The Study of Presupposition in Enoch Powell’s Speech
Rosmawati, Mega
pakpahan_mega@rocketmail.com
Abstract
This research studies about the types of Presupposition found in two speeches of John Enoch Powell.
The six types of presupposition were analyzed based the theory of George Yule (1996). The types are
Existential Presupposition, Factive Presupposition, Lexical Presupposition, Structural Presupposition,
Non-factive Presupposition, and Counterfactual Presupposition. The objectives of this research are to
find out what types are used in the two speeches and what type is dominantly used. In doing this
research, the writer used Mixed Research Design to analyze the data. The data of this thesis are the
speeches of a politician.The data were taken from the famous speeches of Enoch Powell and the writer
limited them on two most famous speeches, they are the River of Blood Speech and his Parliamentary
Speech. The finding of this research shows that 5 (five) types were found in the speeches and 1 (one)
type was not found. From the two speeches, the writer found 74 (seventy four) sentences in The River
of Blood Speech and 251 (two hundred fifty one) sentences in the Parliamentary Speech. So the total is
325 (three hundred twenty five) sentences that contain the Presupposition. There are 248 (two hundred
forty eight) noun phrase and possessive construction of Existential Presupposition (76.31%), 7 (seven)
sentences of Factive Presupposition (2.15%), 18 (eighteen) sentences of Lexical Presupposition
(5.54%), 9 (nine) sentences of Structural Presupposition (2.77%), and 43 (forty three) sentences of
Counterfactual Presupposition (13.23%). The type that was not found is the Non-factive
presupposition. The most dominant type that is used in the speeches of Enoch Powell is Existential
Presupposition. By this research, the writer suggests the readers of this research, the listeners of a
speech, the politician and the next researcher that understanding the meaning of Presupposition is an
important thing. Understanding the Presupposition and its types will reduce the misunderstanding in a
communication and give more information than just stated.
Keywords : types of presupposition, Non-factive presupposition, and counterfactual presupposition.
1.The Background of the Study
All people in the world need to communicate each other. Communication brings people
information. The people need information in order to know everything that happened around
them. They can use any of the tools of communications. One of the tools of communications
that is commonly used by human body is Language.
Language is a system of words or signs that people use to express thoughts and feelings
to each other. Language as communication needs the understanding of a set of sentence to
give the people a good meaning. All countries have different languages and all languages
have different sets of sentences. To avoid their misunderstanding, they use English language
as the general or international language.
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English as an international language has a very important role to develop science and
technologies. All countries in the world use English as a tool of communication among
people in different countries. For many years, English has been the most important foreign
language in Indonesia, from elementary school to university and even for all the society.In
English, there are many things that have to be learned in order to get the meaning of the
utterances even by its words, sounds and also by the people’s action. The study of the
language is conducted in the field of linguistics.
Linguistics is the study of language and of the way the language work. Linguistics has
six parts of study; they are phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and
sociolinguistics. In this case, the writer takes the part of linguistics that need the speaker, the
listener and the context or situation the sentences uttered. The sentences will be uttered by the
speaker and the information will be received and understood by the listener as the context and
situation. This field of linguistics is studied deeply in the field of pragmatics.
According to Yule (1996:3) “Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as
communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). Pragmatics
has many sub discussions. They are Deixis, Maxim, Speech Act, Implicature, Entailment, and
Presupposition. The writer takes the presupposition to be studied more.”
Yule (1996:2) stated that “Presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the
case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.” Studying
presupposition is not only studying about what is stated but also studying about what is
communicated. Presupposition can be found in written and oral language. The writer took the
oral language to analyze the presupposition called speech.
Speech is a spoken expression of ideas, opinions, etc., that is made by someone who is
speaking in front of a group of people. So, the audiences or hearers need a good knowledge of
presupposition to get a good understanding of interpretation. In this research, the writer will
discuss deeply on the presupposition and its six types. The writer chooses the Presupposition
because when studying Pragmatics on college,the writer is interested to study about hidden
meaning on a speaker’s utterances based on the contexts. The hearer needs to master the part
study of pragmatics on presupposition. By the understanding of presupposition, the meaning
of utterances will be reached more than just said. The hearer will know what had happened
before the utterances is delivered.
This research analyzes is about the presupposition in a politician speech, Enoch Powell.
He is the first British politician to advocate monetarism. He has some speeches that have
effect for the British. The writer uses two of his greater speeches to be the data of this
research. The first is “Rivers of Blood” speech and the second is his Parliamentary Speech.
These two speeches have many interpretation that sometimes will make the hearers
misunderstood the content if they do not have good knowledge of presupposition. Therefore
the writer desires to analyze what kinds of presupposition that is used by Enoch Powell. The
writer will focus on analyzing the types of presupposition and the most dominant type of
presupposition used in Enoch Powell’s speeches. So this research entitled “The Study of
Presupposition in Enoch Powell’s Speech”.
