FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
Prepared by: Mr. john Mark Lachica
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching deals with the fundamental principles, processes, and
practices that are anchored on learner-centeredness and other educational psychologies.
This subject carefully unpacks the concepts of
1. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
2. Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
3. Cognitive Learning Theories
4. Behavioral Learning Theories
5. Constructivist Learning Theories
6. Psychosocial, Psychosexual, and Humanist Theories of Learning
7. Student Diversity
In this subject, psychology plays a very important role since it deals more on the studies of
human behavior which helps educators or future educators understand the nature of a
diversity of learners. Through this, teachers will be more confident and competent to teach
because of a deep understanding of the learners.
But what is the difference between a learner-centered classroom and a learning-centered
classroom?
In the former it is often the teacher or mentor who provides or influences the content and
context but in the learner centered approach it is primarily the learner who provides or dictates
the content and context according to need. The purpose then of a learning centered
approach is not only to complement but to feed and enrich so that the learner centered
approach is able to thrive.
A. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
1. The following are the foci of the instructor in a learner-centered teaching, EXCEPT ONE.
a. what students are learning
b. how students are learning
c. how students can use the learning
d. how students impart a respect for authority
A learner-centered outcome shifts the focus of the outcome from what an instructor is
teaching to what a student is meant to learn. So the instructor focuses more on what students
are learning, how they are learning and how they can use the learning.
Domain
Teacher-centered
Learner-centered
Knowledge
Transmitted by instructor
Constructed by students
Student
participation
Passive
Active
Role of professor
Leader/authority
Facilitator/learning partner
Role of Assessment
Few tests/assignments—mainly for
grading
Many tests/assignments—for ongoing
feedback
Emphasis
Learning correct answers
Developing deeper understanding
Academic culture
Individualistic and competitive
Collaborative and supportive
2. Which of the following best describes an intentional learning environment?
a. The school is complete with modern-day facilities and equipment.
b. Learners are aware of their learning process and use tools to enhance this learning
process.
c. The teachers are experts in their fields and had finished postgraduate studies.
d. Teachers use technology in lesson presentations and activities.
An intentional learning environment is one which fosters activity and feedback and creates a
culture that fosters metacognition, i.e., one in which the learner becomes aware of his or her learning
process and can use to tools (mental or technological) to enhance this learning process. An example
of intentional learning is when someone who wants to learn a new language reads a book in that
language and looks up new words that they encounter, in order to improve their vocabulary.
3. Which of the following is the very heart of constructivism?
a. New knowledge is created from old knowledge.
b. Social interaction creates meaningful learning experiences.
c. Use of contrived experiences creates meaningful learning situations.
d. Group activities mean more active participation and engagement of everybody.
4. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a strategic thinker?
a. does not easily give up even in difficult situations
b. uses knowledge in different ways to solve problems and address concerns and
issues
c. uses experiments and trial-and-error methods to find the best solution to a
problem
d. asks others for possible solutions to problems before thinking of his/her solution
Let’s have a short review, in the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA)
appointed a group called task Force on Psychology in Education who crafted 14 LearnerCentered Psychological Principles and categorized them into four factors:
1. Cognitive and Metacognitive
Cognitive factor refers to the MENTAL PROCESSES the learners undergo as they
process an information.
Metacognitive factor sees the way learners think about their thinking as they
engage in mental tasks.
a. NATURE OF LEARNING PROCESS. The learning of complicated subject matter is
most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.
b. GOALS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS. The successful learner, over time and with
support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
c. CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE. The successful learner can link new
information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
d. STRATEGIC THINKING. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire
of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
e. THINKING ABOUT THINKING. Higher-order strategies for selecting and
monitoring mental operations facilitate create and critical thinking.
f. CONTEXT OF LEARNING. Learning is influenced by environmental factors,
including culture, technology, and instructional practices.
5. Which of the following is NOT an intrinsic motivation?
a. making parents happy
b. avoiding punishment
c. receiving personal gratification
d. preparing for the future
2. Motivational and Affective
How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of the motivational factors. While the affective factors relate to the
attitude, feelings, and emotions that learners put into the learning task.
a. MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING. What and how
much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
b. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN. The learner’s creativity, higher-order
thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to the motivation to learn.
c. EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge
and skills requires extensive learner’s effort and guided practice.
