n g u a g e [. . . ] w e m i g h t
t h i n k of t h e n e w o n s e t of t h e U t o p i a n p r o c e s s a s a k i n d of d e s i r i n g to
d e s i r e , a l e a r n i n g to d e s i r e , t h e i n v e n t i o n of t h e d e s i r e c a l l e d U t o p i a in
t h e first p l a c e , a l o n g w i t h n e w r u l e s for t h e f a n t a s i z i n g o r d a y d r e a m i n g
of s u c h a t h i n g — a s e t of n a r r a t i v e p r o t o c o l s w i t h n o p r e c e d e n t in o u r
previous literary institutions.
T h e r e f e r e n c e to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s h e r e c r u c i a l a n d v e r y p r e c i s e : in a
r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , p e o p l e not o n l y " r e a l i z e t h e i r o l d ( e m a n c i p a t o r y , e t c . )
d r e a m s " ; r a t h e r , t h e y h a v e to r e i n v e n t t h e i r v e r y m o d e s of d r e a m i n g . Is
t h i s not t h e e x a c t f o r m u l a of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e d e a t h d r i v e
and
s u b l i m a t i o n ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n
c l e a r l y g r a s p e d b y M a o : a s H e r b e r t M a r c u s e p u t it in a n o t h e r m a r v e l o u s
c i r c u l a r f o r m u l a from t h e s a m e e p o c h , freedom (from i d e o l o g i c a l c o n ­
s t r a i n t s , from t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
m o d e of d r e a m i n g ) if the condition of
liberation, t h a t i s , if w e o n l y c h a n g e r e a l i t y in o r d e r to r e a l i z e o u r d r e a m s ,
a n d do not c h a n g e these d r e a m s themselves, sooner or later w e r e g r e s s
b a c k to t h e old r e a l i t y . T h e r e i s a H e g e l i a n " p o s i t i n g of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s '
a t w o r k h e r e : t h e h a r d w o r k of l i b e r a t i o n r e t r o a c t i v e l y f o r m s i t s o w n
presupposition.
It i s o n l y t h i s r e f e r e n c e to w h a t h a p p e n s after t h e r e v o l u t i o n , to the
" m o r n i n g a f t e r , " t h a t a l l o w s u s to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p a t h e t i c l i b e r t a r i a n
outbursts a n d true revolutionary u p h e a v a l s : the former lose their e n e r g y
w h e n o n e h a s to s t a r t t h e p r o s a i c w o r k of s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n — a t
this
point, l e t h a r g y s e t s i n . In c o n t r a s t , r e c a l l t h e i m m e n s e c r e a t i v i t y of t h e
J a c o b i n s j u s t p r i o r to t h e i r fall, t h e n u m e r o u s p r o p o s a l s a b o u t a n e w c i v i c
r e l i g i o n , a b o u t h o w to d e f e n d t h e d i g n i t y of o l d p e o p l e , a n d so on.
T h e r e i n a l s o r e s i d e s t h e i n t e r e s t of r e a d i n g t h e r e p o r t s a b o u t d a i l y life in
t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s , w i t h t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c u r g e to i n v e n t
n e w r u l e s for q u o t i d i a n e x i s t e n c e : w h a t a r e t h e n e w r u l e s of c o u r t i n g ?
H o w should one celebrate a b i r t h d a y ? . . .
A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n m i s e r a b l y f a i l e d . It i s difficult to
m i s s t h e i r o n y of t h e fact t h a t B a d i o u , w h o a d a m a n t l y o p p o s e s t h e n o t i o n
of t h e a c t a s n e g a t i v e , l o c a t e s the h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e M a o i s t
C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n p r e c i s e l y in t h e n e g a t i v e g e s t u r e of s i g n a l i n g " t h e
e n d of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e ELS t h e c e n t r a l p r o d u c t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l
a c t i v i t y " — i t is here that he should h a v e b e e n consistent a n d denied the
e v e n t a l s t a t u s of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : far from b e i n g a n E v e n t , it w a s
196
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
r a t h e r a s u p r e m e d i s p l a y of w h a t B a d i o u l i k e s t o r e f e r to a s t h e " m o r b i d
d e a t h d r i v e . " D e s t r o y i n g o l d m o n u m e n t s w a s n o t a t r u e n e g a t i o n of t h e
past, i t w a s , o n c e a g a i n , r a t h e r a n impotent passage à l'acte b e a r i n g w i t n e s s
to t h e f a i l u r e t o g e t r i d of t h e p a s t .
S o , i n a w a y , t h e r e i s a k i n d of p o e t i c j u s t i c e i n t h e fact t h a t t h e final
r e s u l t of M a o ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i s t o d a y ' s u n h e a r d - o f e x p l o s i o n of
c a p i t a l i s t d y n a m i c s in C h i n a . T h a t i s to s a y , w i t h t h e full d e p l o y m e n t of
c a p i t a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y i n t o d a y ' s " l a t e c a p i t a l i s m , " it i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
" n o r m a l " w a y of life w h i c h , in a w a y , b e c o m e s " c a r n i v a l i z e d , " w i t h
constant self-revolutionizing, reversals, crises, a n d reinventions. Brian
M a s s u m i c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d t h i s d e a d l o c k , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e fact t h a t
contemporary
c a p i t a l i s m h a s a l r e a d y o v e r c o m e t h e l o g i c of t o t a l i z i n g
n o r m a l i t y a n d a d o p t e d t h a t of e r r a t i c e x c e s s :
t h e m o r e v a r i e d , a n d e v e n e r r a t i c , t h e b e t t e r . N o r m a l c y s t a r t s t o lose i t s
h o l d . T h e r e g u l a r i t i e s s t a r t to l o o s e n . T h i s l o o s e n i n g of n o r m a l c y is p a r t
of c a p i t a l i s m ' s d y n a m i c . It's n o t a s i m p l e l i b e r a t i o n . It's c a p i t a l i s m ' s
o w n form of p o w e r . It's n o l o n g e r d i s c i p l i n a r y I n s t i t u t i o n a l p o w e r t h a t
defines everything, it's capitalism's p o w e r to p r o d u c e v a r i e i y — b e c a u s e
markets get saturated. Produce
variety and y o u produce
a niche
m a r k e t . T h e o d d e s t of affective t e n d e n c i e s a r e o k a y — a s l o n g a s t h e y
p a y . C a p i t a l i s m s t a r t s i n t e n s i f y i n g o r d i v e r s i f y i n g affect, b u t o n l y i n
o r d e r to e x t r a c t s u r p l u s - v a l u e . It h i j a c k s affect i n o r d e r to i n t e n s i f y
profit
potential.
It l i t e r a l l y v a l o r i s e s affect.
T h e c a p i t a l i s t l o g i c of
s u r p l u s - v a l u e p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s to t a k e o v e r t h e r e l a t i o n a l field t h a t
is a l s o t h e d o m a i n of p o l i t i c a l e c o l o g y , t h e e t h i c a l field of r e s i s t a n c e to
i d e n t i t y a n d p r e d i c t a b l e p a t h s . It's v e r y t r o u b l i n g
and
confusing,
b e c a u s e it s e e m s to m e t h a t t h e r e ' s b e e n a c e r t a i n k i n d of c o n v e r g e n c e
b e t w e e n the d y n a m i c of capitalist p o w e r a n d the d y n a m i c of resis­
tance.^^
There u thus, b e y o n d all cheap jibes a n d superficial analogies, a profound
structural homology between M a o i s t permanent self-revolutionizing, the
c o n t i n u o u s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e ossification of s t a t e s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e
i n h e r e n t d y n a m i c s of c a p i t a l i s m . O n e i s t e m p t e d to p a r a p h r a s e
Brecht
h e r e , h i s " W h a t i s t h e r o b b i n g of a b a n k c o m p a r e d t o t h e f o u n d i n g of a
n e w b a n k ? ", y e t a g a i n : w h a t a r e t h e v i o l e n t a n d d e s t r u c t i v e o u t b u r s t s of a
R e d G u a r d i s t c a u g h t u p in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n c o m p a r e d to t h e t r u e
C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , t h e p e r m a n e n t d i s s o l u t i o n of a l l life-forms n e c e s s l 197
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t a t e d b y c a p i t a l i s t r e p r o d u c t i o n ? T o d a y , t h e t r a g e d y of t h e G r e a t L e a p
F o r w a r d itself i s r e p e a t i n g i t s e l f a s t h e f a r c e of t h e c a p i t a l i s t G r e a t L e a p
F o r w a r d i n t o m o d e r n i z a t i o n , w i t h t h e o l d s l o g a n " a n iron f o u n d r y in
e v e r y v i l l a g e " r e - e m e r g i n g a s " a s k y s c r a p e r in e v e r y s t r e e t . "
It i s t h e r e i g n of c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h is t h e t r u e L o r d
of M i s r u l e . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t , in o r d e r to c u r b t h e e x c e s s of social
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o s i o n , C h i n e s e officials c e l e ­
brate religions a n d traditional ideologies w h i c h sustain social stability,
from B u d d h i s m to C o n f u c i a n i s m , t h a t i s , t h e v e r y I d e o l o g i e s t h a t w e r e t h e
t a r g e t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . In A p r i l 2 0 0 6 , Y e X i a o w e n , C h i n a ' s top
r e l i g i o u s official, t o l d t h e X i n h u a N e w s A g e n c y t h a t " r e l i g i o n i s o n e of t h e
i m p o r t a n t forces from w h i c h C h i n a d r a w s s t r e n g t h , " a n d h e s i n g l e d out
B u d d h i s m for its " u n i q u e r o l e in p r o m o t i n g a h a r m o n i o u s s o c i e t y , " t h e
official f o r m u l a for c o m b i n i n g e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n w i t h s o c i a l d e v e l o p ­
ment
and
Forum.
care; the
same w e e k , C h i n a hosted
the World
Buddhist
T h e r o l e of r e l i g i o n a s a s t a b i l i z i n g force a g a i n s t c a p i t a l i s t
turbulence
is t h u s
officially sanctioned^—what
bothers
the
Chinese
a u t h o r i t i e s in t h e c a s e of s e c t s l i k e F a l u n G o n g i s m e r e l y t h e i r i n d e p e n ­
d e n c e from s t a t e c o n t r o l . ( T h i s i s w h y o n e s h o u l d a l s o r e j e c t t h e a r g u m e n t
t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n s t r e n g t h e n e d s o c i a l i s t a t t i t u d e s a m o n g the
p e o p l e a n d t h u s h e l p e d to c u r b t h e w o r s t d i s i n t e g r a t i v e e x c e s s e s of
today's capitalist development:
quite the
contraiy,
by
undermining
t r a d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i z i n g i d e o l o g i e s s u c h a s C o n f u c i a n i s m , it r e n d e r e d
the
p e o p l e a l l t h e m o r e v u l n e r a b l e to t h e d i z z y i n g effects of c a p i t a l i s m . )
It Is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e a d t h e r e c e n t g r e a t
c a m p a i g n in C h i n a to r e s u s c i t a t e M a r x i s m a s effective s t a t e i d e o l o g y
( l i t e r a l l y h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s of U S d o l l a r s a r e b e i n g i n v e s t e d i n t h i s
v e n t u r e ) . T h o s e w h o s e e in t h i s o p e r a t i o n a t h r e a t to c a p i t a l i s t l i b e r a l ­
i z a t i o n , a s i g n t h a t h a r d l i n e r s w a n t to r e a s s e r t t h e i r h e g e m o n y , a r e t o t a l l y
m i s s i n g t h e p o i n t . P a r a d o x i c a l a s it m i g h t s o u n d , t h i s r e t u r n of M a r x i s m i s
t h e s i g n of t h e u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h of c a p i t a l i s m , t h e s i g n of its t h o r o u g h ­
g o i n g inetitutivnaLization. ( R e c e n t l e g a l m e a s u r e s w h i c h g u a r a n t e e p r i v a t e
property, hailed b y the W e s t as a crucial step t o w a r d s legal stability, are
p a r t of t h e s a m e t h r u s t . ) T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t k i n d of M a r x i s m i s b e i n g
offered a s a p p r o p r i a t e for t o d a y ' s C h i n a ? E m p h a s i s is on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n M a r x i s m a n d " l e f t i s m " : M a r x i s m i s not t h e s a m e a s " l e f t i s m , " a
t e r m w h i c h r e f e r s to a n y t a l k of w o r k e r s ' l i b e r a t i o n , from free
trade
u n i o n s to t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t a l i s m . B a s e d o n t h e M a r x i s t t h e s i s of t h e
development
198
of t h e forces of p r o d u c t i o n
a s t h e k e y factor of s o c i a l
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
p r o g r e s s , t h e m a i n t a s k of p r o g r e s s i v e forces i s d e f i n e d a s t h a t of c r e a t i n g
t h e c o n d i t i o n s for t h e c o n t i n u i n g r a p i d " m o d e r n i z a t i o n , " w h i l e a v o i d i n g
all f o r m s of i n s t a b i l i t y , t h o s e c a u s e d b y " l e f t i s m " a s w e l l a s t h o s e c a u s e d
b y " r i g h t i s m " ( c a m p a i g n s for m u l t i - p a r t y d e m o c r a c y a n d s o o n ) , w h i c h
will bring chaos a n d thus hinder the v e r y modernization process. The
conclusion
is clear: in today's China,
o n l y t h e l e a d i n g r o l e of t h e
Communist P a r l y can sustain a rapid transformation
of t h e c o n d i t i o n s
of s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y — t h e official ( C o n f u c i a n ) t e r m i s t h a t C h i n a s h o u l d
become a "harmonious society."
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t o p u t i t in t h e o l d M a o i s t t e r m s , a l t h o u g h it m a y a p p e a r
that the m a i n e n e m y is the " b o u r g e o i s " threat, the "principal contradiction"
is, in t h e e y e s of t h e r u l i n g elite, t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e e x i s t i n g " h a r m o n i o u s "
order (unfettered capitalist development sustained b y Communist Party
r u l e ) a n d t h e t h r e a t of w o r k e r s ' a n d p e a s a n t s ' r e v o l t s — w h i c h i s w h y t h e
r e c e n t s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e o p p r e s s i v e a p p a r a t u s e s ( t h e f o r m a t i o n of
s p e c i a l u n i t s of riot p o l i c e t o c r u s h p o p u l a r u n r e s t , a n d s o f o r t h ) i s t h e
a c t u a l s o c i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f w h a t , i n i d e o l o g y , a p p e a r s a s a r e v i v a l of
M a r x i s m . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e v i v a l i s t h a t , t o p u t it i n K a n t ' s t e r m s ,
it t o t a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e s M a r x i s m to t h e " p r i v a t e u s e of r e a s o n . " F o r K a n t , t h e
p u b l i c s p a c e of t h e " w o r l d civil s o c i e t y " d e s i g n a t e s t h e p a r a d o x of u n i v e r s a l
s i n g u l a r i t y , of a s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t w h o , in a k i n d of s h o r t - c i r c u i t , b 3 ^ a s s i n g
t h e m e d i a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c u l a r , d i r e c t l y p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e u n i v e r s a l . T h i s i s
w h a t K a n t , in t h e f a m o u s p a s s a g e of h i s " W h a t Is E n l i g h t e n m e n t ? " , m e a n s
b y " p u b l i c " a s opposed to "private": " p r i v a t e " is not one's individual, a s
o p p o s e d t o c o m m u n a l , t i e s , b u t t h e v e r y c o m m u n a l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r of
one's p a r t i c u l a r identification; w h i l e " p u b l i c " is the transnational u n i v e r s ­
ality of the exercise of Reason:
T h e p u b l i c u s e o f o n e ' s r e a s o n m u s t a l w a y s b e free, a n d it a l o n e c a n
bring about
e n l i g h t e n m e n t a m o n g m e n . T h e p r i v a t e u s e of o n e ' s
r e a s o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a y often
without
be v e r y narrowly restricted
p a r t i c u l a r l y h i n d e r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of e n l i g h t e n m e n t . B y
p u b l i c u s e of o n e ' s r e a s o n I u n d e r s t a n d t h e u s e w h i c h a p e r s o n m a k e s
of it a s a s c h o l a r b e f o r e t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c . P r i v a t e u s e I call t h a t w h i c h
o n e m a y m a k e of it in a p a r t i c u l a r c i v i l p o s t o r office w h i c h i s e n t r u s t e d
to h i m .
T h e p a r a d o x of K a n t ' s f o r m u l a " T h i n k f r e e l y , b u t o b e y ! " i s t h u s t h a t o n e
p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e " p u b l i c " s p h e r e p r e c i s e l y a s
199
UN
u c r c N S t
Ul- L O S T C A U S E S
a s i n g u l a r i n d i v i d u a l e x t r a c t e d from o r e v e n o p p o s e d to o n e ' s s u b s t a n t i a l
communal
identification — one is truly universal only w h e n r a d i c a l l y
s i n g u l a r , in t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of c o m m u n a l
contemporary
identities. Coming b a c k
C h i n a : t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y r e s u s c i t a t e d form
to
of M a r x i s m is
a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of t h e primle u s e of r e a s o n : M a r x i s m i s m o b i l i z e d not
on a c c o u n t of i t s i n h e r e n t u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , b u t in o r d e r t o l e g i t i m i z e the
p r e s e n t C h i n e s e s t a t e i n t e r e s t of m a i n t a i n i n g C o m m u n i s t P a r t y p o w e r
a n d t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g s t a b i l i t y i n a p e r i o d of f a s t - m o v i n g
economic
d e v e l o p m e n t — s u c h a u s e of M a r x i s m i s " o b j e c t i v e l y c y n i c a l , " w i t h no
c o g n i t i v e v a l u e a t a l l . T h e t r a g e d y i s t h a t t h e C h i n e s e s t a t e w i l l s o o n e r or
later encounter
t h e l i m i t s of the f o r m u l a " c a p i t a l i s m w i t h
Confucian
v a l u e s , " a n d , at t h a t point, o n l y a n u n c o n s t r a i n e d " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n "
w i l l b e a b l e to d o t h e j o b of i n v e n t i n g n e w s o l u t i o n s . N o w o n d e r t h a t , in
today's China, the two terms, "public intellectual" a n d "civil society," are
v e r y n e g a t i v e l y v i e w e d in official e y e s : a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t e x p l i c i t l y
p r o h i b i t e d , e v e r y i n t e l l e c t u a l k n o w s t h a t it i s b e t t e r to a v o i d t h e m if o n e
w a n t s to r e m a i n on g o o d t e r m s w i t h t h o s e in p o w e r . A n y t h i n g ( a l m o s t ) is
p e r m i t t e d — i n c l o s e d a c a d e m i c d e b a t e s , t h a t i s , a s l o n g a s it d o e s not
reach the general public.
T h e p a r a d o x i c a l s t a t u s of c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n e s e M a r x i s m i s c o n d i ­
t i o n e d b y t h e fact t h a t C h i n a in t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y is i n d e e d
longer a totalitarian state, but r a t h e r w h a t some w o u l d call an
no
author­
i t a r i a n s t a t e : t h e r e a r e p a s s i o n a t e p u b l i c d e b a t e s , different o p i n i o n s on
k e y issues are openly defended, but within v e r y precise limits (one cannot
directly p u t into question the C o m m u n i s t P a r t y ' s pohtical m o n o p o l y ) ;
w h i l e o n e c a n d r a w a t t e n t i o n to e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , o n e i s o b l i g e d to d o
it w i t h g r e a t r e s t r a i n t , a v o i d i n g hot t o p i c s l i k e t h e g i g a n t i c Y e l l o w R i v e r
d a m ; a l t h o u g h o n e c a n w r i t e a b o u t t h e t e r r i b l e c o n d i t i o n s of u n s k i l l e d
m a n u a l w o r k e r s , o n e s h o u l d t r e a t it a s l o c a l a n o m a l y a n d n e v e r p r o p o s e
the formation
of a n y typ& of w o r k e r s ' d e f e n s e
organization such
as
i n d e p e n d e n t l a b o r u n i o n s ; a n d o n e i s often c o m p e l l e d to u s e a c o d e d
l a n g u a g e , s u c h a s f o r m u l a t i n g a c r i t i q u e of s o c i a l i s m a s a d v o c a c y of o n e
socialist orientation against another one.
How, then, do l e a d i n g C o m m u n i s t theorists react w h e n
confronted
w i t h t h e a l l too o b v i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n : a C o m m u n i s t P a r t y w h i c h still
l e g i t i m i z e s itself in M a r x i s t t e r m s , b u t r e n o u n c e s M a r x i s m ' s b a s i c p r e ­
m i s e , t h a t of w o r k e r s ' s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y force in o r d e r
t o o v e r t h r o w c a p i t a l i s m ? It i s difficult to a v o i d t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t a l l t h e
r e s o u r c e s of t h e l e g e n d a r y form of C h i n e s e p o l i t e n e s s a r e m o b i l i z e d h e r e :
200
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
it i s c o n s i d e r e d Impolite t o d i r e c t l y r a i s e ( o r i n s i s t o n ) t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
T h i s r e s o r t t o p o l i t e n e s s i s n e c e s s a r y , s i n c e it i s t h e o n l y w a y t o c o m b i n e
w h a t c a n n o t b e c o m b i n e d : t o e n f o r c e M a r x i s m a s official i d e o l o g y w h i l e
o p e n l y p r o h i b i t i n g i t s c e n t r a l a x i o m s w o u l d c a u s e t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e
e n t i r e i d e o l o g i c a l edifice, t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g it m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e r e s u l t i s
thus that, w h i l e certain things a r e clearly prohibited, this
cannot
b e p u b l i c l y s t a t e d , b u t i s itself p r o h i b i t e d :
prohibited
prohibition
it is n o t m e r e l y
t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n of w o r k e r s ' s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n
against
c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n a s t h e c e n t r a l t e n e t of M a r x i s m , i t i s a l s o p r o h i b i t e d
to p u b l i c l y c l a i m t h a t i t i s p r o h i b i t e d t o r a i s e t h i s q u e s t i o n . ( W h a t o n e
u s u a l l y h e a r s from t h e o r i s t s i s a p r i v a t e a d m i s s i o n that, of c o u r s e , t h i s i s
contradictory, b u t that, nonetheless, such a contradictory ideological
edifice works, a n d w o r k s s p e c t a c u l a r l y : i t i s t h e o n l y w a y t o e n s u r e fast
economic g r o w t h a n d stability in China. Need w e a d d that this is t h e
" p r i v a t e u s e of r e a s o n " a t its p u r e s t ? )
T h i s p a r a d o x is n i c e l y r e n d e r e d in t h e title of a r e c e n t r e p o r t on C h i n a ;
"Even W h a t ' s Secret Is a Secret i n C h i n a . "
M a n y troublesome in­
tellectuals w h o report on political oppression, ecological catastrophes,
r u r a l p o v e r t y , a n d s o o n (for e x a m p l e , a C h i n e s e w o m a n w h o s e n t h e r
h u s b a n d , w h o l i v e s a b r o a d , c l i p p i n g s from a local C h i n e s e n e w s p a p e r ) ,
suffer y e a r s of i m p r i s o n m e n t for b e t r a y i n g state s e c r e t s . H o w e v e r , " m a n y
of t h e l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t m a k e u p t h e s t a t e - s e c r e t r e g i m e a r e
t h e m s e l v e s c l a s s i f i e d , m a k i n g it difficult for i n d i v i d u a l s t o k n o w h o w a n d
w h e n t h e y ' r e i n v i o l a t i o n . " T h i s s e c r e c y of t h e p r o h i b i t i o n i t s e l f s e r v e s
t w o different
purposes w h i c h should not b e confused.
Its commonly
a d m i t t e d r o l e i s t h a t o f u n i v e r s a l i z i n g g u i l t a n d fear: if y o u d o not k n o w
w h a t is prohibited, y o u cannot even k n o w w h e n y o u a r e violating a
prohibition, w h i c h m a k e s y o u potentially guilty all the time.
O f c o u r s e , t h i n g s a r e m o r e p r e c i s e h e r e : e x c e p t a t t h e c l i m a x of t h e
S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s w h e n , effectively, e v e r y o n e c o u l d b e f o u n d g u i l t y , p e o p l e
do k n o w w h e n t h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l a n n o y t h o s e in p o w e r .
The function
of p r o h i b i t i n g p r o h i b i t i o n s
is thus not to give rise to
"irrational" fears, b u t to let t h e potential dissidents ( w h o think
they
c a n g e t a w a y w i t h t h e i r c r i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , s i n c e t h e y a r e not b r e a k i n g a n y
l a w s , b u t o n l y d o i n g w h a t l a w s g u a r a n t e e t h e m — f r e e d o m of o p i n i o n , a n d
so o n ) k n o w t h a t , if t h e y i r k t h o s e i n p o w e r t o o m u c h , t h e y c a n b e
p u n i s h e d at the latters' w h i m : "Don't p r o v o k e us, w e c a n do w h a t e v e r w e
w a n t t o y o u , n o l a w s a r e p r o t e c t i n g y o u h e r e ! " In e x - Y u g o s l a v i a , t h e
infamous Article 133 of t h e penal code could a l w a y s b e invoked to
201
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
p r o s e c u t e w r i t e r s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s . It c r i m i n a l i z e d any t e x t t h a t f a l s e l y
p r e s e n t e d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s of t h e s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n o r t h a t might aroiuie
tension and àuicontent among the public d u e to t h e w a y it d e a l t w i t h p o l i t i c a l ,
s o c i a l , o r o t h e r t o p i c s . T h i s l a s t c a t e g o r y is o b v i o u s l y not o n l y i n f i n i t e l y
p l a s t i c , b u t a l s o c o n v e n i e n t l y s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l : d o e s n o t t h e v e r y fact t h a t
y o u a r e a c c u s e d b y t h o s e in p o w e r o b v i o u s l y m e a n t h a t y o u h a v e "aroiued
teiuion and discontent among the public"! D u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , I r e m e m b e r
a s k i n g a Slovene politician h o w he justified this l a w . H e just smiled and,
w i t h a w i n k , t o l d m e : " W e l l , w e h a v e to h a v e s o m e tool to d i s c i p l i n e w h e n
w e w a n t those w h o a n n o y us . . ."
B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r function of p r o h i b i t i n g p r o h i b i t i o n s w h i c h is no
l e s s c r u c i a l : t h a t of maintaining
appearances, a n d
we
all k n o w
how
absolutely crucial a p p e a r a n c e s w e r e u n d e r Stalinism: the Stalinist regime
r e a c t e d w i t h total p a n i c w h e n e v e r t h e r e w a s a t h r e a t t h a t a p p e a r a n c e s
w o u l d b e d i s t u r b e d ( s a y , t h a t s o m e a c c i d e n t w h i c h m a d e c l e a r t h e failure
of t h e r e g i m e m i g h t b e r e p o r t e d i n t h e p u b l i c m e d i a : t h e r e w e r e , in t h e
S o v i e t m e d i a , n o b l a c k c h r o n i c l e s , n o r e p o r t s on c r i m e s a n d p r o s t i t u t i o n ,
not to m e n t i o n w o r k e r s ' o r o t h e r t y p e s of p u b l i c p r o t e s t s ) . W h i c h i s w h y
t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n of p r o h i b i t i o n s i s far from l i m i t e d to C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s :
It i s o p e r a t i v e a l s o In t o d a y ' s " p e r m i s s i v e " c a p i t a l i s m . A
"postmodern"
b o s s i n s i s t s t h a t h e i s not a m a s t e r b u t j u s t a c o o r d i n a t o r of o u r j o i n t
c r e a t i v e efforts, t h e first a m o n g e q u a l s ; t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o f o r m a l i t i e s
among us, w e should address him b y his nickname, he shares a dirty joke
w i t h u s . . . b u t d u r i n g a l l t h i s , h e remains our niajter. In s u c h a s o c i a l l i n k ,
r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n function
t h r o u g h t h e i r d e n i a l : in o r d e r to b e
o p e r a t i v e , t h e y h a v e to b e i g n o r e d . W e a r e not o n l y o b l i g e d to o b e y o u r
m a s t e r s , w e a r e a l s o o b l i g e d to a c t a s if w e w e r e free a n d e q u a l , a s if t h e r e
was
no domination—which,
of c o u r s e , m a k e s t h e s i t u a t i o n e v e n m o r e
h u m i l i a t i n g . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , t h e first a c t of l i b e r a t i o n is
to d e m a n d from t h e m a s t e r t h a t h e a c t l i k e o n e : o n e s h o u l d r e j e c t false
c o U e g l a l i t y from t h e m a s t e r a n d i n s i s t t h a t h e t r e a t u s w i t h c o l d d i s t a n c e ,
a s a m a s t e r . ( T h e s a m e g o e s for p a t r i a r c h a l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r w o m e n : in
m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s , t h i s d o m i n a t i o n i s n o l o n g e r a d m i t t e d a s s u c h — w h i c h is
w h y o n e of t h e s u b v e r s i v e t a c t i c s of f e m i n i n e r e s i s t a n c e i s m o c k i n g l y to
a c t a s if s u b o r d i n a t e d . . . )
T h i n g s g o e v e n d e e p e r h e r e : t h e u l t i m a t e g r o u n d of t h i s p a r a d o x i s t h e
shift in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r s w i t h t h e r i s e of c a p i t a l i s m itself. O n e
s h o u l d a p p l y h e r e M a r x ' s o l d f o r m u l a of c o m m o d i t y f e t i s h i s m i n w h i c h
relations b e t w e e n people a p p e a r a s relations b e t w e e n things: this is w h y ,
202
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
in c a p i t a l i s m , w e a r e as people, a s p e r s o n s , all e q u a l , p o s s e s s i n g t h e s a m e
d i g n i t y a n d f r e e d o m —the r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n , w h i c h w e r e in p r e ­
vious societies directly hierarchical relations a m o n g persons, are
now
t r a n s p o s e d o n t o r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n " t h i n g s " ( c o m m o d i t i e s ) . T h e l o g i c of
d o m i n a t i o n w h i c h n e c e s s a r i l y d e n i e s i t s e l f a s d o m i n a t i o n is i n s c r i b e d i n t o
t h e v e r y c o r e of c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s .
W h a t o n e s h o u l d b e a r i n m i n d i s that, w h i l e e v e r y s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
r e l i e s on c e r t a i n e x c l u s i o n s a n d p r o h i b i t i o n s , t h i s e x c l u s i o n a r y l o g i c is
a l w a y s r e d o u b l e d : not o n l y is t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d O t h e r ( h o m o s e x u a l s , n o n white races . . .) excluded/repressed, the excluding and repressive p o w e r
Itself r e l i e s on a n e x c l u d e d / r e p r e s s e d " o b s c e n e " c o n t e n t of its o w n ( s a y ,
t h e e x e r c i s e of p o w e r t h a t l e g i t i m i z e s itself a s l e g a l , t o l e r a n t .
Christian
. . ., r e h e s on a set of p u b l i c l y d i s a v o w e d o b s c e n e r i t u a l s of v i o l e n t
h u m i l i a t i o n of t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d ) . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e
w i t h w h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e of d i s i d e n t i f i c a tion. T h a t i s to s a y , o n e s h o u l d t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of
i d e o l o g y a s p r o v i d i n g a firm i d e n t i f i c a t i o n for its s u b j e c t s , c o n s t r a i n i n g
t h e m to t h e i r " s o c i a l r o l e s " : w h a t if, a t a d i f f e r e n t — b u t n o l e s s i r r e v o c a b l e
a n d s t r u c t u r a l l y n e c e s s a r y — l e v e l , i d e o l o g y i s effective p r e c i s e l y b y w a y
o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a s p a c e of false d i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , of false d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s
t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s u b j e c t ' s social e x i s t e n c e ? Is t h i s l o g i c of
d i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n not d i s c e r n i b l e from t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y c a s e of "I a m
not o n l y a n A m e r i c a n ( h u s b a n d , w o r k e r . D e m o c r a t , g a y m a n . . . ) , b u t ,
beneath all these roles a n d m a s k s , a h u m a n being, a complex a n d unique
personality" (where the v e r y distance t o w a r d s the symbolic feature that
d e t e r m i n e s m y s o c i a l p l a c e g u a r a n t e e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s d e t e r m i ­
n a t i o n ) , u p to t h e m o r e c o m p l e x c a s e of c y b e r s p a c e p l a 3 à n g w i t h o n e ' s
m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s ? T h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t i v e in t h e p e r v e r s e
"just
g a m i n g " of c y b e r s p a c e i s t h u s d o u b l e : not o n l y a r e t h e g a m e s w e a r e
p l a y i n g in it m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n w e t e n d to a s s u m e (is it not that, in t h e
g u i s e of a fiction, of " i t ' s j u s t a g a m e , " a sub;iect c a n a r t i c u l a t e a n d s t a g e
s a d i s t i c , " p e r v e r s e , " a n d so on, f e a t u r e s of h i s s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y t h a t h e
W o u l d n e v e r b e a b l e to a d m i t in h i s " r e a l " i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e c o n t a c t s ? ) , b u t
the opposite also holds, that is, the m u c h - c e l e b r a t e d p l a y i n g w i t h multi­
ple, shifting p e r s o n a e ( f r e e l y c o n s t r u c t e d i d e n t i t i e s ) t e n d s to
obfuscate
( a n d t h u s f a l s e l y l i b e r a t e u s f r o m ) t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of s o c i a l s p a c e in w h i c h
our existence is caught.
T h i s l o n g d e t o u r b r i n g s u s b a c k to t h e p a r a d o x of
Chinese
Marxism:
it
is
easy,
from
the
standpoint
contemporary
of
libertarian
203
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
Western
Marxism,
to
mock
this
Marxism
which
dispenses
M a r x i s m ' s central emancipatory premise (a truly decaffeinated
ism,
with
Marx­
M a r x i s m d e p r i v e d of its s u b v e r s i v e c o r e ) . H o w e v e r , a n y d i r e c t
i r o n i c c r i t i q u e of t h i s n e w C h i n e s e s t a t e - i d e o l o g y M a r x i s m m i s s e s t h e
point, w h i c h
is that w e a r e not
M a r x i s m , but,
literally, with
inconsistency. There
d e a l i n g w i t h a s i m p l e b e t r a y a l of
its s y m p t o m ,
a formula
to r e s o l v e its
e f f e c t i v e l y w a s , in " o r i g i n a l " M a r x i s m i t s e l f
a
d i m e n s i o n w h i c h p o t e n t i a l l y l e d to t h e e n s l a v e m e n t of t h e w o r k e r s to
" p r o g r e s s " ( t h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e forces of p r o d u c t i o n ) ; w h i l e ,
u n d e r Stalinism, this " p r o g r e s s " w a s organized within the
of t h e
centralized
state
economy,
today's
China
framework
d r a w s the
logical
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e m o s t efficient m o t o r of d e v e l o p m e n t a r e c a p i t a l i s t
r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e p r e m i s e of c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s m ( u p to a n d
i n c l u d i n g T o n i N e g r i ) w a s t h a t " h i s t o r y i s on
our
side": workers'
r e s i s t a n c e to c a p i t a l i s m " o b j e c t i v e l y " s e r v e s a n e v e n faster
develop­
m e n t of t h e f o r c e s of p r o d u c t i o n ; it i s i t s e l f a s i g n t h a t c a p i t a l i s m is no
l o n g e r a m o t o r , b u t m o r e a n d m o r e a n o b s t a c l e to t h i s
development.
W h a t to do, t h e n , w h e n c a p i t a l i s m de facto p r o v e s itself a s t h e m o s t
effective m o t o r of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ? T h e a n s w e r i s t h e C h i n e s e s o l u t i o n :
to h o n e s t l y a d m i t that, in t h i s p h a s e of w o r l d h i s t o r y , w e s h o u l d fully
e m b r a c e capitalism. W h e r e M a r x i s m enters is in the c l a i m that only
t h e l e a d i n g r o l e of t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y c a n s u s t a i n s u c h
tion
and
prevent
simultaneously
the
maintain
social disintegration
a
that
"harmonious
moderniza­
society," that is,
characterizes Western
liberal
capitalism.
T h i s c a p i t a l i s t r e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d y n a m i c s i s n o t w i t h ­
o u t its c o m i c s i d e effects. It w a s r e c e n t l y m a d e p u b l i c t h a t , in o r d e r to
conceptualize the Israeli Defense
Forces' urban
w a r f a r e a g a i n s t the
P a l e s t i n i a n s , t h e I D F m i l i t a r y a c a d e m i e s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e f e r to D e l e u z e
a n d G u a t t a r i , e s p e c i a l l y to Thoiuand Plateaud, u s i n g it a s
"operational
theory"—the catchwords used are "Formless Rival Entities," "Fractal
Maneuver," "Velocity vs. Rhythms," "The
Wahabi War
Machine,"
" P o s t m o d e r n A n a r c h i s t s , " " N o m a d i c T e r r o r i s t s . " O n e of t h e k e y d i s ­
t i n c t i o n s t h e y r e l y on i s t h e o n e b e t w e e n " s m o o t h " a n d " s t r i a t e d " s p a c e ,
w h i c h r e f l e c t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s of t h e " w a r m a c h i n e " a n d t h e
" s t a t e a p p a r a t u s . " T h e I D F n o w often u s e s t h e t e r m "to s m o o t h e o u t
s p a c e " w h e n t h e y w a n t to r e f e r to o p e r a t i o n in a s p a c e a s if it h a d n o
b o r d e r s . P a l e s t i n i a n a r e a s a r e t h o u g h t of a s " s t r i a t e d " in t h e s e n s e t h a t
t h e y a r e e n c l o s e d b y f e n c e s , w a l l s , d i t c h e s , r o a d b l o c k s , a n d so on:
204
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
T h e a t t a c k c o n d u c t e d b y u n i t s of t h e I D F on t h e c i t y of N a b l u s in
A p r i l 2 0 0 2 w a s d e s c r i b e d b y its c o m m a n d e r , B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l A v i v
Kokhavi, as "inverse geometry", w h i c h he explained as "the reorga­
n i z a t i o n of t h e u r b a n s y n t a x b y m e a n s of a s e r i e s of m i c r o - t a c t i c a l
actions". During the battle soldiers moved within the city across
h u n d r e d s of m e t r e s of o v e r g r o u n d t u n n e l s c a r v e d o u t t h r o u g h a d e n s e
and contiguous urban structure. Although several thousand soldiers
a n d P a l e s t i n i a n g u e r r i l l a s w e r e m a n o e u v r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in t h e
c i t y , t h e y w e r e so " s a t u r a t e d " i n t o t h e u r b a n f a b r i c t h a t v e r y f e w w o u l d
h a v e b e e n v i s i b l e from t h e a i r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y u s e d n o n e of t h e
c i t y ' s s t r e e t s , r o a d s , a l l e y s o r c o u r t y a r d s , o r a n y of t h e e x t e r n a l d o o r s ,
internal stairwells and windows, but moved horizontally through walls
a n d v e r t i c a l l y t h r o u g h h o l e s b l a s t e d in c e i l i n g s a n d floors. T h i s form of
m o v e m e n t , d e s c r i b e d b y t h e m i l i t a r y a s " i n f e s t a t i o n " , s e e k s to r e d e f i n e
inside as outside, a n d domestic interiors as thoroughfares. The IDF's
s t r a t e g y of " w a l k i n g t h r o u g h w a l l s " i n v o l v e s a c o n c e p t i o n of t h e c i t y a s
not j u s t t h e site b u t a l s o t h e v e r y m e d i u m of w a r f a r e , " a f l e x i b l e , a l m o s t
l i q u i d m e d i u m t h a t i s f o r e v e r c o n t i n g e n t a n d in flux".''^
S o w h a t f o l l o w s from a l l t h i s ? Not, of c o u r s e , t h e n o n s e n s i c a l a c c u s a t i o n
t h a t D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i a r e t h e o r i s t s of m i l i t a r i s t i c c o l o n i z a t i o n — b u t
the conclusion that the conceptual m a c h i n e r y articulated b y Deleuze a n d
G u a t t a r i , far from b e i n g s i m p l y " s u b v e r s i v e , " a l s o fits t h e ( m i l i t a r y ,
e c o n o m i c , a n d i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l ) o p e r a t i o n a l m o d e of
contemporary
c a p i t a l i s m . H o w , t h e n , a r e w e to r e v o l u t i o n i z e a n o r d e r w h o s e v e r y
principle is constant self-revolutionizing?