The objectives of the study stated as follows:
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1. To find out what types of presupposition are used in Enoch Powell’s speeches.
2. To find out what types of presupposition that is the most used in Enoch Powell’s
speeches.
The Significances of the study, theoretically, to be useful as a new perspective on pragmatics
specifically presupposition, to be useful as a speech analysis on presupposition. Practically
to enrich the readers’ knowledge about the presupposition especially in Enoch Powell’s
speeches, to give more knowledge to the reader as a hearer of speaker’s utterances, to be
useful for the people who want to make a research on presupposition.
Language
Language is a sytem of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar, or the
system of communication used by people in a particular country or type of work.It is spoken
or written sentences that is used by human in communicating to each other in order to tell
something that a speaker wants a hearer to know. Holmes (2001:3) said that “Languages
provide a variety of ways of saying the same thing-addressing and greeting others, describing
things, paying compliments.”
Robin (1979:9-10) stated that “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means
of which a social group cooperates. Language is, as we know, species-specific to man. Every
normal human being has acquired one language, his mother tongue, by late childhood, the
basic lexicon, grammar and pronunciation within the first ten years of life, apparently without
effort and without requirement of systematic instruction, in contrast to the actual teaching
necessarily involved in the attainment of literacy and the mastery of foreign languages at
school.”
According to Roberts (1986:241-242), “Language is a system of communication and a
set of sentences. If a language really a set of sentences, it follows that different languages are
distinguished by being made up of different sets of sentences. Two people will speak exactly
the same language if (and only if) the set of sentences in each of their languages are exactly
the same. A consequence of this is that, almost certainly, no people speak exactly the same
language.” Cruse (2000:21) said that “Language is used to communicate about things,
happenings, and states of affairs in the world, and one way of approaching the study of
meaning is to attempt to correlate expressions in language with aspects in the world.”
Based on the two definitions of Language we can conclude that Language is the way the
people say their opinion or feeling to tell about everything they hear or see even in different
form.
Linguistics
Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities enabling speakers of the
language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires,
and all the other things that need expressing. Linguistics is the study of these knowledge
systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured, how it is acquired,
how it is used in the production and comprehension of messages, how it changes over
time.According to Robins (1979:6), “Linguistics is a science in the stricter sense, one is
saying that it deals with a specific body of material, namely spoken and written language and
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that it proceeds by operations that can be publicly communicated and described, and justified
by reference to statable principles and to a theory capable of formulation.” He also said that
“Linguistics is one of the social sciences, in that the phenomena forming its subject-matter
are part of the behavior of men and women in society, in interactions with their fellows.”
Linguistics has six (6) parts of study; they are Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Semantics, Pragmatics, and Sociolinguistics.
1. Phonology
Phonology is concerned with the patterns and organization of languages in terms of
the phonetic features and categories involved. Phonology is the science of speech sounds
including especially the history and theory of sound changes in a language or in two or more
related languages.
2. Morphology
Morphology is the study of the forms of words. In morphology, we study about
the description of word formation (as inflection, derivation, and compounding) in
language.
3. Syntax
Syntax is the study of the way in which linguistic elements (as words) are put
together to form constituents (as phrases, clauses and sentences) and the study of the
relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which
sequences are well-formed. This type of study generally takes place without considering
any world of reference or any user of the forms.
4. Semantics
Within the scope of meaning are involved the relation between utterances, written
and spoken and the world at large. Meaning is an attribute not only of language but of all
sign and symbol systems, and the study of meaning called Semantics. It is the study of
the relationship between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how words
literally connect to things.
5. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, contextual meaning, and how more
gets communicated than is said. It studies about the relationships between linguistic
forms and the users of those forms
6. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship with the relationship between
language and the context in which it is used.
Pragmatics
Studying pragmatics is studying about the meaning of the speaker’s utterances. It focuses on
speaker meaning. Yule (1996:3) stated that “Pragmatics is concerned with the study of
meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).It
has consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than
what the words or phrase in those utterances might mean by themselves.” This type of study
necessarily involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how
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the context influences what is said. It requires a consideration of how speakers organize what
they want to say in accordance with who they’re talking to, where, when, and under what
circumstances. This approach also necessarily explores how listeners can make inferences
about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning.
According to Peccei (1999:2), “Pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that
cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about
the physical and social world.”Peccei(1999:5) said that “the focus of pragmatics analysis is
on the meaning of speaker’s utterances rather than on the meaning of words or sentences.
Utterances need not consist of complete sentences. Each utterance is a unique physical event
created at a particular point in time for a particular communicative purpose.”
So, Pragmatics is the study of meaning that depends on the context and it needs certain
knowledge to get a good interpretation or meaning of certain utterances and to get more about
what is communicated than what is said.