3. Developmental and Social
4. Individual Difference
The last two factors are considered critical factors in the capacity of learners to
engage in learning. Such principles include:
a. DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING. As individuals, there are
different opportunities and constraints for learning. A lot of times, learners
are not learning well because there is a mismatch between the learning
activity and the learners’ developmental stage. Therefore, teachers
should always look into the readiness of the learners through keen
observations, diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and the like.
b. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING. Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Collaboration is a 21st Century skill. When learners work together, they
learn to appreciate and respect diversity.
c. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING. Learners have different
strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity.
d. LEARNING AND DIVERSITY. Learning is most effective when differences in
learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into
account.
e. STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT. Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as the learning
progress are integral parts of the learning process.
6. When Mary ponders on whether or not she knows the answer to the teacher's
questions, she then realizes that she has no idea on the question at all. She is in
the process of:
a. strategic thinking
b. metacognition
c. problem solving
d. creative thinking
B. Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
Metacognition is attributed to Flavell. He described it as “one’s knowledge concerning
one’s cognitive process and products or anything related to them”. Simply stated,
metacognition is “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena”.
• Thinking about thinking
• Knowing about knowing
• Cognition about cognition
7. Teacher Noel wants to apply metacognitive reflection to improve his teaching.
Which of the following is the MOST APPROPRIATE question must he ask herself?
A. What have I learned from my teaching?
B. Were my students paying attention during the lesson?
C. How was the classroom atmosphere during my lecture?
D. What teaching materials were effective in today's lesson?
Metacognition is thinking about your own thinking (Thoughts, insights, learning). Only
option A asks about personal learning insight from an experience. The rest of the options focus
on external factors.
8. Cara is most motivated to improve her metacognitive skills. Which of the
following ways does NOT advance metacognitive?
A. Accepting new knowledge
B. Assessing one's own thinking
C. Learning how to study
D. Learning to organize thoughts
All the options require higher cognitive processes, except Option A. "Accepting new
knowledge" is a passive process and does not require higher cognition.
9. Which instance in the delivery or implementation of lesson plan do teachers lead
the students towards the process of metacognition?
A. Teacher Albert outlines the parts of a lesson.
B. Teacher Eva explains the learning objectives.
C. Mrs. Reyes introduces the topic of discussion.
D. Mr. Lopez asks students to predict outcomes.
Options A, B, and C exemplify teacher as the center in the teaching-learning
process. In option D, the teacher taps the students' higher cognitive skills by
predicting outcomes. Thereby, making the students really think and express their
thoughts.
There are components of metacognitive knowledge: Declarative Knowledge, Procedural
Knowledge, and Conditional Knowledge.
10. Which of the following components of metacognitive knowledge refers to the
learner’s understanding of own abilities, and the knowledge about oneself as a
learner and of the factors that moderate one’s performance?
a. Declarative knowledge
b. Procedural knowledge
c. Conditional knowledge
11. Which of the following components of metacognitive knowledge involves using
strategies to learn information (knowing how to know) as well as adapting them to
novel context (knowing when a strategy is appropriate)?
a. Declarative knowledge
b. Procedural knowledge
c. Conditional knowledge
12. Which of the following components of metacognitive knowledge involves the
knowledge of how to do things and how skills or competencies are executed?
a. Declarative knowledge
b. Procedural knowledge
c. Conditional knowledge
Declarative knowledge or personal knowledge is the learner’s knowledge about things.
Conditional Knowledge or strategy knowledge refers to the ability to know when and why
various cognitive acts should be applied.
Procedural knowledge or task knowledge includes what knowledge is needed (content) and
the space available to communicate what is known (length).