Although a failure, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution ( G P C R )
w a s u n i q u e in a t t a c k i n g t h e k e y p o i n t : n o t j u s t t h e t a k e o v e r of s t a t e
p o w e r , b u t t h e n e w e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of d a i l y
life. Its f a i l u r e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e f a i l u r e to c r e a t e a n e w form of e v e r y d a y
life: it r e m a i n e d a c a r n i v a l e s q u e e x c e s s , w i t h t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s ( u n d e r
Z h o u E n l a i ' s c o n t r o l ) g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of
e v e r y d a y life, of p r o d u c t i o n .
A t t h e l e v e l of s o c i a l r e a l i t y , t h e r e i s
o b v i o u s l y s o m e t r u t h to t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s
t r i g g e r e d b y M a o in o r d e r to r e - e s t a b l i s h h i s p o w e r ( w h i c h h a d b e e n
s e r i o u s l y c u r t a i l e d in t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s , in t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e s p e c t a c u l a r
f a i l u r e of t h e G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d , w h e n t h e m a j o r i t y of noinenklatura
s t a g e d a s i l e n t i n n e r - p a r t y c o u p a g a i n s t h i m ) ; it i s t r u e t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l
R e v o l u t i o n b r o u g h t i n c a l c u l a b l e suffering, t h a t it c u t d e e p w o u n d s in t h e
205
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
s o c i a l f a b r i c , t h a t its s t o r y c a n b e told a s t h e s t o r y of f a n a t i c a l c r o w d s
c h a n t i n g s l o g a n s — h o w e v e r , t h i s i s s i m p l y n o t t h e e n t i r e s t o r y . I n s p i t e of
(or, r a t h e r , because of) a l l i t s h o r r o r s , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y
d i d c o n t a i n e l e m e n t s of a n e n a c t e d Utopia. A t i t s v e r y e n d , before t h e
agitation w a s blocked b y M a o himself (since he h a d b y then achieved his
g o a l of r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s i n f l u e n c e a n d g e t t i n g r i d of t h e t o p nomenklatura
competitors), there w a s the " S h a n g h a i C o m m u n e " : one million w o r k e r s
w h o s i m p l y t o o k t h e official s l o g a n s s e r i o u s l y , d e m a n d i n g t h e a b o l i t i o n of
t h e s t a t e a n d e v e n t h e p a r t y itself, a n d t h e d i r e c t c o m m u n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
of s o c i e t y . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t it w a s a t t h i s v e r y p o i n t t h a t M a o o r d e r e d
t h e a r m y to i n t e r v e n e a n d to r e s t o r e o r d e r . T h e p a r a d o x i s t h a t of a l e a d e r
w h o t r i g g e r s a n u n c o n t r o l l e d u p h e a v a l , w h i l e t r y i n g to e x e r t full p e r s o n a l
p o w e r — t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of e x t r e m e d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d e x t r e m e e m a n c i p a ­
t i o n of t h e m a s s e s . T h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e G P C R w a s t r i g g e r e d b y M a o in
o r d e r to g e t r i d of r i v a l s in t h e i n n e r - p a r t y s t r u g g l e a n d r e a s s e r t h i s
a u t h o r i t y , a n d t h a t it w a s t a m e d b y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e a r m y t h e
m o m e n t it t h r e a t e n e d to s p i r a l o u t of c o n t r o l , i s i r r e l e v a n t h e r e , e v e n if
t r u e : it s i m p l y c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e e v e n t s a c q u i r e d a d y n a m i c of t h e i r o w n .
T h i s g e n u i n e l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i s s o m e ­
t i m e s a d m i t t e d e v e n b y c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c s c o m p e l l e d t o t a k e n o t e of t h e
"paradox" of t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " l e a d e r t e a c h i n g people to " t h i n k a n d a c t
for t h e m s e l v e s , " t o r e b e l a n d d e s t r o y t h e v e r y a p p a r a t u s of " t o t a l i t a r i a n
domination"—here
is w h a t G o r d o n C h a n g r e c e n t l y w r o t e in t h e con­
s e r v a t i v e j o u r n a l Commentary:
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , it weis M a o himself, t h e g r e a t e n s l a v e r , w h o i n h i s o w n
w a y t a u g h t t h e C h i n e s e p e o p l e t o t h i n k a n d a c t for t h e m s e l v e s . I n t h e
C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , h e u r g e d t e n s of m i l l i o n s of r a d i c a l y o u t h s [. . . ]
to g o to e v e r y c o r n e r of t h e c o u n t r y to t e a r d o w n a n c i e n t t e m p l e s ,
destroy cultural relics, a n d d e n o u n c e their elders, i n c l u d i n g not only
m o t h e r s a n d f a t h e r s b u t a l s o g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d C o m m u n i s t p a r t y m e m b e r s . [. . . ] T h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n m a y h a v e b e e n M a o ' s
i d e a of r u i n i n g h i s e n e m i e s , b u t it b e c a m e a f r e n z y t h a t d e s t r o y e d t h e
f a b r i c of s o c i e t y . A s g o v e r n m e n t b r o k e d o w n , i t s f u n c t i o n s t a k e n o v e r
b y revolutionary committees a n d "people's c o m m u n e s , " t h e strict
r e s t r a i n t s a n d r e p r e s s i v e m e c h a n i s m s of t h e s t a t e d i s s o l v e d . P e o p l e
n o l o n g e r h a d to w a i t for s o m e o n e to i n s t r u c t t h e m w h a t to d o — A l a o
had told t h e m t h e y h a d "the right to rebel." F o r the radical y o u n g , this
was
206
a t i m e of e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e s t r a i n e d p a s s i o n . In o n e m a g n i f i c e n t
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
s t r o k e , t h e G r e a t H e l m s m a n h a d d e l e g i t i m i z e d a l m o s t all forms of
authority.
"What t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t w e c a n r e a d t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a t t w o
different l e v e l s . If w e r e a d it a s a p a r t of h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y ( b e i n g ) , w e c a n
e a s i l y s u b m i t it to a " d i a l e c t i c a l " a n a l y s i s w h i c h p e r c e i v e s t h e
final
o u t c o m e of a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s a s its " t r u t h " : t h e u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e of
t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e i n h e r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e
very project
("notion")
of c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n , it i s t h e
explication-
d e p l o y m e n t — a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ( i n t h e s a m e w a y that,
for M a r x , t h e v u l g a r , n o n - h e r o i c , c a p i t a l i s t d a i l y r e a l i t y of p r o f i t - s e e k i n g
is the " t r u t h " of n o b l e J a c o b i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o i s m ) . If, h o w e v e r , w e
a n a l y z e it a s a n E v e n t , a s a n e n a c t m e n t of t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of e g a l i t a r i a n
j u s t i c e , t h e n t h e u l t i m a t e f a c t u a l r e s u l t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , i t s
catastrophic failure a n d reversal into the recent capitalist transformation,
d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e r e a l of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of
t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n s u r v i v e s i t s d e f e a t i n s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , it
c o n t i n u e s to l e a d a n u n d e r g r o u n d s p e c t r a l life of t h e g h o s t s of failed
Utopias w h i c h h a u n t t h e f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , p a t i e n t l y a w a i t i n g t h e i r n e x t
r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k to R o b e s p i e r r e w h o e x p r e s s e d in a
t o u c h i n g w a y t h e s i m p l e faith in t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of f r e e d o m
which
p e r s i s t s t h r o u g h a l l d e f e a t s , w i t h o u t w h i c h , a s w a s c l e a r to R o b e s p i e r r e , a
r e v o l u t i o n " i s j u s t a n o i s y c r i m e t h a t d e s t r o y s a n o t h e r c r i m e , " t h e faith
most
poignantly expressed
in
Robespierre's v e r y last speech
on
8
T h e r m i d o r 1794, the d a y before his arrest a n d execution:
B u t t h e r e d o e x i s t , I c a n a s s u r e y o u , s o u l s t h a t a r e f e e l i n g a n d p u r e ; it
exists, that tender, imperious a n d irresistible passion, the torment a n d
d e l i g h t of m a g n a n i m o u s h e a r t s ; t h a t d e e p h o r r o r of t y r a n n y , t h a t
c o m p a s s i o n a t e z e a l for t h e o p p r e s s e d , t h a t s a c r e d l o v e for t h e h o m e ­
l a n d , t h a t e v e n m o r e s u b l i m e a n d h o l y l o v e for h u m a n i t y ,
without
w h i c h a great revolution is just a noisy crime that d e s t r o y s another
c r i m e ; it d o e s e x i s t , t h a t g e n e r o u s a m b i t i o n to e s t a b l i s h h e r e on e a r t h
t h e w o r l d ' s first R e p u b l i c . ' ' ^
D o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d e v e n m o r e so for t h e l a s t b i g i n s t a l l m e n t in t h e life
of t h i s I d e a , t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n — w i t h o u t t h i s I d e a w h i c h
s u s t a i n e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s to a n
even g r e a t e r degree "just a noisy crime that destroys another c r i m e " ?
207
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
O n e s h o u l d r e c a l l h e r e H e g e l ' s s u b l i m e w o r d s on t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n
from h i s Lectured on the Philodophy of World HLitory:
It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t the F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n r e s u l t e d from p h i l o s o p h y ,
a n d it is not w i t h o u t r e a s o n t h a t p h i l o s o p h y h a s b e e n c a l l e d Weltweuheit
[ w o r l d w i s d o m ] ; for it i s not o n l y t r u t h in a n d for itself, a s t h e p u r e
e s s e n c e of t h i n g s , b u t a l s o t r u t h in i t s l i v i n g form a s e x h i b i t e d in the
affairs of t h e w o r l d . W e s h o u l d not, t h e r e f o r e , c o n t r a d i c t t h e a s s e r t i o n
t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n r e c e i v e d its first i m p u l s e from p h i l o s o p h y . [. . . ]
N e v e r s i n c e t h e s u n h a d stood in t h e f i r m a m e n t a n d t h e
planets
r e v o l v e d a r o u n d h i m h a d it b e e n p e r c e i v e d t h a t m a n ' s e x i s t e n c e
c e n t e r s in h i s h e a d , i.e. in t h o u g h t , i n s p i r e d b y w h i c h h e b u i l d s u p
t h e w o r l d of r e a l i t y . [. . . ] n o t u n t i l n o w h a d m a n a d v a n c e d to t h e
r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h o u g h t o u g h t to g o v e r n s p i r i t u a l
reality. This w a s a c c o r d i n g l y a glorious mental d a w n . All thinking
b e i n g s h a r e d in t h e j u b i l a t i o n of t h i s e p o c h . E m o t i o n s
of a lofty
character stirred men's minds at that time; a spiritual enthusiasm
t h r i l l e d t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d , a s if t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i v i n e
a n d t h e s e c u l a r w a s n o w first accomplished.'''^
T h i s , of c o u r s e , d i d n o t p r e v e n t H e g e l from c o l d l y a n a l y z i n g t h e i n n e r
n e c e s s i t y of t h i s e x p l o s i o n of a b s t r a c t f r e e d o m in t u r n i n g i n t o its o p p o s i t e ,
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r ; h o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d n e v e r forget
t h a t H e g e l ' s c r i t i q u e i s i m m a n e n t , a c c e p t i n g t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of the
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ( a n d its k e y s u p p l e m e n t , t h e H a i t i a n R e v o l u t i o n ) .
A n d o n e s h o u l d p r o c e e d in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y a p r o p o s t h e O c t o b e r
Revolution
(and, later, the
C h i n e s e R e v o l u t i o n ) : it w a s , a s
Badiou
p o i n t e d out, t h e first c a s e in t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y of h u m a n i t y of t h e
s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t of t h e e x p l o i t e d p o o r — t h e y w e r e t h e z e r o - l e v e l m e m ­
b e r s of t h e n e w s o c i e t y , t h e y s e t t h e s t a n d a r d s . T h e r e v o l u t i o n s t a b i l i z e d
itself i n t o a n e w s o c i a l o r d e r , a n e w w o r l d w a s c r e a t e d a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y
s u r v i v e d for d e c a d e s , a m i d u n t h i n k a b l e e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y p r e s s u r e
a n d isolation. This w a s effectively " a glorious mental d a w n . All thinking
b e i n g s h a r e d in t h e j u b i l a t i o n of t h i s e p o c h . " A g a i n s t all h i e r a r c h i c a l
o r d e r s , e g a l i t a r i a n u n i v e r s a l i t y d i r e c t l y c a m e to p o w e r .
T h e r e is a basic philosophical d i l e m m a w h i c h u n d e r l i e s this alternative:
it m a y s e e m t h a t t h e o n l y c o n s i s t e n t H e g e l i a n s t a n d p o i n t i s t h e o n e w h i c h
m e a s u r e s t h e N o t i o n b y t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n , so that,
in t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e total m e d i a t i o n of t h e E s s e n c e b y its A p p e a r a n c e ,
208
REVOLUTIONARY TERROR
a n y t r a n s c e n d e n c e of the I d e a o v e r its a c t u a l i z a t i o n is d i s c r e d i t e d . T h e
c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s is that, if w e i n s i s t on t h e e t e r n a l I d e a w h i c h s u r v i v e s
its h i s t o r i c a l defeat, t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s — i n H e g e l e s e — a r e g r e s s i o n
from t h e l e v e l of t h e N o t i o n a s t h e fully a c t u a l i z e d u n i t y of E s s e n c e a n d
Appearance,
to t h e l e v e l of t h e
Essence
supposed
to t r a n s c e n d
its
A p p e a r a n c e . Is it r e a l l y so, h o w e v e r ? O n e c a n a l s o c l a i m t h a t t h e e x c e s s
o f t h e Utopian I d e a t h a t s u r v i v e s its h i s t o r i c a l d e f e a t d o e s not c o n t r a d i c t
t h e total m e d i a t i o n of I d e a a n d i t s A p p e a r a n c e : t h e b a s i c H e g e l i a n i n s i g h t
a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e f a i l u r e of r e a l i t y to fully a c t u a l i z e a n I d e a i s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e f a i l u r e ( l i m i t a t i o n ) of t h i s I d e a i t s e l f c o n t i n u e s to h o l d .
W h a t o n e s h o u l d s i m p l y a d d is t h a t t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e I d e a from
its a c t u a l i z a t i o n s i g n a l s a g a p w i t h i n t h i s I d e a itself. T h i s i s w h y t h e
s p e c t r a l I d e a t h a t c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y signal) the faidty of
the new historical reality itself, its inadequacy to its own Notion—the f a i l u r e of
t h e J a c o b i n Utopia, i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n in u t i l i t a r i a n b o u r g e o i s r e a l i t y , i s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s r e a l i t y itself.
Consequently,
one
should
invert
the
commonplace
reading
of
L a c a n ' s " K a n t a v e c S a d e " a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h S a d e a n p e r v e r s i o n
t h e " t r u t h " of K a n t , m o r e " r a d i c a l " t h a n K a n t , t h a t it d r a w s o u t
is
the
c o n s e q u e n c e s K a n t h i m s e l f d i d not h a v e t h e c o u r a g e to confront. B u t
w e w o u l d c l a i m the c o n t r a r y : S a d e a n p e r v e r s i o n e m e r g e s a s t h e r e s u l t
o f t h e K a n t i a n c o m p r o m i s e , of K a n t ' s a v o i d a n c e of t h e
consequences
o f h i s b r e a k t h r o u g h . S a d e i s t h e symptom of K a n t : w h i l e it is t r u e t h a t
Kant
retreated
revolution,
the
from
drawing
s p a c e for
the
all the
consequences
of
f i g u r e of S a d e i s o p e n e d
his
ethical
up by
this
K a n t i a n c o m p r o m i s e , b y h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s to p u s h t h r o u g h to t h e e n d ,
to r e t a i n full f i d e l i t y to h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h . F a r from b e i n g
s i m p l y a n d d i r e c t l y " t h e t r u t h of K a n t , " S a d e i s t h e s y m p t o m of K a n t ' s
betrayal
of
the
truth
of
his
own
discovery — the
fouisseur i s a s t i g m a b e a r i n g w i t n e s s to K a n t ' s
t h e a p p a r e n t " r a d i c a l i t y " of t h i s
figure
obscene
ethical
Sadean
compromise;
( t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of t h e S a d e a n
h e r o to g o to t h e e n d in h i s W i l l - t o - E n j o y ) i s a m a s k of i t s e x a c t
o p p o s i t e . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t r u e h o r r o r i s not a S a d e a n o r g y , b u t t h e
real core
phrasing
of t h e
Kantean
ethic itself—if w e can
be forgiven
B r e c h t y e t a g a i n , w h a t i s t h e m i s e r a b l e E v i l of a
para­
Sadean
g r o u p o r g y in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e " d i a b o l i c a l E v i l " t h a t p e r t a i n s to a
pure
ethical
relationship
explosion
act?
And,
between
the
mutatis
mutandis,
Chinese
of c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t
Cultural
the
same
a p p l i e s to
Revolution
and
the
today's
a s its " t r u t h " : t h i s e x p l o s i o n
is
209
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
a l s o a s i g n t h a t M a o r e t r e a t e d from d r a w i n g a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of
t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e s p a c e for t h e c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o s i o n
was
o p e n e d u p b y t h i s c o m p r o m i s e , b y M a o ' s u n w i l l i n g n e s s to p u s h
t h r o u g h to t h e e n d , to r e t a i n full f i d e l i t y to t h e i d e a of t h e C u l t u r a l
R e v o l u t i o n . A n d t h e l e s s o n i s , in b o t h c a s e s , t h a t of K a n t a s w e l l t h a t
of M a o , t h e s a m e , n a m e l y t h a t w e t a k e from B e c k e t t ' s Worstward Ho:
" T r y again. Fail again. Fail better. "
210
5
Stalinism Revisited
O r , How Stalin Saved the Humanity of Man
The Staliniat cultural counter-revolution
A c o n s i s t e n t c o n s e r v a t i v e c a s e c a n b e m a d e t h a t , far from b e i n g t h e
greatest catastrophe that could h a v e befallen Russia, S t a l i n i s m effectively
s a v e d w h a t w e u n d e r s t a n d a s t h e h u m a n i t y of m a n . C r u c i a l h e r e i s t h e
g r e a t shift of t h e e a r l y a n d m i d - 1 9 3 0 s from p r o l e t a r i a n e g a l i t a r i a n i s m to
t h e full a s s e r t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n l e g a c y . In t h e c u l t u r a l s p h e r e ,
figures
s u c h a s P u s h k i n a n d T c h a i k o v s k y w e r e e l e v a t e d far a b o v e m o d e r n i s m ;
t r a d i t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c n o r m s of b e a u t y w e r e r e a s s e r t e d ; h o m o s e x u a l i t y w a s
outlawed, s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y condemned, a n d m a r r i a g e p r o c l a i m e d the
e l e m e n t a r y c e l l of t h e n e w s o c i e t y . It w a s t h e e n d of t h e b r i e f m a r r i a g e of
convenience b e t w e e n Soviet p o w e r a n d the artistic a n d scientific m o d ­
e r n i s t s . In c i n e m a , t h i s p a s s a g e i s c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e shift
from
E i s e n s t e i n ' s s i l e n t films w i t h t h e i r m o n t a g e of " a t t r a c t i o n s " to h i s " o r g a n i c l s t " s o u n d films; in m u s i c , in t h e shift from S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s v i o l e n t p a r o d i c p r o v o c a t i v e m u s i c w i t h e l e m e n t s of c i r c u s a n d j a z z from
the
1 9 2 0 s to h i s r e t u r n to m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s .
T h e s t a n d a r d r e a d i n g of t h i s shift s e e s it a s t h e " c u l t u r a l T h e r m i d o r , "
t h e b e t r a y a l of t h e a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e a c c e p t i n g t h i s
j u d g m e n t at face v a l u e , o n e s h o u l d t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e i d e o l o g i c a l
v i s i o n w h i c h s u s t a i n e d r a d i c a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m : w e r e f e r h e r e a g a i n to socalled "biocosmism."
A good e x a m p l e here is the following p a s s a g e b y
Trotsky:
W h a t i s m a n ? H e i s b y n o m e a n s a finished o r h a r m o n i o u s b e i n g . N o ,
h e i s still a h i g h l y a w k w a r d c r e a t u r e . M a n , a s a n a n i m a l , h a s not
evolved b y plan but spontaneously, and has a c c u m u l a t e d m a n y contra­
d i c t i o n s . T h e q u e s t i o n of h o w to e d u c a t e a n d r e g u l a t e , of h o w
to
i m p r o v e a n d c o m p l e t e t h e p h y s i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of m a n .
211
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
is a c o l o s s a l p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d
o n t h e b a s i s of
s o c i a l i s m . [. . . ] T o p r o d u c e a n e w , " i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n " of m a n — t h a t is
t h e f u t u r e t a s k of c o m m u n i s m . A n d for t h a t w e first h a v e to find out
e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t m a n , h i s a n a t o m y , h i s p h y s i o l o g y a n d t h a t p a r t of his
p h y s i o l o g y w h i c h is called his p s y c h o l o g y . M a n must look at himself
a n d see himself a s a r a w material, or at best a s a s e m i - m a n u f a c t u r e d
p r o d u c t , a n d s a y : " A t l a s t , m y d e a r homo sapieiu,
I w i l l w o r k on y o u . " ^
T h e s e w e r e not j u s t i d i o s y n c r a t i c t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , b u t e x p r e s s i o n s
of a r e a l m a s s m o v e m e n t i n a r t , a r c h i t e c t u r e , p s y c h o l o g y , p e d a g o g y , a n d
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s c i e n c e s , c o m p r i s i n g h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s
of p e o p l e .
T h e officially s u p p o r t e d c u l t of T a y l o r i s m , w h o s e m o s t r a d i c a l e x p o n e n t
was
A l e x e i Gastev, a B o l s h e v i k e n g i n e e r a n d poet w h o used the term
" b i o m e c h a n i c s " a s e a r l y a s 1 9 2 2 , e x p l o r e d t h e v i s i o n of s o c i e t y i n w h i c h
m a n a n d m a c h i n e w o u l d m e r g e . G a s t e v r a n t h e I n s t i t u t e of L a b o r , w h i c h
c a r r i e d o u t e x p e r i m e n t s to t r a i n w o r k e r s to a c t l i k e m a c h i n e s . H e s a w the
m e c h a n i z a t i o n of m a n a s t h e n e x t s t e p i n e v o l u t i o n , e n v i s a g i n g
a Utopia w h e r e "people" w o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y " p r o l e t a r i a n
units"
Identified b y c i p h e r s s u c h a s " A , B , C , o r 3 2 5 , 0 7 5 , 0 , a n d so o n . " [. . . ] A
" m e c h a n i z e d c o l l e c t i v i s m " w o u l d " t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l
p e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e p s y c h o l o g y of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . " T h e r e w o u l d
no
l o n g e r b e a n e e d for e m o t i o n s , a n d t h e h u m a n s o u l w o u l d n o l o n g e r b e
measured
" b y a shout or a smile but
by a pressure
g a u g e or
a
speedometer."^
Is not t h i s d r e a m t h e first r a d i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n of w h a t , t o d a y , o n e u s u a l l y
calls biopolitics? Counterintuitive a s this m a y sound, one can a r g u e that
t h i s v i s i o n , h a d it r e a l l y b e e n i m p o s e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h
more
t e r r i f y i n g t h a n S t a l i n i s m a c t u a l l y w a s . It w a s a g a i n s t t h i s t h r e a t of fulls c a l e m o d e r n i s t m e c h a n i z a t i o n t h a t S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s r e a c t e d ; it
not o n l y d e m a n d e d a r e t u r n to a r t i s t i c f o r m s t h a t w o u l d b e a t t r a c t i v e to
l a r g e c r o w d s , b u t also—^although it m a y a p p e a r c y n i c a l ^ — t h e r e t u r n
to
e l e m e n t a r y t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s of m o r a l i t y . In t h e S t a l i n i s t s h o w t r i a l s , t h e
v i c t i m s w e r e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e for c e r t a i n a c t s , forced to c o n f e s s . . . in
s h o r t , t h o u g h it m a y a p p e a r o b s c e n e ( a n d it w a s ) , t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d a s
autonomous
e t h i c a l s u b j e c t s , not a s o b j e c t s of b i o p o l i t i c s . A g a i n s t t h e
Utopia of " m e c h a n i z e d c o l l e c t i v i s m , " h i g h S t a l i n i s m of t h e 1 9 3 0 s s t o o d for
the
212
return
of e t h i c s at i t s m o s t v i o l e n t , a s a n
extreme
measure
to
STALINISM REVISITED
counteract the threat that traditional moral categories w o u l d be rendered
j n e a n i n g l e s s , w h e r e u n a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o r w o u l d not b e p e r c e i v e d a s
involving the subject's guilt, but as a malfunctioning
special p r e s s u r e g a u g e or a
measured by a
speedometer.
T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e i m p o s i t i o n of " S o c i a l i s t R e a l i s m " w a s s i n c e r e l y
w e l c o m e d b y a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of p e o p l e : it s i g n a l e d t h a t
t h e r e g i m e [ h a d ] c o m p l e t e l y a b a n d o n e d its c o m m i t m e n t to t h e r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y i d e a of e s t a b l i s h i n g a " p r o l e t a r i a n " o r " S o v i e t " form of c u l t u r e
t h a t c o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e c u l t u r e of t h e p a s t . [. . . ] C o n ­
t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s l i k e A k h m a t o v a c o u l d n o t find a p u b l i s h e r , b u t t h e
c o m p l e t e w o r k s of P u s h k i n
and Turgenev,
Chekhov
and
Tolstoy
( a l t h o u g h n o t D o s t o e v s k y ) w e r e i s s u e d in t h e i r m i l l i o n s a s a n e w
r e a d e r s h i p w a s i n t r o d u c e d to t h e m . ^
T h i s r e t u r n to c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e r e a c h e d its p e a k in 1 9 3 7 , the c e n t e n a r y of
Pushkin's death, w h e n
[t]he
whole
country
w a s involved
in f e s t i v i t i e s : s m a l l
provincial
t h e a t r e s p u t on p l a y s ; s c h o o l s o r g a n i z e d s p e c i a l c e l e b r a t i o n s ; Y o u n g
C o m m u n i s t s w e n t on p i l g r i m a g e s to p l a c e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p o e t ' s
life; f a c t o r i e s o r g a n i z e d s t u d y g r o u p s a n d c l u b s of
collective farms held Pushkin carnivals w i t h
figures
"Pushkinists";
dressed as char­
a c t e r s from P u s h k i n ' s f a i r y t a l e s .
These facts are w o r t h
mentioning
b e c a u s e t h e y b r i n g u s to
p a r a d o x : h o w t h e v e r y r e s i s t a n c e to S t a l i n i s m , m a r g i n a l a n d
as
it w a s ,
followed
this
cultural
trend.
That
i s to
hypocritical a n d censured, this massive reintroduction
say,
another
oppressed
although
of t h e c l a s s i c a l
R u s s i a n c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e w a s m o r e t h a n j u s t a m e a s u r e for e n l i g h t e n i n g
t h e h a l f - i l l i t e r a t e m a s s e s : t h e u n i v e r s e of g r e a t c l a s s i c s s u c h a s P u s h k i n
a n d T o l s t o y c o n t a i n e d a n e n t i r e v i s i o n of c u l t u r e , w i t h its o w n e t h i c s of
s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , of s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e o p p r e s s e d a g a i n s t a u t o c r a t i c
power:
Dissidence
in t h e
U S S R represented
truthfulness,
unexpurgated
r e a l i t y a n d e t h i c a l v a l u e s — a s a g a i n s t t h e f a n t a s y r e a l i t y of s o c i a l i s t
r e a l i s m a n d t h e p e r v a s i v e f a l s e n e s s of S o v i e t p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e w i t h its
c o n c e r t e d n e g a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y ( a n e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d , i n d e e d
213
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
f u n d a m e n t a l , i n g r e d i e n t in the S o v i e t r e g i m e ' s f o r w a r d i n g of " r e v o l u tionary development").^
In t h i s s e n s e , S o l z h e n i t s y n h i m s e l f is t h e son of t h e S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r a l
p o l i t i c s of t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e " p r i v a t e " w o r k s of S h o s t a k o v i c h , full of m e l a n c h o l y , d e s p a i r , a n d p r i v a t e a n x i e t i e s ( c e n t e r e d on h i s
s t r i n g q u a r t e t s ) a r e n o l e s s a n o r g a n i c p a r t of t h e S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r e t h a n h i s
g r e a t " p u b l i c " w o r k s ( c e n t e r e d in h i s officially c e l e b r a t e d s y m p h o n i e s , 5,
7, a n d 1 1 ) .
A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e t h i r d p a r a d o x . W i l h e l m F u r t w ä n g l e r r e m a r k e d
a p r o p o s S t r a v i n s k y ' s " R i t e of S p r i n g " t h a t it s h o w s t h e l i m i t a t i o n of R u s s i a n
s p i r i t u a l i t y : it e x u l t s in b r i l l i a n t m e c h a n i c r h y t h m i c e x p l o s i o n s , b u t it c a n n o t
r e a c h t h e l e v e l of o r g a n i c l i v i n g u n i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s G e r m a n s p i r i t u a l i t y .
T h e first i r o n y i s t h a t t h e v e r y s a m e c o m p o s e r s to w h i c h F u r t w ä n g l e r
referred w e r e perceived b y the Russian traditionalists as W e s t e r n modern i z e r s e n d a n g e r i n g t h e R u s s i a n o r g a n i c h e r i t a g e . H o w e v e r , in a w a y ,
F u r t w ä n g l e r w a s right. M a n y W e s t e r n t r a v e l e r s to R u s s i a in t h e e i g h t e e n t h
a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e n t t h e r e in s e a r c h of a n o r g a n i c society, a l i v i n g
s o c i a l W h o l e , a s o p p o s e d to W e s t e r n i n d i v i d u a l i s t societies w h i c h w e r e h e l d
t o g e t h e r b y t h e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e of l a w s ; t h e y soon d i s c o v e r e d t h a t R u s s i a
w a s a c t u a l l y a v a s t c h a o t i c e m p i r e , l a c k i n g p r e c i s e l y a n y i n n e r o r g a n i c form
a n d therefore r u l e d b y t h e iron h a n d of t h e b r u t a l i m p e r i a l a u t o c r a c y . In
o t h e r w o r d s , the notion of "old R u s s i a " w h o s e h a r m o n i o u s b a l a n c e w a s
disturbed b y Western modernization w a s mythical: violent "modernism,"
t h e b r u t a l i m p o s i t i o n of a c e n t r a l o r d e r o n t o t h e c h a o t i c t e x t u r e of s o c i a l life,
is t h u s a k e y c o m p o n e n t of t r a d i t i o n a l R u s s i a n social i d e n t i t y — S t a l i n w a s
c o r r e c t to c e l e b r a t e I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e a s h i s p r e c u r s o r .
Is, t h e n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h i s that, w i t h r e g r e t , o n e s h o u l d e n d o r s e
Stalinism as the defense against a m u c h w o r s e threat? W h a t
about
a p p l j n n g h e r e too L a c a n ' s m o t t o "le père ou le pire," a n d t a k e t h e r i s k
of the choice of the worje: w h a t if t h e effective r e s u l t of c h o o s i n g to p u r s u e to
the end the biopolitical d r e a m w o u l d have been something unpredictable
t h a t w o u l d h a v e s h a k e n t h e v e r y c o o r d i n a t e s of t h i s d r e a m ?
A letter which did not reach its destination
(and thereby perhaps saved the world)
T h e S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r of t h e 1 9 3 0 s w a s a h u m a n i s t t e r r o r : i t s a d h e r e n c e to a
"humanist"
214
c o r e w a s not
what
constrained
its h o r r o r , it w a s
what
STALINISM REVISITED
s u s t a i n e d it, it w a s i t s i n h e r e n t c o n d i t i o n of p o s s i b i l i t y . W h a t if t h e l e g a c y
of t h e h u m a n i s t t r a d i t i o n r e s u s c i t a t e d b y h i g h S t a l i n i s m n o t o n l y c r e a t e d
t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s for d i s s i d e n t r e s i s t a n c e , b u t a l s o " s a v e d
the w o r l d " in a quite literal w a y — n a m e l y , p r e v e n t e d global n u c l e a r
catastrophe during the C u b a n missile crisis?
A s far a s o n e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e v e n t s t o d a y , t w o t h i n g s c o m b i n e d t o
facilitate t h e h a p p y o u t c o m e . T h e first w a s p o l i t e tact, t h e r i t u a l s of p o l i t e
f e i g n e d i g n o r a n c e — if o n e i s to b e l i e v e r e c e n t r e v e l a t i o n s . K e n n e d y ' s
s t r o k e of g e n i u s , w h i c h w a s c r u c i a l for t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e
crisis, w a s to p r e t e n d t h a t a k e y l e t t e r h a d not a r r i v e d a t i t s d e s t i n a t i o n , t o
a c t a s if t h i s l e t t e r d i d n o t e x i s t — a s t r a t a g e m w h i c h , of c o u r s e , o n l y
w o r k e d b e c a u s e t h e s e n d e r ( K h r u s h c h e v ) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n it. O n F r i d a y ,
O c t o b e r 2 6 , 1 9 6 2 , a l e t t e r from K h r u s h c h e v to K e n n e d y c o n f i r m s t h e
offer p r e v i o u s l y m a d e t h r o u g h i n t e r m e d i a r i e s : t h e m i s s i l e s w o u l d b e
r e m o v e d if t h e U S i s s u e d a p l e d g e n o t to i n v a d e C u b a . O n S a t u r d a y ,
O c t o b e r 2 7 , before a U S a n s w e r , a n o t h e r , h a r s h e r a n d m o r e d e m a n d i n g ,
letter from K h r u s h c h e v a r r i v e d , a d d i n g t h e r e m o v a l of U S m i s s i l e s from
T u r k e y a s a c o n d i t i o n , a n d s i g n a l i n g a p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l c o u p in t h e S o v i e t
Union. At 8.05 p . m . the same d a y , K e n n e d y sent a response to Khrush­
c h e v , i n f o r m i n g h i m t h a t h e w a s a c c e p t i n g t h e p r o p o s a l of O c t o b e r 2 6 ,
t h a t i s , acting as if the October 27 letter had never existed. O n S u n d a y , O c t o b e r
28, K e n n e d y r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r from K h r u s h c h e v i n w h i c h h e a g r e e d to t h e
d e a l . . . T h e l e s s o n of t h i s i s t h a t , in s u c h m o m e n t s of c r i s i s w h e r e t h e fate
of e v e r y t h i n g h a n g s in t h e b a l a n c e , s a v i n g a p p e a r a n c e s , p o l i t e n e s s , t h e
awareness that one is "pla3àng a g a m e , " matters more than ever.
One can also claim that w h a t triggered the crisis w a s a symmetrical
fact, a l e t t e r w h i c h a l s o d i d n o t a r r i v e a t i t s a d d r e s s e e , b u t , t h i s t i m e ,
b e c a u s e it w a s n e v e r s e n t . S o v i e t m i s s i l e s w e r e s t a t i o n e d i n C u b a a s t h e
r e s u l t of t h e s e c r e t m u t u a l s e c u r i t y p a c t b e t w e e n C u b a a n d t h e U S S R ;
m a n y observers (most notably T e d S o r e n s e n ) suggested that the U S
r e a c t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h l e s s offensive if t h e m u t u a l s e c u r i t y p a c t
had been m a d e public in a d v a n c e ( a s Castro h a d w a n t e d , i n c i d e n t a l l y ! ) .
It w a s t h e s e c r e c y on w h i c h S o v i e t s h a d i n s i s t e d t h a t m a d e t h e U S b e l i e v e
t h a t t h e m i s s i l e e m p l a c e m e n t c o u l d h a v e n o p u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n to l a u n c h
a n a t t a c k u p o n t h e U S : if t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s of s i g n i n g t h e p a c t a n d
i n s t a l l i n g t h e m i s s i l e s h a d b e e n i n t h e o p e n a n d t r a n s p a r e n t , it w o u l d h a v e
been p e r c e i v e d a s something m u c h less threatening: not a s the p r e p a r a ­
tion of a r e a l a t t a c k , b u t s i m p l y a s d e m o n s t r a t i v e p o s t u r i n g w h i c h p o s e d
no r e a l m i l i t a r y t h r e a t .
215
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
T h i s lesson w a s not l e a r n e d b y t h e U S m i l i t a r y e s t a b h s h m e n t ,
which
i n t e r p r e t e d the p e a c e f u l r e s o l u t i o n of t h e c r i s i s in a q u i t e d i l f e r e n t w a y /
Its o p i n i o n
is b e s t r e n d e r e d
by Raymond
Garthoff,
at the time
an
i n t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s t in t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t :
If w e h a v e l e a r n e d an3rthing from t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , it i s t h a t w e a k n e s s ,
even only apparent w e a k n e s s , invites Soviet transgression. At the same
time,
firmness
in t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s w i l l force t h e S o v i e t s to b a c k a w a y
from r a s h i n i t i a t i v e s . ^
T h e c r i s i s Is t h u s p e r c e i v e d a s t h e e y e b a l l - t o - e y e b a l l c o n f r o n t a t i o n of t w o
p l a y e r s , a m a c h o g a m e of " c h i c k e n , " w h e r e t h e o n e w i t h g r e a t e r t o u g h ­
n e s s , i n f l e x i b i l i t y , a n d r e s o l v e w i n s . T h i s v i e w , of c o u r s e , d o e s not fit
r e a l i t y : a w h o l e s e r i e s of d e t a i l s d e m o n s t r a t e K e n n e d y ' s
flexibility
a n d his
c o n c e s s i o n s to t h e S o v i e t n e e d to s a v e face b y w a y of s a l v a g i n g s o m e t h i n g
p o s i t i v e from t h e c r i s i s . In o r d e r to b u y s o m e t i m e a n d a v o i d a d i r e c t
confrontation,
h e p e r m i t t e d on O c t o b e r 2 5 a S o v i e t t a n k e r to p r o c e e d
through the quarantine; on October 28, he ordered that no interview
s h o u l d b e g i v e n a n d n o s t a t e m e n t m a d e w h i c h w o u l d c l a i m a n y k i n d of
victory; furthermore,
h e m a d e a n offer of r e m o v i n g U S m i s s i l e s from
T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s a g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e U S w o u l d not i n v a d e C u b a , m
e x c h a n g e for w h i c h t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d w i t h d r a w t h e i r m i s s i l e s from
Cuba.
T h e S o v i e t p e r c e p t i o n of t h e c r i s i s w a s different: for t h e m , it w a s not
t h e t h r e a t of force t h a t e n d e d t h e c r i s i s . T h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p b e l i e v e d
t h e c r i s i s h a d e n d e d b e c a u s e b o t h S o v i e t a n d U S officials h a d r e a l i z e d
t h e y w e r e a t t h e b r i n k a n d t h a t t h e c r i s i s w a s t h r e a t e n i n g to d e s t r o y
h u m a n k i n d . T h e y d i d n o t fear o n l y for t h e i r i m m e d i a t e s a f e t y a n d w e r e
not w o r r i e d m e r e l y a b o u t l o s i n g a b a t t l e i n C u b a . T h e i r f e a r w a s t h e fear
of d e c i d i n g t h e fate of m i l l i o n s of o t h e r s , e v e n of c i v i l i z a t i o n itself. It w a s
thU fear, e x p e r i e n c e d b y b o t h s i d e s at t h e p e a k of t h e c r i s i s , w h i c h
e n a b l e d t h e m to r e a c h a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n ; a n d it w a s t h i s f e a r w h i c h w a s
a t t h e v e r y c o r e of t h e f a m o u s e x c h a n g e of l e t t e r s b e t w e e n
Khrushchev
a n d F i d e l C a s t r o a t t h e c l i m a x of t h e c r i s i s . ^ In a l e t t e r to K h r u s h c h e v on
October 26, Castro wrote that
if t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s i n v a d e C u b a w i t h t h e g o a l of o c c u p y i n g it, t h e
d a n g e r t h a t t h a t a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y p o s e s for h u m a n i t y is so g r e a t t h a t
following that event the Soviet Union must n e v e r a l l o w the c i r c u m 216
STALINISM REVISITED
s t a n c e s in w h i c h t h e I m p e r i a l i s t s c o u l d l a u n c h t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e
a g a i n s t it. I tell y o u
t h i s b e c a u s e I b e l i e v e t h a t the i m p e r i a l i s t s '
a g g r e s s i v e n e s s is e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s a n d 11 t h e y a c t u a l l y c a r r y out
t h e b r u t a l a c t of i n v a d i n g C u b a in v i o l a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w a n d
m o r a l i t y , t h a t w o u l d b e t h e m o m e n t to e l i m i n a t e s u c h d a n g e r f o r e v e r
t h r o u g h a n a c t of c l e a r l e g i t i m a t e d e f e n s e , h o w e v e r h a r s h a n d t e r r i b l e
t h e s o l u t i o n w o u l d b e , for t h e r e i s no o t h e r .