Presupposition
Studying resupposition means studying about the case that is existed before the utterance is
stated. When a speaker delivers his utterance, the hearer will know what the speaker intended
meaning is. Yule (1996:25) stated that “Presupposition is something the speaker assumes to
be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions.”
According to Bart Geurts (1999: 2), “Presuppositions are pieces of information which
are associated with certain lexical items or syntactic constructions.” In the meantime,
Christopher Potts (2014:3) said that the “Presuppositions of an utterance are the pieces of
information that the speaker assumes (or acts as if she assumes) in order for her utterance to
bemeaningful in the current context.”
In addition, Peccei (1999:19) stated that “Presuppositions are inferences that are very
closely linked to the words and grammatical structures actually used in the utterance, but they
come from our knowledge about the way language users conventionally interpret these words
and structure.” Interrogatives and imperatives sentences are sorts of sentences that sometimes
called Presupposition. Since not all utterances consist of full declarative sentences,
presupposition can be a useful concept when analyzing speaker meaning. Peccei also said that
“Presuppositions are closely linked to the words and grammatical structures that are actually
used in the utterance and our knowledge about the way language users conventionally
interpret them.”
By reading the three definitions of Presupposition, it can be concluded that
Presupposition is the information that can be taken from speaker’s utterances according to the
context.
Types of Presupposition
Yule (1996:27) stated that “in the analysis of how speakers’ assumptions are typically
expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words,
phrases, and structures and it will be considered that these linguistics forms here as indicators
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of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with
speakers.”
Yule (1996:27-30) divided presupposition into six types; they are
1. Existential Presupposition
2. Factive Presupposition
3. Lexical Presupposition
4. Structural Presupposition
5. Non-factive Presupposition
6. Counterfactual Presupposition
Existential Presupposition
Existential presupposition is not only assumed to be present in possessive
constructions, but more generally in any definite noun phrase.
Example:-Your car. It means thatYou have a car.
-The King of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door, the Counting
Crows.
(By using any of the expressions in the example, the speaker is assumed
to be committed to the existence of the entities named).
Another example: -the deadline for Iranians.
It means that There is a deadline.
-Iran’s Guardian Council.
It means that Iran has Guardian Council.
Factive Presupposition
The presupposed information following a verb like ‘know’ can be treated as
a fact and it is described as factive presupposition. A number of verbs, such
as realize, regret, as well as phrases involving ‘be’ with ‘aware’, ‘odd’ and
‘glad’ also have factive presuppositions.
Example:-She didn’t realize he was ill. It means that He was ill.
-We regret telling him. It means thatWe told him.
- I wasn’t aware that she was married.
It means thatShe was married.
-It isn’t odd that he left early. It means that He left early.
-I’m glad that it is over. It means thatIt’s over.
- It’s sad that the Occupations have started out
It means that the Occupations have started out.
Lexical Presupposition
Lexical presupposition is the use of one form with its asserted meaning is
conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (nonasserted) meaning is understood. Each time you say that someone ‘managed’
to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some
way. When you say that someone ‘didn’t manage’, the asserted meaning is
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that the person did not succeed. In both cases, however, there is a
presupposition (non-asserted) that the person ‘tried’ to do that something. So
‘managed’ is conventionally interpreting as asserting ‘succeeded’ and
presupposing ‘tried’. Other examples, involving the lexical items, ‘stop’,
‘start’, and ‘again’, are presented, with their presuppositions, as the sentences
below:
Example:-He stopped smoking. It means that He used to smoking.
-They started complaining. It means thatThey weren’t
complaining.
-You’re late again. It means thatYou were latebefore.
-The European Union plans to impose new sanctions against
Tehran
It means that previously there have been sanctions
In the case of lexical presupposition, the speaker’s use of a particular
expression is taken to presuppose another (unstated) concept.While in the
case of a factive presupposition, the use of a particular expression is taken to
presuppose the truth of the information that is stated after it.
Structural Presupposition
In this case, certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally
and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be
true. We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information
as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by
listener. For example, the wh-question, as shown in the examples below is
conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that the information after
the wh-form (i.e. ‘when’ and ‘where’) is already known to be the case.
Example: -When did he leave? It means that He left.
-Where did you buy the bike? It means thatYou bought the bike.
-Why not add one more to the table
It means that one more should be added to the table.
The type of presupposition illustrated in the example above can lead
listeners to believe that the information presented is necessarily true, rather
than just the presupposition of the person asking the question. For example,
let’s say that you were standing at an intersection one evening. You didn’t
notice whether the traffic signal had turned to red before a car went through
the intersection. The car was immediately involved in a crash. You were
witnessed to the crash and later you are asked:
“How far was the car going when it ran the red light?”
If you answer the question was asked and estimate the speed of the car,
then you would appear to be accepting the truth of the presupposition (i.e. the
car ran the red light). Such structurally-based presupposition may represent
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subtle ways of making information that the speaker believes appear to be
what the listener should believe.