13. As Kenneth multiplies a binomial term, he was initially confused. Suddenly, he
remembers the acronym FOIL (First Outer-Inner Last). What was in operation at
that instance?
a. declarative
b. procedural
c. conditional
d. contextual
C. Cognitive Learning Theories
14. Who introduced the concepts of schema, assimilation, and accommodation to
explain how cognitive development happens.
a. Jean Piaget
b. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
c. George A. Miller
d. Ivan Pavlov
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky formulated the sociocultural theory of cognitive development.
Its major argument is that social interaction, mediated through language, is a key factor in
the child’s development.
Vygotsky is also known for his ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development). He argued that at any
time, children find difficulties in performing tasks or problems posed to them as they are not
yet matured enough to handle them. With guidance of the MKOs, they could perform the
task.
George Miller developed the information processing theory (IPT) of cognitive development.
It pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in a person’s mind as he receives a bit of
information.
Our cognitive processes filter information, deciding what is important enough to ‘save’ from
our sensory memory to our short-term memory, and ultimately to encode into our long-term
memory. Our cognitive processes include thinking, perception, remembering, recognition,
logical reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, our sense of judgment, and planning.
1. SENSORYMEMORY is the first stage of Information Processing Theory. It refers to what we
are experiencing through our senses at any given moment. This includes what we can
see, hear, touch, taste and smell. Sight and hearing are generally thought to be the two
most important ones.
2. SHORT-TERM MEMORY serves as a temporary memory while the information is given
further processing before it is transferred to long-term memory.
3. LONG-TERM MEMORY is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term
memory. It has unlimited space.
a. SEMANTIC MEMORY: the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts that are
not part of the person’s own experiences.
Example: A student teacher who knows the capital of countries in the
world, the order of the planets, and other facts.
b. EPISODIC MEMORY: the memory of events that happened in a person’s life,
connected to a specific time and place.
Example: A student teacher who can explain the details of his/her most
embarrassing moment during his sophomore days.
c. PROCEDURAL MEMORY: account for the knowledge about how to do things.
Example: A student teacher who recalls the step-by-step process of
presenting the lesson to the class.
Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning. He spent the rest of his life studying reflexes of
dogs, which led him to the discovery of classical conditioning, also known as the association
theory.
15. It is defined as a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component
actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.
a. Register
b. Schema
c. Equilibration
d. Repetition
16. This process involved changing or altering existing schemas owing to the new
information provided or learned.
a. Assimilation
b. Accommodation
c. Equilibration
d. Disequilibrium
Assimilation in the process of taking new information into the existing schema.
Equilibration is the mechanism when the balance between assimilation and accommodation
is achieved. If the person is unable to take a balance of these two processes, disequilibrium
happens.
Consider the story of a two-year old child who formed the concept of dog as he played
very often with Starbucks, a Shih Tzu, the family dog. When introduced to a poodle, he
called the same as dog. One day, he saw the neighbor’s cat and shouted “dog” to get
the attention of his mother.
The child’s schema for dogs includes having a small furry body, with four legs, a waggling
tail, and a barking ability. Calling the poodle dog is a case of assimilation. When the
mother explained that dogs bark but cats meow, the child accommodated the new
experience, thus, his schema for cats was created.
17. Even when his/her mother leaves for work, a child is aware that his/her mother
comes home in the afternoon. This major accomplishment under the Sensorimotor
Stage is called?
a. Decentration
b. Goal-directed actions
c. Object permanence
d. Conservation
There are two major accomplishments happen at the sensorimotor stage. One is object
permanence, the belief that an object still exists even if not within the sight. Goal-directed
actions believed that as a child grows, he/she begins to think about what he/she needs to
accomplish, how to do it, then act on it. These actions are instinctive and involuntary.
Decentration and Conservation in the choices are beliefs under the concept of
reversibility, a major activity at the Concrete Operational Stage.
What are the four phases of cognitive development among children according to Piaget?
A. Sensorimotor (0-2 years): learns through reflexes, senses, and movement --- actions
on the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events.
B. Preoperational (2-7 years): begins about the time the child starts talking, to about 7
years old. Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects.
C. Concrete operational (7-11 years): understands conservation and organizes things
into categories and in series. Engages in hands-on thinking characterized by organized
and rational thinking.