K h r u s h c h e v a n s w e r e d C a s t r o on O c t o b e r 3 0 :
In y o u r c a b l e of O c t o b e r 2 7 y o u p r o p o s e d t h a t w e b e t h e first to l a u n c h
a n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e e n e m y . Y o u , of c o u r s e ,
r e a l i z e w h e r e t h a t w o u l d h a v e l e d . R a t h e r t h a n a s i m p l e s t r i k e , it w o u l d
h a v e b e e n t h e s t a r t of a t h e r m o n u c l e a r w o r l d w a r . D e a r
Comrade
F i d e l C a s t r o , 1 c o n s i d e r t h i s p r o p o s a l of y o u r s i n c o r r e c t , a l t h o u g h I
u n d e r s t a n d y o u r motivation. W e h a v e lived t h r o u g h the most serious
m o m e n t w h e n a n u c l e a r w o r l d w a r c o u l d h a v e b r o k e n out. O b v i o u s l y ,
in t h a t c a s e , the U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d h a v e s u s t a i n e d h u g e l o s s e s , b u t
the
Soviet Union
a n d the w h o l e socialist c a m p w o u l d have also
suffered g r e a t l y . A s far a s C u b a i s c o n c e r n e d , it w o u l d b e difficult
to s a y e v e n in g e n e r a l t e r m s w h a t t h i s w o u l d h a v e m e a n t for t h e m . In
the first p l a c e , C u b a w o u l d h a v e b e e n b u r n e d in t h e fire of w a r .
T h e r e ' s no d o u b t t h a t t h e C u b a n p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e f o u g h t
cour­
a g e o u s l y or t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e d i e d h e r o i c a l l y . B u t w e a r e
not
s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m in o r d e r to d i e , b u t to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of
all o u r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , to lose l e s s in t h e s t r u g g l e a n d w i n m o r e
to
o v e r c o m e a n d a c h i e v e t h e v i c t o r y of c o m m u n i s m .
T h e e s s e n c e of K h r u s h c h e v ' s a r g u m e n t c a n b e b e s t s u m m e d u p b y N e i l
K i n n o c k ' s a r g u m e n t for u n i l a t e r a l d i s a r m a m e n t , w h e n h e w a s t h e L a b o u r
l e a d e r : "I a m r e a d y to d i e for m y c o u n t r y , b u t I a m not r e a d y to let m y
c o u n t r y die for m e . " It is s i g n i f i c a n t to note that, in s p i t e of t h e "totalitar­
i a n " c h a r a c t e r of t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e , thy fear w a s far m o r e p r e d o m i n a n t in
the S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p t h a n in t h a t of t h e U S —so, p e r h a p s , t h e t i m e h a s
c o m e to r e h a b i l i t a t e K h r u s h c h e v , not K e n n e d y , a s t h e r e a l h e r o of t h e
C u b a n m i s s i l e c r i s i s . C a s t r o a n s w e r e d K h r u s h c h e v on O c t o b e r 3 1 :
I r e a l i z e d w h e n I w r o t e t h e m t h a t t h e w o r d s c o n t a i n e d in m y l e t t e r
could be misinterpreted by y o u and that w a s w h a t happened, perhaps
217
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
because y o u
didn't
read
them
carefully, perhaps
b e c a u s e of
the
t r a n s l a t i o n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e T m e a n t to s a y so m u c h in too few l i n e s .
H o w e v e r , I d i d n ' t h e s i t a t e to d o it. D o y o u b e l i e v e . C o m r a d e K h r u s h ­
c h e v , t h a t w e w e r e s e l f i s h l y t h i n k i n g of o u r s e l v e s , of o u r g e n e r o u s
p e o p l e w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d not a t a l l in a n u n c o n s c i o u s
m a n n e r b u t fully a s s u r e d of t h e r i s k t h e y r a n ? N o , C o m r a d e
Khrush­
c h e v . F e w t i m e s m h i s t o r y , a n d it c o u l d e v e n b e s a i d t h a t n e v e r before,
b e c a u s e n o p e o p l e h a d e v e r faced s u c h a t i - e m e n d o u s d a n g e r , w a s a
p e o p l e so w i l l i n g to fight a n d d i e w i t h s u c h a u n i v e r s a l s e n s e of d u t y ,
[. . . ] W e k n e w , a n d d o not p r e s u m e t h a t w e i g n o r e d it, t h a t w e w o u l d
h a v e b e e n a n n i h i l a t e d , a s y o u i n s i n u a t e i n y o u r l e t t e r , i n t h e e v e n t of
n u c l e a r w a r . H o w e v e r , t h a t d i d n ' t p r o m p t u s to a s k y o u to w i t h d r a w
t h e m i s s i l e s , t h a t d i d n ' t p r o m p t u s to a s k y o u to y i e l d . D o y o u b e l i e v e
t h a t w e w a n t e d t h a t w a r ? B u t h o w c o u l d w e p r e v e n t it if t h e i n v a s i o n
finally
t o o k p l a c e ? [. . . ] A n d if w a r h a d b r o k e n out, w h a t c o u l d w e do
w i t h the insane people w h o u n l e a s h e d the w a r ? Y o u y o u r s e l f h a v e said
that u n d e r
current
conditions
such a w a r would inevitably have
e s c a l a t e d q u i c k l y into a n u c l e a r w a r . 1 u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n c e a g g r e s s i o n
is u n l e a s h e d , o n e s h o u l d n ' t c o n c e d e to t h e a g g r e s s o r t h e p r i v i l e g e of
d e c i d i n g , m o r e o v e r , w h e n to u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s . T h e d e s t r u c t i v e
p o w e r of t h i s w e a p o n r y i s so g r e a t a n d the s p e e d of i t s d e l i v e r y so g r e a t
that the aggressor w o u l d have a considerable initial a d v a n t a g e . A n d 1
d i d not s u g g e s t to y o u , C o m r a d e K h r u s h c h e v , t h a t t h e U S S R s h o u l d
b e t h e a g g r e s s o r , b e c a u s e t h a t w o u l d b e m o r e t h a n i n c o r r e c t , it w o u l d
b e i m m o r a l a n d c o n t e m p t i b l e on m y p a r t . B u t from t h e i n s t a n t the
imperialists attack C u b a and w h i l e there are Soviet a r m e d
s t a t i o n e d in C u b a to h e l p in o u r d e f e n s e in c a s e of a n a t t a c k
forces
from
abroad, the imperialists w o u l d b y this act become a g g r e s s o r s against
C u b a a n d a g a i n s t the U S S R , a n d w e w o u l d r e s p o n d w i t h a s t r i k e that
w o u l d a n n i h i l a t e t h e m . [. • • ] I d i d n o t s u g g e s t . C o m r a d e
Khrushchev,
t h a t in t h e m i d s t of this c r i s i s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s h o u l d a t t a c k , w h i c h is
w h a t y o u r l e t t e r s e e m s to s a y ; r a t h e r , t h a t f o l l o w i n g a n i m p e r i a l i s t
attack, the U S S R should act without vacillation a n d should
never
m a k e t h e m i s t a k e of a l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to d e v e l o p in w h i c h t h e
e n e m y m a k e s t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e U S S R . A n d in t h i s
s e n s e . C o m r a d e K h r u s h c h e v , I m a i n t a i n m y p o i n t of v i e w , b e c a u s e 1
u n d e r s t a n d it to b e a t r u e a n d j u s t e v a l u a t i o n of a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n .
Y o u m a y b e a b l e to c o n v i n c e m e t h a t I a m w r o n g , b u t y o u c a n ' t tell m e
that I a m w r o n g without convincing me.
218
STALINISM REVISITED
Jt is c l e a r t h a t it w a s C a s t r o
himself w h o
(purposefully)
misread
Khrushchev here: Khrushchev understood very well w h a t Castro w a n t e d
t h e U S S R to d o —not to a t t a c k t h e U S " o u t of n o w h e r e , " but, in t h e c a s e
of t h e U S i n v a s i o n of C u b a (still a n a c t oî conventional -war, a n d a l i m i t e d
one, a t t h a t — a t t a c k i n g a r e c e n t a l l y of t h e U S S R , not t h e U S S R itself), to
r e t a l i a t e w i t h total nuclear c o u n t e r a t t a c k . T h i s i s w h a t t h e w a r n i n g t h a t t h e
U S S R " s h o u l d n e v e r m a k e t h e m i s t a k e of a l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to
d e v e l o p in w h i c h t h e e n e m y m a k e s t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e
U S S R " c a n o n l y m e a n : t h a t t h e U S S R s h o u l d b e t h e first to d e a l a
decisive n u c l e a r strike —"once a g g r e s s i o n is u n l e a s h e d , one
shouldn't
c o n c e d e to t h e a g g r e s s o r t h e p r i v i l e g e of d e c i d i n g , m o r e o v e r , w h e n to u s e
n u c l e a r w e a p o n s . " T o p u t it b l u n t l y , C a s t r o w a s d e m a n d i n g t h a t I ^ r u s h c h e v c h o o s e t h e e n d of c i v i l i z e d life on e a r t h o v e r t h e l o s s of C u b a . . .
So, a g a i n , w h a t w e w i t n e s s here is a confrontation b e t w e e n
chev's humanist
considerations
( u l t i m a t e l y , t h e l e g a c y of
Khrush­
traditional
c u l t u r e r e s u s c i t a t e d b y h i g h S t a l i n i s m ) a n d C a s t r o ' s r u t h l e s s total w a g e r ,
w h i c h e c h o e s M a o Z e d o n g ' s r e f l e c t i o n on t h e p o s s i b l e a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e
human race. A s w e have noted earlier, C h e G u e v a r a approached the same
h n e of t h o u g h t w h e n h e p r a i s e d t h e h e r o i c r e a d i n e s s of t h e C u b a n p e o p l e
to r i s k its o w n
effacement.
Kremlinology
S t a l i n i s m ' s r o l e in s a v i n g t h e " h u m a n i t y of m a n " i s d i s c e r n i b l e a t t h e m o s t
e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l of l a n g u a g e . If t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e n e w
b e i n g w a s to h a v e b e e n
post-human
a l a n g u a g e of s i g n a l s , n o l o n g e r
properly
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s u b j e c t , no w o n d e r t h a t S t a l i n i s t l a n g u a g e i s t h e m o s t
violent i m a g i n a b l e opposite. W h a t characterizes h u m a n
l a n g u a g e , in
c o n t r a s t to t h e m o s t c o m p l e x s i g n a l s of b e e s , i s w h a t L a c a n c a l l e d " e m p t y
s p e e c h , " s p e e c h w h o s e d e n o t a t i v e v a l u e ( e x p l i c i t c o n t e n t ) is s u s p e n d e d
on b e h a l f of its f u n c t i o n a s a n i n d e x of i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
s p e a k e r a n d h e a r e r , a n d t h i s s u s p e n s i o n i s a k e y f e a t u r e of S t a l i n i s t
j a r g o n , t h e o b j e c t of t h e s c i e n c e of " K r e m l i n o l o g y " :
B e f o r e t h e S o v i e t - e r a a r c h i v e s o p e n e d w i d e , foreign s c h o l a r s t r y i n g to
m a k e o u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d , a n d w h a t m i g h t c o m e to p a s s , t o o k
a b u s e for r e l y i n g u p o n h e a r s a y : s o - a n d - s o h a d h e a r d from s o - a n d - s o ,
w h o m t u r n h a d h e a r d from s o m e o n e in t h e c a m p s , w h o w a s s u r e t h a t
• . . [ i n s e r t f a n t a s t i c p a r t i c u l a r s h e r e ] . C r i t i c s of s u c h h e a r s a y - s c h o l a r 219
Ih4 DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES
s h i p h a d a point. B u t w h a t few p e o p l e s e e m to r e a l i z e , e v e n n o w , is t h a t
the s a l i e n t i s s u e m i g h t n o t b e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y i n S t a l i n ' s S o v i e t U n i o n of
w o r d of m o u t h a n d p o l i t i c a l d i v i n a t i o n , b u t its p e r v a s i v e n e s s . K r e m l i n o l o g y a r o s e n o t a t H a r v a r d , b u t i n a n d a r o u n d t h e K r e m l i n . [. . . ] this
w a s h o w t h e e n t i r e r e g i m e o p e r a t e d , a n d it w a s w h a t e v e r y o n e i n t h e
S o v i e t U n i o n d i d t o a d e g r e e , t h e m o r e so t h e h i g h e r u p . A m i d t h e
i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l w a r f a r e a n d M o b i u s - s t r i p i n t r i g u e s , S t a l i n i s t life a n d
d e a t h r e m a i n e d o p a q u e , n o m a t t e r w h e r e y o u stood o r w h o m y o u
k n e w . It w a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e f o r m u l a i c a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e .
In A p r i l 1 9 3 9 , [ t h e n o m i n a l h e a d o f C o m i n t e r n G e o r g i ] D i m i t r o v
frets o v e r h i s s u d d e n o m i s s i o n i n Pravda's, c o v e r a g e of o n e h o n o r
p r e s i d i u m a n d i n Izmitiyas
of a n o t h e r . H i s a g i t a t i o n e a s e s w h e n h e
l e a r n s t h a t h i s p o r t r a i t s w e r e b o r n e aloft a t t h e M a y D a y p a r a d e , w h i c h
q u i e t e d t h e o m i n o u s c h i t c h a t a b o u t h i m . B u t t h e n it h a p p e n e d a g a i n .
" F o r t h e first t i m e o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s D a y I w a s not elected to
t h e h o n o r p r e s i d i u m , " h e r e c o r d s o n M a r c h 8, 1 9 4 1 . " T h a t , of c o u r s e ,
is n o a c c i d e n t . " A h , b u t w h a t did it mean';* D i m i t r o v — w h o
could
s c a r c e l y h a v e b e e n c l o s e r to t h e K r e m l i n — w a s a n i n v e t e r a t e K r e m l i nologlst, s t u d y i n g M a u s o l e u m c h o r e o g r a p h y , d i v i n i n g omens, d r o w n 11
ing in r u m o r s .
Another comical detail along these lines: t h e public prosecutor in the
s h o w trial against t h e " U n i t e d T r o t s k y i t e - Z i n o v i é v i t e C e n t e r "
pub­
l i s h e d a list of t h o s e t h a t t h i s " C e n t e r " w a s p l a n n i n g t o a s s a s s i n a t e
( S t a l i n , K i r o v , Z h d a n o v . . . ) ; t h i s list b e c a m e " a b i z a r r e h o n o r s i n c e
inclusion signified p r o x i m i t y to S t a l i n . "
A l t h o u g h M o l o t o v w a s on
g o o d personal terms with Stalin, h e w a s shocked to discover that he
w a s n o t o n t h e list: w h a t c o u l d t h i s s i g n m e a n ? J u s t a w a r n i n g from
S t a l i n , o r a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t soon it w o u l d b e h i s t u r n t o b e a r r e s t e d ?
H e r e i n d e e d , t h e s e c r e t s of t h e E g y p t i a n s w e r e s e c r e t s a l s o for t h e
E g y p t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s . It w a s t h e S t a l i n i s t S o v i e t U n i o n w h i c h w a s t h e
true "empire of s i g n s . "
A story told b y S o v i e t linguist Eric H a n - P i r a
provides a perfect
e x a m p l e of t h e total s e m a n t i c s a t u r a t i o n of t h i s " e m p i r e of s i g n s , " a
saturation w h i c h , precisely, relied on t h e e m p t y i n g of direct denotative
m e a n i n g . F o r m a n y y e a r s , w h e n the Soviet m e d i a a n n o u n c e d the funeral
c e r e m o n i e s of a m e m b e r of t h e s e n i o r nomenklatura,
it u s e d a c l i c h é
f o r m u l a t i o n : " b u r i e d o n R e d S q u a r e b y t h e K r e m l i n w a l l . " In t h e 1 9 6 0 s ,
h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e of t h e l a c k of s p a c e , most of t h e n e w l y d e c e a s e d
220
STALINISM REVISITED
d i g n i t a r i e s w e r e c r e m a t e d a n d u r n s w i t h t h e i r a s h e s w e r e p l a c e d in n i c h e s
inside the wall itself—yet the
s a m e old f o r m u l a w a s u s e d in
press
s t a t e m e n t s . T h i s i n c o n g r u i t y c o m p e l l e d fifteen m e m b e r s of t h e R u s s i a n
L a n g u a g e I n s t i t u t e of t h e S o v i e t A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s to w r i t e a l e t t e r to
the C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e
of t h e C o m m u n i s t
Party, s u g g e s t i n g that the
p h r a s e b e m o d i f i e d to fit t h e c u r r e n t r e a l i t y : " T h e u r n w i t h a s h e s w a s
p l a c e d in t h e K r e m l i n w a l l . " S e v e r a l w e e k s l a t e r , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e
Central Committee p h o n e d the Institute, informing them that the C e n t r a l
C o m m i t t e e h a d d i s c u s s e d t h e i r s u g g e s t i o n a n d d e c i d e d to k e e p t h e o l d
f o r m u l a t i o n ; h e g a v e n o r e a s o n s for t h i s d e c i s i o n .
A c c o r d i n g to t h e r u l e s
that r e g u l a t e t h e S o v i e t " e m p i r e of s i g n s , " t h e C C w a s r i g h t : t h e c h a n g e
w o u l d not
have been
perceived as simply registering the
fact
that
d i g n i t a r i e s w e r e n o w c r e m a t e d a n d t h e i r a s h e s p l a c e d in t h e w a l l itself;
any d e v i a t i o n from t h e s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s
a sign, t r i g g e r i n g f r e n z i e d i n t e r p r e t i v e a c t i v i t y . S o , s i n c e t h e r e w a s n o
m e s s a g e to b e d e l i v e r e d , w h y c h a n g e t h i n g s ? O n e m a y o p p o s e to t h i s
c o n c l u s i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i m p l e " r a t i o n a l " s o l u t i o n : w h y not c h a n g e
the f o r m u l a t i o n a n d a d d a n e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t it m e a n t n o t h i n g , t h a t it
simply registered a new reality? S u c h a "rational" approach totally misses
the l o g i c of t h e S o v i e t " e m p i r e of s i g n s " : s i n c e , in It, everything h a s s o m e
m e a n i n g , e v e n a n d cdpeciaily a d e n i a l of m e a n i n g , s u c h a d e n i a l w o u l d
t r i g g e r a n e v e n m o r e frantic I n t e r p r e t i v e a c t i v i t y — It w o u l d h a v e b e e n
r e a d not o n l y a s a m e a n i n g f u l s i g n w i t h i n a g i v e n , w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ,
semiotic space, but as a m u c h stronger meta-semantic Indication that the
v e r y b a s i c r u l e s of t h i s s e m i o t i c s p a c e w e r e c h a n g i n g , t h u s c a u s i n g total
p e r p l e x i t y , p a n i c e v e n ! S o m e S o v i e t l e a d e r s r e t a i n e d a s e n s e of I r o n y a n d
d i s p l a y e d a d a r k s e n s e of h u m o r w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s t o t a l p l a s t i c i t y of
facts; w h e n , in e a r l y 1 9 5 6 , A n a s t a s M i k o y a n flew to B u d a p e s t to Inform
the H u n g a r i a n u l t r a - S t a l i n i s t l e a d e r M a t y a s R a k o s i of M o s c o w ' s d e c i s i o n
to d e p o s e h i m , h e t o l d R a k o s i : " T h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p h a s d e c i d e d y o u a r e
ill. Y o u w i l l n e e d t r e a t m e n t In M o s c o w . " '
It w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g to r e r e a d , from this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m o d e l postW o r l d W a r II S o v i e t t e x t b o o k on d i a l e c t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m , M a r k R o z e n t a l ' s The Marxut
Moscow
In
Dialectical Method, w h o s e
1 9 5 1 . In
later reprints,
appeared
in
long passages w e r e omitted
first e d i t i o n
or
r e w r i t t e n ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e c h a n g e s h a d n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to d o w i t h
t h e a u t h o r ' s f u r t h e r r e f l e c t i o n s on i m m a n e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s —
t h e y a r e a l l to b e r e a d s t r i c t l y in K r e m l l n o l o g l c a l t e r m s , a s s i g n a l s of the
shifts In t h e i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l l i n e . T h e b o o k , of c o u r s e , r e l i e s on
221
S t a l i n ' s " s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n " of t h e
method
four
( t h e u n i t y of a l l p h e n o m e n a ;
"main
f e a t u r e s " of d i a l e c t i c a l
t h e d y n a m i c n a t u r e of r e a l i t y ;
t h e p e r m a n e n t d e v e l o p m e n t of r e a l i t y ; t h e " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " n a t u r e of this
d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h p r o c e e d s through s u d d e n j u m p s , not only through
c o n t i n u o u s g r a d u a l c h a n g e ) , from w h i c h , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e " l a w " of the
" n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n " i s a b s e n t . ( S e e S t a l i n ' s " O n
Dialectical and
H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l i s m . " ) In the s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s of R o z e n t a l ' s book,
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e four " m a i n f e a t u r e s " s u b t l y c h a n g e s : a t s o m e
point, t h e " n e g a t i o n of the n e g a t i o n " i s s i l e n t l y r e a d m i t t e d , a n d so on a n d
so forth. T h e s e c h a n g e s a r e K r e m l i n o l o g i c a l s i g n a l s of t h e shifts in the
i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n , t h e shifts of d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n w h i c h ,
paradoxically, began under
Stalin himself at his instigation
( s e e his
t w o l a t e e s s a y s on l i n g u i s t i c s a n d t h e e c o n o m y , w h i c h p a v e d t h e w a y
for r e c o g n i z i n g t h e r e l a t i v e a u t o n o m y
and independence
from
class
s t r u g g l e o f — s o m e — s c i e n c e s ) . T h e fact t h a t t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a ­
t i o n " is p o s i t e d a s a f u n d a m e n t a l o n t o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e of r e a l i t y , h a s t h u s
n o t h i n g to d o w i t h the c o g n i t i o n of t h e w o r l d a n d e v e r y t h i n g to d o w i t h
shifts in t h e i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n .
Is t h e n K r e m l i n o l o g y n o t a k i n d of o b s c e n e d o u b l e of S o v i e t o l o g y , the
latter studying the Soviet regime objectively, through sociological data,
s t a t i s t i c s , p o w e r shifts, a n d so forth, t h e f o r m e r a s a n o b s c u r e s e m i o t i c
system?
From objective to subjective guill
W h a t k i n d of s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n d o e s s u c h a u n i v e r s e i m p l y ? L e t u s t a k e
as our
starting
point
Brecht's
" l e a r n i n g p l a y " Die Mcusnahme
(The
Measures Taken), in w h i c h a y o u n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y , p a r t of a g r o u p of
C o m m u n i s t a g i t a t o r s s e n t to C h i n a to s t i m u l a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y , i s
killed b y fellow C o m m u n i s t s b e c a u s e t h e y consider him a security risk
( a n d h e d u t i f u l l y a s s e n t s to h i s e x e c u t i o n ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s p l a y i s often
p r e s e n t e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n of t h e S t a l i n i s t s h o w t r i a l s , t h e r e is a c r u c i a l
distinction b e t w e e n the two:
what separated
Brecht's
fictional
a g i t a t o r s from
Stalin's v e r y real
prosecutors like V y s h i n s k y a n d policemen like B e r i a w a s the latters
banal insistence that the defendants
h a d r e a l t y d o n e t h i s or
that
w i c k e d , blood-soaked, conspiratorial deed —rather than pursuing the
i d e a of a p a r a d o x i c a l " o b j e c t i v e " g u i l t t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e a c t u a l facts
222
STALINISM REVISITED
[. . . ] B r e c h t s t a c k s t h e c a r d s in s u c h a w a y t h a t w e t h e a u d i e n c e a r e
b o u n d to e m b r a c e t h e e x e c u t e d h e r o . [ B r e c h t ' s c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t e r
H e r b e r t ] L u t h y a d m i t t e d that no C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r y or organization
h a s e v e r s t a g e d t h e play'*" — " T h e P a r t y itself d o e s not l i k e so m u c h
c a n d o u r . . . " — b u t f a i l e d to n o t i c e t h a t B r e c h t ' s " c a n d o u r " in e x ­
p o s i n g t h e r u t h l e s s n e s s of t h e P a r t y l i n e i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s u b ­
s c r i b i n g to it. T h e t r u e b e l i e v e r s i n v a r i a b l y k e p t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e to
themselves. ' ^
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e a d i n g i s t h a t it falsifies B r e c h t ' s p o s i t i o n in t w o
k e y w a y s : ( 1 ) B r e c h t d o e s not j u s t i f y t h e k i l l i n g of t h e y o u n g c o m r a d e in
t e r m s of " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t , " b u t in t e r m s of p r a g m a t i c e x p e d i e n c y ( t h e
young comrade
compromising
had removed
h i s m a s k a n d r e v e a l e d h i s face,
t h e m a l l ) — h i s k i l l i n g w a s not a p u n i s h m e n t .
thus
(2)
For
B r e c h t , t h e o p e n e x p o s i t i o n of t h e m e c h a n i s m is not i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
s u b s c r i b i n g to i t — t h e g r e a t d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n of t h e p i e c e i s that, w h i l e
fully d i s p l a y i n g t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e
" m e a s u r e t a k e n , " the w a y the
u n f o r t u n a t e y o u n g c o m r a d e ' s life i s r u t h l e s s l y s a c r i f i c e d , h e still c o n d o n e s
it.
T h e t r u e q u e s t i o n i s : w h y c a n t h e l o g i c of " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " not b e
e x p l i c i t l y a s s e r t e d ? W h y d o e s it h a v e to r e m a i n a k i n d of o b s c e n e s e c r e t ,
a d m i t t e d o n l y in a s e m i - p r i v a t e p l a c e ? W h y w o u l d i t s full p u b l i c a s s e r t i o n
b e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e ? W e e n c o u n t e r h e r e t h e m y s t e r y of a p p e a r a n c e a t its
p u r e s t : " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " — t h e fact t h a t " t h e m o r e y o u a r e s u b j e c t i v e l y
i n n o c e n t ( w i t h r e g a r d to f a c t u a l a c c u s a t i o n s ) t h e m o r e y o u a r e ( o b j e c ­
t i v e l y ) g u i l t y " — m u s t not a p p e a r a s s u c h .
T h e q u e s t i o n i s t h u s : w h a t k i n d of e t h i c s e n a b l e s u s to t a l k
about
" o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " ? O b v i o u s l y , a n i m m o r a l e t h i c s . The p h i l o s o p h e r
of
immoral ethics w a s Friedrich Nietzsche, a n d w e should r e m e m b e r that
the title of h i s m a s t e r p i e c e is The Genealogy of MoraU — niorab, n o t e t h i c s :
t h e t w o a r e not t h e s a m e . M o r a l i t y i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e S3nTimetry of m y
r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s ; its z e r o - l e v e l r u l e i s " d o not d o to m e
w h a t y o u d o not w a n t m e to d o to y o u " ; ' ^ e t h i c s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , d e a l s
w i t h m y c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h myself, m y fidelity to m y o w n d e s i r e s . O n t h e
b a c k f l y l e a f of a 1 9 3 9 e d i t i o n of L e n i n ' s Materialism and
Empiriocriticum,
S t a l i n m a d e t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t e in r e d p e n c i l :
1) W e a k n e s s
2) Idleness
3) Stupidity
223
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
T h e s e a r e t h e o n l y t h i n g s t h a n c a n b e c a l l e d v i c e s . E v e r y t h i n g else,
in t h e a b s e n c e of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d ,
NB!
If a m a n i s 1 ) s t r o n g
i s u n d o u b t e d l y virtue.
( s p i r i t u a l l y ) , 2 ) a c t i v e , 3 ) c l e v e r (or
c a p a b l e ) , t h e n h e is g o o d , r e g a r d l e s s of a n y o t h e r " v i c e s " !
1) p l u s 3 ) m a k e 2 ) . ^ °
T h i s is a s c o n c i s e a s e v e r a f o r m u l a t i o n of immoral ethicd; in c o n t r a s t to it, a
w e a k l i n g w h o o b e y s m o r a l r u l e s a n d w o r r i e s a b o u t h i s g u i l t , s t a n d s for
unethical
morality,
t h e t a r g e t of N i e t z s c h e ' s c r i t i q u e of
ressenLiment.
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a l i m i t to S t a l i n i s m : not t h a t it i s too i m m o r a l , but
t h a t it i s s e c r e t l y too nwral, still r e l y i n g on a f i g u r e of t h e b i g O t h e r . A s w e
h a v e s e e n , in w h a t i s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of
Stalinist terror, M e r l e a u - P o n t y ' s
Humanuni
and Terror from
1 9 4 6 , the
t e r r o r i s j u s t i f i e d a s a k i n d of w a g e r on t h e f u t u r e , a l m o s t in t h e m o d e of
t h e t h e o l o g y of P a s c a l w h o e n j o i n s u s to m a k e a b e t o n G o d : i f t h e
final
r e s u l t of t o d a y ' s h o r r o r w i l l b e t h e b r i g h t C o m m u n i s t f u t u r e , t h e n t h i s
o u t c o m e w i l l r e t r o a c t i v e l y r e d e e m the t e r r i b l e t h i n g s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y h a s
to d o t o d a y . A l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , e v e n s o m e S t a l i n i s t s t h e m s e l v e s — w h e n
( h a l f p r i v a t e l y , u s u a l l y ) t h e y w e r e f o r c e d to a d m i t t h a t m a n y of the
v i c t i m s of t h e p u r g e s w e r e i n n o c e n t , a c c u s e d a n d k i l l e d b e c a u s e
p a r t y n e e d e d t h e i r blood to fortify its u n i t y " ^—would look to t h e
"the
future
m o m e n t of final v i c t o r y i n w h i c h a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y v i c t i m s w o u l d a t l a s t be
g i v e n t h e i r d u e a n d t h e i r i n n o c e n c e a n d h i g h e s t s a c r i f i c e for t h e c a u s e
w o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d . T h i s i s w h a t L a c a n , i n h i s Elhico s e m i n a r , r e f e r s to
a s t h e " p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , " a p e r s p e c t i v e e v e n
more
c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in o n e of t h e k e y t e r m s of t h e S t a l i n i s t d i s c o u r s e , t h a t
of t h e " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " a n d " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of y o u r a c t s : w h i l e you
c a n b e a n h o n e s t i n d i v i d u a l w h o a c t e d w i t h the m o s t s i n c e r e i n t e n t i o n s ,
you
a r e n o n e t h e l e s s "objectively g u i l t y , " if y o u r acts serve r e a c t i o n a r y
f o r c e s — a n d it i s , of c o u r s e , t h e p a r t y w h i c h h a s t h e d i r e c t a c c e s s to w h a t
y o u r acts "objectively m e a n . " f i e r e , again, w e not only h a v e the
per­
s p e c t i v e of the L a s t J u d g m e n t ( w h i c h f o r m u l a t e s t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n ­
i n g " of y o u r a c t s ) , b u t a l s o t h e p r e s e n t a g e n t w h o a l r e a d y h a s t h e u n i q u e
a b i l i t y t o j u d g e t o d a y ' s e v e n t s a n d a c t s from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . ' ^ '
W e c a n s e e n o w w h y L a c a n ' s m o t t o " / / n'y a pao de grand Autre" ( t h e r e is
no b i g O t h e r ) b r i n g s u s to t h e v e r y c o r e of t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m a t i c : w h a t it
e x c l u d e s i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s " p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , " t h e i d e a
t h a t s o m e w h e r e — e v e n if o n l y a s a t h o r o u g h l y v i r t u a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e ,
e v e n if w e c o n c e d e t h a t w e c a n n o t e v e r o c c u p y i t s p l a c e a n d p a s s t h e
224
STALINISM REVISITED
a c t u a l j u d g m e n t — t h e r e m u s t b e a s t a n d a r d w h i c h allows u s to t a k e a
m e a s u r e ot o u r a c t s a n d p r o n o u n c e
ethical status. Even
their "true meaning," their true
J a c q u e s D e r r i d a ' s notion
o f "deconstruction
as
j u s t i c e " s e e m s to r e l y on a Utopian h o p e w h i c h s u s t a i n s the s p e c t e r of
"infinite j u s t i c e , " f o r e v e r p o s t p o n e d ,
a l w a y s to c o m e , b u t
nonetheless
h e r e a s t h e u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n of o u r a c t i v i t y .
T h e h a r s h n e s s of L a c a n i a n e t h i c s i s t h a t it d e m a n d s t h a t w e t h o r o u g h l y
r e l i n q u i s h t h i s r e f e r e n c e — a n d its f u r t h e r w a g e r is that, not o n l y d o e s this
a b d i c a t i o n not l e a v e u s in the g r i p of a n e t h i c a l i n s e c u r i t y or r e l a t i v i s m , o r
e v e n u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s of e t h i c a l a c t i v i t y , b u t t h a t r e n o u n ­
c i n g t h e g u a r a n t e e of s o m e b i g O t h e r is t h e v e r y c o n d i t i o n of a t r u l y
a u t o n o m o u s e t h i c s . R e c a l l t h a t t h e d r e a m a b o u t I r m a ' s injection t h a t F r e u d
u s e d a s t h e e x e m p l a r y c a s e to i l l u s t r a t e h i s p r o c e d u r e of a n a l y z i n g d r e a m s
is a d r e a m a b o u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( F r e u d ' s o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e f a i l u r e
of h i s t r e a t m e n t of I r m a ) — t h i s fact a l o n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s a
c r u c i a l F r e u d i a n notion. B u t h o w a r e w e to c o n c e i v e it';" H o w a r e w e to
a v o i d the c o m m o n m l s p e r c e p t l o n t h a t t h e b a s i c e t h i c a l m e s s a g e of p s y c h o ­
a n a l y s i s i s , p r e c i s e l y , t h e o n e of r e l i e v i n g m y s e l f of m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , of
p u t t i n g the b l a m e on t h e O t h e r : " s i n c e t h e u n c o n s c i o u s i s t h e d i s c o u r s e of
t h e O t h e r , I a m not r e s p o n s i b l e for m y u n c o n s c i o u s formations, it is t h e b i g
O t h e r w h o s p e a k s t h r o u g h me, I a m m e r e l y its i n s t r u m e n t " ? L a c a n h i m s e l f
p o i n t e d t h e w a y o u t of t h i s d e a d l o c k b y r e f e r r i n g to K a n t ' s p h i l o s o p h y a s
t h e c r u c i a l a n t e c e d e n t of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e t h i c s .
A c c o r d i n g to t h e
s t a n d a r d c r i t i q u e , the l i m i t a t i o n of t h e
u n i v e r s a l i s t e t h i c of t h e
" c a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e " (the
Kantian
unconditional
i n j u n c t i o n to d o o u r d u t y ) r e s i d e s in its f o r m a l i n d e t e r m i n a c y : t h e m o r a l
L a w d o e s not tell m e what m y d u t y i s , it m e r e l y t e l l s m e that I s h o u l d
a c c o m p l i s h m y d u t y , a n d s o l e a v e s t h e s p a c e o p e n for e m p t y v o l u n t a r i s m
( w h a t e v e r I d e c i d e to b e m y d u t y it m y d u t y ) . H o w e v e r , far from b e i n g a
l i m i t a t i o n , t h i s v e r y f e a t u r e b r i n g s u s to t h e c o r e of K a n t i a n e t h i c a l
a u t o n o m y : it i s not p o s s i b l e to d e r i v e t h e c o n c r e t e n o r m s I h a v e to follow
m m y s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n from t h e m o r a l L a w i t s e l f — w h i c h m e a n s t h a t it i s
t h e s u b j e c t h i m s e l f w h o h a s to a s s u m e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t r a n s l a t i n g
the abstract
injunction
of t h e m o r a l L a w i n t o a s e r i e s of
concrete
o b l i g a t i o n s . T h e full a c c e p t a n c e of this p a r a d o x c o m p e l s u s to r e j e c t
a n y r e f e r e n c e to d u t y a s a n e x c u s e : "I k n o w t h i s is h e a v y a n d c a n b e
painful,
b u t w h a t c a n I do, t h i s i s m y d u t y . . . "
K a n t ' s e t h i c s of
u n c o n d i t i o n a l d u t y i s often t a k e n a s j u s t i f y i n g s u c h a n a t t i t u d e — n o
W o n d e r Adolf E i c h m a n n h i m s e l f r e f e r r e d to K a n t i a n e t h i c s w h e n
he
225
I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
t r i e d to j u s t i f y h i s r o l e in p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i n g t h e H o l o c a u s t : h e w a s
j u s t d o i n g h i s d u t y a n d o b e y i n g t h e F ü h r e r ' s o r d e r s . H o w e v e r , the a i m of
K a n t ' s e m p h a s i s on t h e s u b j e c t ' s full m o r a l a u t o n o m y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s
p r e c i s e l y to p r e v e n t a n y s u c h m a n e u v e r of shifting t h e b l a m e o n t o s o m e
figure
of t h e b i g O t h e r .
S o , let u s r e t u r n to S t a l i n . T h e c o m m o n p l a c e c o n d e m n a t i o n of S t a l i n
comprises t w o propositions: (1) he w a s a cynic w h o k n e w v e r y well how
t h i n g s stood ( t h a t t h e a c c u s e d at t h e s h o w t r i a l s w e r e r e a l l y i n n o c e n t , a n d
so o n ) ; a n d ( 2 ) h e k n e w w h a t h e w a s d o i n g , t h a t i s , h e h a d full control
o v e r t h e e v e n t s . D o c u m e n t s from t h e n e w l y a c c e s s i b l e a r c h i v e s r a t h e r
p o i n t in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n : S t a l i n b a s i c a l l y dià b e l i e v e (in t h e official
i d e o l o g y , in h i s r o l e a s a n h o n e s t l e a d e r , m t h e g u i l t of t h e a c c u s e d , a n d so
o n ) , a n d h e d i d not r e a l l y c o n t r o l t h e e v e n t s ( t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t s of h i s o w n
m e a s u r e s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s often s h o c k e d h i m ) . ^ ^ L a r s T. L i h p r o p o s e d a
d i s t r e s s i n g c o n c l u s i o n : " T h e p e o p l e of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d p r o b a b l y
h a v e b e e n b e t t e r off 11 S t a l i n h a d b e e n m o r e c y n i c a l t h a n h e w a s . "
There
is, h o w e v e r , a different w a y to r e a d S t a l i n ' s "belief": it i s n o t t h a t h e
" p e r s o n a l l y " b e l i e v e d — w a n t e d the big Other to believe. L i h h i m s e l f p o i n t s
in t h i s d i r e c t i o n w h e n h e c o n d o n e s R o b e r t T u c k e r ' s a m a z e m e n t a t
how much
pain a n d suffering w e n t into the m a s s production
of
confessions d u r i n g 1937. These confessions served no earthly purpose;
t h e y w e r e p r o m p t l y filed a w a y a n d forgotten. T u c k e r s p e c u l a t e s t h a t
S t a l i n i n s i s t e d on t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s a s p r o o f to p o s t e r i t y t h a t h i s v i s i o n
of a w o r l d filled w i t h e n e m i e s w a s b a s i c a l l y c o r r e c t .