Non-factive Presupposition
Non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true.
Example: -I dreamed that I was rich. It means that I was not rich.
-We imagined we were in Hawaii. It means thatWe were not in
Hawaii.
-He pretends to be ill. It means that He is not ill.
- An imagined move by China.
It means that The move is not real.
Verbs like ‘dream’, ‘imagine’, and ‘pretend’, as shown in the examples
are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true.
Counterfactual Presupposition
Counterfactual presupposition is the meaning that what is presupposed is not
only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ‘contrary to facts’.
Example: -If you were my friend, you would have helped me.
It means that You are not my friend.
-If there was a situation 100% that these people were.
It means that there is not such a situation
A conditional structure of the type shown in the example generally called
a counterfactual conditional, presupposes that the information in the ‘ifclause is not true at the time of utterance.
The existence of non-factive presupposition is part of an interesting
problem for the analysis of utterances with complex structures, generally
known as ‘the projection problem’.
The Projection Problem
There is a basic expectation that the presupposition of a simple sentence will continue to be
true when that simple sentence becomes part of a more complex sentence. This is one version
of the general idea that the meaning of the whole sentence is a combination of the meaning of
its parts. However, the meaning of some presupposition (as ‘parts’) doesn’t survive to
become the meaning of some complex sentences (as ‘wholes’). This is known as the
projection problem.
Example: a. Nobody realized that Kelly was ill. (p)
b. Kelly was ill. (q)
c. p>> q
At this point, the speaker uttering apresupposesb.
d.I imagined that Kelly was ill. (r)
e. Kelly was not ill. (Notq)
f. r>> not q
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At this point, the speaker uttering d presupposes e, the opposite of b.
g. I imagined that Kelly was ill and nobody realized that she was ill. (d&a)
h. r & p >> not q
At this point, after combining r & p, the presupposition q can no longer be
assumed to be true.
In example above, we are going to see what happens to the presupposition q (‘Kelly was
ill’) which is assumed to be true in the simple structure ofc, but which does not ‘project’ in to
the simple structure of h. In order to follow this type of analysis, we have to think of a
situation in which a person may say: ‘I imagined that Kelly was ill and nobody realized that
she was ill.’
Christopher Potts (2014:3-4) stated that there are two kinds of presupposition, they are:
1. Pragmatic Presupposition
Pragmatic presuppositions include the preconditions forlinguistic interaction (for example,
the mutual public knowledge that we arespeaking the same language), the norms of turntaking in dialogue, and moreparticularized information about conversational plans and goals.
The clearest instances of pragmatic presuppositions are those that cannot easily be traced to
specific words or phrases, but rather seem to arise from more general properties of the
context and the expectations of the discourse participants.
2. Semantic Presupposition
Semantic (conventional, lexical) presuppositions are part of the encoded meanings of specific
words and constructions, called presupposition triggers. Although the label `semantic'
suggests a clean split from pragmatics, even se-mantic presuppositions are pragmatic in the
sense that they must be evaluated in the discourse participants' common ground; most
presuppositions hold only in specific contexts, so one always needs to know at least whatthe
background store of knowledge is in order to evaluate them. Se-mantic accounts are
potentially compatible with pragmatic ones; in the sense that using a presupposition trigger is
an excellent way to achieve the speaker action of presupposing. However, the semantic view
at least allows for the possibility that a speaker's utterance could presuppose a proposition p
(as a matter of convention) even as that speaker did not intend to presuppose pwhereas this is
impossible in an accountfounded entirely on speaker intentions.
2.1 Speech
Speech is a spoken expression of ideas, opinions, etc., that is made by someone who is
speaking in front of a group of people.According to Oxford Dictionary (2000: 1292), “Speech
is a formal talk that a person gives to an audience; the ability to speak; the way in which a
particular person speaks; the language used when speaking; and a group of lines that an actor
speaks in a play in the theatre.”
Speech is also called public speaking. According toMulyana (2009: 3-9) “Speech has
five (5) main functions, namely To convince, To instruct, To inform, To actuate and To
entertain.”
1. To convince
To convince is to make someone or hearer believes on the speaker’s utterances in his
speech.
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To convince, speaker usually uses the following words:
- I am convinced that…
- I believe that…
- I am sure that…
- It is certain thing that…
2. To instruct
To instruct is to give instruction to hearer.
The words to instruct are as follows:
- Shall we pray!
- Let me order you to…
- I would invite you to…
- It will be better if you…
3. To inform
To inform is to give information or to tell the hearer about something.
Speaker uses the following words to inform:
- I would like to say that…
- According to the researchers, …
- In accordance with the state ideology, …
- In the line the newest treaty, …
4. To actuate
To actuate is to effect hearer by giving some hopes using the following words:
- I do hope that …
- I am hopeful that …
- I live in a hope that …
- In the hope of arriving at a better life, …
5. To entertain
To entertain is to make the hearer lough and to comfort them. To entertain, the speaker
can use wise words, joke, parables, poem, song etc.