Conservation: the belief that whatever the arrangement or appearance of the
object, as long as there is nothing added or decreased, the number or amount
of the appearance of the object would remain the same.
Decentration: the children’s ability to focus on more than one dimension of an
object at a time.
Classification: ability to group similar objects in terms of color, shape, use, etc.
Seriation: ability to arrange objects according to size.
D. Formal Operational (12 years up): engages to mental processes involving abstract
thinking and coordination of some variables.
18. You are convinced that whenever a student performs the desired behavior,
provide reinforcement. Soon, the student learns to perform the behavior on his or her
own. On which principle is your conviction based?
a. Cognitivism
b. Constructivism
c. Behaviorism
d. Connectionism
Behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the role of the
environment in these changes.
Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information
into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas). Jerome Bruner is known for his
Constructivist Theory. He believes that learning is an active process where learners
can create new ideas using their current or past knowledge about things, events, or
situations.
Very remarkable from Bruner is his emphasis on Categorization in learning. It involves
perception, conceptualization, learning, decision-making, and making inferences.
Bruner encourages teachers to allow students to discover concepts by themselves
through learning opportunities and activities that allow them to explore and
experiment.
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on how information is received,
organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivism was developed as a
reaction to the spread of behaviorism. It theorizes about the role of mental activities
in human behavior, arguing that our behavior is a result of our cognition. Noam
Chomsky is often credited as the founder of cognitivism.
19. Teacher Maria claims: "if I have to give reinforcement, it has to be given
immediately after the response." Which theory supports Teacher Maria's belief?
a. Operant Conditioning Theory
b. Social-Cognitive Theory
c. Cognitive Theory
d. Connectionism
Who postulated Operant Conditioning Theory?
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (B.F. Skinner). Operant Conditioning actively involves the
subject’s participation. The subject has a choice to respond. In other words, operant
conditioning is the type of conditioning whereby learning occurs as a consequence of the
learner’s behavior.
Social-Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory is postulated by Albert Bandura. It
presents that learning occurs within the social context and by observing and copying others’
behavior or we call it imitation.
Cognitive Theory is proposed by Jean Piaget while Connectionism theory is based on
the principle of active learning and is the result of the work of the American psychologist
Edward Thorndike. This work led to Thorndike's Laws. According to these Laws, learning is
achieved when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a
response.
20. This stage in Freudian Theory refers to the mother’s breast as the main source of
connection and satisfaction?
a. Anal
b. Phallic
c. Oral
d. Latency
Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during
five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During
each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of
the body. His theory is called Psychosexual Theory or Theory of Libidinal Development.
He posited a series of universal developmental stages in which psychic energy becomes
focused in different erogenous zones (the areas of the body that become erotically sensitive
in successive stages of development).
Psychoanalytic Theory: based on the belief that all humans have deep, unconscious beliefs, thoughts,
memories, and desires.
Psychosocial Theory: Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined
order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During
each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.
Psychosocial Conflict: Trust versus mistrust
Major Question: "Can I trust the people around me?"
Basic Virtue: Hope
Important Event: Feeding
Psychosocial Conflict: Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Major Question: "Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of others?"
Basic Virtue: Will
Important Event(s): Toilet training
Psychosocial Conflict: Initiative versus guilt
Major Question: “Am I good or bad?”
Basic Virtue: Purpose
Important Event(s): Exploration, play
Psychosocial Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority
Major Question: "How can I be good?"
Basic Virtue: Competence
Important Event(s): School
Psychosocial conflict: Identity vs. role confusion
Major question: "Who am I?"
Basic virtue: Fidelity
Important event(s): Social relationships
Psychosocial Conflict: Intimacy versus isolation
Major Question: "Will I be loved or will I be alone?"
Basic Virtue: Love
Important Event(s): Romantic relationships
Psychosocial Conflict: Generativity vs. stagnation
Major Question: "How can I contribute to the world?"
Basic Virtue: Care
Important Event(s): Parenthood and work
Psychosocial Conflict: Integrity versus despair
Major Question: "Did I live a meaningful life?"
Basic Virtue: Wisdom
Important Event(s): Reflecting back on life