W h a t if, h o w e v e r , w e t a k e t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e e x t o r t e d
confessions
" s e r v e d no e a r t h l y p u r p o s e " more literally: t h e y w e r e "filed a w a y and
f o r g o t t e n " b y a c t u a l p e o p l e , b e c a u s e t h e i r a d d r e s s e e w a s not t h e s e a c t u a l
people but the virtual "big Other," the same big O t h e r that can only
a c c o u n t for t h e w e l l - k n o w n i n c i d e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e g r e a t S o v i e t en­
c y c l o p e d i a w h i c h o c c u r r e d in 1 9 5 4 , I m m e d i a t e l y after t h e fall of B e r i a .
W h e n S o v i e t s u b s c r i b e r s r e c e i v e d t h e v o l u m e of t h e e n c y c l o p e d i a w h i c h
c o n t a i n e d t h e e n t r i e s u n d e r t h e l e t t e r B , t h e r e w a s , of c o u r s e , a d o u b l e p a g e a r t i c l e on B e r i a , p r a i s i n g h i m a s t h e g r e a t h e r o of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ;
after h i s fall a n d d e n u n c i a t i o n a s a t r a i t o r a n d s p y , a l l s u b s c r i b e r s r e c e i v e d
from t h e p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e a l e t t e r a s k i n g t h e m to c u t o u t a n d r e t u r n the
p a g e on B e r i a ; in e x c h a n g e t h e y w e r e p r o m p t l y s e n t a d o u b l e - p a g e e n t r y
( w i t h p h o t o s ) on t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t , so that, w h e n t h e y i n s e r t e d it i n t o the
226
STALINISM REVISITED
v o l u m e , its w h o l e n e s s w a s r e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e r e w a s n o b l a n k to b e a r
w i t n e s s to t h e s u d d e n r e w r i t i n g of h i s t o r y . . . T h e m y s t e r y h e r e i s : for
whom w a s t h i s ( s e m b l a n c e of) w h o l e n e s s m a i n t a i n e d , if e v e r y s u b s c r i b e r
knew a b o u t t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n ( s i n c e h e h a d to p e r f o r m it himself)!
The
o n l y a n s w e r i s , of c o u r s e , for t h e i n n o c e n t g a z e of t h e b i g O t h e r . T h i s i s
why
the structure
of S t a l i n i s m i s i n h e r e n t l y t h e o l o g i c a l ; t h i s i s w h y
S t a l i n i s m so d e s p e r a t e l y s t r l v e d to m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a p p e a r a n c e s . S u c h a
s o l u t i o n to t h e e n i g m a a l s o a l l o w s u s to r e j e c t t h e d i l e m m a , " W a s S t a l i n a
b e l i e v e r o r a c y n i c ? " a s a false o n e : h e w a s b o t h a t t h e s a m e t i m e .
P e r s o n a l l y , h e , of c o u r s e , w a s often
a w a r e of t h e lie in t h e
official
d i s c o u r s e ; so, p e r s o n a l l y , h e w a s a c y n i c , b u t h e w a s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
q u i t e s i n c e r e in h i s efforts to s a f e g u a r d t h e i n n o c e n c e a n d s i n c e r i t y of t h e
"big Other." The modern
n a m e for t h i s O t h e r w h o i s " s u p p o s e d
b e l i e v e " in o u r s t e a d i s t h e " p e o p l e " — w h e n
to
Golda M e i r w a s asked
w h e t h e r s h e b e l i e v e d in God, s h e s a i d : "I b e l i e v e In t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e ,
a n d t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e b e l i e v e in G o d . " O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y p r e c i s e in
i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t : it d o e s not I m p l y t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e J e w s
b e l i e v e in God ( a s a m a t t e r of fact, t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l is a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t
a t h e i s t i c c o u n t r y in t h e w o r l d , t h e o n l y o n e in w h i c h a c l e a r m a j o r i t y of its
c i t i z e n s d o not b e l i e v e in G o d ) . W h a t it i m p l i e s i s a ceri;ain f e t i s h i z a t i o n of
the " p e o p l e " : e v e n i f — t o g o to t h e e x t r e m e —no i n d i v i d u a l J e w i s h c i t i z e n
of I s r a e l b e l i e v e s , e a c h of t h e m p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " b e l i e v e s ,
a n d t h i s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n i s e n o u g h to m a k e h e r a c t a s if s h e b e l i e v e s . . .
A S t a l i n i s t a c t s n o t on b e h a l f of r e a l i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t on a c c o u n t of t h e
" p e o p l e , " t h i s v i r t u a l b i g O t h e r w h i c h b e l i e v e s e v e n if n o e m p i r i c a l
i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s . In t h i s w a y , h e c a n c o m b i n e h i s i n d i v i d u a l c y n i c i s m
w i t h h i s " o b j e c t i v e " s i n c e r i t y : h e d o e s not h a v e to b e l i e v e i n a C a u s e , h e
o n l y b e l i e v e s in t h e " p e o p l e " s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e . . . T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e
u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s t : the p o s i t i o n of
a pervert. A true Stalinist politician loves mankind, but
nonetheless
p e r f o r m s h o r r i b l e p u r g e s a n d e x e c u t i o n s — h i s h e a r t is b r e a k i n g w h i l e h e
is d o i n g it, b u t h e c a n n o t h e l p it, it i s h i s D u t y t o w a r d s t h e P r o g r e s s of
H u m a n i t y . T h i s i s the p e r v e r s e a t t i t u d e of a d o p t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e
p u r e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e b i g O t h e r ' s W i l l ; it i s not m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , it i s
not m e w h o i s e f f e c t i v e l y d o i n g it, I a m m e r e l y a n I n s t r u m e n t of t h e h i g h e r
H i s t o r i c a l N e c e s s i t y . A s to t h e g e n e s i s of t h i s p e r v e r s e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i ­
tion, it w o u l d b e r e v e a l i n g to e n g a g e in a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of h o w the
B o l s h e v i k m o v e m e n t r e l a t e d to m e d i c i n e , to t h e d o c t o r s w h o t o o k c a r e of
the l e a d e r s . T h r e e d o c u m e n t s are crucial here.
227
IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S
F i r s t , a r e L e n i n ' s l e t t e r s to G o r k y from t h e fall of 1913^'^ in w h i c h ,
d e e p l y d i s t u r b e d b y G o r k y ' s s u p p o r t for t h e h u m a n i s t i d e o l o g y of " G o d b u i l d i n g , " L e n i n i m p l i e s t h a t G o r k y h a s s u c c u m b e d to t h i s d e v i a t i o n
b e c a u s e of h i s b a d n e r v e s , a n d a d v i s e s h i m to g o to S w i t z e r l a n d a n d g e t
t h e b e s t m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t t h e r e . In o n e of t h e l e t t e r s , after m a k i n g it
c l e a r h o w h e is s h o c k e d a t G o r k y ' s i d e a s ^—
D e a r A l e x e i M a x i m o v i t c h , w h a t a r e y o u d o i n g , t h e n ? R e a l l y , it is
t e r r i b l e , s i m p l y t e r r i b l e ! W h y a r e y o u d o i n g t h i s ? It i s t e r r i b l y p a i n f u l .
Yours, V.l.
— Lenin adds a strange postscript:
P.S.
Take care of yourself m o r e s e r i o u s l y , r e a l l y , so t h a t y o u w i l l b e
a b l e to t r a v e l in w i n t e r without catchitig cold (in w i n t e r , it i s d a n g e r ­
ous).
O b v i o u s l y , L e n i n is w o r r i e d that, a p a r t from c a t c h i n g cold, G o r k y w i l l
c a t c h a m u c h m o r e s e r i o u s I d e o l o g i c a l d i s e a s e , a s i s c l e a r from
the
s u b s e q u e n t letter (posted together w i t h the previous o n e ) :
P e r h a p s I d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y o u well'l P e r h a p s yi;?« were joking w h e n y o u
w r o t e "for t h e m o m e n t " ?
Concerning
the "construction
of
God,"
p e r h a p s y o u d i d n ' t w r i t e t h a t s e r i o u s l y ? G o o d h e a v e n s , t a k e c a r e of
y o u r s e l f a little b i t b e t t e r . Y o u r s , Lenin.
W h a t s h o u l d s u r p r i s e u s h e r e Is t h e w a y t h e root of i d e o l o g i c a l d e v i a t i o n
is l o c a t e d in a b o d i l y c o n d i t i o n ( o v e r e x c i t e d n e r v e s ) t h a t n e e d s m e d i c a l
t r e a t m e n t . Is it not a b i t of a s u p r e m e I r o n y that, i n T r o t s k y ' s d r e a m from
1 9 3 5 in w h i c h t h e d e a d L e n i n a p p e a r s t o h i m , h e g i v e s h i m e x a c t l y t h e
H e w a s q u e s t i o n i n g m e a n x i o u s l y a b o u t m y Illness. " Y o u s e e m to h a v e
a c c u m u l a t e d nervous fatigue, y o u must r e s t . . . " I a n s w e r e d that I had
a l w a y s r e c o v e r e d from l a t i g u e q u i c k l y , t h a n k s to m y n a t i v e Schwung­
kraft, b u t t h a t t h i s t i m e t h e t r o u b l e s e e m e d to l i e In s o m e
deeper
p r o c e s s e s . . . " t h e n y o u s h o u l d serioiuily ( h e e m p h a s i z e d t h e w o r d )
c o n s u l t t h e d o c t o r s ( s e v e r a l n a m e s ) . . ."
228
STALINISM REVISITED
S o , to b r i n g t h i s l o g i c to i t s c o n c l u s i o n , o n e i s t e m p t e d to i m a g i n e a s c e n e
b e t w e e n L e n i n a n d S t a l i n in t h e l a s t y e a r of L e n i n ' s life, a f t e r h i s s t r o k e
a n d collapse, w h e n , w i t h his last forces, he ferociously a t t a c k s Stalin, a n d
S t a l i n a n s w e r s h i m p a t r o n i z i n g l y : " G o o d h e a v e n s , c o m r a d e I^enin, y o u
s e e m to h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d n e r v o u s f a t i g u e , y o u m u s t r e s t ! Y o u s h o u l d
consult
the
doctors
received his own
more
seriously!" . . . Here,
m e s s a g e in its i n v e r t e d - t r u e
Lenin
would
form — a n
have
appropriate
p u n i s h m e n t for h i s m i s t a k e .
S e c o n d , t h e r e i s S t a l i n ' s s p e e c h a t L e n i n ' s f u n e r a l ( " O n t h e D e a t h of
L e n i n " ) d e l i v e r e d o n J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1924, w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h :
C o m r a d e s , w e C o m m u n i s t s a r e p e o p l e of a s p e c i a l m o u l d . W e
are
m a d e of a s p e c i a l stuff. W e a r e t h o s e w h o form t h e a r m y of t h e g r e a t
p r o l e t a r i a n s t r a t e g i s t , the a r m y of C o m r a d e L e n i n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g
h i g h e r t h a n t h e h o n o r of b e l o n g i n g to t h i s a r m y . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g
h i g h e r t h a n t h e title of m e m b e r of t h e P a r t y w h o s e f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r
w a s C o m r a d e L e n i n . It i s not g i v e n to e v e r y o n e to b e a m e m b e r of s u c h
a p a r t y . It is not g i v e n to e v e r y o n e to w i t h s t a n d t h e s t r e s s e s a n d s t o r m s
t h a t a c c o m p a n y m e m b e r s h i p in such a p a r t y .
L e n i n ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e b o d y of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y , w h i c h for h i m w a s
m e r e l y a n i d i o s y n c r a s y , is h e r e , a s it w e r e , e l e v a t e d i n t o a c o n c e p t ;
a
B o l s h e v i k " c a d r e " is p e r c e i v e d a s t h e o n e w h o p o s s e s s e s a s p e c i a l b o d y ,
not a b o d y l i k e o t h e r s — w h i c h is w h y s p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n of it
( a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , t h e b o d y d e s e r v e s to b e p r e s e r v e d in a m a u s o l e u m ) .
T h i r d , i s t h e fact t h a t S t a l i n ' s l a s t p a r a n o i d o b s e s s i o n c o n c e r n e d t h e s o c a l l e d " d o c t o r ' s plot"; a l l t h e d o c t o r s w h o w e r e t r e a t i n g h i m a n d t h e t o p
S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p w e r e a r r e s t e d a n d t o r t u r e d to m a k e t h e m c o n f e s s t h a t
t h e y w e r e p a r t of a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
U S — J e w i s h c o n s p i r a c y to kill
the
Soviet l e a d e r s h i p . A g a i n , the continuity w i t h the p r e v i o u s t w o points is
c l e a r : t h e d o c t o r s ' c r i m e w a s not m e r e l y k i l l i n g t h e i r o r d i n a r y
human
p a t i e n t s , b u t k i l l i n g t h e s a c r e d b o d i e s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a d r e s .
S o w h a t i s a " c a d r e , " ? O n e is t e m p t e d to p l a y t h e H e i d e g g e r i a n g a m e
for a b r i e f m o m e n t , d i s c e r n i n g rn " c a d r e " t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k telragonos,
t h i s w o r d a p p e a r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a p o e m b y S i m o n i d e s from t h e
as
fifth
c e n t u r y BC: "It i s a r d u o u s to b e a n a b l e , a t r u l y a b l e m a n : In h a n d s a n d
feet a s w e l l a s in m i n d
square
\tetragoiw,i\,
without
fault
..."
i n t e r m e d i a r y link b e t w e e n this G r e e k notion a n d the C o m m u n i s t
(The
one
IS n o n e o t h e r t h a n K a z i m i r M a l e v i c h ' s " B l a c k S q u a r e o n W h i t e S u r f a c e " :
229
t h e s q u a r e figure a g a i n s t t h e n o n d e s c r i p t b a c k g r o u n d . ) S o , to p u t it in
H e i d e g g e r e s e , t h e e s s e n c e of t h e c a d r e is to p r o v i d e a cadre ( s q u a r e ,
f r a m e ) for t h e e s s e n c e itself.
F a r from b e i n g a m e r e " m e t a p h o r , " t h i s notion of t h e c a d r e ' s s p e c i a l
b o d y is g r o u n d e d in t h e l o g i c of " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " s h a r e d b y L e n i n a n d
S t a l i n : w h i l e o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l s a r e c a u g h t in h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s w h i c h
s u r p a s s t h e m , b l i n d e d to t h e i r true m e a n i n g , so t h a t t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is
" f a l s e , " a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a d r e h a s a c c e s s to t h e true ( " o b j e c t i v e ") m e a n i n g
of e v e n t s , t h a t i s , h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e d i r e c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of
h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y itself. (It is t h i s s p e c i a l position t h a t a l l o w s h i m to
c r i t i c i z e o t h e r s in t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t y l e of " y o u r i n t e n t i o n s m a y b e g o o d
a n d y o u r d e s i r e to h e l p p e o p l e s i n c e r e , but, n o n e t h e l e s s , o b j e c t i v e l y , w h a t
y o u c l a i m m e a n s , m t h i s p r e c i s e m o m e n t of the s t r u g g l e , s u p p o r t for the
r e a c t i o n a r y forces . . . " I n H e g e l e s e , w h a t t h i s position o v e r l o o k s i s h o w
t h i s " o b j e c t i v e " m e a n i n g i s a l r e a d y s u b j e c t i v e l y m e d i a t e d . It i s , for e x ­
a m p l e , w h e n t h e p a r t y d e c i d e s to c h a n g e its p o l i t i c a l l i n e t h a t t h e s a m e
politics c a n r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e its " o b j e c t i v e " m e a n i n g : u p until the H i t l e r S t a l i n p a c t in 1939, f a s c i s m w a s t h e p r i n c i p a l e n e m y , w h i l e if, after t h e
pact, o n e c o n t i n u e d to focus on t h e anti-fascist s t r u g g l e , o n e " o b j e c t i v e l y "
served imperialist reaction.) A n d the cadre's sublime b o d y is the ethereal
s u p p o r t of t h i s d i r e c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the historical a b s o l u t e S u b j e c t .
T h e r e is n o n e t h e l e s s a c r u c i a l r u p t u r e h e r e b e t w e e n L e n i n a n d S t a l i n :
w h i l e L e n i n r e m a i n e d a t t h i s l e v e l , c l a i m i n g a c c e s s to t h e
m e a n i n g " of t h e e v e n t s , S t a l i n t o o k a fateful f u r t h e r
"objective
s t e p a n d re-sub-
jectivbxd t h i s o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g . In t h e S t a l i n i s t u n i v e r s e , t h e r e
are,
paradoxically, ultimately no dupes, everyone k n o w s the "objective mean­
i n g " of t h e i r a c t s , so that, i n s t e a d of i l l u s o r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w e g e t d i r e c t
h y p o c r i s y a n d d e c e i t : t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of y o u r a c t s i s w h a t y o u
really wanted, a n d y o u r g o o d i n t e n t i o n s a r e m e r e l y a h y p o c r i t i c a l m a s k .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l l of L e n i n c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h i s s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of
p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s to " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " : t h e r e i s a n o t h e r , m u c h
more
" o p e n , " s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n a t w o r k i n L e n i n ' s w r i t i n g s , t h e p o s i t i o n of
total e x p o s u r e to h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y . F r o m this p o s i t i o n , t h e r e i s no
" t r u e " p a r t y l i n e w a i t i n g to b e d i s c o v e r e d , no " o b j e c t i v e " c r i t e r i a to
d e t e r m i n e it: t h e p a r t y " m a k e s all p o s s i b l e m i s t a k e s , " a n d t h e " t r u e " p a r t y
l i n e e m e r g e s out of t h e z i g z a g of o s c i l l a t i o n s , t h a t i s , " n e c e s s i t y " is
constituted
in p r a x i s , it e m e r g e s t h r o u g h t h e m u t u a l
interaction
of
subjective decisions.
H i s t o r i a n s w h o t i y to d e m o n s t r a t e
230
the continuity between
Lenin's
STALINISM REVISITED
p o l i t i c s a n d S t a l i n i s m l i k e to focus on t h e f i g u r e of F e l i x D z e r z h i n s k y , t h e
f o u n d e r of t h e C h e k a ( l a t e r the G P U , N K V D , K G B . . . ) , t h e B o l s h e v i k
s e c r e t p o l i c e : a s a r u l e , h e Is p o r t r a y e d a s w h a t D e l e u z e w o u l d h a v e c a l l e d
t h e " d a r k p r e c u r s o r " of S t a l i n i s m , in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of t h e t e r m as
defined b y Ian B u c h a n a n : " D a r k p r e c u r s o r s a r e those m o m e n t s in a text
w h i c h m u s t b e r e a d in r e v e r s e if w e a r e not to m i s t a k e effects
for
c a u s e s . " ^ ^ In t h e c o n t e x t of t h e p r e - S t a l i n i s t d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n in t h e first d e c a d e after t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , D z e r z h i n s k y h a s
to b e " r e a d in r e v e r s e , " a s a v o y a g e r w h o t r a v e l e d b a c k in t i m e from t h e
S t a l i n i s t future a d e c a d e a h e a d . S u c h a r e a d i n g often a c q u i r e s p r o p e r l y
f a n t a s m a t i c d i m e n s i o n s , a s in t h o s e h i s t o r i a n s w h o e m p h a s i z e
Dzerz­
h i n s k y s c o l d b l a n k g a z e , a l l e g e d l y a b o d i l y e x p r e s s i o n of h i s r u t h l e s s
m i n d , d e p r i v e d of a l l h u m a n w a r m t h a n d c o m p a s s i o n . N o w o n d e r , t h e n ,
that the W e s t received w i t h chilled surprised the n e w s that the Putin
g o v e r n m e n t in R u s s i a d e c i d e d to r e t u r n t h e D z e r z h i n s k y s t a t u e to t h e
s q u a r e in front of t h e i n f a m o u s L u b y a n k a p a l a c e , t h e s e a t of t h e d r e a d e d
K G B . . . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s o m e s u r p r i s e s in s t o r e for t h o s e w h o c l i n g
to t h i s r e c e i v e d i m a g e . L e s l e y C h a m b e r l a i n ' s The Philosophy
Steamer—a
b o o k a b o u t t h e e x p u l s i o n from t h e S o v i e t U n i o n In 1 9 2 1 of t h e g r o u p of
most e x p o s e d n o n - M a r x i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a w o r k w h i c h i n s i s t s p r e c i s e l y on
the
straight path
(if not
direct
continuity) between
Leninism
and
S t a l i n i s m — h a s a n A p p e n d i x of s h o r t b i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e s on a l l t h e
p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d . H e r e i s t h e e n t r y on D z e r z h i n s k y :
FELTKS DZERZHINSKY ( 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 2 6 ) P o l i s h - b o r n h e a d of t h e C h e k a ,
l a t e r t h e G P U , o v e r s a w t h e e x p u l s i o n s . D z e r z h i n s k y s p e n t a q u a r t e r of
his life — e l e v e n y e a r s —In t s a r i s t p r i s o n s a n d S i b e r i a n e x i l e , i n c l u d i n g
t h r e e y e a r s of h a r d l a b o r . " H i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h , a n d c h a m p i o n s h i p
of, t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a n d t h e o p p r e s s e d " (Leggett'^*') w a s u n q u e s ­
tionable. D z e r z h i n s k y remains an enigmatic figure.
T h e r e a r e m a n y f u r t h e r d e t a i l s w h i c h t h r o w a n u n e x p e c t e d l i g h t on t h i s
e m b l e m a t i c f i g u r e ; h o w e v e r , t h e p o i n t i s not p r i m a r i l y to e m p h a s i z e h o w
m u c h "softer," " m o r e h u m a n , " t h e e a r l y B o l s h e v i k s w e r e . O n e s h o u l d i n
no w a y c o v e r u p t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e i r r u l e — t h e p o i n t i s e l s e w h e r e :
p r e c i s e l y w h e n t h e y r e s o r t e d to t e r r o r ( a n d t h e y often d i d it, o p e n l y ,
c a l l i n g t h e b e a s t b y its n a m e , " R e d T e r r o r " ) , t h i s t e r r o r w a s different
from t h e S t a l i n i s t k i n d . O f c o u r s e , m a n y a h i s t o r i a n , w h i l e r e a d y to
Concede t h i s point, w o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t t h a t t h e r e w a s a d e e p e r
231
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
n e c e s s i t y w h i c h l e d from t h e first to t h e s e c o n d : is t h e shift of r u t h l e s s
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p u r i t y i n t o c o r r u p t e d t e r r o r not a c o m m o n p l a c e of the
h i s t o r i e s of r e v o l u t i o n s ? N o d o u b t t h e e a r l y B o l s h e v i k s w o u l d h a v e b e e n
s h o c k e d at w h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t u r n e d i n t o in t h e 1 9 3 0 s ( a s m a n y of
t h e m w e r e , a n d w e r e a l s o r u t h l e s s l y e x t e r m i n a t e d in t h e g r e a t p u r g e s ) ;
h o w e v e r , t h e i r t r a g e d y w a s t h a t t h e y w e r e not a b l e to p e r c e i v e in t h e
S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r t h e u l t i m a t e offspring of t h e i r o w n a c t s . W h a t t h e y n e e d e d
w a s t h e i r o w n v e r s i o n of t h e old O r i e n t a l i n s i g h t " t a t v a m a s i " ( " t h o u a r t
t h a t " ) . . . T h i s a c c e p t e d w i s d o m ^ — w h i c h , l e t m e s t a t e c l e a r l y , c a n n o t be
d i s m i s s e d a s c h e a p a n t i - C o m m u n i s m : it h a s its o w n c o h e r e n t l o g i c , a n d it
does a c k n o w l e d g e a tragic g r a n d e u r in the Bolshevik old g u a r d — i s w h a t
one
should
nonetheless
p r o p o s e its o w n
render
problematic.
a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e n o w
Here,
the
Left
should
fashionable rightist what-if
h i s t o r i e s : t h e a n s w e r to t h e e t e r n a l leftist q u e r y " W h a t w o u l d
have
h a p p e n e d if L e n i n h a d s u r v i v e d ten y e a r s l o n g e r w i t h h i s h e a l t h intact,
a n d s u c c e e d e d in d e p o s i n g S t a l i n ? " i s not a s c l e a r a s it m a y a p p e a r (the
l i b e r a l w o u l d a n s w e r : b a s i c a l l y , nothing—that
is to s a y , n o t h i n g r e a l l y
different: t h e s a m e S t a l i n i s m , j u s t d e p r i v e d of its w o r s t e x c e s s e s ) , in spite
of m a n y g o o d a r g u m e n t s on its b e h a l f ( d i d R o s a L u x e m b u r g h e r s e l f not
a l r e a d y b a c k in 1 9 1 8 foretell t h e r i s e of b u r e a u c r a t i c S t a l i n i s m ? ) .
S o , a l t h o u g h it i s c l e a r h o w S t a l i n i s m e m e r g e d from t h e i n i t i a l c o n ­
d i t i o n s of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n a n d its i m m e d i a t e a f t e r m a t h ,
one
s h o u l d not a priori d i s c o u n t t h e possibility that, h a d L e n i n s t a y e d h e a l t h y
for a c o u p l e of y e a r s a n d r e m o v e d S t a l i n , s o m e t h i n g e n t i r e l y different
w o u l d h a v e e m e r g e d —not, of c o u r s e , t h e Utopia of " d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l ­
ism,"
b u t n o n e t h e l e s s s o m e t h i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from S t a l i n i s t
" s o c i a l i s m in o n e c o u n t r y , " t h e r e s u l t of a m u c h m o r e " p r a g m a t i c " a n d
i m p r o v i s e d s e r i e s of p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n s , f u l l y a w a r e of its
own
l i m i t a t i o n s . I>enin's d e s p e r a t e l a s t s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t r e a w a k e n e d
R u s s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m , h i s s u p p o r t for G e o r g i a n " n a t i o n a l i s t s , " h i s v i s i o n
of a m u c h m o r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d f e d e r a t i o n , a n d so forth, w e r e not j u s t
t a c t i c a l c o m p r o m i s e s : t h e y i m p l i e d a v i s i o n of s t a t e a n d s o c i e t y t o t a l l y
incompatible w i t h t h e S t a l i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e .
T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of T r o t s k y . A l t h o u g h T r o t s k y i s m often
f u n c t i o n s a s a k i n d of p o l i t i c o - t h e o r e t i c a l o b s t a c l e , p r e v e n t i n g t h e r a d i c a l
self-critical a n a l y s i s n e e d e d b y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
Left, t h e
figure
of
T r o t s k y n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n s c r u c i a l i n a s m u c h a s it s t a n d s for a n e l e m e n t
w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e " e i t h e r ( s o c i a l - ) d e m o c r a t l c s o c i a l i s m or
S t a l i n i s t t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " : w h a t w e find in T r o t s k y , in h i s w r i t i n g s a n d h i s
2Î2
STALINISM REVISITED
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e in the e a r l y y e a r s of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , is r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y t e r r o r , p a r t y r u l e , a n d so forth, b u t in a different mode from t h a t of
S t a H n i s m . O n e s h o u l d t h u s , in o r d e r to r e m a i n faithful to T r o t s k y ' s r e a l
a c h i e v e m e n t s , d i s p e l t h e p o p u l a r m y t h s of a w a r m d e m o c r a t i c
Trotsky
w h o favored p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , m i x e d w i t h surrealist artists a n d had an
affair w i t h F r i d a K a h l o . A n d , a g a i n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n " e v e n if T r o t s k y h a d
w o n , t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t w o u l d h a v e b e e n b a s i c a l l y t h e s a m e " (or, e v e n
m o r e , t h e c l a i m t h a t T r o t s k y i s a t t h e o r i g i n of S t a H n i s m , n a m e l y , that,
from
the late
1920s onwards,
Stalin merely applied and
developed
m e a s u r e s first e n v i s a g e d b y T r o t s k y in t h e y e a r s of " w a r c o m m u n i s m " ^ ^ )
i s w r o n g : h i s t o r y i s o p e n , o n e c a n n o t tell w h a t w o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d if
T r o t s k y h a d w o n . T h e p r o b l e m l i e s e l s e w h e r e : in t h e fact t h a t T r o t s k y ' s
a t t i t u d e m a d e it inipoddible for hid orientatwn to win in t h e s t r u g g l e for s t a t e
power.
T h e shift from t h e L e n i n i s m of t h e 1 9 2 0 s to t h e S t a l i n i s m p r o p e r of t h e
1 9 3 0 s is d i s c e r n i b l e e v e n a t t h e level of h u m o r
debates.A
certain
kind
of h u m o r
in t h e i n n e r
w a s always part
debates—^ L e n i n h i m s e l f s a i d at t h e E l e v e n t h
of
party
Bolshevik
Party Congress m
that " a j o k e is a v e r y good thing: w e cannot m a k e speeches
1922
without
c r a c k i n g a j o k e h e r e a n d there."^'^ T h i s h u m o r w a s s o m e t i m e s
rough,
s a r c a s t i c , l a c e d w i t h g l a c i a l i r o n y , b u t still p a r t of a d i a l o g u e of p a r t y
c o m r a d e s ^—to q u o t e H a m l e t on t h e w a y to h i s m o t h e r in A c t 111 of t h e
p l a y : "I w i l l s p e a k d a g g e r s to her, b u t u s e n o n e . " F u r t h e r m o r e ,
humor
a n d s a r c a s m in p o l e m i c a l e x c h a n g e s w e r e s t r i c t l y s y m m e t r i c a l — s a y ,
during the debate
between
the
Leninist majority and
the
Workers'
O p p o s i t i o n in 1 9 2 1 , b o t h s i d e s not o n l y r e s o r t e d to s a r c a s t i c a n d i r o n i c
r e m a r k s , b u t a l s o r e p l i e d i n t h e s a m e w a y to t h e i r o p p o n e n t s ' r e m a r k s , b y
t u r n i n g t h e m a r o u n d , e x t r a p o l a t i n g t h e m to t h e p o i n t of r i d i c u l e , a n d so
on. In t h e 1 9 3 0 s , h o w e v e r , a m u c h m o r e c r u e l f o r m of s a r c a s m p r e ­
dominated,
which
the
Soviet press
Itself c a l l e d " v i c t o r s '
m a k i n g fun of a n d l a u g h i n g a t t h e r i d i c u l o u s e x c u s e s of t h e
laughter":
impotent
a n d h u m i l i a t e d v i c t i m s w h o t r i e d to c o n v i n c e o t h e r s of t h e i r h o n e s t y .
Examples a b o u n d — V y s h i n s k y , the public prosecutor,
s h o u t e d at K a -
m e n e v a n d Zinoviev d u r i n g the famous s h o w trial: " D r o p this clownish
farce! " W h e n Smirnov, a defendant at the same trial, denied that he w a s a
t e r r o r i s t , h e w a s told: " T h e p a t h e t i c a t t e m p t
to w r i g g l e free i s q u i t e
comical." Along the same lines, the Kafkaesque
q u a l i t y of t h e e e r i e
l a u g h t e r t h a t e r u p t e d a m o n g s t the p u b l i c d u r i n g B u k h a r i n ' s l a s t s p e e c h
m front of t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e on F e b r u a r y 2 3 , 1 9 3 7 h i n g e s on t h e
233
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
radical discord b e t w e e n the speaker's utter seriousness (he is talking
a b o u t h i s p o s s i b l e s u i c i d e , a n d w h y h e w o u l d n o t convmit it, s i n c e it c o u l d
h u r t t h e p a r t y , b u t w o u l d r a t h e r g o on w i t h t h e h u n g e r s t r i k e till his
d e a t h ) a n d t h e r e a c t i o n oF t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s :
BUKHARIN: I w o n ' t s h o o t m y s e l f b e c a u s e t h e n p e o p l e w i l l s a y t h a t I
k i l l e d m y s e l f so a s to h a r m t h e p a r t y . B u t if 1 d i e , a s it w e r e , from a n
i l l n e s s , t h e n w h a t w i l l y o u lose b y i t ? ( L a u g h t e r . )
VOICES: B l a c k m a i l e r !
VOROSHILOV: Y o u s c o u n d r e l ! K e e p y o u r t r a p s h u t ! H o w v i l e ! H o w
dare y o u speak like that!
BUKHARIN: B u t y o u m u s t u n d e r s t a n d — i t ' s v e r y h a r d for m e to g o on
living.
STALIN: A n d it's e a s y for u s ? !
VOROSHILOV: D i d y o u h e a r t h a t : "I w o n ' t s h o o t myself, b u t I w i l l
die"?!
BUKHARIN: It's e a s y for y o u t o t a l k a b o u t m e . W h a t w i l l y o u l o s e , after
a l l ? L o o k , if I a m a s a b o t e u r , a son of a b i t c h , t h e n w h y s p a r e m e ? 1
m a k e n o c l a i m s to a n y t h i n g . I a m j u s t d e s c r i b i n g w h a t ' s on m y m i n d ,
w h a t I a m g o i n g t h r o u g h . If t h i s in a n y w a y e n t a i l s a n y p o l i t i c a l
d a m a g e , h o w e v e r m i n u t e , t h e n , n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t it, I'll d o w h a t ­
e v e r y o u say. ( L a u g h t e r . ) W h y are y o u l a u g h i n g ? T h e r e is abso­
l u t e l y n o t h i n g f u n n y a b o u t a n y of t h i s . . . '
T h e s a m e u n c a n n y l a u g h t e r a l s o a p p e a r e d in o t h e r p l a c e s :
BUKHARIN: W h a t e v e r t h e y a r e t e s t i f y i n g a g a i n s t m e is not
true.
( L a u g h t e r , n o i s e i n t h e r o o m . ) W h y a r e y o u l a u g h i n g ? T h e r e is
n o t h i n g f u n n y in a l l this.^^
D o w e not h a v e h e r e , e n a c t e d i n r e a l life, t h e u n c a n n y l o g i c of J o s e f K's
first
i n t e r r o g a t i o n in The TrUill
" W e l l , then," said the E x a m i n i n g M a g i s t r a t e , t u r n i n g over the l e a v e s
a n d a d d r e s s i n g K. w i t h a n a i r of a u t h o r i t y , " y o u a r e a h o u s e - p a i n t e r ? "
" N o , " s a i d K., "I'm the j u n i o r m a n a g e r of a l a r g e B a n k . " T h i s a n s w e r
e v o k e d s u c h a h e a r t y o u t b u r s t of l a u g h t e r from t h e R i g h t p a r t y t h a t K.
h a d to l a u g h too. P e o p l e d o u b l e d u p w i t h t h e i r h a n d s o n t h e i r k n e e s
a n d s h o o k a s if in s p a s m s of coughing.'''^
234
STALINISM REVISITED
In s u c h a u n i v e r s e , of c o u r s e , t h e r e is no p l a c e for e v e n t h e m o s t formal
a n d e m p t y r i g h t of s u b j e c t i v i t y , on w h i c h B u k h a r i n c o n t i n u e s to insist:
BUKHARIN: [ . . . ] !
c o n f e s s e d t h a t from
1 9 3 0 to 1 9 3 2 1 c o m m i t t e d
m a n y p o l i t i c a l s i n s . I h a v e c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s . B u t w i t h t h e
same forcefulness w i t h w h i c h I confess m y real guilt, w i t h that same
forcefulness I d e n y the guilt w h i c h is thrust u p o n me, a n d I shall
d e n y it f o r e v e r . A n d not b e c a u s e it h a s o n l y p e r s o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b u t b e c a u s e 1 b e l i e v e t h a t no o n e s h o u l d u n d e r a n y c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t a k e u p o n himself a n y t h i n g superfluous, especially w h e n the p a r t y
d o e s n ' t n e e d it, w h e n t h e c o u n t r y d o e s n ' t n e e d it, w h e n 1 d o n ' t n e e d
it. ( N o i s e in t h e r o o m , l a u g h t e r . ) [. . . ]
T h e w h o l e t r a g e d y of m y s i t u a t i o n l i e s in t h i s , t h a t t h i s P i a t a k o v
a n d o t h e r s l i k e h i m so p o i s o n e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e , s u c h a n a t m o s p h e r e
a r o s e t h a t n o o n e b e l i e v e s h u m a n f e e l i n g s —not e m o t i o n s , not t h e
i m p u l s e s of t h e h e a r t , not t e a r s . ( L a u g h t e r . ) M a n y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of
h u m a n feeling, w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r r e p r e s e n t e d a form of
proof—and
t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g s h a m e f u l in t h i s — h a v e t o d a y lost t h e i r v a l i d i t y
a n d force.
KAGANOVICH: Y o u p r a c t i c e d too m u c h d u p l i c i t y !
BUKHARIN: C o m r a d e s , let m e s a y t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g
what
happened —
KHLOPLIANKIN: It's t i m e to t h r o w y o u in p r i s o n !
BUKHARIN: W h a t ?
KHLOPLIANKIN: Y o u s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t h r o w n In p r i s o n a l o n g t i m e
ago!
BUKHARIN: W e l l , g o on, t h r o w m e in p r i s o n . S o y o u t h i n k t h e fact t h a t
y o u a r e y e l l i n g : " T h r o w h i m in p r i s o n ! " w i l l m a k e m e t a l k differ­
e n t l y ? N o , it won't.^^
It i s e a s y to s e e h o w t h i s shift in h u m o r d e p e n d s on t h e p a s s a g e from t h e
L e n i n i s t n o t i o n of t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of o n e ' s a c t s to i t s S t a l i n i s t
r e s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n : s i n c e , in t h e S t a l i n i s t u n i v e r s e , t h e r e a r e u l t i m a t e l y n o
dupes,
and
everyone
knows
the
"objective
meaning"
of t h e i r
acts,
d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e official p a r t y l i n e c a n o n l y b e t h e r e s u l t of d i r e c t
h y p o c r i s y a n d d e c e i t . W h a t is m o r e s u r p r i s i n g i s t h e r e a d i n e s s of W e s t e r n
C o m m u n i s t o b s e r v e r s to p e r c e i v e t h i s h y p o c r i s y a s a t r u e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
fact a b o u t the a c c u s e d . In a l e t t e r to B e n j a m i n from 1938, A d o r n o r e p o r t s
a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e h a d w i t h H a n n s E i s l e r in N e w Y o r k :
235
IIN L J t h b N b t O F LOST C A U S E S
I l i s t e n e d w i t h not a little p a t i e n c e to h i s feeble d e f e n s e of t h e M o s c o w
t r i a l s , a n d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s g u s t to the j o k e h e c r a c k e d a b o u t the
m u r d e r of B u k h a r i n . f i e c l a i m s to h a v e k n o w n t h e l a t t e r in M o s c o w ,
t e l l i n g m e t h a t B u k h a r i n ' s c o n s c i e n c e w a s a l r e a d y so b a d t h a t h e c o u l d
not e v e n l o o k h i m , Eisler, h o n e s t l y in t h e e y e s . '
E i s l e r ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l i n d n e s s is s t a g g e r i n g h e r e : h e m i s r e a d s B u k h a r in's terror, fearing contact w i t h foreigners, k n o w i n g that he is under
o b s e r v a t i o n a n d c l o s e to a r r e s t , a s a n i n n e r feeling of g u i l t .