2.2 The Historical Background of Enoch Powell
John Enoch Powell was born on the 1st June 1912, the son of Albert Enoch Powell (18721956). He was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge from 1934 to 1938 and was then
appointed professor of Greek at the University of Sydney, making him the youngest professor
in the British Empire. He served from 1939 to 1945 in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment and
on the General Staff.
Ulster unionist candidate for South Down and was elected in the general election of
October 1974. On 20 April he addressed a meeting of the West Midlands Conservative
Political Centre, of which he was president – his speech was circulated in advance by the
West Midlands CPC and not the party Central Office – and delivered an attack on unchecked
immigration from the Commonwealth to the United Kingdom. He used a classical allusion to
Virgil, declaring, Like the Roman; I seem to see “The River Tiber foaming with much
blood”.’ It was called “Rivers of Blood” speech.
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The loss of his seat left him no clear sense of purpose and no dedicated routine. He
worked on a book on St Matthew’s Gospel, The Evolution of the Gospel, which appeared in
1994, and began work on a study of St John’s Gospel; he continued in public life with a range
of speeches and articles - especially on the issue of European integration – but in 1992 was
diagnosed as suffering from Parkinson’s disease. Towards the end of his life, he suffered a
number of falls. He died on 8 February 1998.
A distinguished academic and soldier, Powell was an outstanding debater. His speeches
were honed and compelling. His speech, delivered in the early hours of 28 July 1959, on the
deaths of Mau Mau detainees in the Hola camp in Kenya, was one of the most outstanding
delivered in the House of Commones in the latter of the twentieth century. It is his
parliamentary speech.
Previous Research
There are some previous researchers did a research on Presupposition, the writer takes three
(3) researchers as the previous research. They are Monica Ghea Luwio (2014-State
University of Medan), Nurul Hidayah Azmi (2012-State University of Medan), Rina Oktavia
Siagian (2009-University of HKBP Nommensen Medan).
1. Monica GheaLuwio (2014)
Title: Presupposition in Jaco TV Home-Shopping.
The study deals with types of presupposition and its asserted meaning Iin advertisement
of Jaco TV Home-Shopping. The objectives of study are to find out the types of
presupposition and the most dominant type in Jaco TV Home-Shopping advertisement. The
research is conducted by using descriptive qualitative design. The data collected by choosing
fifteen selected videos from four products. The result showed the types of presupposition that
used in the four products; they are in beauty product, healthy product, fitness equipment, and
home appliances. The dominant type of presupposition that is used by the advertisement is
Existential Presupposition in healthy product, fitness equipment and home appliances; while
Lexical is the dominant in beauty product. The cause of existential presupposition becomes
the most dominant presuppositionin the advertisement of Jaco TV Home-Shopping is Jaco
TV Home-Shopping advertisements uses the utterances formed by proper names, noun
phrase, definite article and possessive in order to show the existence of things in its
advertisements and by lexical presupposition, the advertisers tried to make the information to
be directly understood by the consumers.
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Conceptual Framework
Pragmatics
Deixis
Maxim/
Politeness
Presupposition
Speech Act
Entailment
Implicature
Types of
Presupposition
by Yule (1996:27-30)
-Existential
-Factive
-Lexical
- Structural
-Non-Factive
-Counterfactual
Speech
\\\
John Enoch Powell speech
-“Rivers of Blood” speech on October 20th, 1974
-“Parliamentary” speech on July 28th, 1959
Description
Lexical
Structural
Counterfactual
Existential
Factive
Non-Factive
Presupposition Presupposition Presupposition Presupposition Presupposition Presupposition
Figure1. The Study of Presupposition in Enoch Powell’s Speech (Rosmawati, 2015)
Pragmatics is the study of utterance meaning, sentences which are used in
communication, and also the study of meaning in language interaction between a speaker and
a hearer.Pragmatics has six domains of study; they are Deixis, Maxim, Speech Act,
Presupposition, Entailment and Implicature. All of the domains are concerned context and the
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meaning is based on the context when the utterance is uttered. A hearer needs certain
knowledge about pragmatics in order to create a good communication with the speaker.
Sometimes, hearer doesn’t realize of the considerable amount of skill and knowledge that is
need to accomplish it.
In this research, the writer will discuss deeply on the presupposition and its six types.
The writer chooses the Presupposition as the scope of the study because the writer is
interested to study about hidden meaning on a speaker’s utterances based on the contexts.
The hearer needs to master the part study of pragmatics on presupposition. By the
understanding of presupposition, the meaning of utterances will be reached more than just
said. The hearer will know what had happened before the utterances is delivered.
The types of presupposition are Existential, Factive, Lexical, Structural, Non-Factive,
and Counterfactual. The writer takes the data from Speech. Some public speakers use
uncomplete sentences in delivering their speech. It needs hearer’s knowledge to understand
thyem. The six types will be analyzed in the speeches of Enoch Powell. The speeches are
“Rivers of Blood” speech that was delivered on October 20th, 1974 and “Parliamentary”
speech on July 28th, 1959. To analyze the data, the writer uses Descriptive Qualitative
research. By his research, the writer will explain and describe what types of presupposition
are found in the speeches and what type that is dominant.
The four purposes of this chapter are to (1) describe the research methodology of this
study, (2) explain the sample selection, (3) describe the procedure used in designing the
instrument and collecting the data, and (4) provide an explanation of the procedures used to
analyze the data.
2.The Research Design
Research design is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research
design will typically include how data is to be collected, what instrument will be employed,
how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected. In
designing this research, the writer applies a Mixed Research. By this type of research, the
writer will explain about the presuppositions in Enoch Powell’s speeches.
John W. Creswell (1994: 21) stated that “A mixed methods approach is one in which the
researchertends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds (e.g.,consequence-oriented,
problem-centered, and pluralistic). Itemploys strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data
eithersimultaneously or sequentially to best understand researchproblem. The data collection
also involves gathering both numericinformation (e.g., on instruments) as well as text
information (e.g.,on interviews) so that the final database represents bothquantitative and
qualitative information.”
3.1 The Data and Data Source
3.2.1 The data of this research are:
1. The speech of Enoch Powel on Conservative Association meeting in
Birmingham on April 20 1968. It is called “Rivers of Blood Speech”.
xiii
2. The speech of Enoch Powell on the deaths of Mau Mau detainees in the Hola
camp in Kenya on July 28 1959. It is his parliamentary speech.
The Source of the Data
1. The “Rivers of Blood Speech” that was taken from the website.
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/3643823/Enoch-Powells-Rivers-of-Bloodspeech.html)
2. The “Parliamentary Speech” that was taken from the website.
(http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1959/jul/27/hola-camp-kenyareport).
The Procedures of Analyzing Data
The writer analyzes the data by the following steps:
1. Identifying the presupposition of the texts by underlining.
2. Classifying the utterances into the six types of presupposition.
3. Counting the percentage of type of presupposition used in the speeches with the
following formula:
X=F/N*100%
Where: X= the percentage of the obtained Presupposition sentences.
F= frequency of the obtained types of Presupposition.
N= the total number of Presupposition sentences.
4. Concluding the dominant type of presupposition by each percentage.
Data
The data of this research are two speeches of John Enoch Powell. One is the speech on
Conservative Association meeting in Birmingham on April 20 1968, t is called “Rivers of
Blood Speech” and one is the speech on the deaths of Mau Mau detainees in the Hola camp
in Kenya on July 28 1959, it is his Parliamentary Speech. Firstly, all the sentences from the
first and the second speech that contain the types of presupposition were made into a table.
Then, the writer classified them into each type. All the data that were found can be seen as in
the table below.
River of Blood Speech
No
1
2
3
Table 1
The List of Presupposition Sentences in the River of Blood Speech
Type
Sentences
1
2
3
4
This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called River of
Blood speech.
This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called River of
Blood speech.
If only people wouldn’t talk about it, it probably
wouldn’t happen.
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9
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11
12
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15
16
17
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21
22
Avoidable evils is the most unpopular and at the same
time the most necessary occupation for the politician.
If I had the money to go, I wouldn’t stay in this country.
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will
have the whip hand over the white man.
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will
have the whip hand over the white man.
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will
have the whip hand over the white man.
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in
my own town, says to me, his member of Parliament that
his country will not be worth living in for his children.
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in
my own town says to me, his member of Parliament, that
his country will not be worth living in for his children.
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in
my own town, says to me, his member of Parliament
thathis country will not be worth living in for his
children.
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in
my own town, says to me, his member of Parliament that
his country will not be worth living in for his children.
I simply do not have the right to shrug my shoulders.
There will be in this country three and a half million
commonwealth immigrants and their descendants.
That is the official figure given to parliament by
thespokesman of the Register General’s Office.
It must be in the region of five to seven million,
approximately one-tenth of the whole population.
That is the official figure given to parliament by the
spokesman of the Register General’s Office.
Parts of town across England will be occupied by
sections of the immigrant.
The proportion of this total will rapidly increase.
The evils to be prevented or minimized lie several
parliaments ahead.
Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first made
mad.
We must be mad, as a nation, who is for the most part
the material of the future growth of the immigrant
descended population.
xv
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23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
The commonwealth doctors who, to the advantage of
their own countries, have enabled our hospital service.
The commonwealth doctors who, to the advantage of
their own countries, have enabled our hospital service.