Shostakovich ui C a s a b l a n c a
A l t h o u g h , of c o u r s e , t h e p e r v e r s e p o s i t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e bigO t h e r w a s r e s e r v e d for t h e m e m b e r s of t h e nomenklatura, o r d i n a r y S o v i e t
c i t i z e n s w e r e not r e d u c e d to t h e s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e of b e l i e v e r s o r nonb e l i e v e r s ; t h e split t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n t s u b j e c t i v e p o s i ­
tion w a s of a different n a t u r e . R e c a l l t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e t r u e m e s s a g e of
S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s w o r k t h a t r a g e d in m u s i c o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s u n t i l r e c e n t l y :
w h e r e did the
composer
truly stand
with
r e g a r d to h i s
(obviously
t o r t u r e d ) r e l a t i o n s h i p to C o m m u n i s m ? T h e t w o o p p o s e d p o s i t i o n s a r e
that, in s p i t e of a l l h i s ( o b v i o u s ) d o u b t s a n d o s c i l l a t i o n s , S h o s t a k o v i c h
w a s a faithful S o v i e t c o m p o s e r , o r t h a t i n fact S h o s t a k o v i c h w a s a closet
d i s s i d e n t w h o s e m u s i c p r e s e n t s " d i s g u i s e d o r c o d e d c h a l l e n g e s to the
v e r y p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m h e p r e t e n d e d to e n d o r s e . " In t h e s e c o n d c a s e , w e g e t
c a u g h t in t h e
interpreted
interpretive
madness
in w h i c h
e v e r y feature
a s a s i g n of its o p p o s i t e : " c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e
can
be
'triumphant'
e n d i n g of t h e L e n i n g r a d S y m p h o n y w a s b a n a l a n d y o u m i g h t g e t t h e
r e s p o n s e , ' A h , b u t i t ' s meant to b e b a n a l ! ' T h e m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d w a s
w h a t mattered."'*'' It i s t h u s o n l y a t h i n l i n e of r e f l e x i v i t y t h a t s e p a r a t e s
t h e t w o r e a d i n g s : i l b a n a l i t y i s s e l f - d e c l a r a t o r y , i f it i s m e a n t a s s u c h , t h e n
it c a n c e l s i t s e l f a n d r e v e r t s i n t o i r o n y . . . W h e r e , t h e n , d o e s t h e t r u t h
r e s i d e ? W h a t I p r o p o s e is a f i e g e l i a n " s y n t h e s i s " of t h e s e o p p o s e d v i e w s ,
a l b e i t a s y n t h e s i s w i t h a n u n e x p e c t e d t w i s t : w h a t if w h a t m a k e s S h o s ­
t a k o v i c h ' s m u s i c " S t a l i n i s t , " p a r t of t h e S o v i e t u n i v e r s e . Is hii very diitance
towards Ltl W h a t if a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e official i d e o l o g i c a l u n i v e r s e , far
from u n d e r m i n i n g it, w a s a key coiutituent of its functioning!
spontaneously
Shostakovich's
intimate attitude t o w a r d s politics is p r o b a b l y best ex­
p r e s s e d in h i s r e m a r k to a friend: " D o y o u n o t t h i n k t h a t history' i s r e a l l y a
w h o r e ? " ' T h i s g e n e r a l i z e d d i s t r u s t of a l l p o l i t i c s ( w h i c h a l s o g r o u n d s h i s
236
STALINISM REVISITED
distance towards dissidents such as Solzhenltsyn) made his survival
m u c h e a s i e r / ^ T h i s c r u c i a l i n s i g h t c o m p e l s u s to g i v e a s p e c i f i c t w i s t
to t h e s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t for S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s " d i s s i d e n c e " :
e v e n t h e m o s t " o f f i c i a l " w r i t e r s [. . . ] w e r e , m o r e often
t h a n not,
p r i v a t e l y s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e a n d k n o w n to b e w i t h i n t h e
d i s s i d e n t c u l t u r e . It i s , i n d e e d , r a r e t o find R u s s i a n w r i t e r s
S o v i e t r u l e , h o w e v e r officially s a n c t i o n e d o r o s t e n s i b l y
under
conformist,
w h o d i d not, a t o n e t i m e or o t h e r , v o i c e a c r i t i c a l o u t l o o k o n " S o v i e t
r e a l i t y " . [. . . ] [ S h o s t a k o v i c h ] w a s a l s o [. . . ] u n i q u e l y a c t i v e i n for­
w a r d i n g d i s s i d e n t v a l u e s in h i s w o r k
(an enterprise
substantially
p r o t e c t e d b y t h e d e n i a b i l l t y i n h e r e n t in n o n - v e r b a l d i s s i d e n c e ) . B u t
h e w a s i n n o s e n s e a l o n e in p r i v a t e l y m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s s e n t i n g o u t l o o k
on S o v i e t life w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e n e c e s s a r i l y g i v i n g a c o n t r a r y
p u b l i c i m p r e s s i o n of conformism.^^
So w h y did Stalin not liquidate Shostakovich (and m a n y other leading
figures
from A k h m a t o v a to P a s t e r n a k w h o s e v i e w s w e r e " t r a n s p a r e n t l y "
d i s s i d e n t ) ? "In t h e c a s e of p o e t s , S t a l i n ' s s u p e r s t i t i o n
p l a y e d a p a r t , b u t t h e m a i n a n s w e r is t h a t m a j o r
' l i q u i d a t e d ' w i t h o u t c a u s i n g foreign u p r o a r . .
s e e m s to h a v e
figures
could not be
—it l o o k s r e a l l y b a d for
a l i n e of r e a s o n i n g w h i c h h a s g o so far a s to e v o k e S t a l i n ' s s u p e r s t i t i o n . . .
Is it n o t m u c h e a s i e r a n d m o r e l o g i c a l to a d m i t t h a t the gap between "public"
allegiance to the regime and "private" diséideiwe was part of the very Identity of the
Stalinist dubjectl If t h e r e i s a l e s s o n to b e l e a r n e d from t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of
S t a l i n i s t i d e o l o g y , it i s t h a t ( p u b l i c ) appearances matter, w h i c h i s w h y o n e
s h o u l d r e s e r v e t h e c a t e g o r y " d i s s i d e n c e " exclusively for t h e p u b l i c d i s ­
c o u r s e : " d i s s i d e n t s " w e r e only t h o s e w h o d i s t u r b e d t h e s m o o t h function­
i n g of t h e p u b l i c
discourse,
announcing
p u b l i c l y —in
one w a y or
another—what, privately, everybody already knew.
W a s , h o w e v e r , s u c h a s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n t h e o n l y o n e p o s s i b l e (if o n e
w a n t e d to s u r v i v e , of c o u r s e . . . ) ? T h e fate of S e r g e i P r o k o f i e v , t h e o t h e r
g r e a t n a m e of S o v i e t m u s i c , s h o w s a r a d i c a l l y different
p a t h . In h i s
(disputed) memoirs, Dmitri Shostakovich dismissed Sergei
Prokofiev,
his g r e a t c o m p e t i t o r ,
seriously,
a s r e f u s i n g to t a k e h i s t o r i c a l h o r r o r s
a l w a y s p l a y i n g t h e " w i s e g u y . " H o w e v e r , to n a m e j u s t o n e s u p r e m e
example, Prokofiev's First Violin S o n a t a ( O p u s 8 0 ) clearly demonstrates
t h e o b v e r s e of P r o k o f i e v ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s " i r o n y " :
237
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
T h r o u g h o u t its four m o v e m e n t s [. . . ] o n e s e n s e s a p o w e r f u l u n d e r t o w
of s t r u g g l e . Y e t it i s n o t t h e s t r u g g l e of a w o r k a g a i n s t s o m e t h i n g
o u t s i d e itself, b u t r a t h e r t h e s t r u g g l e of s o m e t h i n g w i t h i n t h e w o r k ,
u n m a n i f e s t e d , t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y to b r e a k out, a n d c o n s t a n t l y f i n d i n g
its e m e r g e n c e " b l o c k e d " b y t h e e x i s t i n g , o u t w a r d form a n d l a n g u a g e of
t h e p i e c e . T h i s b l o c k i n g of " s o m e t h i n g w i t h i n " [. . . ] h a s to d o w i t h the
frustration
of a d e s i r e for c a t h a r t i c r e l e a s e i n t o s o m e
p o s i t i v e s t a t e of b e i n g , w h e r e m e a n i n g — m u s i c a l a n d
c a l — is t r a n s p a r e n t ,
supremely
supra-musi­
u n - i r o n i z a b l e : in s h o r t , a d o m a i n of s p i r i t u a l
purity.
It is h e r e t h a t P r o k o f i e v p a y s t h e p r i c e for h i s i r o n i c s t a n c e , a n d it is such
p a s s a g e s t h a t b e a r w i t n e s s to h i s a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y : far from s i g n a l i n g a n y
k i n d of v a i n i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y , t h i s i r o n i c s t a n c e i s j u s t t h e falsely
b r i g h t o b v e r s e of t h e failure of Prokofiev's constant struggle to bring the "Thing
from Inner Space" (the "something within") out. T h e s u p e r f i c i a l " p l a y f u l n e s s "
of s o m e of P r o k o f i e v ' s w o r k s ( s u c h a s h i s p o p u l a r F i r s t S y m p h o n y )
m e r e l y s i g n a l s , in a n e g a t i v e w a y , t h e fact t h a t P r o k o f i e v i s t h e u l t i m a t e
a n t i - M o z a r t , a k i n d of B e e t h o v e n w h o s e " t i t a n i c s t r u g g l e " e n d e d in
d i s a s t e r : if M o z a r t w a s the s u p r e m e m u s i c a l g e n i u s , p e r h a p s t h e last
composer w i t h w h o m the musical T h i n g transposed itself into musical
n o t e s in a s p o n t a n e o u s flow, a n d if in B e e t h o v e n , a p i e c e o n l y a c h i e v e d its
d e f i n i t i v e form after a l o n g h e r o i c s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e m u s i c a l m a t e r i a l ,
P r o k o f i e v ' s g r e a t e s t p i e c e s a r e m o n u m e n t s to t h e d e f e a t of this s t r u g g l e .
S h o s t a k o v i c h n e v e r r e a c h e d t h e level of s u c h a n i m m a n e n t f a i l u r e . H i s
p i e c e w h i c h c a n b e c o m p a r e d to P r o k o f i e v ' s First V i o l i n S o n a t a in its
exceptional
s u b j e c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n t e n s i t y is, of c o u r s e , h i s
String
Q u a r t e t N o . 8, a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p i e c e s is s t r i k i n g .
Whatever
subjective anguish
is detectable
beneath
the
quartet.
Its
musical expression flows u n h i n d e r e d , p o u r i n g out a n d g e n e r a t i n g an
e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t ; S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s life a n d s u b j e c t i v e
experience m a y h a v e been thwarted, m a r k e d by depressions and terrible
a n d d e b a s i n g c o m p r o m i s e s , b u t t h i s b l o c k a d e d o e s n o t affect h i s m u s i c a l
e x p r e s s i o n . In P r o k o f i e v ' s v i o l i n s o n a t a , on t h e c o n t r a r y , w e a r e d e a l i n g
w i t h a m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l I m m a n e n t b l o c k a g e of m u s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n itself;
t h e t r a g i c f a i l u r e , Is h e r e t h e f a i l u r e of t h e form itself, a n d t h i s f a i l u r e
a c c o u n t s for t h e i n n e r t r u t h m i s s i n g in S h o s t a k o v i c h .
In t h e l a s t d e c a d e a n d a h a l f of h i s life, P r o k o f i e v w a s c a u g h t u p in t h e
S t a l i n i s t s u p e r e g o a t its p u r e s t : w h a t e v e r h e d i d w a s w r o n g . W h e n he
238
STALINISM REVISITED
s t u c k to h i s m o d e r n i s t roots, h e w a s a c c u s e d of " a n t i - p e o p l e f o r m a l i s m "
a n d b o u r g e o i s d e c a d e n c e . W h e n , t h e r e a f t e r , h e t r i e d to d o h i s best to b o w
to t h e p r e s s u r e in h i s i n f a m o u s Cantata for the 20th Anniversary of the October
Jlgvolution, u s i n g t e x t s b y M a r x , L e n i n , a n d S t a l i n , t h e c a n t a t a wais a g a i n
c r i t i c i z e d for " L e f t i s t d e v i a t i o n a n d v u l g a r i t y " ( t h a t i s , for d r a g g i n g M a r x
a n d L e n i n i n t o i t ) . D e s p e r a t e to c o n t r i b u t e s o m e t h i n g — a n y t h i n g — t o t h e
"twentieth a n n i v e r s a r y , P r o k o f i e v q u i c k l y t h r e w t o g e t h e r a c o n c o c t i o n of
f o l k - t u n e s a n d p a r t y s i n g a l o n g s e n t i t l e d Songs of Our Days; t h e w o r k w a s
j g a i n d i s m i s s e d a s " p a l e a n d l a c k i n g in i n d i v i d u a l i t y " — w h i c h , of c o u r s e ,
was true.
P r o k o f i e v m u s t b y n o w h a v e b e e n u t t e r l y b e w i l d e r e d . If h e w r o t e l i k e a
s i m p l e t o n , h e w a s a d e p e r s o n a l i z e d Left d e v i a t i o n i s t ; if h e w r o t e l i k e
Prokofiev, he w a s a m e r c e n a r y Formalist. Individual, non-individual
. . . t h e r e m u s t h a v e s e e m e d n o r h y m e o r r e a s o n to it^—and, of c o u r s e ,
n o n e e x i s t e d .^"^
B u t t h e r e d e f i n i t e l y mis a " r h y m e a n d r e a s o n " to it: t h e r h y m e a n d r e a s o n
of t h e S t a l i n i s t s u p e r e g o in t h e e y e s of w h i c h o n e is a l w a y s g u i l t y . . .
H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m w a s a d e e p e r one: t h e p a r a d o x of P r o k o f i e v ' s l a t e
s t y l e w a s t h a t t h e l o g i c of h i s i m m a n e n t m u s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h l e d
h i m a w a y from e x p r e s s i o n i s t p a t h o s t o w a r d s " n e w s i m p l i c i t y " s t r a n g e l y
reverberated
w i t h t h e official d e m a n d s
for t h e
easy-listening music
a c c e s s i b l e to o r d i n a r y S o v i e t p e o p l e .
In t h e c a s e of P r o k o f i e v a s w e l l a s in t h a t of S h o s t a k o v i c h , t h e r e a s o n
w h y c r i t i c s so d e s p e r a t e l y look for t h e u l t i m a t e p r o o f of s e c r e t d i s ­
s i d e n c e i s to a v o i d a h i g h l y e m b a r r a s s i n g t r u t h : t h e i r m o s t
popular
W o r k s t o d a y In t h e W e s t o v e r l a p to a s u r p r i s i n g d e g r e e w i t h t h e v e r y
W o r k s w h i c h g o t t h e g r e a t e s t official ( n o t o n l y p o p u l a r ) s u p p o r t
from
t h e r e g i m e : S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth, S e v e n t h , a n d E l e v e n t h
Symphonies,
P r o k o f i e v ' s Peter and the Wolf a n d the Romeo and Juliet
ballet.
Even
among Shostakovich's c h a m b e r music, his Piano Quintet, w h i c h got the
S t a l i n p r i z e in 1 9 4 0 , i s h i s m o s t p o p u l a r p i e c e ! H o w c a n t h i s b e ? H e r e
e n t e r s t h e h e r m e n e u t i c s of d i s s i d e n c e w h i c h s h o w s t h e e s c a p e
S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth S y m p h o n y — t h e m o s t often p e r f o r m e d
route.
twentieth-
c e n t u r y s y m p h o n y a l s o in t h e W e s t ? It h a s to b e t h e c a s e t h a t
the
t n u m p h a n t finale i s r e a l l y m e a n t i r o n i c a l l y , m o c k i n g t h e e m p t i n e s s of
S t a l i n i s t t r i u m p h a l i s m ! T h e e n d u r i n g p o p u l a r i t y of t h e S e v e n t h S y m p h ­
o n y ( t h e Leningrad)!
It h a s to b e t h a t t h e i n e x o r a b l e b r u t a l
marching
239
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
p r o g r e s s in t h e first m o v e m e n t d o e s not " r e a l l y " r e f e r to t h e
German
c o n q u e s t of R u s s i a in 1 9 4 1 , b u t to t h e C o m m u n i s t c o n q u e s t of R u s s i a !
S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s E l e v e n t h S y m p h o n y ( " 1 9 0 5 " ) a h i t ? It h a s to b e q u i c k l y
c o n f i r m e d t h a t 1 9 0 5 is j u s t a p r e t e x t , t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n
" r e a l l y " r e f e r s to H u n g a r y i n 1 9 5 6 ! . . . B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e
Shosta­
k o v i c h s y m p h o n i e s w h i c h w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y u n a c c e p t a b l e for t h o s e
power, like the Thirteenth
{Bahi-Yar)
a n d the last, the Fifteenth?
in
The
a n s w e r is c l e a r : in a s u p r e m e t w i s t of i r o n y , t h e T h i r t e e n t h c a u s e d s u c h
a
stir
at
its p r e m i e r e
precisely and
c i r c u m s t a n c e s —it functioned
only
as a gesture
because
of
the
political
of p o l i t i c a l d e f i a n c e — « o ^
b e c a u s e of its a r t i s t i c s t r e n g t h . T h e s e w o r k s a r e t o d a y r e s p e c t e d
and
p r a i s e d , b u t not r e a l l y e n j o y e d .
T h e p u b l i c i t y t e x t for t h e n e w r e c o r d i n g of S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s F i r s t V i o l i n
C o n c e r t o b y L e i l a J o s e f o w i c z s a y s t h a t s h e " p a y s h o m a g e to t h e s t r u g g l e s
S h o s t a k o v i c h f a c e d u n d e r S t a l i n ' s r e g i m e " — t h e p a t e n t a b s u r d i t y of t h i s
c l a i m c o n f i r m s M i c h a e l T a n n e r ' s t h e s i s t h a t " t h e r e i s a l m o s t no o t h e r
composer
for
whom
the
lile-and-works mélange has achieved
such
o r t h o d o x status.'"*^ T a n n e r i s f u l l y j u s t i f i e d i n p o i n t i n g o u t h o w
the
e n d l e s s d e b a t e s r e g a r d i n g h o w s o m e s y m p h o n y m o v e m e n t s a r e to b e
read, w i t h serious pathos or a s ironic subversion, or r e g a r d i n g w h i c h
victorious
finales
a r e m e a n t t o r e n d e r t h e v i c t o r i e s p y r r h i c , " t e l l u s , in
fact, w h a t t h e m u s i c i t s e l f t a i l s t o a c h i e v e . " T h e r e i s n o g r e a t e r m o n u m e n t
to S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s a r t i s t i c f a i l u r e t h a n
t h e o b s e s s i v e s e a r c h for
some
private (extra-artistic) document that would definitely prove his intimate
anti-Communist
s t a n c e . T h i s is w h y , in t h e a m b i g u i t i e s in w h i c h t h i s
politically e n g a g e d b a c k g r o u n d
no
longer resonates,
Shostakovich's
m u s i c is s i m p l y " u n i n t e r e s t i n g l y e n i g m a t i c , " l i k e t h e r e f e r e n c e s to R o s s i n i
a n d W a g n e r in t h e l a s t s y m p h o n y — t h e r e i s n o d e e p e r m e a n i n g t o b e
d i s c o v e r e d h e r e , t h e " e n i g m a " is m u s i c a l l y flat. T h e i r o n y h e r e i s t h a t t h e
v e r y s e a r c h for t h e e x t r a - m u s i c a l " s m o k i n g g u n " d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t r u t h
of t h e S t a l i n i s t a c c u s a t i o n a b o u t t h e " f o r m a l i s t " c h a r a c t e r of S h o s t a k o ­
v i c h ' s m u s i c — not, of c o u r s e , in t h e s e n s e in w h i c h it w a s i n t e n d e d
by
Z h d a n o v et contorted, b u t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t h i s m u s i c i s n e u t r a l w i t h r e g a r d
to s o c i a l c o m m i t m e n t s ( w h i c h i s w h y o n e h a s t o l o o k for e x t r a - m u s i c a l
s i g n s t o p i n it d o w n ) .
S o w h a t if w e r e a d S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s p o p u l a r s y m p h o n i e s a l o n g t h e l i n e s
of h o w w e m i g h t r e a d o n e of t h e g r e a t H o l l y w o o d c l a s s i c s ? In t h e w e l l k n o w n b r i e f s c e n e t h r e e - q u a r t e r s i n t o CiUicihiancaf^
Ilsa L u n d
(Ingrid
B e r g m a n ) c o m e s to R i c k B l a i n e ' s ( H u m p h r e y B o g a r t ' s ) r o o m to t r y to
240
STALINISM REVISITED
o b t a i n t h e l e t t e r s of t r a n s i t t h a t w i l l a l l o w h e r a n d h e r R e s i s t a n c e l e a d e r
h u s b a n d V i c t o r L a s z l o to e s c a p e from C a s a b l a n c a to P o r t u g a l a n d t h e n to
A m e r i c a . After R i c k r e f u s e s to h a n d t h e m o v e r , s h e p u l l s a g u n a n d
t h r e a t e n s h i m . f i e t e l l s h e r , " G o a h e a d a n d shoot, y o u ' l l b e d o i n g m e a
f a v o r . " S h e b r e a k s d o w n a n d t e a r f u l l y s t a r t s to tell h i m t h e s t o r y of w h y
she left h i m in P a r i s . B y t h e t i m e s h e s a y s , "If y o u k n e w h o w m u c h I l o v e d
y o u , h o w m u c h I still l o v e y o u , " t h e y a r e e m b r a c i n g in a c l o s e - u p . T h e
Î m o v i e d i s s o l v e s i n t o a t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d shot of t h e a i r p o r t t o w e r at
n i g h t , its s e a r c h l i g h t c i r c l i n g , a n d t h e n d i s s o l v e s b a c k to a s h o t
from
o u t s i d e t h e w i n d o w of R i c k ' s r o o m , w h e r e h e i s s t a n d i n g , l o o k i n g o u t a n d
s m o k i n g a c i g a r e t t e . He t u r n s r o u n d a n d s a y s , " A n d t h e n ? " S h e r e s u m e s
her story . . .
The q u e s t i o n t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p o p s u p h e r e , of c o u r s e , i s : w h a t
happened
in between, d u r i n g t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d
shot
of
the
a i r p o r t — d i d t h e y (h it or n o t ? M a l t b y is right to e m p h a s i z e that, a s to
t h i s point, t h e film i s not s i m p l y a m b i g u o u s ; it r a t h e r g e n e r a t e s t w o v e r y
c l e a r , a l t h o u g h m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e m e a n i n g s — t h e y d i d it, a n d t h e y d i d
not d o it, t h a t i s , t h e film g i v e s u n a m b i g u o u s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y d i d it, a n d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n a m b i g u o u s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t h a v e d o n e it. O n
the o n e h a n d , a s e r i e s of c o d i f i e d f e a t u r e s s i g n a l t h a t t h e y d i d d o it,
n a m e l y t h a t t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d shot s t a n d s for a l o n g e r p e r i o d of
t i m e ( t h e d i s s o l v e of t h e c o u p l e p a s s i o n a t e l y e m b r a c i n g u s u a l l y s i g n a l s
the a c t after t h e f a d e - o u t ; t h e c i g a r e t t e is a l s o t h e s t a n d a r d s i g n of post­
coital r e l a x a t i o n ; u p to t h e v u l g a r p h a l l i c c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e t o w e r ) ; on
the o t h e r h a n d , a p a r a l l e l s e r i e s of f e a t u r e s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y d i d not d o it,
n a m e l y t h a t t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d s h o t of t h e a i r p o r t t o w e r c o r r e ­
s p o n d s to t h e r e a l d i e g e t i c t i m e ( t h e b e d in t h e b a c k g r o u n d is u n d i s ­
t u r b e d ; t h e s a m e c o n v e r s a t i o n s e e m s to g o on w i t h o u t a b r e a k ; a n d so o n ) .
E v e n w h e n , in t h e final c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n R i c k a n d I-^aszlo a t t h e
a i r p o r t , t h e y d i r e c t l y t o u c h on t h e e v e n t s of t h i s n i g h t , t h e i r w o r d s c a n b e
read in both w a y s :
RICK: Y o u s a i d y o u k n e w a b o u t I l s a a n d m e ?
VICTOR:
Yes.
RICK: Y o u d i d n ' t k n o w s h e w a s a t m y p l a c e l a s t n i g h t w h e n y o u w e r e
. . . she c a m e t h e r e for t h e l e t t e r s of t r a n s i t . Isn't t h a t t r u e , I l s a ?
ILSA: Y e s .
RICK: S h e t r i e d e v e r y t h i n g to g e t t h e m a n d n o t h i n g w o r k e d . S h e d i d
h e r b e s t to c o n v i n c e m e t h a t s h e w a s still in l o v e w i t h m e . T h a t w a s
241
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
all o v e r l o n g a g o ; for y o u r s a k e s h e p r e t e n d e d it w a s n ' t a n d I let h e r
pretend.
VICTOR: 1 u n d e r s t a n d .
W e l l , / c e r t a i n l y do not u n d e r s t a n d —'is R i c k s a j ' i n g to V i c t o r t h a t h e m a d e
l o v e to h i s w i f e o r n o t ? M a l t b y ' s s o l u t i o n is to i n s i s t t h a t t h i s s c e n e
p r o v i d e d a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of h o w Coàablanca " d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t s
itself in s u c h a w a y a s to offer d i s t i n c t a n d a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of p l e a s u r e
to t w o p e o p l e s i t t i n g n e x t to e a c h o t h e r in t h e s a m e c i n e m a , " t h a t i s , t h a t it
" c o u l d p l a y to b o t h ' i n n o c e n t ' a n d ' s o p h i s t i c a t e d ' a u d i e n c e s a l i k e .
W h i l e , a t t h e l e v e l of its s u r f a c e n a r r a t i v e line, t h e film c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d
b y t h e s p e c t a t o r a s o b e y i n g t h e s t r i c t e s t m o r a l c o d e s , it s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
offers to t h e " s o p h i s t i c a t e d " e n o u g h c l u e s to c o n s t r u c t a n a l t e r n a t i v e ,
s e x u a l l y m u c h more d a r i n g n a r r a t i v e line. This s t r a t e g y is more complex
t h a n it m a y a p p e a r : p r e c i s e l y because y o u k n e w t h a t y o u a r e a s it w e r e
" c o v e r e d " o r " a b s o l v e d from g u i l t y i m p u l s e s " '
you
b y t h e official s t o r y line,
a r e a l l o w e d to i n d u l g e in d i r t y f a n t a s i e s ^—^you k n o w t h a t t h e s e
f a n t a s i e s a r e not " s e r i o u s , " t h a t t h e y d o not c o u n t in the e y e s of the
b i g O t h e r . . . S o o u r o n l y c o r r e c t i o n to M a l t b y w o u l d b e t h a t w e d o not
n e e d two s p e c t a t o r s s i t t i n g n e x t to e a c h o t h e r : one and the Mme
spectator,
s p l i t in t w o , i s sufficient.
T o p u t it in L a c a n i a n t e r m s : d u r i n g t h e i n f a m o u s t h r e e a n d a h a l f
s e c o n d s , I l s a a n d R i c k d i d n o t d o it for t h e b i g O t h e r , t h e o r d e r of p u b l i c
a p p e a r a n c e , b u t t h e y d i d d o it for o u r d i r t y f a n t a s m a t i c i m a g i n a t i o n — t h i s
is t h e s t r u c t u r e of i n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n a t i t s p u r e s t , t h a t i s , Holl3rwood
n e e d s both l e v e l s in o r d e r to f u n c t i o n . T o p u t it in t e r m s of t h e d i s c o u r s e
theory elaborated
b y O s w a l d Ducrot, w e h a v e here the
opposition
b e t w e e n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a n d surmise: t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of a s t a t e m e n t
is d i r e c t l y e n d o r s e d b y t h e b i g O t h e r , w e a r e not r e s p o n s i b l e for it, w h i l e
t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e s u r m i s e of a s t a t e m e n t r e s t s e n t i r e l y on
the
r e a d e r ' s ( o r s p e c t a t o r ' s ) s h o u l d e r s — t h e a u t h o r of t h e t e x t c a n a l w a y s
c l a i m "It's not m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y if t h e s p e c t a t o r s d r a w d i r t y c o n c l u s i o n s
from t h e t e x t u r e of t h e film!" A n d , to l i n k t h i s to p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e r m s ,
t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s , of c o u r s e , t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n s y m b o l i c L a w ( t h e
e g o i d e a l ) a n d t h e o b s c e n e s u p e r e g o : at t h e l e v e l of t h e p u b l i c s y m b o l i c
Law,
nothing
happens,
the t e x t i s c l e a n , w h i l e , a t a n o t h e r
level, it
b o m b a r d s the spectator w i t h the s u p e r e g o injunction "Enjoy!", that is,
g i v e w a y to y o u r d i r t y i m a g i n a t i o n . T o p u t it in y e t a n o t h e r w a y , w h a t w e
e n c o u n t e r h e r e is a c l e a r e x a m p l e of t h e fetishistic split, of t h e d i s a v o w a l
242
STALINISM REVISITED
s t r u c t u r e of "je MLI bien,
maLi
quand meine . . .": t h e v e r y a w a r e n e s s t h a t
t h e y d i d not d o it g i v e s free r e i n to y o u r d i r t y i m a g i n a t i o n — y o u c a n
i n d u l g e i n it, b e c a u s e y o u a r e a b s o l v e d from t h e g u i l t b y t h e fact t h a t , for
the b i g O t h e r , t h e y d e f i n i t e l y d i d not d o it . . . A n d t h i s d o u b l e r e a d i n g i s
not s i m p l y a c o m p r o m i s e on t h e p a r t of t h e L a w , in t h e s e n s e t h a t the
s y m b o l i c L a w i s i n t e r e s t e d o n l y in k e e p i n g u p a p p e a r a n c e s a n d l e a v e s
y o u free to e x e r c i s e y o u r f a n t a s i e s , Insofar a s t h e y d o not e n c r o a c h u p o n
the p u b l i c d o m a i n , n a m e l y i n s o f a r a s t h e y s a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e s : the L a w
itself n e e d s its o b s c e n e s u p p l e m e n t , it i s s u s t a i n e d b y it, so it g e n e r a t e s it.
M a l t b y i s t h u s r i g h t in e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t t h e i n f a m o u s
Production
C o d e of t h e 1 9 3 0 s a n d
Holljnvood
1 9 4 0 s w a s not s i m p l y a n e g a t i v e
censorship code, but also a positive (productive, as Foucault w o u l d h a v e
put it) codification a n d regulation that g e n e r a t e d the v e r y e x c e s s w h o s e
d i r e c t d e p i c t i o n it h i n d e r e d . I n d i c a t i v e i s h e r e t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n
J o s e f von Sternberg a n d Breen reported by M a l t b y : w h e n Sternberg said
"At t h i s p o i n t , t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l s h a v e a b r i e f r o m a n t i c i n t e r l u d e , " B r e e n
I n t e r r u p t e d h i m : " W h a t y o u ' r e t r y i n g to s a y i s t h a t t h e t w o of t h e n
h o p p e d into the h a y . T h e y fucked." The i n d i g n a n t S t e r n b e r g a n s w e r e d :
" M r . B r e e n , y o u offend m e . " B r e e n : " O h , for C h r i s t ' s s a k e , w i l l y o u stop
the h o r s e s h i t a n d f a c e t h e i s s u e . W e c a n h e l p y o u m a k e a s t o r y a b o u t
a d u l t e r y , if y o u w a n t , b u t not if y o u k e e p c a l l i n g a g o o d s c r e w i n g m a t c h a
'romantic interlude.' Now, w h a t do these t w o people do? Kiss and go
h o m e ? " "No,"
said Sternberg,
"they fuck."
"Good," y e l p e d
pounding the desk, "now 1 can understand y o u r story." The
Breen,
director
c o m p l e t e d h i s o u t l i n e , a n d B r e e n t o l d h i m h o w h e c o u l d h a n d l e it in s u c h
a w a y a s to g e t p a s t t h e Code.^^ S o t h e v e r y p r o h i b i t i o n , in o r d e r to
function p r o p e r l y , h a s to r e l y on a c l e a r a w a r e n e s s a b o u t w h a t r e a l l y
h a p p e n e d at t h e l e v e l of t h e p r o h i b i t e d n a r r a t i v e l i n e : the
Production
C o d e d i d not s i m p l y p r o h i b i t s o m e c o n t e n t , it r a t h e r c o d i f i e d its c i p h e r e d
articulation.
A n d , b a c k to S h o s t a k o v i c h , w h a t if e x a c t l y t h e s a m e h o l d s for h i s
p o p u l a r s y m p h o n i e s ? W h a t if t h e y a l s o o p e r a t e at t w o l e v e l s s i m u l t a ­
n e o u s l y , o n e , p u b l i c , i n t e n d e d for t h e r u l i n g i d e o l o g i c a l g a z e , a n d a n o t h e r
w h i c h t r a n s g r e s s e s t h e p u b l i c r u l e s , b u t r e m a i n s , a s s u c h , its i n h e r e n t
s u p p l e m e n t ? O n e c a n t h u s a p p r e c i a t e t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e s e l i n e s :
S i n c e t h e S t a l i n i s t a s s a u l t a g a i n s t h i s m u s i c in 1 9 3 6 , S h o s t a k o v i c h h a d
d e v e l o p e d a sort of d o u b l e - s p e a k in h i s m u s i c a l l a n g u a g e , u s i n g o n e
i d i o m to p l e a s e h i s m a s t e r s in t h e K r e m l i n a n d a n o t h e r to satisfy h i s
243
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
o w n m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e a s a n a r t i s t a n d a c i t i z e n . O u t w a r d l y h e s p o k e in
a t r i u m p h a n t v o i c e . Y e t b e n e a t h t h e r i t u a l s o u n d s of S o v i e t r e j o i c i n g
t h e r e w a s a softer, m o r e m e l a n c h o l i c v o i c e — t h e c a r e f u l l y c o n c e a l e d
v o i c e of s a t i r e a n d d i s s e n t o n l y a u d i b l e to t h o s e w h o h a d felt the
s u f f e r i n g h i s m u s i c e x p r e s s e d . T h e s e t w o v o i c e s a r e c l e a r l y a u d i b l e in
S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth
ovation
Symphony
of e l e c t r i f y i n g force
[. . . ] w h i c h r e c e i v e d a
when
it w a s
first
half-hour
performed
[. . . ] .
B e n e a t h t h e e n d l e s s f a n f a r e s t r u m p e t i n g t h e t r i u m p h of the S o v i e t
s t a t e in t h e finale [. . . ] t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t h a v e felt its s a d n e s s [, . . ]
a n d t h e y r e s p o n d e d to t h e m u s i c a s a s p i r i t u a l r e l e a s e .
A s t r a n g e h e r m e n e u t i c s i n d e e d — a " c a r e f u l l y c o n c e a l e d v o i c e " w h i c h is
n o n e t h e l e s s c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d b y t h o u s a n d s ? W e r e t h e official c e n s o r s
r e a l l y so s t u p i d a s not to g e t i t ? S o w h a t if w e r e a d t h e f r a g i l e c o e x i s t e n c e
of t h e s e t w o i d i o m s a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e a m b i g u i t y i n s c r i b e d i n t o the
n i g h t e n c o u n t e r s c e n e from Casablanca! W h a t if t h e S t a l i n i s t r e j e c t i o n of
b o t h P r o k o f i e v ' s p r o p a g a n d i s t i c a n d i n t i m a t e w o r k s w a s r i g h t on i t s o w n
t e r m s ? W h a t if w h a t t h e y w a n t e d from h i m w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e c o e x i s t e n c e
of t w o l e v e l s , p r o p a g a n d i s t i c a n d i n t i m a t e , w h i l e h e w a s offering
them
e i t h e r t h e first o r t h e s e c o n d ? After W o r l d W a r II, P r o k o f i e v w i t h d r e w
i n c r e a s i n g l y to the i n t i m a t e d o m a i n of c h a m b e r m u s i c , w h e r e he c o u l d
find e x p r e s s i o n for h i s p r i v a t e s a d n e s s — w a s t h i s a n a c t of s i l e n t d e f i a n c e ,
w r i t i n g m u s i c "for t h e d r a w e r , " a s S h o s t a k o v i c h w o u l d h a v e p u t It? f i o w
is it t h e n t h a t t h e m o s t m o v i n g a n d d e s p e r a t e of t h e s e w o r k s , h i s V i o l i n
S o n a t a in D m a j o r w h o s e h a u n t i n g o p e n i n g m o v e m e n t w a s m e a n t to
s o u n d " l i k e t h e w i n d in a g r a v e y a r d , " w a s a w a r d e d t h e S t a l i n P r i z e in
1947? O r l a n d o F i g e s c l a i m s that the a w a r d w a s m e a n t " i r o n i c a l l y " — but
w h a t k i n d of s t r a n g e i r o n y i s this?"''^
L e t u s r e t u r n to S h o s t a k o v i c h . C a n w e r e a l l y b e so s u r e t h a t t h e p u b l i c
b o m b a s t m u s i c is m e a n t i r o n i c a l l y , w h i l e t h e i n t i m a t e c o n f e s s i o n a l m o o d
is m e a n t s i n c e r e l y ? W h a t if t h e i r o n y i s o b j e c t i v e a n d w e h a v e to r e a d t h i s
m u s i c in t h e s a m e w a y M a r x r e a d t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r in the
F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t after t h e 1 8 4 8 r e v o l u t i o n ? R e c a l l M a r x ' s c o r u s c a t i n g
a n a l y s i s of h o w t h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e - r e p u b l i c a n p a r t y f u n c t i o n e d
a s the
c o a l i t i o n of t h e t w o b r a n c h e s of r o y a l i s m ( O r l e a n i s t s a n d L e g i t i m i s t s ) in
t h e " a n o n y m o u s k i n g d o m of t h e R e p u b l i c . "
The parliamentary deputies
of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r p e r c e i v e d t h e i r r e p u b l i c a n i s m a s m o c k e r y : in
p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s , t h e y g e n e r a t e d r o y a l i s t s l i p s of t h e t o n g u e
and
r i d i c u l e d t h e R e p u b l i c to l e t it b e k n o w n t h a t t h e i r t r u e a i m w a s to r e s t o r e
244
STALINISM REVISITED
t h e k i n g - W h a t t h e y w e r e not a w a r e of is t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s w e r e d u p e d
g5 to t h e t r u e s o c i a l i m p a c t of t h e i r r u l e . T h e y u n k n o w i n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b o u r g e o i s r e p u b l i c a n o r d e r t h a t t h e y d e s p i s e d so
m u c h ( b y , for i n s t a n c e , g u a r a n t e e i n g p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ) . S o it is not t h a t
they w e r e royalists w h o w e r e just w e a r i n g republican masks: although
t h e y t h o u g h t of t h e m s e l v e s a s s u c h , it w a s t h e i r " i n n e r " r o y a l i s t c o n v i c ­
tion w h i c h w a s t h e d e c e p t i v e front m a s k i n g t h e i r t r u e social r o l e . In short,
f a r from
being the hidden
t r u t h of t h e i r p u b l i c r e p u b l i c a n i s m ,
their
s i n c e r e r o y a l i s m w a s t h e f a n t a s m a t i c s u p p o r t of t h e i r a c t u a l r e p u b l i c a n jsm
^it w a s w h a t p r o v i d e d t h e p a s s i o n for t h e i r a c t i v i t y . Is it not, t h e n ,
t h a t t h e d e p u t i e s of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r w e r e a l s o feigning to feign to b e
r e p u b l i c a n s , to b e w h a t t h e y r e a l l y w e r e — i n e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y t h a t
S h o s t a k o v i c h w a s f e i g n i n g to f e i g n to b e a faithful
Nonetheless,
Communist?
t h e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of P r o k o f i e v
is here radically
different from t h a t of S h o s t a k o v i c h : one c a n p r o p o s e t h e t h e s i s that,
in c o n t r a s t
to S h o s t a k o v i c h ,
P r o k o f i e v w a s e f f e c t i v e l y not a " S o v i e t
c o m p o s e r , " e v e n if h e w r o t e m o r e t h a n S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s s h a r e of official
c a n t a t a s c e l e b r a t i n g S t a l i n a n d h i s r e g i m e . P r o k o f i e v a d o p t e d a k i n d of
p r o t o - p s y c h o t l c p o s i t i o n of i n t e r n a l e x c l u s i o n t o w a r d s S t a l i n i s m : h e w a s
not i n t e r n a l l y affected o r b o t h e r e d b y it, t h a t i s , h e t r e a t e d it a s j u s t a n
e x t e r n a l n u i s a n c e . T h e r e w a s e f f e c t i v e l y s o m e t h i n g c h i l d i s h in P r o k o f i e v ,
l i k e t h e r e f u s a l of a s p o i l t c h i l d to a c c e p t o n e ' s p l a c e in t h e s o c i a l o r d e r of
t h i n g s — h e r e t u r n e d to t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in 1 9 3 6 , a t t h e h e i g h t of t h e
Stalinist purges, drove around in his imported A m e r i c a n car, dressed
e c c e n t r i c a l l y in f a n c y c l o t h e s d e l i v e r e d from P a r i s , o r d e r e d b o o k s a n d
food from t h e W e s t , i g n o r i n g t h e m a d n e s s a n d p o v e r t y a r o u n d h i m . T h i s
is w h y , i n c o n t r a s t to S h o s t a k o v i c h , h e n e v e r r e a l l y "got i n t o " t h e S t a l i n i s t
s u p e r e g o d o u b l e - t a l k i d i o m of c o m b i n i n g e x t e r n a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h
i n n e r b i t t e r n e s s a n d s a d n e s s . E v e n t h e m e l a n c h o l y a n d d e s p a i r of h i s l a t e
v i o l i n s o n a t a is not a r e a c t i o n to S t a l i n i s t o p p r e s s i o n : t h e s a m e s t y l e a n d
m o o d a r e t h e r e a l r e a d y in h i s p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y w o r k s . T h e
reaction
of t h e
two composers
to Z h d a n o v ' s
a t t a c k s in
different
1 9 4 6 - ^ 7 is
e x e m p l a r i l y h e r e : P r o k o f i e v s i m p l y d i d not u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e c h a r g e s
w e r e a b o u t , h e d i d not i n t e r n a l i z e t h e t e n s i o n . W h e n , in 1 9 4 7 , h e w a s
forced to a t t e n d a m e e t i n g of t h e C o m p o s e r ' s U n i o n a n d to l i s t e n to
Z h d a n o v ' s speech a t t a c k i n g h i m and other S o v i e t composers, he a r r i v e d
d r u n k , m a d e l o u d r u d e c o m m e n t s i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e s p e e c h a n d t h e n fell
a s l e e p on h i s c h a i r in t h e m i d s t of it — m i r a c u l o u s l y , n o t h i n g h a p p e n e d , so
accepted w a s his eccentricity.