If all immigration ended tomorrow, the rate of the
growth of the immigrant and immigrant-descended
population would be substantially reduced.
Nobody can make an estimate of the numbers which
with generous assistant would choose either to return to
their countries or to other countries.
If such a policy were adapted and pursued with the
determination which the gravity of the alternative
justifies, the resultant outflow could appreciably alter the
prospects.
The immigrant and his descendant should be elevated
into a privileged or special class.
The citizen should be denied his right.
There would be no grosser misconception of the realities
than is entertained by those who vociferously demand
legislation, whether they be leader writers of the same
kidney and sometimes on the same newspaper.
There would be no grosser misconception of the realities
than is entertained by those who vociferously demand
legislation, whether they be leader writers of the same
kidney and sometimes on the same newspaper
Archbishops who live in palaces, faring delicately with
the bedclothes pulled right up over their heads.
Archbishops who live in palaces, faring delicately with
the bedclothes pulled right up over their heads
Nothing is more misleading than comparison between
the Commonwealth immigrant in Britain and the
American Negro.
The Negro population of the United States already in
existence.
The United States started literally as slaves.
They found themselves made strangers in their own
country.
They found their wives unable to obtain hospital beds in
childbirth.
Their children unable to obtain school places, their
homes, and neighborhood.
xvi
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40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
Their children unable to obtain school places, their
homes, and neighborhoods.
They found that employers hesitated to apply to the
immigrant worker.
They began to hear.
They now learn that a one-way privilege is to be the
stranger, the disgruntled and the agent-provocateur.
They now learn that a one-way privilege is to be the
stranger the disgruntled and the agent-provocateur.
All members of Parliament are used to the typical
anonymous correspondent.
They would risk penalties or reprisals if they were
known to have done so.
She lost her husband and both her sons in the war.
She lost her husband and both her sons in the war.
She turned her seven-roomed house.
She worked hard and did well, paid off her mortgage and
began to put something by for her old age.
The quietstreet became a place of noise and confusion.
Her white tenants moved out.
She was awakened by two Negroes who wanted to use
her phone to contact their employer.
She was awakened by two Negroes who wanted to use
her phone to contact their employer.
She would have been attacked but for the chain on her
door.
She would have been attacked but for the chain on her
door.
Immigrant families have tried to rent rooms in her house.
Her little store of money went; she has less than £2 per
week.
The girl said, “Racial prejudice won’t get you anywhere
in this country.
Her family pay the bill.
Immigrants have offered to buy her house.
The prospective landlord would be able to recover from
his tenants in weeks.
The prospective landlord would be able to recover from
his tenants in weeks
The new Race Relation Bill is passed.
xvii
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65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
I begin to wonder.
The cloud no bigger than a man’s hand that can so
rapidly overcast the sky.
The cloud no bigger than a man’s hand that can so
rapidly overcast the sky.
The Sikh communities’ campaign to maintain customs
inappropriate in Britain is much to be regretted.
They should be prepared to accept the terms and
conditions of their employment.
Here is the means of showing that the immigrant
communities can organize to consolidate their members,
to agitate and campaign against their fellow citizens.
The immigrant communities can organize to dominate
the rest with the legal weapons.
I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman.
I seem to the River Tiber foaming with much blood.
The existence of the State itself is coming upon us.
Total
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65
0
4
0
0
5
5
6
Parliamentary Speech
Table IV.2
The List of Presupposition Sentences in the Parliamentary Speech
No
Type
Sentences
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I would commend to Ministers who are still on the
Treasury Bench
My hon. Friends and I want to take this opportunity to
raise two closely related matters.
I want to say at once that we on this side of the House
make no apology for returning to the subject of Hola.
The second document throws a good deal of fresh light
upon the events at Hola.
It began on 11th February, when Mr. Cowan drew up
his plan.
This was with relation to the operation of the Cowan
plan and is on page 23 of the further documents.
We must either let them stew and risk the contamination
of the convicts and the open camp detainees
It appears quite clearly from that passage, taken with the
coroner's report
xviii
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3
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4
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Did he react as, according to the coroner, any reasonable
person would have reacted?
Did he consult his colleagues
I would refer in particular, coming to the evidence
before the coroner and the record of the evidence, to the
evidence of the Chief Warder
I went out with the Askaris that morning
Mr. Campbell dictated his written record in which he
said
Let us first turn to the supplementary documents
The very different gloss which was put on it in the
written report, when "bruises" become "slight bruises"
Now let us look at how the matter was put by Mr.
Campbell in his written report
The Medical Officer informed us that quite a number of
those in hospital were suffering from slight bruises
They had no means of knowing when, if ever, they
would be released
Their incarceration would not end
Will not the hon. and learned Gentleman agree that it
can be a perfectly voluntary act on the part of any
detainee to set himself on the move from the innermost
camps to the outer ones, back to the civilization where
he had been living?