245
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
A n d S h o s t a k o v i c h ? T h e p o p u l a r i t y a n d p u b l i c r e s o n a n c e of h i s m u s i c
u n d e r w e n t a w e i r d c h a n g e : a c o u p l e of d e c a d e s a g o , t h e m a j o r i t y of c r i t i c s
d i s m i s s e d h i m a s a " s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t " o u t of t o u c h
with the
proper
d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n m u s i c ; h o w e v e r , t o d a y , t h e g r e a t m u s i c a l m o d ­
e r n i s t s s u c h a s S c h o e n b e r g o r W e b e r n a r e p e r c e i v e d a s a t h i n g of the
past, r e s p e c t f u l l y i g n o r e d , w h i l e S h o s t a k o v i c h h a s e m e r g e d a s a r g u a b l y
t h e m o s t p o p u l a r " s e r i o u s " c o m p o s e r of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ; d o z e n s of
v o l u m e s w e r e w r i t t e n not o n l y a b o u t h i s m u s i c , b u t a l s o a b o u t h i s closet
d i s s i d e n c e . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s p o p u l a r i t y i s t h e s i g n of a
non-event,
of t h e o c c u l t a t i o n of t h e t r u e E v e n t of m o d e r n
music
b r o a d l y , a m o m e n t of t h e v a s t c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n w h o s e p o l i t i c a l
m a r k is t h e w i t h d r a w a l from
r e f o c u s m g on h u m a n
The Slalinbt
rights
radical e m a n c i p a t o r y politics, a n d
the
a n d t h e p r e v e n t i o n of s u f f e r i n g ?
carnival . . .
W h a t d i d the t r a u m a of 1 9 3 5 ( t h e p u b l i c c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t h i s " L a d y
M a c b e t h " t r i g g e r e d b y t h e Pravda a r t i c l e " M u d d l e I n s t e a d of M u s i c " ) do
to h i s m u s i c ? P e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t o r of t h e b r e a k i s t h e c h a n g e in
t h e function of t h e s c h e r z o in S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s w o r k in t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d e a r l y
1 9 5 0 s . P r i o r to 1 9 3 5 , h i s s c h e r z o s c a n still b e p e r c e i v e d a s t h e e x p l o s i v e
e x p r e s s i o n of n e w a g g r e s s i v e a n d g r o t e s q u e v i t a l i t y a n d Joie de wV/-<?—there
is s o m e t h i n g of t h e l i b e r a t i n g force of t h e c a r n i v a l in t h e m , of t h e m a d n e s s
of t h e c r e a t i v e p o w e r t h a t m e r r i l y s w e e p s a w a y a l l o b s t a c l e s a n d i g n o r e s
all e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s a n d h i e r a r c h i e s . A f t e r 1 9 3 5 , h o w e v e r , h i s s c h e r z o s
h a d c l e a r l y "lost t h e i r i n n o c e n c e " : t h e i r e x p l o s i v e e n e r g y a c q u i r e s a
b r u t a l - t h r e a t e n i n g q u a l i t y , t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g m e c h a n i c a l in t h e i r e n e r g y ,
l i k e t h e f o r c e d m o v e m e n t s of a m a r i o n e t t e . T h e y e i t h e r r e n d e r t h e r a w
e n e r g y of s o c i a l v i o l e n c e , of m a s s a c r e s of h e l p l e s s v i c t i m s , or, if t h e y a r e
m e a n t a s t h e e x p l o s i o n of t h e " j o y of life, " t h i s i s c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d i n a
s a r c a s t i c w a y , or a s a n i m p o t e n t m a n i a c a l o u t b u r s t of the a g g r e s s i v i t y of
t h e h e l p l e s s v i c t i m . T h e " c a r n i v a l " is h e r e n o l o n g e r a l i b e r a t i n g e x p e r i ­
ence, but the
flash
of t h w a r t e d a n d r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n —it i s the
" c a r n i v a l " of r a c i s t p o g r o m s a n d d r u n k e n g a n g r a p e s . ( T h e o u t s t a n d i n g
c a s e s a r e t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d m o v e m e n t s of t h e E i g h t h S y m p h o n y , t h e
f a m o u s s e c o n d m o v e m e n t of t h e T e n t h S y m p h o n y ( " P o r t r a i t of S t a l i n " ) ,
a n d , a m o n g t h e s t r i n g q u a r t e t s , the t h i r d m o v e m e n t of Q u a r t e t N o . 3
( w h i c h , t o d a y , a l m o s t s o u n d s l i k e H e r r m a n n ' s s c o r e for Psycho), a n d t h e
" f u r i o s o " m o v e m e n t of Q u a r t e t N o . 1 0 . ) '
24«
STALINISM REVISITED
D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t , in a d i s t u r b i n g w a y , the t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e of
S t a l i n i s t c o n d e m n a t i o n h e l p e d S h o s t a k o v i c h to a c h i e v e h i s b i t t e r m a t u r i t y ? W o u l d h e o t h e r w i s e h a v e r e m a i n e d a c o m p o s e r of t h e n e w Sovietjok de
^/ivre, m i x i n g j a z z w i t h a g g r e s s i v e r h y t h m i c m o d e r n i s m ? W h a t if t h e
O i i x t u r e of m e l a n c h o l i c o p p r e s s i v e d r a m a a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i v e
scherzo
e x p l o s i o n s i s not t h e o n l y w a y to r e p l y to t h e e x p e r i e n c e of S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r ,
b u t , r a t h e r , a r e p l y t h a t fits in w i t h S t a l i n i s t h u m a n i s m , i t s r e a f f i r m a t i o n of
t h e o l d R u s s i a n t r a d i t i o n ? W h a t if t h e r e i s a different w a y w h i c h i s a l s o
a l r e a d y p r e f i g u r e d in a n o t h e r o l d R u s s i a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of
h o r r o r a n d h u m o r a s t h e s i g n of d i s t i n c t i o n of t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y R u s s i a n
g r o t e s q u e w h o s e first g r e a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w a s G o g o l ? W h a t i s " T h e
Nose," his most famous short story, about a low-level b u r e a u c r a t w h o s e
n o s e b e c o m e s d e t a c h e d a n d a c q u i r e s a life of its o w n , o t h e r t h a n a g r o t e s q u e
c o m e d y o r a h o r r o r s t o r y ? I n d i c a t i v e i s h e r e t h e r e c e p t i o n of S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s e a r l y " a b s u r d i s t " s h o r t o p e r a ( 1 9 3 0 ) b a s e d on t h i s s t o r y ; a l t h o u g h it i s
u s u a l l y p l a y e d a s a s a t i r e or e v e n a f r e n e t i c f a r c e , S h o s t a k o v i c h h i m s e l f
c a l l e d it " a h o r r o r s t o r y " : "I t r i e d not to m a k e j o k e s in The Nose. [. . . ] It's too
c r u e l . " S o w h e n T h e O p e r a G r o u p w h i c h r e c e n t l y s t a g e d it c a l l e d it, i n t h e i r
p r o d u c t i o n leaflet, " t h e f u n n i e s t o p e r a e v e r , a n o p e r a t i c v e r s i o n o£Monty
Python," t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n s h o u l d r e m i n d u s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g n i g h t m a r i s h
d i m e n s i o n of M o n t y P y t h o n ' s c o m e d y . S u c h a m i x t u r e of h o r r o r a n d
h u m o r i s a t r a d e m a r k of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n - c a m p u n i v e r s e — t h i s i s h o w
P r i m o L e v i , in If This Id a Man,
describes the dreadful "selekcja," the
survival e x a m i n a t i o n in the c a m p :
T h e BUickältedter [ t h e e l d e r of t h e h u t ] h a s c l o s e d t h e c o n n e c t i n g - d o o r
a n d h a s o p e n e d t h e o t h e r t w o w h i c h l e a d from the d o r m i t o r y a n d t h e
Tagesraum [ d a y r o o m ] o u t s i d e . H e r e , in front of t h e t w o d o o r s , s t a n d s
t h e a r b i t e r of o u r fate, a n S S D s u b a l t e r n . O n h i s r i g h t i s t h e Blockältedter, on h i s left, t h e q u a r t e r m a s t e r of t h e h u t . E a c h o n e of u s , a s h e
c o m e s n a k e d o u t of t h e Tagesraum i n t o t h e c o l d O c t o b e r a i r , h a s to r u n
t h e f e w s t e p s b e t w e e n t h e t w o d o o r s , g i v e t h e c a r d to t h e S S m a n a n d
e n t e r t h e d o r m i t o r y d o o r . T h e S S m a n , i n t h e fraction of a s e c o n d
between t w o successive crossings, w i t h a g l a n c e at one's b a c k a n d
front, j u d g e s e v e r y o n e ' s fate, a n d in t u r n g i v e s t h e c a r d to t h e m a n on
his r i g h t or h i s left, a n d t h i s i s t h e life o r d e a t h of e a c h of u s . In t h r e e or
four m i n u t e s a h u t of t w o h u n d r e d m e n is " d o n e " , a s is t h e w h o l e c a m p
of t w e l v e t h o u s a n d m e n in t h e c o u r s e of t h e
afternoon.
247
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
R i g h t m e a n s s u r v i v a l , left m e a n s t h e g a s c h a m b e r s . Is t h e r e not s o m e ­
t h i n g p r o p e r l y comic in t h i s , t h e r i d i c u l o u s s p e c t a c l e of t i y i n g to a p p e a r
s t r o n g a n d h e a l t h y , to a t t r a c t for a b r i e f m o m e n t t h e i n d i f f e r e n t g a z e of
t h e N a z i a d m i n i s t r a t o r w h o p r e s i d e s o v e r life a n d d e a t h ? f i e r e , c o m e d y
and horror coincide: imagine the prisoners practicing their appearance,
t r y i n g to h o l d t h e i r h e a d s h i g h a n d p u s h t h e i r c h e s t s f o r w a r d , w a l k i n g
b r i s k l y , p i n c h i n g t h e i r Hps to a p p e a r l e s s p a l e , e x c h a n g i n g a d v i c e on h o w
to I m p r e s s t h e S S m a n ; i m a g i n e h o w a s i m p l e m o m e n t a r y c o n f u s i o n of
c a r d s o r a l a c k of a t t e n t i o n of t h e S S m a n c a n d e c i d e t h e i r fate . . . No
w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t o b s c e n e h u m o r i s a l s o a k e y i n d i c a t o r of t h e c a r n i v a l ­
e s q u e d i m e n s i o n of S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r . R e c a l l t h e a d v e n t u r e of S h o s t a k o ­
vich's interrogation b y the K G B in 1937:
1 w a s g i v e n a [ s e c u r i t y ] p a s s a n d w e n t to the [ N K V D ] office. T h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r g o t u p w h e n I c a m e in a n d g r e e t e d m e . H e w a s v e r y
f r i e n d l y a n d a s k e d m e to sit d o w n . H e s t a r t e d a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t
m y h e a l t h , m y f a m i l y , t h e w o r k I w a s d o i n g — a l l k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s . H e
s p o k e in a v e r y f r i e n d l y , w e l c o m i n g a n d p o l i t e w a y . T h e n s u d d e n l y he
a s k e d m e : " S o , tell m e . D o y o u k n o w T u k h a c h e v s k y ? " I s a i d y e s , a n d
h e s a i d " H o w ? ". S o t h e n I s a i d : " A t o n e of m y c o n c e r t s . A f t e r the
c o n c e r t , T u k h a c h e v s k y c a m e b a c k s t a g e to c o n g r a t u l a t e m e . H e s a i d he
l i k e d m y m u s i c , t h a t h e w a s a n a d m i r e r . H e s a i d h e ' d l i k e to m e e t me
w h e n h e c a m e to L e n i n g r a d to t a l k a b o u t m u s i c . H e s a i d it w o u l d be a
p l e a s u r e to d i s c u s s m u s i c w i t h m e . H e s a i d if I c a m e to j M o s c o w h e ' d be
h a p p y to s e e m e . " " A n d h o w often
Tukhachevsky came here. H e
"Who
did y o u meet? " "Only
usually invited me
for
when
dinner. " —
else w a s at the t a b l e ? " " J u s t his family. His family and
relatives." — " A n d w h a t d i d y o u d i s c u s s ? " " M o s t l y m u s i c . " —"Not
politics?"
"No,
we
never
talked
politics.
I
knew
how
things
w e r e . " ^ — " D m i t r i D m i t r y e v i c h , t h i s i s v e r y s e r i o u s . Y o u m u s t remember.
T o d a y i s S a t u r d a y . I'll s i g n y o u r p a s s a n d y o u c a n g o h o m e . B u t on
M o n d a y n o o n , y o u m u s t b e h e r e . D o n ' t forget n o w . T h i s i s v e r \ '
serious, v e r y important." I understood this w a s the end. Those two
d a y s until M o n d a y w e r e a n i g h t m a r e . I told m y wife I p r o b a b l y
wouldn't return. S h e even prepared a bag lor me—the kind prepared
for p e o p l e w h o w e r e t a k e n a w a y . S h e p u t in w a r m u n d e r w e a r . S h e
k n e w I w o u l d n ' t be b a c k . I w e n t b a c k there at noon [on M o n d a y ] and
r e p o r t e d to r e c e p t i o n . T h e r e w a s a s o l d i e r t h e r e . I g a v e h i m m y
[ i n t e r n a l ] p a s s p o r t . I t o l d h i m I'd b e e n s u m m o n e d . H e l o o k e d
248
for
STALINISM REVISITED
m y n a m e : first, s e c o n d , t h i r d Hst. H e s a i d : " W h o s u m m o n e d y o u ? " I
s a i d : " I n s p e c t o r Z a k o v s k y . " H e s a i d : " H e w o n ' t be a b l e to s e e y o u
t o d a y . Go h o m e . W e ' l l notify y o u . " H e r e t u r n e d m y p a s s p o r t a n d I
w e n t h o m e . It w a s o n l y l a t e r t h a t e v e n i n g t h a t I l e a r n e d t h a t t h e
inspector had been arrested.'
If e v e r t h e r e w a s a c a r n i v a l in w h i c h t o d a y y o u a r e a k i n g a n d t o m o r r o w a
b e g g a r , t h i s w a s it!'
A common-sense
reproach
nonetheless
imposes
itself h e r e : i s t h e r e not a r a t h e r o b v i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
the c a r n i v a l p r o p e r a n d t h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s ? In t h e first c a s e , t h e e n t i r e
social h i e r a r c h y i s m o m e n t a r i l y s u s p e n d e d , t h o s e w h o w e r e u p a r e c a s t
d o w n a n d v i c e v e r s a , w h i l e , in t h e c a s e of S t a l i n i s m , t h e u n e x p e c t e d a n d
" i r r a t i o n a l " c h a n g e s of f o r t u n e affect o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e s u b j e c t e d to
power—far
from
being threatened,
symbolically suspended,
far from
the Communist
its p o w e r
being
nonienkLitura u s e s t h e
even
"irra­
t i o n a l " shifts of a r b i t r a r y t e r r o r to fortify its r u l e . . . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r ,
m o m e n t s of p a r o x y s m in w h i c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r e f f e c t i v e l y r e a c h e s
c a r n i v a l e s q u e d i m e n s i o n s , m o m e n t s in w h i c h , l i k e t h e p r o v e r b i a l s n a k e ,
t h e r u l i n g p a r t y s t a r t s to e a t itself, g r a d u a l l y s w a l l o w i n g its o w n tail. T h e
s u r p r i s i n g fact t h a t " t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s p l a c e to b e w a s c l o s e to t h e
c e n t e r s of p o w e r " c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s S t a l i n i s m from fascist r e g i m e s —
h e r e a r e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e m e r e t w o y e a r s oi yezhovdhchina:
F i v e of S t a l i n ' s P o l i t b u r o c o l l e a g u e s w e r e k i l l e d , a n d 9 8 o u t of 159
C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s . O f t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e of t h e U k ­
r a i n e R e p u b l i c o n l y t h r e e o u t of 2 0 0 s u r v i v e d ; 72 of t h e 9 3 m e m b e r s of
t h e K o m s o m o l o r g a n i z a t i o n C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e p e r i s h e d . O u t of 1,996
p a r t y l e a d e r s a t t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C o n g r e s s in 1 9 3 4 , 1,108 w e r e i m ­
p r i s o n e d or m u r d e r e d . In t h e p r o v i n c e s 3 1 9 o u t of 3 8 5 r e g i o n a l p a r t y
s e c r e t a r i e s a n d 2 , 2 1 0 o u t of 2 , 7 5 0 d i s t r i c t s e c r e t a r i e s d i e d . ^
In h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e p a r a n o i a of t h e G e r m a n j u d g e S c h r e b e r ,
reminds us that w h a t w e u s u a l l y consider as m a d n e s s (the
Freud
paranoid
s c e n a r i o of t h e c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t t h e s u b j e c t ) i s e f f e c t i v e l y a l r e a d y a n
a t t e m p t at r e c o v e r y : after t h e c o m p l e t e p s y c h o t i c b r e a k d o w n , t h e p a r a ­
n o i d c o n s t r u c t i s a n a t t e m p t b y t h e s u b j e c t to r e - e s t a b l i s h a k i n d of o r d e r
in h i s u n i v e r s e , a f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e e n a b l i n g h i m to a c q u i r e a form of
c o g n i t i v e m a p p i n g . " A l o n g t h e s a m e l i n e s , o n e i s t e m p t e d to c l a i m that,
"when, in l a t e 1 9 3 7 , t h e S t a l i n i s t p a r a n o i d d i s c o u r s e r e a c h e d its a p o g e e
249
a n d set in m o t i o n its o w n d i s s o l u t i o n a s a s o c i a l l i n k , t h e 1 9 3 8 a r r e s t a n d
l i q u i d a t i o n of Y e z h o v himself, S t a l i n ' s m a i n e x e c u t i o n e r in 1 9 3 7 , w a s
e f f e c t i v e l y t h e a t t e m p t a t r e c o v e r y , a t s t a b i l i z i n g t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d f u r y of
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t b r o k e o u t in 1 9 3 7 : t h e p u r g e of Y e z h o v w a s a k i n d of
m e t a - p u r g e , t h e p u r g e to e n d all p u r g e s ( h e w a s a c c u s e d p r e c i s e l y oF
k i l l i n g t h o u s a n d s of i n n o c e n t B o l s h e v i k s on b e h a l f of f o r e i g n p o w e r s —
t h e i r o n y b e i n g t h a t the a c c u s a t i o n w a s l i t e r a l l y t r u e : h e d i d o r g a n i z e the
k i l l i n g of t h e t h o u s a n d s
of i n n o c e n t
Bolsheviks . . . ) . However,
the
c r u c i a l p o i n t i s that, a l t h o u g h w e a r e h e r e r e a c h i n g t h e l i m i t s of the
s o c i a l , the l e v e l a t w h i c h t h e s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c l i n k Itself a p p r o a c h e s its selfdestructive dissolution, this e x c e s s itself w a s nonetheless g e n e r a t e d b y a
p r e c i s e d y n a m i c of s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , b y a s e r i e s of shifting a l i g n m e n t s a n d
r e a l i g n m e n t s at t h e v e r y t o p of t h e r e g i m e (StaHn a n d h i s n a r r o w c i r c l e ) ,
t h e u p p e r nomenklatura a n d t h e r a n k - a n d - f i l e p a r t y m e m b e r s :
T h u s in 1 9 3 3 a n d 1 9 3 5 S t a l i n a n d t h e P o l i t b u r o u n i t e d w i t h a l l l e v e l s
of t h e nomenkLilura e l i t e to s c r e e n , or p u r g e , a h e l p l e s s r a n k a n d
T h e r e g i o n a l l e a d e r s t h e n u s e d t h o s e p u r g e s to c o n s o l i d a t e
machines and expel "Inconvenient"
file.
their
p e o p l e . T h i s , in t u r n ,
brought
a b o u t a n o t h e r a l i g n m e n t i n 1 9 3 6 , In w h i c h S t a l i n a n d t h e
Moscow
nomenklatura
sided
with
the
rank
r e p r e s s i o n b y t h e r e g i o n a l e l i t e s . In
and
file,
who
complained
of
1937 Stalin openly mobilized
t h e " p a r t y m a s s e s " a g a i n s t t h e nomenklatura a s a w h o l e ; t h i s p r o v i d e d
a n i m p o r t a n t s t r a n d in t h e G r e a t T e r r o r ' s d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e e l i t e . B u t
in 1 9 3 8 t h e P o l i t b u r o c h a n g e d a l i g n m e n t s a n d reinForced t h e a u t h o r ­
i t y of t h e r e g i o n a l nomenklatura a s p a r t of a n a t t e m p t to r e s t o r e o r d e r
in t h e p a r t y d u r i n g t h e
terror.^'
T h e s i t u a t i o n t h u s e x p l o d e d w h e n S t a l i n m a d e t h e r i s k y m o v e of d i r e c t l y
a p p e a l i n g to t h e l o w e r r a n k - a n d - f i l e m e m b e r s t h e m s e l v e s , s o l i c i t i n g t h e m
to a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t t h e a r b i t r a r y r u l e of t h e l o c a l p a r t y
b o s s e s ( a m o v e s i m i l a r to M a o ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ) — t h e i r f u r y at t h e
r e g i m e , u n a b l e to e x p r e s s i t s e l f d i r e c t l y , e x p l o d e d a l l t h e m o r e v i c i o u s l y
a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n a l i z e d s u b s t i t u t e t a r g e t s . S i n c e t h e u p p e r nomenklatura
a t t h e s a m e t i m e r e t a i n e d i t s e x e c u t i v e p o w e r in t h e p u r g e s t h e m s e l v e s ,
t h i s set in m o t i o n a p r o p e r l y c a r n i v a l e s q u e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e v i c i o u s c y c l e
in w h i c h v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o n e w a s t h r e a t e n e d (for e x a m p l e , of e i g h t y - t w o
d i s t r i c t p a r t y s e c r e t a r i e s , s e v e n t y - n i n e w e r e s h o t ) . A n o t h e r a s p e c t of the
s p i r a l i n g v i c i o u s c y c l e w a s t h e v e r y f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e d i r e c t i v e s from t h e
250
STALINISM REVISITED
top a s to t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s
m e a s u r e s , vt'hile at t h e
of t h e p u r g e s : t h e top d e m a n d e d
harsh
s a m e t i m e w a r n i n g a g a i n s t e x c e s s e s , so
the
e x e c u t o r s w e r e p u t in a n u n t e n a b l e p o s i t i o n — u l t i m a t e l y , w h a t e v e r t h e y
d i d w a s w r o n g . If t h e y d i d not a r r e s t a sufficient n u m b e r of t r a i t o r s a n d
discover enough conspiracies, they w e r e considered lenient and suppor­
t i v e of c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n ; so, u n d e r t h i s p r e s s u r e , i n o r d e r to m e e t the
q u o t a , a s it w e r e , t h e y h a d to f a b r i c a t e e v i d e n c e a n d i n v e n t p l o t s —
t h e r e b y e x p o s i n g t h e m s e l v e s to t h e c r i t i c i s m t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e m s e l v e s
saboteurs, destroying thousands
of h o n e s t C o m m u n i s t s
on b e h a l f of
•foreign p o w e r s . . . S t a l i n ' s s t r a t e g y of a d d r e s s i n g d i r e c t l y t h e
party
masses, co-opting their anti-bureaucratic attitudes, w a s thus very risky:
T h i s not o n l y t h r e a t e n e d to o p e n elite p o l i t i c s to p u b l i c s c r u t i n y b u t
also r i s k e d d i s c r e d i t i n g t h e e n t i r e B o l s h e v i k r e g i m e , of w h i c h S t a l i n
1
h i m s e l f w a s a p a r t . [. . . ] F i n a l l y , in 1 9 3 7 , S t a l i n b r o k e a l l t h e r u l e s of
the g a m e — i n d e e d , destroyed the g a m e c o m p l e t e l y — a n d unleashed a
t e r r o r of a l l a g a i n s t all.^'^
O n e c a n d i s c e r n v e r y p r e c i s e l y t h e s u p e r e g o d i m e n s i o n of t h e s e e v e n t s :
t h i s v e r y v i o l e n c e i n f l i c t e d b y t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y on its o w n m e m b e r s
b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e r a d i c a l s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t i o n of t h e r e g i m e , n a m e l y to t h e
fact t h a t , at t h e o r i g i n s of t h e r e g i m e , t h e r e w a s a n " a u t h e n t i c " r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y p r o j e c t — i n c e s s a n t p u r g e s w e r e n e c e s s a r y not o n l y to e r a s e t h e
t r a c e s of t h e r e g i m e ' s o w n o r i g i n s , b u t a l s o a s a k i n d of " r e t u r n of t h e
r e p r e s s e d , " a r e m i n d e r of t h e r a d i c a l n e g a t i v i t y a t t h e h e a r t of t h e r e g i m e .
T h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s of h i g h p a r t y e c h e l o n s r e l i e d on t h i s
fundamental
betrayal: the a c c u s e d w e r e effectively g u i l t y insofar as they, as
the
m e m b e r s of the n e w nomenklatura, b e t r a y e d the R e v o l u t i o n . T h e S t a l i n i s t
t e r r o r i s t h u s not s i m p l y t h e b e t r a y a l of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , t h a t is t h e a t t e m p t
to e r a s e t h e t r a c e s of t h e a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a s t ; it r a t h e r b e a r s
w i t n e s s to a k i n d of " i m p of p e r v e r s i t y " w h i c h c o m p e l s t h e p o s t - r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y n e w o r d e r to ( r e ) i n s c r l b e its b e t r a y a l of t h e R e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n
itself, to " r e f l e c t " it o r " r e m a r k " it in t h e g u i s e of a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s a n d
k i l l i n g s w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d a i l m e m b e r s of t h e nomenklatura — a s in p s y c h o ­
a n a l y s i s , t h e S t a l i n i s t confession of g u i l t c o n c e a l s t h e t r u e g u i l t . ( A s i s w e l l
k n o w n , S t a l i n w i s e l y r e c r u i t e d into t h e N K V D p e o p l e of l o w e r s o c i a l
o r i g i n s w h o w e r e t h u s a b l e to a c t o u t t h e i r h a t r e d of t h e nomenklatura b y
arresting
between
and
the
torturing
senior
s t a b i l i t y of t h e
apparatchiks.)
r u l e of t h e
This inherent
tension
n e w nonienkLitura a n d
the
251
I N D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
p e r v e r t e d " r e t u r n of the r e p r e s s e d " in t h e g u i s e of t h e r e p e a t e d p u r g e s of
the
r a n k s of t h e nomenklatura
is a t t h e v e r y h e a r t
of t h e
Stalinist
p h e n o m e n o n : p u r g e s a r e t h e v e r y form in w h i c h t h e b e t r a y e d r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y h e r i t a g e s u r v i v e s a n d h a u n t s t h e r e g i m e . . . A s a l r e a d y n o t e d in
t h e c a s e of M a o , o n e s h o u l d s p e c i f y h e r e t h e r o l e of t h e I-^eader: h e w a s
e x e m p t e d from t h e s e shifts of f o r t u n e b e c a u s e h e w a s not t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
M a s t e r , b u t t h e "Ivord of M i s r u l e " : t h e v e r y a g e n t of c a r n i v a l e s q u e
subversion.
B e c a u s e of t h i s c a r n i v a l e s q u e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e d y n a m i c , t h e S t a l i n i s t
nomenklatura c a n n o t y e t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e " N e w C l a s s " — a s A n d r z e j
W a l i c k i n o t e d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of nomenklatura i n t o a n e w
c l a s s is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t r u e S t a l i n i s t " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " : it w a s o n l y in
the Brezhnev y e a r s that this occurred:
t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e S o v i e t nomenkLilura, w h i c h for t h e first t i m e in
S o v i e t h i s t o r y " s u c c e e d e d in e m a n c i p a t i n g i t s e l f from t h e s u b s e r v i e n c e
to h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s , " a n d c o n s t i t u t e d
itself a s a stable privileged
s t r a t u m e n j o y i n g not o n l y p h y s i c a l s e c u r i t y ( w h i c h it h a d
obtained
u n d e r K h r u s h c h e v ) b u t a l s o j o b s e c u r i t y , r e g a r d l e s s of p e r f o r m a n c e —
in effect a s t a t u s s i m i l a r to t h a t of the n e w r u l i n g c l a s s . [. . . ] T h e h i g h w a t e r m a r k of t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m w a s t h e p e r i o d of t h e p e r m a n e n t p u r g e s ,
w h i c h a i m e d at t h e
a b s o l u t e e l i m i n a t i o n not
o n l y of a l l p o s s i b l e
d e v i a t i o n s , b u t a l s o of s t a b l e Interest g r o u p s w h o s e v e r y e x i s t e n c e
might endanger
ideological purity a n d
undermine
the
monolithic
s t r u c t u r e of power.*"^
T h e r e a r e t w o f u r t h e r p a r a d o x i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s to b e d r a w n h e r e : d u e to
the
specific
ideological nature
of t h e
Stalinist regime
(its
nominal
c o m m i t m e n t to t h e g o a l of a n e g a l i t a r i a n a n d j u s t c o m m u n i s t s o c i e t y ) ,
t h e t e r r o r a n d p u r g e s of t h e nomenklatura i t s e l f w e r e n o t o n l y i n s c r i b e d
i n t o its v e r y n a t u r e
( t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of nomenklatura
b e t r a y e d its
p r o c l a i m e d g o a l s ) , t h e y w e r e a l s o t h e r e v e n g e of t h e r e g i m e ' s
own
i d e o l o g y a g a i n s t its nomenkUitura w h i c h was i n d e e d g u i l t y of " b e t r a y i n g
s o c i a l i s m . " F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s is w h y t h e full s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e nomenk­
latura i n t o a n e w c l a s s w a s o n l y p o s s i b l e w h e n i t s m e m b e r s c e a s e d t o t a k e
s e r i o u s l y t h e r e g i m e ' s i d e o l o g i c a l g o a l s — t h e r e i n r e s i d e s the r o l e of the
term " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g socialism," w h i c h e m e r g e d d u r i n g the
Brezhnev
y e a r s : it s i g n a l s t h a t t h e r e g i m e h a d r e n o u n c e d its c o m m u n i s t v i s i o n a n d
l i m i t e d i t s e l f to a p r a g m a t i c p o w e r p o l i t i c s . T h i s a l s o c o n f i r m s t h e (often252
STALINISM REVISITED
n o t e d ) fact that t h e K h r u s h c h e v y e a r s w e r e t h e l a s t y e a r s in w h i c h t h e
S o v i e t r u l i n g elite w a s still p o s s e s s e d b y a g e n u i n e h i s t o r i c a l (if not
r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) e n t h u s i a s m a b o u t its o w n m i s s i o n — a f t e r
Khrushchev,
n o t h i n g l i k e h i s d e f i a n t m e s s a g e to t h e A m e r i c a n s " W e w i l l b u r y y o u !
Your grandchildren will be C o m m u n i s t s ! " w a s imaginable.
, . . ÜI the filma of Sergei Eueiutein
B e s i d e s W e l l e s ' s Alagnificent Amherdoru, E i s e n s t e i n ' s Bezhin Meadow a n d
P a r t in
of Ifan the Terrible b e l o n g to t h e s e r i e s of lost a b s o l u t e m a s t e r ­
p i e c e s of t h e h i s t o r y of c i n e m a .
T h e s u p r e m e i r o n y of Bezhin Meadow is t h e film's t i t l e : it i s t a k e n from
I v a n T u r g e n e v ' s s h o r t story, o n e of t h e Sketches from a Hunter's Album,
a b o u t p e a s a n t b o y s d i s c u s s i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n s of d e a t h . W h a t d o e s
t h i s to h a v e to d o w i t h the film's s t o r y , b a s e d on t h e ( i n ) f a m o u s c a s e of
P a v l i k M o r o z o v , a b o u t a b o y from a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e in t h e y e a r s of
dekulakization, w h o is killed b y his c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y father b e c a u s e
he s u p p o r t e d collective farms? O n e
is a l m o s t t e m p t e d to r e p e a t
the
q u e s t i o n of t h e p e r p l e x e d v i e w e r in front of a p a i n t i n g s h o w i n g N a d h e z d a
K r u p s k a y a in h e r office, e n g a g e d in w i l d s e x w i t h a y o u n g K o m s o m o l
m e m b e r , e n t i t l e d " L e n i n in W a r s a w " — " W h e r e is L e n i n ? " ( T h e g u i d e ' s
c a l m r e p l y : " L e n i n i s in W a r s a w . " ) S o w h e r e i s B e z h i n m e a d o w ? T h e r e
a r e e c h o e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o s t o r i e s , b u t not a t t h e e x p l i c i t n a r r a t i v e l e v e l ;
t h e y c o n c e r n t h e u n d e r l y i n g f a n t a s m a t i c " v i r t u a l " l e v e l . In the film, too,
t h e r e i s a g r o u p of p e a s a n t b o y s s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e e a r t h l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , t h e C h u r c h , b u t t h e y " d i s c u s s s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n s of
d e a t h " b y d e s t r o y i n g it in a c a r n i v a l e s q u e orgj^^"^
It w a s t h e g r e a t n e s s of E i s e n s t e i n that, in h i s films, h e r e n d e r e d t h e
shift i n t h e h b i d i n a l e c o n o m y from t h e L e n i n i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o r to
the Stalinist "Thermidor." Recall the archetypal Eisensteinian cinematic
s c e n e w h i c h p o r t r a y s t h e e x u b e r a n t o r g y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e s t r u c t i v e
violence ( w h a t Elsenstein
h i m s e l f c a l l e d " a v e r i t a b l e b a c c h a n a l i a of
d e s t r u c t i o n " ) : w h e n , in October, t h e v i c t o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s p e n e t r a t e
the w i n e c e l l a r s of t h e W i n t e r P a l a c e , t h e y i n d u l g e in a n e c s t a t i c o r g y of
s m a s h i n g t h o u s a n d s of e x p e n s i v e w i n e b o t t l e s ; in Bezhin Meadow, t h e
v i l l a g e P i o n e e r s force t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e l o c a l c h u r c h a n d d e s e c r a t e it,
r o b b i n g it of its r e l i c s , s q u a b b l i n g o v e r a n icon, s a c r i l e g i o u s l y t r y i n g on
v e s t m e n t s , h e r e t i c a l l y l a u g h i n g a t the s t a t u a r y . . . In t h i s s u s p e n s i o n
of g o a l - o r i e n t e d i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , w e e f f e c t i v e l y h a v e a k i n d
of
253
IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S
B a t a i l l e a n " u n r e s t r a i n e d e x p e n d i t u r e " — t h e p i o u s d e s i r e to d e p r i v e t h e
r e v o l u t i o n of t h i s e x c e s s i s s i m p l y t h e d e s i r e to h a v e a r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t
a r e v o l u t i o n . C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h w h a t E i s e n s t e i n d o e s in P a r t II oilvan
the
Terrible, w h e r e t h e o n l y s c e n e shot in c o l o r ( t h e p e n u l t i m a t e r e e l ) i s the
c a r n i v a l e s q u e o r g y in t h e g r e a t h a l l of t h e c o u n t , a B a k h t i n i a n f a n t a s m a t i c
s p a c e i n w h i c h " n o r m a l " p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e i n v e r t e d : h e r e t h e t s a r i s the
s l a v e of t h e idiot, w h o m he p r o c l a i m s a n e w t s a r , a n d I v a n p r o v i d e s the
imbecile V l a d i m i r with all the imperial insignia, then h u m b l y prostrates
h i m s e l f in front of h i m a n d k i s s e s h i s h a n d . T h e s c e n e b e g i n s w i t h the
o b s c e n e c h o r u s a n d d a n c e of t h e "oprichniLi" ( I v a n ' s p r i v a t e a r m y ) ,
s t a g e d in a n e n t i r e l y " u n r e a l i s t i c " w a y : a n o d d m i x t u r e of H o l l y w o o d
a n d J a p a n e s e t h e a t e r , a m u s i c a l n u m b e r w h o s e w o r d s tell a w e i r d s t o r y
( t h e y c e l e b r a t e t h e a x e w h i c h c u t s off t h e h e a d s of I v a n ' s e n e m i e s ) . T h e
s o n g first d e s c r i b e s a g r o u p of b o y a r s h a v i n g a r i c h m e a l : "Down the middle
. . , the golden goblets peu,!. . . / m w ^A/îi^/ï? ^öwt^." T h e C h o r u s t h e n a s k s w i t h
p l e a s u r a b l e n e r v o u s e x p e c t a t i o n : "Come along. Come along. What happens
next! Come on, tell us more!" A n d t h e solo oprichnik, b e n d i n g f o r w a r d a n d
w h i s t l i n g , s h o u t s t h e a n s w e r : "Strike with the axes!" W e a r e h e r e a t the
o b s c e n e site w h e r e m u s i c a l e n j o y m e n t m e e t s p o l i t i c a l l i q u i d a t i o n . A n d ,
t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e fact t h a t t h e film w a s shot i n 1 9 4 4 , d o e s t h i s not
c o n f i r m t h e c a r n i v a l e s q u e c h a r a c t e r of t h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s ? W e e n c o u n t e r a s i m i l a r n o c t u r n a l o r g y in t h e t h i r d p a r t of h>an, w h i c h w a s not shot —
see t h e s c e n a r i o , w h e r e t h e s a c r i l e g i o u s o b s c e n i t y i s e x p l i c i t : Ivan a n d
his oprichniks p e r f o r m t h e i r n i g h t l y d r i n k i n g feast a s a b l a c k m a s s , w i t h
black monastic robes over their normal clothing. Therein resides the true
g r e a t n e s s of E i s e n s t e i n : t h a t h e d e t e c t e d ( a n d d e p i c t e d ) t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
shift in t h e s t a t u s of p o l i t i c a l v i o l e n c e , from the " L e n i n i s t " l i b e r a t i n g
o u t b u r s t of d e s t r u c t i v e e n e r g y to t h e " S t a l i n i s t " o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e of the
Law.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e m a i n o p p o n e n t of I v a n in b o t h p a r t s of t h e film i s not
a man, but a w o m a n : the old powerful E u p h r o s y n a S t a r i t s k a y a , Ivan's
a u n t , w h o w a n t s to r e p l a c e I v a n w i t h h e r i m b e c l l i c son V l a d i m i r a n d t h u s
effectively r e i g n herself. In c o n t r a s t to I v a n , w h o w a n t s total p o w e r , b u t
p e r c e i v e s it a s a " h e a v y l o a d , " e x e r c i s i n g it a s a m e a n s to a n e n d ( t h e
c r e a t i o n of a g r e a t a n d p o w e r f u l R u s s i a n s t a t e ) , E u p h r o s y n a i s t h e s u b j e c t
of a m o r b i d p a s s i o n . F o r her, p o w e r i s a n e n d in itself. T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d l i n e s from
H e g e l ' s Phenomenology of the Spirit on t h e n o t i o n of
w o m a n k i n d ' ' * ' fit p e r f e c t l y t h e figure of O r t r u d in W a g n e r ' s Lohengrin: for
W a g n e r , there is nothing more horrible a n d d i s g u s t i n g than a w o m a n
254
STALINISM REVISITED
w h o i n t e r v e n e s in p o l i t i c a l life, d r i v e n b y t h e d e s i r e for p o w e r . In c o n t r a s t
t o m a l e a m b i t i o n , a w o m a n w a n t s p o w e r in o r d e r to p r o m o t e h e r o w n
n a r r o w f a m i l y i n t e r e s t s or, e v e n w o r s e , h e r p e r s o n a l c a p r i c e , i n c a p a b l e a s
s h e i s of p e r c e i v i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of s t a t e p o l i t i c s . A n d , d o e s
t h e s a m e not hold for Imn the Terribicl Is E u p h r o s y n a not the n e c e s s a r y
counterpoint
of t h e p o i s o n e d
Ivan's bride,
a gentle w o m a n
totally
d e d i c a t e d a n d s u b m i t t e d to h e r h u s b a n d ?
I v a n ' s p a r a d i g m a t i c g e s t u r e is t h e f o l l o w i n g o n e : h e p u t s on a s h o w of
h o r r o r a n d r e p e n t a n c e a t t h e b l o o d s h e d h e h a d to set in t r a i n , a n d t h e n ,
in a s u d d e n r e f l e x i v e g e s t u r e , h e fully e n d o r s e s h i s c r u e l t y , d e m a n d i n g
e v e n m o r e . In a t y p i c a l m o m e n t in P a r t II, i n s p e c t i n g t h e b o d i e s of t h e
b o y a r s k i l l e d b y h i s oprichnlkj, h e h u m b l y c r o s s e s himself. S u d d e n l y , h e
stops a n d p o i n t s a t t h e g r o u n d , a g l e a m of m a d f u r y in h i s e y e s , s a y i n g
hoarsely: "Too
f e w ! " T h i s j o l t i n g shift
is best
exemplified b y
the
e l e m e n t a r y t r a i t in h i s a c t i n g : r e p e a t e d l y , w e see I v a n s t a r i n g a h e a d ,
w i t h a p a t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n on h i s face, a s if p a s s i o n a t e l y e n g r o s s e d in a
n o b l e m i s s i o n ; t h e n , a l l of a s u d d e n , h e l o o k s a r o u n d s u s p i c i o u s l y w i t h
a n e x p r e s s i o n b o r d e r i n g on p a r a n o i d m a d n e s s . A v a r i a t i o n of t h i s shift
is t h e
famous
shot w h e n ,
d u r i n g h i s i l l n e s s in P a r t
I, t h e
priests
p r e m a t u r e l y a n d all too e a g e r l y s t a r t to p e r f o r m t h e r i t e s for the d y i n g .
They cover his h e a d with a gigantic sacred book; holding a
burning
h a n d l e on h i s b r e a s t , I v a n p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e r i t u a l , m u r m u r i n g p r a y e r s ;
all o f a s u d d e n , h o w e v e r , h e s t r u g g l e s to r a i s e h i s h e a d from u n d e r the
B i b l e , g l a n c e s a r o u n d t h e r o o m a s if t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y to g e t a v i e w of
t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e n , e x h a u s t e d , d r o p s b a c k on the p i l l o w b e n e a t h t h e
book.
T h i s b r i n g s u s to a s c e n e w h i c h w a s p l a n n e d a s w h a t E i s e n s t e i n c a l l e d
t h e donnée ( t h e p i v o t a l d r a m a t i c a n d e m o t i o n a l p o i n t ) of t h e e n t i r e t r i l o g y :
in t h e m i d d l e of P a r t III, after t h e s i e g e a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of N o v g o r o d , a
city w h i c h rebelled against his rule, Ivan, torn b y inner doubts
and
q u a l m s , a s k s for a p r i e s t a n d w a n t s to c o n f e s s . T h e s h o t i s a l o n g
c o n t i n u o u s c l o s e - u p of I v a n ' s h e a d c o v e r i n g h a l f of the s c r e e n ; t h e o t h e r
h a l f i s filled
b y the
confessor's
cross hanging b y
him while
Ivan
e n u m e r a t e s to t h e p r i e s t t h e h o r r i b l e d e e d s h e w a s forced to c a r r y o u t
for t h e m o t h e r l a n d . A l l of a s u d d e n , E u s t a c e , t h e confessor, g e t s a l l t o o
m t e r e s t e d in t h e n a m e s of t h o s e k i l l e d ( a fact n i c e l y s i g n a l e d b y t h e
t r e m b l i n g of h i s c r o s s ) , a n d e a g e r l y a s k s a b o u t w h e t h e r o t h e r n a m e s a r e
also a m o n g the d e a d : " P h i l l i p ? A n d . . . T i m o t h y ? A n d M i c h a e l ? " A f t e r
reassuring him ( " W e will catch h i m ! " ) , Ivan is s u d d e n l y taken a b a c k . H e
2S5
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
s e i z e s E u s t a c e ' s c r o s s a n d d r a g s it d o w n until h e i s face to face w i t h his
confessor. T h e n , h i s h a n d s r e a c h u p t h e c h a i n to t h e c o n f e s s o r ' s t h r o a t ,
a n d h e s t a r t s to a c c u s e h i m m e n a c i n g l y : " C a n it b e t h a t y o u too b e l o n g to
this a c c u r s e d l i n e ? " Finally, he e x p l o d e s : "Arrest h i m ! Interrogate him!
M a k e him talk!"''^
In a f u r t h e r c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t of P a r t III, I v a n i n v o l v e s G o d h i m s e l f in
t h i s d i a l e c t i c . W h i l e , in t h e c h u r c h , a m o n k s l o w l y r e a d s t h e n a m e s of all
t h o s e k i l l e d in N o v g o r o d , I v a n l i e s p r o s t r a t e in t h e d u s t b e n e a t h t h e l a r g e
p a i n t i n g of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , on w h i c h s p a r k s s h o o t o u t of t h e e y e s of
t h e c e l e s t i a l j u d g e a n d h i s g r i m face i s full of r a g e . I v a n r e f l e c t s on his
b l o o d t h i r s t y a c t i o n s , t r y i n g to e x c u s e t h e m : "It's not w i c k e d n e s s . Not
a n g e r . N o t c r u e l t y . It is to p u n i s h t r e a s o n . T r e a s o n a g a i n s t t h e c o m m o n
c a u s e . " T h e n , in a n g u i s h , h e d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e s G o d :
" Y o u s a y nothing. Celestial T s a r ? "
He waits. There is no reply. Angrily, ad though hurling a challenge, the
earthly Tsar repeats menacingly to the Celestinl Tsar:
"You say nothing. Celestial T s a r ? "
The earthly Tsar, with a sudden, violentgeoture, hurls his hejeweled scepter at
the Celestial Tsar. The scepter snuisheo agaiiwt the flat wall.
In w h a t , e x a c t l y , r e s i d e s t h e l i b i d i n a l e c o n o m y of t h i s s t r a n g e t w i s t ? It i s
not t h a t I v a n i s s i m p l y torn b y a n i n n e r conflict b e t w e e n h i s p e r s o n a l
e t h i c a l q u a l m s a n d t h e d u t } ' of t h e r u l e r w h o h a s to p e r f o r m c r u e l a c t s for
t h e s a k e of h i s c o u n t r y ; it i s a l s o not t h a t Ivan i s s i m p l y bluffing, j u s t
h y p o c r i t i c a l l y f e i g n i n g m o r a l t o r m e n t . W h i l e h i s w i l l to r e p e n t i s absolutely
sincere, h e d o e s not s u b j e c t i v e l y i d e n t i f y w i t h it. t f e i s l o d g e d w i t h i n the
s u b j e c t i v e split i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e s y m b o l i c o r d e r : h e w a n t s t h e r i t u a l ol
confession p e r f o r m e d a s a p r o p e r e x t e r n a l i z e d r i t u a l , a n d h e p l a y s the
g a m e of c o n f e s s i o n in a t o t a l l y s i n c e r e w a y , w h i l e , a t t h e s a m e t i m e ,
r e t a i n i n g the p o s i t i o n of a s u s p i c i o u s e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r of t h e
entire
s p e c t a c l e , c o n s t a n t l y v i g i l a n t , w a t c h i n g for a s u d d e n s t a b m t h e b a c k . All
h e w a n t s i s t h a t t h e a g e n t w h o m h e i s a d d r e s s i n g , a n d from w h o m
he
e x p e c t s f o r g i v e n e s s , w i l l d o h i s j o b p r o p e r l y , a n d n o t m e d d l e in p o l i t i c s .
In short, I v a n ' s p a r a n o i a is t h a t h e c a n n o t t r u s t t h e a g e n t to w h o m h e is
r e a d y to c o n f e s s h i s s i n s — h e s u s p e c t s t h a t t h i s a g e n t ( u l t i m a t e l y , God
himself) also harbors
a hidden
p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a of h i s o w n
running
c o u n t e r to I v a n ' s . T h i s i s w h y S t a l i n w a s h e r e too q u i c k w h e n , in t h e
famous nighttime conversation w i t h Eisenstein, he r e d u c e d Ivan's re256
STALINISM REVISITED
lig-iosity to a m o r a l
finishing
obstacle w h i c h prevented
Ivan
from
ruthlessly
off t h e j o b of d e s t r o y i n g h i s e n e m i e s :
I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e w a s e x t r e m e l y c r u e l . It i s p o s s i b l e to s h o w w h y h e
h a d to b e c r u e l . O n e of t h e m i s t a k e s of I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e w a s t h a t h e
d i d n o t c o m p l e t e l y finish off t h e five b i g feudal f a m i l i e s . If h e h a d
d e s t r o y e d t h e s e five f a m i l i e s t h e n t h e r e w o u l d not h a v e b e e n t h e T i m e
of T r o u b l e s . If I v a n the T e r r i b l e e x e c u t e d s o m e o n e t h e n h e r e p e n t e d
a n d p r a y e d for a l o n g t i m e . God d i s t u r b e d h i m on t h e s e m a t t e r s . [. . . ]
It w a s n e c e s s a r y to b e d e c i s i v e .
W h a t S t a l i n , in s p i t e of h i s g e n i u s , f a i l e d to g r a s p i s h o w t h e s p e c t a c l e of
r e p e n t a n c e w a s not a n o b s t a c l e to t h e r u t h l e s s k i l l i n g of h i s e n e m i e s , b u t
r a t h e r h e l p e d c o n s t i t u t e t h e s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g s p i r a l of t h e e n d l e s s o s c i l l a ­
tion b e t w e e n m u r d e r a n d r e p e n t a n c e . T h i s s p i r a l w o u l d h a v e r e a c h e d i t s
u n b e a r a b l e c l i m a x in P a r t III of Imn the Terrible. In t h e s c r i p t for t h e film,
t h e r e i s a s c e n e in t h e g r e a t h a l l of t h e c o u r t i n w h i c h I v a n a c c o m p l i s h e s a
p r o t o - S t a l i n i s t p u r g e a m o n g h i s o w n oprichniké. A d d r e s s i n g t h e g a t h e r e d
oprichnikd, h e o m i n o u s l y c l a i m s t h a t " t h e r e a r e s o m e a m o n g s t u s w h o h a v e
t r a d e d t h e c a u s e of the oprichnikj for g o l d , " w i t h o u t n a m i n g a n y o n e ; h e
g o e s on: " T h e r e is a m o n g s t y o u o n e w h o i s b o t h v e n e r a b l e a n d
who
e n j o y s t h e h i g h e s t c o n f i d e n c e [. . . ] A n d t h i s w r e t c h h a s b e t r a y e d m y
c o n f i d e n c e . " A l l e y e s , f o l l o w i n g I v a n ' s g a z e , a r e fixed on I v a n ' s faithful
Alexei Basmanov,
including the
e y e s of A l e x e i ' s g r i e f - s t r i c k e n
son
F y o d o r . T h e n , I v a n a s k s : " W h o i s w o r t h y e n o u g h to c u t off so w i s e a
h e a d ? " H i s e y e s r e s t on F y o d o r w h o s e h e a d i s l o w e r e d . F y o d o r feels
I v a n ' s g a z e on h i m ; h e r a i s e s h i s h e a d to l o o k I v a n r i g h t in t h e e y e s . W i t h
a s c a r c e l y perceptible movement, Ivan nods his head; F y o d o r l e a v e s the
t a b l e , g o e s u p to h i s f a t h e r a n d l e a d s h i m off.
In a d a r k p l a c e o u t s i d e , A l e x e i c o n f e s s e s h i s g u i l t to h i s son, b u t t e l l s
h i m t h a t h e h a s p i l e d u p m o u n t a i n s of g o l d for h i s son a n d f a m i l y , so t h a t
o u r l i n e c o n t i n u e s " ; h e t h e n I m p l o r e s h i s s o n to p r o m i s e h i m that, after
k i l l i n g h i m , h e w i l l k e e p all t h e g o l d for t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ; F y o d o r s w e a r s
t h e o a t h , f a t h e r a n d son k i s s , a n d the son t h e n s w i f t l y d e c a p i t a t e s h i s
father. T h e s c e n e t h e n r e t u r n s to t h e g r e a t h a l l , w h e r e I v a n , in a s t a t e of
m o u n t i n g t e n s i o n a n d full of t o r m e n t , l o o k s a t the d o o r . A t l a s t t h e d o o r
o p e n s a n d F y o d o r r e a p p e a r s ; h i s h e a d i s b o w e d , h i s h a i r s t i c k i n g to h i s
forehead. H e raises his head; Ivan looks him straight in the e y e .
257
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
B u t a l r e a d y t h e g a z e of F y o d o r i s i m p u r e ; it c a n n o t w i t h s t a n d t h a t of
I v a n . I v a n ' s l i p s t w i t c h a s h e s p e a k s h o l l o w l y : " Y o u s h o w e d n o p i t y to
y o u r father, F y o d o r . W h y s h o u l d y o u p i t y o r d e f e n d m e ' / " F y o d o r
g r a s p s t h a t t h e T s a r h a s d i v i n e d t h e s e c r e t t a l k b e t w e e n h i m a n d his
father.
I v a n u t t e r s t h e o r d e r : " A r r e s t h i m ! " L i k e a m a d m a n , F y o d o r t r i e s to
t h r o w h i m s e l f on I v a n , b u t is s t a b b e d b y S t a d e n ' s ( a G e r m a n oprlchnik's)
d a g g e r . " A s i n g l e t e a r r o l l s d o w n the g r e y b e a r d of T s a r I v a n . It r e m a i n s
s u s p e n d e d on t h e p o i n t of h i s b e a r d l i k e a r a i n d r o p on a funeral w r e a t h .
I V A N : ' H a v e p i t y on m e , O L o r d , h a v e p i t y . . .' " W i t h t h e l a s t a t o m of
his s t r e n g t h , t h e d y i n g F y o d o r w a r n s I v a n : " D o not t r u s t the G e r m a n , O
T s a r ! . . . " I v a n r a i s e s h i s h e a v y e y e l i d s ; h i s g a z e s t o p s on S t a d e n : " H o w
p r o m p t l y t h e f o r e i g n g u e s t c o m e s to t h e d e f e n s e of the T s a r a g a i n s t h i s
o w n oprichnikA" T h e faithful M a l y u t a q u i c k l y g r a b s S t a d e n ' s s h o u l d e r
w i t h his h e a v y h a n d . . .
E v e n h e r e , t h e c h a i n of b e t r a y a l a n d s u s p i c i o n
g o e s on: from A l e x e i to F y o d o r , from F y o d o r to S t a d e n . . . In b o t h c a s e s ,
I v a n ' s s u s p i c i o n falls on t h e v e r y p e r s o n w h o h a s j u s t p e r f o r m e d a m u r d e r
to d e f e n d the t s a r .
W h o m c a n I v a n trust, if e v e n t h e c o u p l e of faithful s e r v a n t s , A l e x e i
B a s m a n o v a n d h i s son F y o d o r , e n d u p b e t r a y i n g h i m ( s t e a l i n g a n d
a m a s s i n g t r e a s u r e s for t h e w e a l t h a n d g l o r y of t h e i r f a m i l y ) ? M a l y u t a
S k u r a t o v , h i s m o s t t r u s t e d a n d d o g g l s h l y d e v o t e d e x e c u t i o n e r , first m e t
him
w h e n h e l e d t h e m o b w h i c h b r o k e into t h e c h u r c h w h e r e I v a n ' s
c o r o n a t i o n w a s in p r o g r e s s , w i t h m u r d e r on h i s m i n d . A t t h e e n d of P a r t
III, t h e d y i n g M a l y u t a a s it w e r e n o m i n a t e s h i s s u c c e s s o r (the p e r s o n
w h o m I v a n c a n a b s o l u t e l y t r u s t ) : P e t e r V o l y n e t s , t h e y o u n g m a n w h o , at
t h e e n d of P a r t II, h a d s t a b b e d V l a d i m i r to d e a t h , b e l i e v i n g t h a t h e w a s
k i l l i n g I v a n —it i s a s t h r o u g h I v a n c a n t r u l y t r u s t o n l y f o r m e r t r a i t o r s .
The ininlnuii difference
O n e c a n i m a g i n e a S t a l i n i s t t r a g e d y p r o p e r w h i c h w o u l d o c c u r w h e n the
a c c u s e d in a s h o w t r i a l ( a n e x - m e m b e r of nomenklatura) i s c o m p e l l e d to
a d m i t t h a t t h e u n j u s t p u n i s h m e n t t h a t befell h i m is t h e o u t c o m e of h i s
o w n p r e v i o u s p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , a n d i s , in t h i s s e n s e , a s i g n of a n i r o n i c
j u s t i c e , t h a t i s , that, in t h i s s e n s e , h e e f f e c t i v e l y ii " o b j e c t i v e l y g u i l t y . " B u t
can one i m a g i n e Stalin himself u n d e r g o i n g a similar experience, recog­
n i z i n g in t h e m a d n e s s of c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y p l o t s p o p p i n g u p all
258
STALINISM REVISITED
a x o u n d h i m t h e r e s u l t of h i s o w n m a d n e s s ? F o r s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , n o .
W l i a t o n e c a n i m a g i n e is a s u c c e s s f u l coup d'état s t a g e d b y t h e
fUjmenklatura
upper
a g a i n s t S t a l i n ( s a y in t h e l a s t y e a r s of h i s life, w h e n t h e y
w e r e all a g a i n t h r e a t e n e d b y S t a l i n ' s a n t i - S e m i t i c p a r a n o i a ) ; b u t it w o u l d
h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e to o r g a n i z e a s h o w t r i a l a g a i n s t S t a l i n himself,
c o m p e l l i n g h i m to c o n f e s s t h a t h e h a d h e a d e d a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t t r u e
s o c i a l i s m . T h e m o s t t h e y c o u l d h a v e d o n e w a s to k i l l h i m d i s c r e e t l y , w h i l e
e l e v a t i n g h i m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t o a n u n t o u c h a b l e d e a d M a s t e r . In a w a y ,
t h i s did h a p p e n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s . O n e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e
n o t i o n of t h e i n f a l l i b i l i t y of t h e p o p e w a s f o r g e d i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y not t o i n c r e a s e h i s p o w e r b u t to c u r b it: a p o p e c a n n o t n u l l i f y t h e
d e c i s i o n s of h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , s i n c e t h e y a r e , b y definition, i n f a l l i b l e . A n d
a s i m i l a r p a r a d o x h o l d s for S t a l i n : h i s d e i f i c a t i o n , e l e v a t i o n i n t o
the
u n t o u c h a b l e s u p r e m e I^eader, c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n of h i s " r e a l "
p o w e r . A t t h e c l i m a x of t h e g r e a t p u r g e s , w h e n t h e s p i r a l of c a r n i v a l e s q u e
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h r e a t e n e d to s w a l l o w t h e u p p e r nomenklatura
itself, t h e
P o l i t b u r o s t o o d u p to S t a l i n , f o r c i n g h i m to s h a r e h i s a u t h o r i t y w i t h t h e m .
T h e s t a n d a r d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s a s
"bureaucratic
s o c i a l i s m " i s t o t a l l y m i s l e a d i n g a n d ( s e l f - ) m y s t i f y i n g : it i s t h e w a y t h e
S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e i t s e l f p e r c e i v e d its p r o b l e m , t h e c a u s e of its f a i l u r e s a n d
t r o u b l e s — i f t h e r e w e r e not e n o u g h p r o d u c t s i n t h e s t o r e s , if t h e a u t h o ­
rities f a i l e d to r e s p o n d to p e o p l e ' s d e m a n d s , a n d so on a n d so forth, w h a t
w a s e a s i e r t h a n t o b l a m e t h e " b u r e a u c r a t i c " a t t i t u d e of i n d i f f e r e n c e , p e t t y
a r r o g a n c e , e t c . ? N o w o n d e r t h a t , from t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s o n w a r d s , S t a l i n w a s
w r i t i n g a t t a c k s on b u r e a u c r a c y , on b u r e a u c r a t i c a t t i t u d e s . " B u r e a u c r a t ­
i s m " w a s n o t h i n g b u t a n effect of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s , a n d
the p a r a d o x i s t h a t it i s t h e u l t i m a t e m i s n o m e r : w h a t S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s
r e a l l y l a c k e d w a s p r e c i s e l y a n efficient " b u r e a u c r a c y " ( a d e p o l i t i c i z e d
and competent administrative apparatus).
of t h o s e w h o i n s i s t t h a t C o m m u n i s m ,
not
f a s c i s m , w a s t h e t r u e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e of t h e t w e n t i e t h
One
of t h e a r g u m e n t s
cen­
t u r y , r e s t s on t h e fact t h a t in a l l of N a z i G e r m a n y t h e r e w e r e o n l y 2 5 , 0 0 0
G e s t a p o s e c r e t p o l i c e m e n to c o n t r o l t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e the t i n y G D R
alone employed
1 0 0 , 0 0 0 s e c r e t p o l i c e m e n to control its m u c h s m a l l e r
population —clear proof
of t h e m u c h
m o r e o p p r e s s i v e n a t u r e of
the
C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e . H o w e v e r , w h a t if o n e r e a d s this fact i n a different
w a y ? F e w e r Gestapo a g e n t s w e r e n e e d e d b e c a u s e the G e r m a n
popula­
tion w a s m u c h m o r e m o r a l l y c o r r u p t e d in s u p p o r t i n g t h e N a z i s ( a n d t h u s
c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h t h e r e g i m e ) t h a n the G D R p o p u l a t i o n — w h y ? W h y d i d
259
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
t h e G D R p o p u l a t i o n r e s i s t m u c h m o r e ? T h e a n s w e r i s a p a r a d o x i c a l one;
it i s not t h a t t h e p e o p l e s i m p l y r e t a i n e d t h e i r e t h i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , so that
the
r e g i m e w a s a l i e n a t e d from
the
"substantial
e t h i c a l l i f e " of
the
m a j o r i t y ; q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y , r e s i s t a n c e w a s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e s u c c e s s
of t h e r u l i n g i d e o l o g y . In t h e i r v e r y r e s i s t a n c e to t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e ,
t h e p e o p l e r e l i e d on t h e official i d e o l o g y itself w h i c h often
blatantly
contradicted reality: actual freedom, social solidarity, true d e m o c r a c y . .
O n e s h o u l d n e v e r f o r g e t the e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e d i s s i d e n t r e s i s t a n c e w a s
i n d e b t e d to t h e official i d e o l o g y .
F o r t h i s p r e c i s e r e a s o n , o n e c a n c l a i m t h a t t o d a y ' s N o r t h K o r e a is no
l o n g e r a C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r y , not e v e n in t h e S t a l i n i s t s e n s e : it c u t t h e
l i n k s w i t h t h e l e g a c y of t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h o s e n o t i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y
c o m p e l s a r e g i m e to e x p o s e all its c i t i z e n s to official p r o p a g a n d a . S h i n
D o n g Hyok, w h o escaped a "total-control
z o n e " in N o r t h K o r e a a n d
r e a c h e d S o u t h K o r e a v i a C h i n a , r e p o r t s t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s s e n t to s u c h
z o n e s c a n n e v e r c o m e out: t h e y a r e p u t to w o r k in m i n e s o r l o g g i n g c a m p s
u n t i l t h e y d i e . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s d o n o t e v e n b o t h e r to g i v e t h e m i d e o l o g i c a l
e d u c a t i o n : t h e c h i l d r e n w h o a r e b o r n to p a r e n t s in t h e s e z o n e s
(and
d e s t i n e d to s p e n d t h e i r e n t i r e l i v e s i n t h e m ) a r e o n l y t a u g h t t h e e l e m e n ­
t a r y s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y for m i n i n g a n d f a r m i n g . T h e r e w e r e u p to
1,000
c h i l d r e n b u t no t e x t b o o k s in t h e s c h o o l at V a l l e y N o . 2, the p a r t of the
c a m p w h e r e S h i n l i v e d . In a l l of N o r t h K o r e a , v i l l a g e s a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h
C o m m u n i s t s l o g a n s a n d p o r t r a i t s of K i m J o n g II. V a l l e y N o . 2 h a d o n l y
one slogan c a r v e d into a w o o d e n plaque: "Everyone o b e y the regula­
tions!"
W h a t w e h a v e h e r e i s t h u s t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y m e c h a n i s m at its
p u r e s t , d e p r i v e d of a n y i d e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . A l l N o r t h K o r e a n s a r e
e x p e c t e d to l o o k u p to t h e i r b e l o v e d l e a d e r ( w h e n b l i n d p a t i e n t s w e r e
a s k e d b y W e s t e r n j o u r n a l i s t s w h y t h e y w a n t e d to s e e , t h e y a l l c l a i m e d
t h a t it w a s in o r d e r to c a t c h t h e s i g h t of K i m Y o n g II, to w h o m t h e y o w e d
e v e r y t h i n g ) — a l l e x c e p t t h o s e p r i s o n e r s w h o a r e t h u s l i t e r a l l y r e d u c e d to
s u b h u m a n s t a t u s , e x c l u d e d from t h e social c o m m u n i t y .
It is w o r t h r e t u r n i n g h e r e to E r n s t N o l t e ' s b o o k on H e i d e g g e r b e c a u s e
it s e r i o u s l y a p p r o a c h e s the t a s k of g r a s p i n g N a z i s m a s a f e a s i b l e p o l i t i c a l
project, of t r y i n g to r e c r e a t e " t h e s t o r y t h e N a z i s w e r e t e l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s
a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , " w h i c h i s a jine qua non of its effective c r i t i c i s m ; the
s a m e h a s to b e d o n e for S t a l i n i s m .
Nolte also formulated the basic terms
a n d t o p i c s of t h e " r e v i s i o n i s t " d e b a t e w h o s e first t e n e t i s to " o b j e c t i v e l y
compare"
fascism
and
Communism:
fascism and
even
Nazism
was
u l t i m a t e l y a r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t a n d a r e p e t i t i o n of its
260
STALINISM REVISITED
vvorst p r a c t i c e s
(concentration
c a m p s , m a s s l i q u i d a t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l
enemies):
C o u l d it b e t h e c a s e t h a t t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s a n d H i t l e r c a r r i e d o u t
an "Asiatic" deed
[the
Holocaust] only because they
considered
t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r k i n d to b e p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l v i c t i m s of a
[Bolshevik] " A s i a t i c " deed. Didn't the "Gulag A r c h i p e l a g o " precede
Auschwitz?
R e p r e h e n s i b l e a s it w a s , N a z i s m w a s t h u s t e m p o r a l l y w h a t a p p e a r e d after
C o m m u n i s m ; it w a s a l s o , w i t h r e g a r d to its c o n t e n t , a n e x c e s s i v e reaction
to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
all the horrors committed
by
N a z i s m m e r e l y copied the horrors a l r e a d y committed b y Soviet Com­
m u n i s m : t h e r e i g n of t h e s e c r e t p o l i c e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s , g e n o c i d a l
terror . . . Nolte's conclusion is thus that C o m m u n i s m a n d N a z i s m share
t h e s a m e t o t a l i t a r i a n form, a n d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e c o n c e r n s o n l y t h e
e m p i r i c a l a g e n t s w h i c h fill t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l p l a c e s ( " J e w s " i n s t e a d of
" c l a s s e n e m y , " a n d so on a n d so f o r t h ) . T h e s t a n d a r d l i b e r a l - l e f t i s t
r e a c t i o n to N o l t e
Nazism,
how
c o n s i s t e d in a m o r a l i s t i c o u t c r y : N o l t e r e l a t i v i z e s
r e d u c i n g it to a s e c o n d a r y e c h o
can one even compare
Communism,
of C o m m u n i s t
this t h w a r t e d
Evil—but
attempt
at
l i b e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e r a d i c a l Evil of N a z i s m ? In c o n t r a s t to t h i s d i s m i s s a l ,
o n e s h o u l d f u l l y c o n c e d e N o l t e ' s c e n t r a l point: y e s , N a z i s m w a s in fact a
r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t ; it d i d i n d e e d j u s t r e p l a c e c l a s s s t r u g g l e
with the struggle between A r y a n s and J e w s — t h e problem,
however,
r e s i d e s in t h i s " j u s t , " w h i c h i s b y no m e a n s a s i n n o c e n t a s it a p p e a r s . W e
a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h d i s p l a c e m e n t {Verschiebung) in t h e F r e u d i a n s e n s e of
the term: N a z i s m displaces class struggle onto racial struggle a n d t h e r e b y
o b f u s c a t e s its t r u e s i t e . W h a t c h a n g e s in t h e p a s s a g e from C o m m u n i s m to
N a z i s m is t h e form, a n d it is in t h i s c h a n g e of t h e form t h a t t h e N a z i
ideological mystification resides: the political s t r u g g l e is n a t u r a l i z e d into
t h e r a c i a l conflict, t h e ( c l a s s ) a n t a g o n i s m i n h e r e n t in t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
IS r e d u c e d to t h e i n v a s i o n of a f o r e i g n ( J e w i s h ) b o d y w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e
h a r m o n y of t h e A r y a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n f a s c i s m a n d
C o m m u n i s m i s t h u s " f o r m a l - o n t o l o g i c a l ": it i s n o t ( a s N o l t e c l a i m s ) t h a t
w e h a v e in b o t h c a s e s t h e s a m e formal a n t a g o n i s t i c s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e o n l y
t h e p l a c e of t h e E n e m y i s filled in w i t h a different p o s i t i v e e l e m e n t ( c l a s s ,
r a c e ) . In t h e c a s e of r a c e , w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a p o s i t i v e n a t u r a l i z e d
e l e m e n t ( t h e p r e s u p p o s e d o r g a n i c u n i t y of s o c i e t y is p e r t u r b e d b y t h e
261
IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S
i n t r u s i o n of t h e foreign b o d y ) , w h i l e c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m i s a b s o l u t e l y
i n h e r e n t in a n d c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e s o c i a l field — f a s c i s m t h u s o b f u s c a t e s
a n t a g o n i s m , t r a n s l a t i n g it i n t o a conflict of p o s i t i v e o p p o s e d t e r m s / ^
It is h e r e t h a t o n e h a s to m a k e t h e c h o i c e : t h e " p u r e " l i b e r a l s t a n c e of
e q u i d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s leftist a n d
rightist
" t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " ( t h e y a r e both
b a d , b a s e d on t h e i n t o l e r a n c e of p o l i t i c a l a n d o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s ,
the
r e j e c t i o n of d e m o c r a t i c a n d h u m a n i s t v a l u e s , a n d so o n ) i s a priori false,
o n e hiu to t a k e s i d e s a n d p r o c l a i m o n e f u n d a m e n t a l l y " w o r s e " t h a n the
o t h e r — f o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e o n g o i n g " r e l a t i v i z a t i o n " of f a s c i s m , t h e notion
t h a t o n e s h o u l d r a t i o n a l l y c o m p a r e t h e t w o t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m s , etc., always
i n v o l v e s t h e — e x p l i c i t or i m p l i c i t — t h e s i s t h a t f a s c i s m w a s " b e t t e r " than
C o m m u n i s m , a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t . ^
In a l e t t e r (to w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d in C h a p t e r 3 ) to H e r b e r t
M a r c u s e on J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1 9 4 8 , H e i d e g g e r w r o t e :
To the serious legitimate c h a r g e s that y o u e x p r e s s "about a r e g i m e that
m u r d e r e d m i l l i o n s ot J e w s . . . " I c a n m e r e l y a d d t h a t if i n s t e a d of
" J e w s " y o u h a d w r i t t e n " E a s t G e r m a n s , " t h e n t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e for
o n e of t h e a l l i e s , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d
s i n c e 1 9 4 5 h a s b e c o m e p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e , w h i l e t h e b l o o d y t e r r o r of
t h e N a z i s in p o i n t of fact h a d b e e n k e p t a s e c r e t from t h e
German
people.
M a r c u s e w a s fully j u s t i f i e d in r e p l j à n g t h a t t h e t h i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
b r u t a l l y e x p a t r i a t i n g p e o p l e a n d b u r n i n g t h e m in a c o n c e n t r a t i o n
camp
is t h e l i n e that, a t t h a t m o m e n t , s e p a r a t e d c i v i l i z a t i o n from b a r b a r i s m .
O n e s h o u l d not s h r i n k from g o i n g a s t e p f u r t h e r : t h e t h i n
difference
b e t w e e n t h e S t a l i n i s t g u l a g a n d t h e N a z i a n n i h i l a t i o n c a m p w a s a l s o , at
that historical moment, the difference b e t w e e n civilization and barbar­
ism.
L e t u s t a k e S t a l i n i s m a t its m o s t b r u t a l : t h e d e k u l a k i z a t i o n of t h e e a r l y
1930s. Stalin's slogan w a s that " k u l a k s as a class should be liquidated" —
w h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n ? It c a n m e a n m a n y t h i n g s — from t a k i n g a w a y t h e i r
p r o p e r t y ( l a n d ) , to f o r c i b l y r e m o v i n g t h e m to o t h e r a r e a s ( s a y , from
U k r a i n e to S i b e r i a ) , o r s i m p l y i n t o a g u l a g — b u t it d i d not m e a n s i m p l y to
k i l l t h e m a l l . T h e g o a l w a s to l i q u i d a t e t h e m as a cliuis, not a s i n d i v i d u a l s .
E v e n w h e n t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n w a s d e l i b e r a t e l y s t a r v e d ( m i l l i o n s of
d e a d in U k r a i n e , a g a i n ) , t h e g o a l w a s not to kill t h e m a l l , b u t to b r e a k
t h e i r b a c k b o n e , to b r u t a l l y c r u s h t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e , to s h o w t h e m w h o w a s
262
STALINISM REVISITED
the master. The diiterence — minimal, but crucial — persists here w i t h
regard
to t h e N a z i d e - J u d a i z a t i o n , w h e r e t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l e f f e c t i v e l y
w a s to a n n i h i l a t e t h e m a s i n d i v i d u a l s , to m a k e t h e m d i s a p p e a r a s a r a c e .
In t h i s s e n s e , then, E r n s t N o l t e is r i g h t : N a z i s m WM a r e p e t i t i o n , a c o p y
of B o l s h e v i s m — i n N i e t z s c h e ' s t e r m s , it w a s a p r o f o u n d l y re-active p h e ­
nomenon.
263
W h y Populism Is (Sometimes) Good Enough in
Practice, but Not Good Enough in Theory
G e r a l d F i t z g e r a l d , t h e Irish e x - P r i m e M i n i s t e r , o n c e f o r m u l a t e d a p r o p e r
H e g e l i a n r e v e r s a l of t h e c o m m o n p l a c e w i s d o m " T h i s m a y b e g o o d for
t h e o r y , b u t it i s not g o o d e n o u g h for p r a c t i c e " : " T h i s m a y b e g o o d in
practice, but
it i s not
good
enough
in t h e o r y . "
This reversal
best
e n c a p s u l a t e s t h e a m b i g u o u s p o s i t i o n of p o p u l i s t p o l i t i c s : w h i l e it c a n
s o m e t i m e s b e e n d o r s e d a s p a r t of a s h o r t - t e r m p r a g m a t i c c o m p r o m i s e ,
o n e s h o u l d c r i t i c a l l y r e j e c t t h e n o t i o n in its f u n d a m e n t a l
The
dimension.
p o s i t i v e d i m e n s i o n of p o p u l i s m i s its p o t e n t i a l s u s p e n s i o n
of
d e m o c r a t i c r u l e s . D e m o c r a c y — i n t h e w a y t h i s t e r m is u s e d t o d a y —
c o n c e r n s , a b o v e a l l , f o r m a l l e g a l i s m : its m i n i m a l d e f i n i t i o n is u n c o n d i t i o n a l a d h e r e n c e to a c e r t a i n set of f o r m a l r u l e s w h i c h g u a r a n t e e t h a t
a n t a g o n i s m s a r e fiuty a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e a g o n i s t i c g a m e . " D e m o c r a c y "
m e a n s that, w h a t e v e r e l e c t o r a l m a n i p u l a t i o n t o o k p l a c e , e v e r y p o l i t i c a l
a g e n t w i l l u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y r e s p e c t t h e r e s u l t s . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e
US
p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s of 2 0 0 0 w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y " d e m o c r a t i c " : in s p i t e of
o b v i o u s e l e c t o r a l m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d of t h e p a t e n t m e a n l n g l e s s n e s s of the
fact t h a t a c o u p l e of h u n d r e d F l o r i d a v o i c e s d e c i d e d w h o w o u l d b e the
p r e s i d e n t , t h e D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e a c c e p t e d h i s d e f e a t . In t h e w e e k s of
u n c e r t a i n t y after the elections. Bill Clinton m a d e an a p p r o p r i a t e acerbic
comment: "The American people have spoken; w e just don't k n o w w h a t
t h e y s a i d . " T h i s c o m m e n t s h o u l d b e t a k e n m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h a n it w a s
m e a n t : e v e n n o w , w e d o not k n o w it — a n d , m a y b e , b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s no
s u b s t a n t i a l " m e s s a g e " b e h i n d the r e s u l t at a l l . . . J a c q u e s - A l a i n M i l l e r
h a s s h o w n h o w d e m o c r a c y i m p l i e s t h e " b a r r e d " b i g O t h e r ; h o w e v e r , the
F l o r i d a e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s that, n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e is a " b i g O t h e r "
w h i c h c o n t i n u e s t o e x i s t in d e m o c r a c y : t h e p r o c e d u r a l
"big O t h e r " of
e l e c t o r a l r u l e s w h i c h s h o u l d b e o b e y e d w h a t e v e r t h e r e s u l t — a n d it is thù
" b i g O t h e r , " t h i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e l i a n c e on r u l e s t h a t p o p u l i s m ( t h r e a t e n s
t o ) s u s p e n d . W h i c h is w h y t h e r e is in p o p u l i s m a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g v i o l e n t .
264
W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E
t h r e a t e n i n g , for t h e h b e r a l v i e w : a n o p e n o r l a t e n t p r e s s u r e , a w a r n i n g
that, if e l e c t i o n s a r e m a n i p u l a t e d , the " w i l l of t h e p e o p l e " w i l l h a v e to find
a n o t h e r w a y to i m p o s e itself; e v e n if e l e c t o r a l l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of p o w e r i s
r e s p e c t e d , it is m a d e c l e a r t h a t e l e c t i o n s p l a y a s e c o n d a r y r o l e , t h a t t h e y
s e r v e o n l y to c o n f i r m a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s w h o s e s u b s t a n t i a l w e i g h t l i e s
e l s e w h e r e . T h i s is w h y t h e r e g i m e of H u g o C h a v e z in V e n e z u e l a i s
g e n u i n e l y p o p u l i s t : a l t h o u g h it w a s l e g i t i m i z e d b y e l e c t i o n s , it i s c l e a r t h a t
its e x e r c i s e of p o w e r r e l i e s on a different d y n a m i c ( d i r e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n of
t h e p o o r in f a v e l a s a n d o t h e r m o d e s of l o c a l s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n ) . T h i s i s
w h a t g i v e s t h e " t h r i l l " to p o p u l i s t r e g i m e s : t h e d e m o c r a t i c r u l e s a r e n e v e r
f u l l y e n d o r s e d , t h e r e is a l w a y s a n u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t p e r t a i n s to t h e m , a
p o s s i b i l i t y a l w a y s l o o m s t h a t t h e y w i l l b e r e d e f i n e d , " u n f a i r l y c h a n g e d in
t h e m i d d l e of t h e g a m e . " T h i s a s p e c t of p o p u l i s m
e n d o r s e d —the p r o b l e m
i s not
should
be
fully
its " u n d e m o c r a t i c " c h a r a c t e r , b u t
its
r e l i a n c e on a s u b s t a n t i a l notion of t h e " p e o p l e " : in p o p u l i s m , the " b i g
Other," although
( p o t e n t i a l l y ) s u s p e n d e d in t h e g u i s e of p r o c e d u r a l
formalLim, r e t u r n s in t h e g u i s e of t h e P e o p l e a s t h e dubjtantial
agent
legitimizing power.
T h e r e a r e t h u s t w o e l e m e n t a r y a n d i r r e d u c i b l e s i d e s to d e m o c r a c y : the
v i o l e n t e g a l i t a r i a n r i s e of t h e l o g i c of t h o s e w h o a r e " s u p e r n u m e r a r y , " t h e
" p a r t of n o p a r t , " t h o s e w h o , w h i l e f o r m a l l y i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l
edifice, h a v e no d e t e r m i n a t e p l a c e w i t h i n it; a n d t h e r e g u l a t e d ( m o r e o r
l e s s ) u n i v e r s a l p r o c e d u r e of c h o o s i n g t h o s e w h o w i l l e x e r t p o w e r . H o w
d o t h e s e t w o s i d e s r e l a t e to e a c h o t h e r ? W h a t if d e m o c r a c y in t h e s e c o n d
s e n s e ( t h e r e g u l a t e d p r o c e d u r e of r e g i s t e r i n g t h e " p e o p l e ' s v o i c e ") i s
u l t i m a t e l y a ckfeiue against itself, a g a i n s t d e m o c r a c y in t h e s e n s e of t h e
v i o l e n t i n t r u s i o n of t h e e g a h t a r i a n l o g i c t h a t d i s t u r b s t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l
f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e s o c i a l e d i f i c e , a n a t t e m p t to r e - f u n c t i o n a l i z e t h i s e x c e s s ,
to m a k e it a p a r t of t h e n o r m a l r u n n i n g of t h e s o c i a l e d i f i c e ?
H o w e v e r , t h e t r a p to b e a v o i d e d h e r e i s to o p p o s e t h e s e t w o p o l e s a s
t h e " g o o d " v e r s u s t h e " b a d " , t h a t i s , to d i s m i s s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d d e m o ­
c r a t i c p r o c e d u r e a s a n " o s s i f i c a t i o n " of a p r i m o r d i a l d e m o c r a t i c e x p e r i ­
e n c e . W h a t t r u l y m a t t e r s i s p r e c i s e l y t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e d e m o c r a t i c
e x p l o s i o n s u c c e e d s in b e c o m i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , t r a n s l a t e d into s o c i a l
o r d e r . N o t o n l y a r e d e m o c r a t i c e x p l o s i o n s e a s i l y r e c u p e r a t e d b y t h o s e in
p o w e r , s i n c e " t h e d a y a f t e r " p e o p l e a w a k e n to t h e s o b e r r e a l i t y of p o w e r
r e l a t i o n s r e i n v i g o r a t e d b y fresh d e m o c r a t i c b l o o d ( w h i c h i s w h y t h o s e in
p o w e r l o v e " e x p l o s i o n s of c r e a t i v i t y " l i k e t h e F r e n c h M a y 1 9 6 8 ) ; often,
t h e " o s s i f i e d " d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e d u r e to w h i c h t h e m a j o r i t y c o n t i n u e s to
265
IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES
Stick a s to t h e " d e a d l e t t e r " i s t h e o n l y d e f e n s e r e m a i n i n g a g a i n s t the
o n s l a u g h t of " t o t a l i t a r i a n " p a s s i o n s of t h e c r o w d .
T h e p r o b l e m i s t h u s : h o w to r e g u l a t e / i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e t h e v e r y v i o l e n t
e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a t i c i m p u l s e , h o w to p r e v e n t
it b e i n g d r o w n e d
in
d e m o c r a c y in t h e s e c o n d s e n s e of t h e t e r m ( r e g u l a t e d p r o c e d u r e ) ?
If
t h e r e i s n o w a y to d o it, t h e n " a u t h e n t i c " d e m o c r a c y r e m a i n s a m o m e n ­
t a r y Utopian o u t b u r s t w h i c h , on t h e p r o v e r b i a l m o r n i n g after, h a s to b e
n o r m a l i z e d . T h e h a r s h c o n s e q u e n c e to b e a c c e p t e d h e r e i s t h a t t h i s e x c e s s
of e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a c y o v e r t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e d u r e c a n o n l y " i n ­
s t i t u t i o n a l i z e " Itself in
the
g u i s e of i t s o p p o s i t e ,
as
revolutionary-
d e m o c r a t i c terror.
Good enough in practice . . .
The 2005 French
and
D u t c h " n o s " to t h e p r o j e c t of t h e
European
C o n s t i t u t i o n w e r e c l e a r - c u t c a s e s of w h a t in " F r e n c h t h e o r y " i s r e f e r r e d
to a s a floating signifier: a " n o " of c o n f u s e d , i n c o n s i s t e n t ,
overdetermined
m e a n i n g s , a k i n d of c o n t a i n e r in w h i c h the d e f e n s e of w o r k e r s '
rights
c o e x i s t s w i t h r a c i s m , in w h i c h t h e b l i n d r e a c t i o n t o a p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t a n d
fear of c h a n g e c o e x i s t w i t h v a g u e Utopian h o p e s . W e a r e t o l d t h a t t h e
F r e n c h "no " w a s really a
' n o " to m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s : to A n g l o - S a x o n
n e o l i b e r a l i s m , to C h i r a c a n d h i s g o v e r n m e n t , to t h e i n f l u x of i m m i g r a n t
w o r k e r s from P o l a n d w h o l o w e r t h e w a g e s of t h e F r e n c h w o r k e r s , a n d so
on a n d so forth. T h e r e a l s t r u g g l e is g o i n g on n o w : n a m e l y t h e s t r u g g l e for
t h e meaning of t h i s " n o " — w h o w i l l a p p r o p r i a t e i t ? W h o — i f a n y o n e — w i l l
t r a n s l a t e it i n t o a c o h e r e n t a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n ?
If t h e r e i s a p r e d o m i n a n t r e a d i n g of t h e " n o , " it i s a n e w v a r i a t i o n on
t h e o l d C l i n t o n m o t t o "It's t h e e c o n o m y , s t u p i d ! " : t h e " n o " w a s s u p p o ­
s e d l y a r e a c t i o n to E u r o p e ' s
e c o n o m i c l e t h a r g y , falling b e h i n d
with
r e g a r d to o t h e r n e w l y e m e r g i n g b l o c s of e c o n o m i c p o w e r , its e c o n o m i c ,
social, a n d ideologico-polItical i n e r t i a — p a r a d o x i c a l l y , an inappropri­
a t e r e a c t i o n , a r e a c t i o n on behalf of t h i s v e r y I n e r t i a of p r i v i l e g e d E u r ­
o p e a n s , of t h o s e w h o w a n t to c l i n g on to old w e l f a r e - s t a t e p r i v i l e g e s . It
w a s t h e r e a c t i o n of " o l d E u r o p e , " t r i g g e r e d b y t h e f e a r of a n y r e a l c h a n g e ,
t h e r e f u s a l of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s of t h e B r a v e N e w W o r l d of g l o b a l i s t
modernization.
N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n of "official " E u r o p e w a s o n e
of n e a r - p a n i c a t t h e d a n g e r o u s , " i r r a t i o n a l , " r a c i s t a n d i s o l a t i o n i s t p a s ­
266
s i o n s t h a t s u s t a i n e d t h e " n o , " at a p a r o c h i a l r e j e c t i o n of o p e n n e s s
and
l i b e r a l m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m . O n e is u s e d to h e a r i n g c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t
the
W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E
g r o w i n g a p a t h y of t h e v o t e r s , a b o u t t h e d e c h n e of p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p o l i t i c s , so w o r r i e d l i b e r a l s t a l k a l l t h e t i m e a b o u t t h e n e e d to m o b i l i z e
p e o p l e in t h e g u i s e of c i v i l - s o c i e t y i n i t i a t i v e s , to e n g a g e t h e m m o r e in a
p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . J r l o w e v e r , w h e n t h e p e o p l e a w a k e n from t h e i r a p o l i t i c a l
s l u m b e r , it is a s a r u l e in t h e g u i s e of a r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s t r e v o l t —no w o n d e r
m a n y e n l i g h t e n e d t e c h n o c r a t i c l i b e r a l s n o w w o n d e r w h e t h e r the p r e ­
v i o u s form of " a p a t h y " w a s not a b l e s s i n g in d i s g u i s e .
O n e s h o u l d b e a t t e n t i v e h e r e to h o w e v e n t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h i c h a p p e a r
a s p u r e r i g h t i s t r a c i s m a r e in fact a d i s p l a c e d v e r s i o n of w o r k i n g - c l a s s
p r o t e s t s : of c o u r s e t h e r e i s a form of r a c i s m i n d e m a n d i n g a n e n d to t h e
i m m i g r a t i o n of f o r e i g n w o r k e r s w h o
pose a threat
to
employment;
h o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h e s i m p l e fact t h a t t h e i n f l u x of
i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s from t h e p o s t - C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r i e s is not t h e c o n ­
s e q u e n c e of m u l t i c u l t u r î J i s t t o l e r a n c e —it w i n d e e d p a r t of t h e s t r a t e g y of
c a p i t a l to h o l d in c h e c k w o r k e r s ' d e m a n d s — t h i s i s w h y , in t h e U S , B u s h
d i d m o r e for t h e l e g a l i z a t i o n of the s t a t u s of M e x i c a n i l l e g a l i m m i g r a n t s
than did the Democrats caught up b y labor-union pressures. So, ironi­
c a l l y , r i g h t i s t r a c i s t p o p u l i s m i s t o d a y the b e s t a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e " c l a s s
s t r u g g l e , " far from b e i n g " o b s o l e t e , " g o e s on — t h e l e s s o n t h e Left s h o u l d
l e a r n from it i s t h a t o n e s h o u l d not c o m m i t the e r r o r s y m m e t r i c a l to t h a t
of t h e p o p u l i s t r a c i s t m y s t i f i c a t i o n / d i s p l a c e m e n t of h a t r e d o n t o f o r e i g n ­
e r s , a n d to " t h r o w t h e b a b y o u t w i t h t h e b a t h w a t e r , " t h a t i s , to m e r e l y
oppose populist anti-immigrant racism with multiculturalist openness,
o b l i t e r a t i n g its d i s p l a c e d c l a s s c o n t e n t — b e n e v o l e n t a s it w a n t s to b e , t h e
s i m p l e i n s i s t e n c e on t o l e r a n c e
is the
most
perfidious form
of
anti-
proletarian class struggle . . .
T3rpical h e r e i s the r e a c t i o n of G e r m a n m a i n s t r e a m p o l i t i c i a n s to t h e
f o r m a t i o n of t h e n e w L i n k s p a r t e i in t h e 2 0 0 5 e l e c t i o n s , a c o a l i t i o n of t h e
E a s t G e r m a n P D S a n d leftist d i s s i d e n t s of t h e S P D — J o s c h k a F i s c h e r
h i m s e l f r e a c h e d o n e of t h e l o w e s t p o i n t s in h i s c a r e e r w h e n h e c a l l e d
O s k a r L a f o n t a i n e " a G e r m a n P l a i d e r " ( b e c a u s e L a f o n t a i n e p r o t e s t e d at
t h e I m p o r t a t i o n of c h e a p E a s t E u r o p e a n l a b o r to l o w e r t h e w a g e s of
German w o r k e r s ) . The e x a g g e r a t e d and p a n i c k y w a y the political ( a n d
e v e n c u l t u r a l ) e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e a c t e d w h e n L a f o n t a i n e r e f e r r e d to "for­
e i g n w o r k e r s , " o r w h e n t h e s e c r e t a r y of t h e S P D c a l l e d t h e
financial
s p e c u l a t o r s " l o c u s t s , " is s y m p t o m a t i c — a s If w e w e r e w i t n e s s i n g a full
neo-Nazi
r e v i v a l . T h i s total p o l i t i c a l b l i n d n e s s , t h i s l o s s of t h e v e r y
c a p a c i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h Left from R i g h t , b e t r a y s a p a n i c a t p o l i t i c i z a t i o n
a s s u c h . T h e a u t o m a t i c d i s m i s s a l ot e n t e r t a i n i n g a n y t h o u g h t s o u t s i d e t h e
267
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
established post-political coordinates a s "populist d e m a g o g u e i y " is the
h i t h e r t o p u r e s t p r o o f t h a t w e e f f e c t i v e l y l i v e u n d e r a n e w Denkverbolf'
It is not o n l y t h a t t o d a y ' s p o l i t i c a l field is p o l a r i z e d b e t w e e n postpolitical administration a n d populist politicization; p h e n o m e n a such a s
B e r l u s c o n i d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s c a n e v e n c o e x i s t in t h e
s a m e p a r t y : i s t h e B e r l u s c o n i m o v e m e n t F o r z a I t a l i a ! n o t a c a s e of postpolitical populism,
t h a t i s , of a m e d i a t i c - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
government
l e g i t i m i z i n g itself in p o p u l i s t t e r m s ? A n d d o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d to
s o m e d e g r e e e v e n for t h e N e w L a b o u r g o v e r n m e n t in t h e U K , o r for the
B u s h a d m m i s t r a t i o n in t h e U S ? In o t h e r w o r d s , i s p o p u l i s m n o t p r o ­
gressively replacing multiculturalist tolerance a s the "spontaneous" ideo­
logical
supplement
to
post-pohtical
administration,
as its
"pseudo-
c o n c r e t i z a t i o n , " i t s t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o a form t h a t c a n a p p e a l to i n d i v i d u a l s '
i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e ? T h e k e y fact h e r e is t h a t p u r e p o s t - p o l i t i c s ( a
regime whose self-legitimization w o u l d be thoroughly
"technocratic,"
p r e s e n t i n g itself a s a c o m p e t e n t a d m m i s t r a t i o n ) i s i n h e r e n t l y I m p o s s i b l e :
any
p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e n e e d s a s u p p l e m e n t a r y " p o p u l i s t " level of self-
legitimization.
T h i s is w h y t o d a y ' s p o p u l i s m is different from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n —
w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s it i s t h e o p p o n e n t a g a i n s t w h i c h it m o b i l i z e s t h e
p e o p l e : t h e r i s e of " p o s t - p o l i t i c s , " t h e g r o w i n g r e d u c t i o n
of p o l i t i c s
p r o p e r t o t h e r a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s . In t h e h i g h l y
d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s of t h e U S a n d W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a t l e a s t , " p o p u l i s m "
is e m e r g i n g a s t h e i n h e r e n t s h a d o w y d o u b l e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d postp o l i t i c s ; o n e i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d to s a y : a s i t s duppletnenl in t h e D e r r i d e a n
s e n s e , a s t h e a r e n a in w h i c h p o l i t i c a l d e m a n d s t h a t d o not fit t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s p a c e c a n b e a r t i c u l a t e d . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e r e
is a
c o n s t i t u t i v e " m y s t i f i c a t i o n " t h a t p e r t a i n s to p o p u h s m : i t s b a s i c g e s t u r e
is to refuse t o confront t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n , t o r e d u c e it to a
c l e a r s t r u g g l e w i t h a p s e u d o - c o n c r e t e " e n e m y " f i g u r e (from t h e " B r u s s e l s
b u r e a u c r a c y " t o i l l e g a l i m m i g r a n t s ) . " P o p u l i s m " is t h u s , b y definition, a
negative phenomenon,
a p h e n o m e n o n g r o u n d e d i n a refusal, e v e n an
i m p l i c i t a d m i s s i o n of i m p o t e n c e . W e a l l k n o w t h e o l d j o k e a b o u t a m a n
l o o k i n g for t h e k e y h e h a s d r o p p e d u n d e r t h e s t r e e t l i g h t ; w h e n a s k e d
w h e r e h e lost it, h e a d m i t s t h a t it w a s in a n ill-lit spot; so w h y i s h e l o o k i n g
for it h e r e , u n d e r t h e l i g h t ? B e c a u s e t h e v i s i b i l i t y is so m u c h b e t t e r h e r e
. . . T h e r e i s a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g of t h i s t r i c k in p o p u l i s m . S o , n o t o n l y i s
populism
not the a r e n a within w h i c h t o d a y ' s e m a n c i p a t o r y
projects
should inscribe themselves, but one should even g o a step further a n d
268
W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E
p r o p o s e t h a t t h e m a i n t a s k of c o n t e m p o r a r y e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s , its lifea n d - d e a t h p r o b l e m , i s to find a form of p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n that, w h i l e
( l i k e p o p u l i s m ) c r i t i c a l of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p o l i t i c s , w i l l avoid t h e p o p u l i s t
temptation.
W h e r e , t h e n , d o e s a l l t h i s l e a v e u s w i t h r e g a r d to E u r o p e ' s i m b r o g l i o ?
T h e F r e n c h v o t e r s w e r e not g i v e n a c l e a r s y m m e t r i c a l choice, since the
v e r y t e r m s of t h e c h o i c e p r i v i l e g e d t h e " y e s " : t h e e l i t e p r o p o s e d a c h o i c e
t o t h e p e o p l e w h i c h w a s in fact n o c h o i c e a t a l l — p e o p l e w e r e c a l l e d t o
r a t i f y t h e i n e v i t a b l e , t h e r e s u l t of e n l i g h t e n e d e x p e r t i s e . T h e m e d i a a n d
the political elite p r e s e n t e d the choice a s the one b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e a n d
ignorance, b e t w e e n expertise a n d ideology, between post-political ad­
m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e a r c h a i c p o l i t i c a l p a s s i o n s of t h e Left a n d t h e Right.'^
T h e " n o " w a s t h u s d i s m i s s e d a s a s h o r t s i g h t e d r e a c t i o n u n a w a r e of its
own
consequences:
a murky
reaction
of f e a r of t h e
emerging
new
postindustrial global order, a conservative instinct to protect c r e a k i n g
w e l f a r e - s t a t e s t r u c t u r e s — a g e s t u r e of r e f u s a l l a c k i n g a n y p o s i t i v e a l t e r ­
n a t i v e p r o g r a m . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e o n l y p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w h o s e official
s t a n c e w a s " n o " w e r e t h e p a r t i e s a t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e s of t h e p o l i t i c a l
s p e c t r u m . L e P e n ' s F r o n t National on the R i g h t a n d the C o m m u n i s t s a n d
T r o t s k 3 â s t s on the Left.
H o w e v e r , e v e n if t h e r e i s a n e l e m e n t of t r u t h i n a l l t h i s , t h e v e r y fact
that the " n o " w a s not s u s t a i n e d b y a coherent a l t e r n a t i v e political vision is
t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b l e c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d m e d i a t i c e l i t e , a
m o n u m e n t t o t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to a r t i c u l a t e , to t r a n s l a t e i n t o a p o l i t i c a l
vision, the p e o p l e ' s l o n g i n g s a n d dissatisfactions. Instead, in their r e a c ­
t i o n to t h e " n o , " t h e y t r e a t e d t h e p e o p l e a s r e t a r d e d p u p i l s w h o h a d not
l e a r n t t h e l e s s o n of t h e e x p e r t s : t h e i r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m w a s t h e o n e of t h e
t e a c h e r w h o a d m i t s t h a t h e f a i l e d to e d u c a t e h i s s t u d e n t s p r o p e r l y . W h a t
t h e a d v o c a t e s of t h i s " c o m m u n i c a t i o n " t h e s i s ( t h e F r e n c h a n d
Dutch
" n o " m e a n s t h a t t h e e n l i g h t e n e d e l i t e h a s f a i l e d to c o m m u n i c a t e a d e ­
q u a t e l y w i t h t h e m a s s e s ) f a i l to s e e is t h a t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , the "no " in
q u e s t i o n w a s a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in w h i c h , a s L a c a n p u t
it, t h e s p e a k e r g e t s from t h e a d d r e s s e e its o w n m e s s a g e i n i t s i n v e r t e d ,
t h a t i s , t r u e , form: t h e e n l i g h t e n e d E u r o p e a n b u r e a u c r a t s r e c e i v e d from
t h e e l e c t o r a t e t h e s h a l l o w n e s s of t h e i r o w n m e s s a g e t o t h e m in its t r u e
form. T h e p r o j e c t of E u r o p e a n U n i o n t h a t w a s r e j e c t e d b y F r a n c e a n d t h e
N e t h e r l a n d s s t o o d for a k i n d of c h e a p t r i c k , a s if E u r o p e c o u l d r e d e e m
itself a n d b e a t its c o m p e t i t o r s b y s i m p l y c o m b i n i n g t h e b e s t of b o t h
W o r l d s : b y b e a t i n g t h e U S , C h i n a , a n d J a p a n in s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l
269
modernization through k e e p i n g alive its cultural traditions. O n e
should
i n s i s t h e r e that, if E u r o p e i s to r e d e e m itself, it s h o u l d , on t h e c o n t r a r y , b e
r e a d y to t a k e t h e r i s k of Lulng (in t h e s e n s e of r a d i c a l l y q u e s t i o n i n g ) both:
d i s p e l l i n g t h e fetish of s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s and stop r e l y i n g
on t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of i t s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .
S o , a l t h o u g h the c h o i c e w a s n o t t h a t b e t w e e n t w o p o l i t i c a l o p t i o n s , it
was
a l s o not t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e e n l i g h t e n e d v i s i o n of a
modern
E u r o p e , r e a d y to fit i n t o t h e n e w g l o b a l o r d e r , a n d o l d c o n f u s e d p o l i t i c a l
passions. W h e n
commentators
described the
" n o " a s a m e s s a g e of
b e w i l d e r m e n t a n d fear, t h e y w e r e w r o n g . T h e m a i n fear a t i s s u e h e r e
is t h e f e a r t h e " n o " i t s e l f p r o v o k e d in t h e n e w E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l elite, the
fear t h a t the people w o u l d no longer s w a l l o w their "post-political" vision.
F o r t h e r e s t of u s , the " n o " is a m e s s a g e a n d e x p r e s s i o n of h o p e : h o p e t h a t
potitLCd i s still a l i v e a n d p o s s i b l e , t h a t t h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t the
new
E u r o p e s h a l l a n d s h o u l d b e is still w i d e o p e n . T h i s i s w h y w e , o n t h e Left,
s h o u l d r e j e c t t h e s n e e r i n g i n s i n u a t i o n b y l i b e r a l s t h a t , in o u r " n o , " w e
find o u r s e l v e s w i t h s t r a n g e n e o - f a s c i s t b e d f e l l o w s . W h a t t h e n e w p o p u l i s t
R i g h t a n d t h e Left s h a r e i s j u s t o n e t h i n g ; t h e a w a r e n e s s that poiiticd proper
id cUiU alive.
T h e r e wa,i a p o s i t i v e c h o i c e in t h e " n o " : the c h o i c e of t h e c h o i c e itself;
t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e b l a c k m a i l b y t h e n e w e l i t e w h i c h offers u s o n l y t h e
c h o i c e to c o n f i r m t h e i r e x p e r t k n o w l e d g e or to d i s p l a y o n e ' s " i r r a t i o n a l "
i m m a t u r i t y . The " n o " is the positive decision to start a real political
d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t k i n d of E u r o p e w e r e a l l y w a n t . L a t e in h i s life, F r e u d
a s k e d t h e f a m o u s q u e s t i o n Wa,i will da^t Weih?—What
does the w o m a n
w a n t ? — a d m i t t i n g h i s p e r p l e x i t y w h e n f a c e d w i t h t h e e n i g m a of f e m i n i n e
s e x u a l i t y . D o e s t h e i m b r o g l i o w i t h the E u r o p e a n
C o n s t i t u t i o n not b e a r
w i t n e s s to t h e s a m e p u z z l e m e n t : w h a t k i n d of E u r o p e d o w e w a n t ?
T h e unofficial a n t h e m of t h e E u r o p e a n
Union, h e a r d at
numerous
p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d s p o r t i n g p u b l i c e v e n t s , i s t h e " O d e to J o y " from
the last m o v e m e n t
of B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h S y m p h o n y , a t r u e
"empt}^'
s i g n i f i e r " t h a t c a n s t a n d for a n y t h i n g . In F r a n c e , it w a s e l e v a t e d b y
R o m a i n R o l l a n d i n t o a h u m a n i s t o d e to t h e b r o t h e r h o o d of a l l p e o p l e s
( " t h e ' M a r s e i l l a i s e ' of h u m a n i t y " ) ; in 1 9 3 8 , it w a s p e r f o r m e d
as the
h i g h p o i n t oî Reichs in luiktage a n d l a t e r for H i t l e r ' s b i r t h d a j ' ; in t h e C h i n a
of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , in t h e febrile c o n t e x t of a m a s s r e j e c t i o n of
European
c l a s s i c s , it w a s r e d e e m e d
s t r u g g l e , w h i l e in c o n t e m p o r a r y
a s a p i e c e of p r o g r e s s i v e
class
J a p a n , it h a s a c h i e v e d a c u l t s t a t u s ,
b e i n g w o v e n i n t o the v e r y social f a b r i c w i t h its s u p p o s e d m e s s a g e of " j o y
270
W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E
t h r o u g h s u f f e r i n g " ; u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h a t is, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n b o t h
W e s t a n d E a s t G e r m a n O l y m p i c t e a m s h a d to p e r f o r m t o g e t h e r a s o n e
G e r m a n t e a m , t h e a n t h e m p l a y e d for G e r m a n g o l d m e d a l l i s t s w a s t h e
O d e , a n d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e R h o d e s i a n w h i t e s u p r e m a c i s t r e g i m e of
I a n S m i t h , w h i c h p r o c l a i m e d i n d e p e n d e n c e in t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s in o r d e r to
maintain apartheid, also appropriated
t h e s a m e s o n g a s its n a t i o n a l
a n t h e m . E v e n A b l m a e l G u z m a n , t h e ( n o w i m p r i s o n e d ) l e a d e r of S e n d e r o
Lumlnoso, w h e n asked w h a t music he loved, mentioned
the
fourth
m o v e m e n t of B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h . S o it i s e a s y to p i c t u r e a n i m a g i n a r y
p e r f o r m a n c e a t w h i c h a l l t h e s w o r n e n e m i e s , from H i t l e r to S t a l i n , from
B u s h to S a d d a m , forget t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e
m a g i c m o m e n t of e c s t a t i c b r o t h e r h o o d . .
H o w e v e r , before w e dismiss the fourth m o v e m e n t a s a p i e c e "de­
stroyed through
s o c i a l u s a g e , " let u s n o t e s o m e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of i t s
s t r u c t u r e . In t h e m i d d l e of t h e m o v e m e n t , after w e h e a r t h e m a i n m e l o d y
( t h e " J o y " t h e m e ) in t h r e e o r c h e s t r a l a n d t h r e e v o c a l v a r i a t i o n s , at t h i s
first c l i m a x , s o m e t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d h a p p e n s w h i c h h a s b o t h e r e d c r i t i c s
o v e r t h e l a s t 1 8 0 y e a r s , e v e r s i n c e t h e first p e r f o r m a n c e : a t b a r 3 3 1 , t h e
t o n e c h a n g e s t o t a l l y , a n d , i n s t e a d of t h e s o l e m n h y m n i c p r o g r e s s i o n , t h e
s a m e " J o y " t h e m e i s r e p e a t e d in marc'ui Turca ( " T u r k i s h m a r c h " ) s t y l e ,
b o r r o w e d from the m i l i t a r y m u s i c for w i n d a n d p e r c u s s i o n i n s t r u m e n t s
t h a t e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n a r m i e s h a d a d o p t e d from the T u r k i s h
janissaries—^the m o d e is h e r e t h a t of a c a r n i v a l e s q u e p o p u l a r p a r a d e , a
m o c k i n g s p e c t a c l e . ^ A n d after t h i s point, e v e r j ' t h i n g g o e s w r o n g ,
simple solemn
d i g n i t y of t h e
first
part
of t h e
movement
r e c o v e r e d : after t h i s " T u r k i s h " p a r t a n d in a c l e a r
is
the
never
counter-movement
to it, in a k i n d of r e t r e a t into i n n e r r e l i g i o s i t y , t h e c h o r a l - l i k e m u s i c
( d i s m i s s e d b y s o m e c r i t i c s a s a " G r e g o r i a n f o s s i l " ) t r i e s to d e p i c t t h e
e t h e r e a l i m a g e of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e w h o k n e e l d o w n e m b r a c i n g o n e
a n o t h e r , c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n t s k y in a w e a n d s e a r c h i n g for
the
l o v i n g p a t e r n a l G o d w h o m u s t d w e l l a b o v e the c a n o p y of s t a r s Çüberm
Sternezell nuud ein lieber Vater wohnen"); h o w e v e r , t h e m u s i c , a s it w e r e , g e t s
s t u c k w h e n t h e w o r d musj, first r e n d e r e d b y t h e b a s s e s , i s r e p e a t e d b y t h e
t e n o r s a n d a l t o s , a n d f i n a l l y b y t h e s o p r a n o s , a s if t h i s r e p e a t e d
con­
j u r a t i o n is a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to c o n v i n c e u s ( a n d Itself) of w h a t it k n o w s
IS not t r u e , t u r n i n g t h e l i n e " a l o v i n g father m u s t d w e l l " i n t o a d e s p e r a t e
a c t of b e s e e c h m e n t , a n d t h u s a t t e s t i n g to t h e fact t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g
beyond
the c a n o p y of s t a r s , n o l o v i n g f a t h e r to p r o t e c t
us and
to
g u a r a n t e e o u r b r o t h e r h o o d . After this, a r e t u r n to a m o r e c e l e b r a t o r y
271
IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S
m o o d i s a t t e m p t e d in t h e g u i s e of t h e d o u b l e f u g u e w h i c h c a n n o t
but
s o u n d false in its e x c e s s i v e l y a r t i f i c i a l b r i l l i a n c e , a f a k e s y n t h e s i s if t h e r e
e v e r w a s one, a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to c o v e r u p t h e v o i d o l t h e abjent G o d
r e v e a l e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . B u t t h e final c a d e n z a is t h e s t r a n g e s t of
t h e m a l l , s o u n d i n g l e s s l i k e B e e t h o v e n t h a n a p u f f e d - u p v e r s i o n of the
finale
of M o z a r t ' s Abductiflii from
Seraglio,
combining
the
"Turkish"
e l e m e n t s w i t h t h e fast r o c o c o s p e c t a c l e . ( A n d let u s not f o r g e t
the
p r i n c i p a l l e s s o n of t h i s M o z a r t o p e r a : t h e f i g u r e of t h e o r i e n t a l d e s p o t
is p r e s e n t e d t h e r e a s a t r u e e n l i g h t e n e d M a s t e r . ) T h e finale i s t h u s a
b i z a r r e m i x t u r e of O r i e n t a l i s m a n d
regression into late
eighteenth-
c e n t u r y c l a s s i c i s m , a d o u b l e r e t r e a t from t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t , a silent
a d m i s s i o n of the p u r e l y f a n t a s m a t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e j o y of a l l - e n c o m ­
p a s s i n g b r o t h e r h o o d . Tf t h e r e e v e r w a s a m u s i c t h a t l i t e r a l l y " d e c o n ­
s t r u c t s itself, " t h i s is it: t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e h i g h l y o r d e r e d l i n e a r
progression
of t h e first p a r t of t h e
heterogeneous, a n d inconsistent,
movement
and the
precipitous,
c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e c o n d c a n n o t
s t r o n g e r —no w o n d e r t h a t a l r e a d y in 1 8 2 6 , t w o y e a r s after the
be
first
p e r f o r m a n c e , s o m e r e v i e w e r s d e s c r i b e d t h e finale a s " a festival of h a t r e d
t o w a r d s all that can be called h u m a n joy. W i t h g i g a n t i c strength
the
perilous hoard emerges, tearing hearts asunder and d a r k e n i n g the divine
s p a r k of g o d s w i t h n o i s y , m o n s t r o u s
mocking."
B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h i s t h u s full of w h a t N i c h o l a s C o o k c a l l e d
consummated
"un-
s y m b o l s " : e l e m e n t s w h i c h a r e i n e x c e s s of t h e g l o b a l
m e a n i n g of t h e w o r k ( o r of t h e m o v e m e n t in w h i c h t h e y o c c u r ) , w h i c h
d o not fit t h i s m e a n i n g , a l t h o u g h It i s n o t c l e a r w h a t a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g
they bring.
movement,
C o o k lists t h e " f u n e r a l m a r c h " a t b a r 5 1 3 of t h e
the abrupt
e n d i n g of t h e s e c o n d m o v e m e n t ,
first
the military
t o n e s in t h e t h i r d m o v e m e n t , t h e s o - c a l l e d " h o r r o r f a n f a r e s , " t h e T u r k i s h
m a r c h , a n d m a n y o t h e r m o m e n t s In t h e fourth m o v e m e n t — a l l
these
elements "vibrate with an implied significance that overflows the musical
scenario."
It i s not s i m p l y t h a t t h e i r m e a n i n g s h o u l d b e
uncovered
through attentive interpretation—the v e r y relationship between texture
a n d m e a n i n g i s i n v e r t e d h e r e : if t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
"musical scenario"
s e e m s to set to m u s i c a c l e a r p r e e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g ( t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of
joy,
universal brotherhood
. . . ) , here the
m e a n i n g i s not
g i v e n in
a d v a n c e , b u t s e e m s to float in s o m e k i n d of v i r t u a l i n d e t e r m i n a c y — I t
Is a s if w e k n o w ^^rt/^ t h e r e Is (or, r a t h e r , h a s to b e ) s o m e m e a n i n g , w i t h o u t
e v e r b e i n g a b l e to e s t a b l i s h what t h i s m e a n i n g i s .
W h a t , t h e n , is t h e s o l u t i o n ? T h e o n l y r a d i c a l s o l u t i o n i s to shift t h e
272
W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E
e n t i r e p e r s p e c t i v e a n d to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e v e r y first p a r t of t h e
f o u r t h m o v e m e n t : t h i n g s d o not r e a l l y g o w r o n g o n l y a t b a r 3 3 1 , w i t h t h e
e n t r a n c e of t h e marcia Turca, t h e y g o w r o n g from the ver>' s t a r t — o n e
s h o u l d a c c e p t t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g of a n i n s i p i d s h a m in t h e O d e , so
t h a t t h e c h a o s t h a t e n t e r s after b a r 3 3 1 i s a k i n d of " r e t u r n of t h e
r e p r e s s e d , " a symptom of w h a t w a s w r o n g from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . W h a t
if w e h a v e d o m e s t i c a t e d t h e O d e to J o y too m u c h , w h a t if w e h a v e g o t a l l
too u s e d to it a s a s y m b o l of j o y f u l b r o t h e r h o o d ?
W h a t if w e s h o u l d
confront it a n e w , r e j e c t in it w h a t is f a l s e ? M a n y of t o d a y ' s l i s t e n e r s
c a n n o t b u t b e s t r u c k b y the e m p t y p o m p o u s c h a r a c t e r a n d p r e t e n t i o u s ­
n e s s of t h e O d e , b y i t s s o m e w h a t r i d i c u l o u s s o l e m n i t y — r e c a l l w h a t w e
see if w e w a t c h its p e r f o r m a n c e on t e l e v i s i o n : fat, self-satisfied, w e l l d r e s s e d s i n g e r s w i t h b u l g i n g v e i n s , m a k i n g a g r e a t effort, a c c o m p a n i e d
b y r i d i c u l o u s w a v i n g of h a n d s , to g e t t h e i r s u b l i m e m e s s a g e t h r o u g h a s
l o u d l y a s p o s s i b l e . . . W h a t if t h e s e l i s t e n e r s a r e s i m p l y right! W h a t if t h e
t r u e o b s c e n i t y i s w h a t t a k e s p l a c e before the marcia Turca, not after i t ?
W h a t if w e d i s p l a c e t h e e n t i r e p e r s p e c t i v e a n d p e r c e i v e t h e marcia a s a
r e t u r n to e v e r y d a y n o r m a l i t y t h a t c u t s s h o r t t h e d i s p l a y of p r e p o s t e r o u s
p o r t e n t o u s n e s s a n d t h u s b r i n g s u s b a c k to e a r t h , a s if it w e r e s a y i n g " Y o u
want
to
celebrate the
brotherhood
of m e n ?
Here
it i s t h e n ,
real
h u m a n i t y . . . "?
A n d d o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d for E u r o p e t o d a y ? After i n v i t i n g m i l l i o n s ,
from t h e h i g h e s t to t h e l o w e s t ( t h e w o r m ) to e m b r a c e , t h e s e c o n d s t r o p h e
o m i n o u s l y e n d s : " B u t h e w h o c a n n o t r e j o i c e , let h i m s t e a l w e e p i n g a w a y "
(IJnd wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle weinend sich aiui dem Bund). T h e i r o n y of
B e e t h o v e n ' s O d e to J o y a s t h e unofficial E u r o p e a n a n t h e m i s , of c o u r s e ,
t h a t t h e m a i n c a u s e of t o d a y ' s c r i s i s of t h e U n i o n i s p r e c i s e l y T u r k e y :
a c c o r d i n g to m o s t of t h e p o l l s , o n e of t h e r e a s o n s m o t i v a t i n g t h o s e w h o
v o t e d " n o " in t h e l a s t r é f é r e n d u m s in F r a n c e a n d N e t h e r l a n d s w a s t h e i r
o p p o s i t i o n to T u r k i s h m e m b e r s h i p . T h e " n o " c a n b e g r o u n d e d in r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s t t e r m s ( n o to t h e T u r k i s h t h r e a t to o u r c u l t u r e , n o to T u r k i s h
c h e a p i m m i g r a n t l a b o r ) , or in l i b e r a l - m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t t e r m s
(Turkey
s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d in b e c a u s e , in its t r e a t m e n t of t h e K u r d s , it d o e s
not d i s p l a y sufficient r e s p e c t for h u m a n r i g h t s ) . A n d t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w ,
t h e " y e s , " is a s false a s B e e t h o v e n ' s
final
c a d e n z a . . . T h e c a s e of
c o n t e m p o r a r y T u r k e y i s c r u c i a l for a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a p i t a l i s t
g l o b a l i z a t i o n ; t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o p o n e n t of g l o b a l i z a t i o n i s t h e r u l i n g " m o d ­
e r a t e " I s l a m i s t p a r t y of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r E r d o g a n . ' " It i s t h e fero­
ciously nationalist and
secular Kemalists w h o ,