Will not the hon. and learned Gentleman agree that it
can be a perfectly voluntary act on the part of any
detainee to set himself on the move from the innermost
camps to the outer ones, back to the civilization where
he had been living?
Why should we confess to something we have never
done?”
Again, for all that they knew, they would be held for an
indefinite period under the care of the same guards.
The inquest was resumed, and a little later the witness
was again recalled.
You will be transferred if you give evidence
His prospect of release, may well depend upon the
evidence he gives at that inquiry.
It was used because there had been industrial trouble in
the Copperbeltand some of the African trade union
leaders were taken away.
xix
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28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
It was used because there had been industrial trouble in
the Copperbelt and some of the African trade union
leaders were taken away.
Can the hon. and learned Member be asked to withdraw
that remark?
I say the Governor was not prepared to await the result
of the impartial inquiry.
Why should it be that the prison regulations in these
various territories apply to detainees?
Why, for example, should they not be given access to
newspapers when they have committed no crime?
I want to come to my second proposition.
The people concerned have been guilty of some criminal
act.
Those on Manda Island were the blackest of the Mau
Mau offenders.
They went before the Advisory Committee.
You were the editor of a near-seditious newspaper.
I want to come to the persistent refusal of Ministers at
the Dispatch Box.
You were the editor of the suppressed newspaper.
They suppress the newspaper.
The hon. and learned Member leaves that part of his
speech.
That is why we have put our Motion on the Notice Paper
If the Government is not prepared to take either course,
Ministers should be prepared to come to the Dispatch
Box and answer in detail for the action which has been
taken.
I see in his place the right hon. Gentleman the Leader of
the House.
There was no deep-laid plot of any sort either by the
Governor of Kenya or the Kenya Government or by Her
Majesty's Government to do anything illegal.
Their peers who form the members of the triumvirate
are guardians of the good name of the Service
They are the best guardians.
If the hon. Gentleman waits, I propose to deal with that
point in due course.
I beg hon. Members on both sides of the House to
remember the horrible evils.
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50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
If they are in exceptional circumstances to be published,
I should say that very great care is necessary.
If he had resigned he would have forfeited his pension,
and I do not believe that hon.
Their consciences are entirely clear in respect of the
millions of men.
Children who suffered the most appalling fate when
independence was given to the Indian sub-continent.
These weapons are being used against us by our enemies
If those who proclaim in this House that they are
interested in the welfare of our Commonwealth would
think twice before saying or doing anything which is
calculated to exacerbate racial tension, the path towards
building a stable multiracial society in Africa would be
more certain.
It has been said that the magistrate who investigated this
made the point about lack of adequate European
supervision.
The House knows that I have myself paid tribute—and I
gladly do so again.
It is as common for hon. Members from this side who
are privileged to visit the Colonies to pay tribute to such
people as it is for hon.
These people at Hola were not merely in the custody of
the Askaris and Mr. Sullivan and the officers in charge
of the camp.
These people at Hola were not merely in the custody of
the Askaris and Mr. Sullivan and the officers in charge
of the camp.
They were in the custody of Sir Evelyn Baring and the
Government.
The doctor checks up, because he, after all, has the
evidence if there has been ill-treatment."
Would not the hon. Gentleman agree that their own
people who are perfectly all right and respected
members of society have declined to take these people
back into their midst?
There are plenty of people who are not welcomed back
in their own community.
I sought to catch your eye tonight.
The plain fact is that the architect of the past policy is
remaining securely in office.
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67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
The duty of his office is to accept responsibility when
things go wrong.
Baring presided over the Council of Ministers which
issued the most misleading report of all time, which
indicated to the world that through drinking water these
men had died.
Why are standards falling so much that apparently
nothing is enough to shift people whose skin is thick
enough to sit there in the face of public opinion?
Let us have it again.
Large numbers of the detainees have been restored to
normal life that people were content.
I am glad to know that there are responsible people
belonging to all races in that multi-racial nation
It would have shown a greater spirit of fairness if the
whole picture had been painted at that time.
Again, I have taken care to bring the documents with
me.
If the hon. and learned Member for Ipswich believes
that these people had not taken the Mau Mau oath, he
will believe almost anything.
It was the black man in Kenya who suffered more from
Mau Mau murders than the white man.
The brutality of the people with whom they were
dealing, it is, in my opinion, a great credit to them.
If it had been carried out, it might well have had a very
real chance of success.
It is clear that the instructions were not carried out by
the man in the field.
That is the man who is now losing his position.
The whole lot was taken out again.
The warders and the men in the field were inadequately
briefed.
The whole Cowan Plan was quite mad.
The Governmenthas sensibly tackled the situation with
the suggestions.
There must be one responsible Minister to take the
authority in Kenya for the rehabilitation camps.
There should be a fresh and clear directive on the whole
subject.
People have their ascorbic acid tablets whether they like
xxii
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it or not.
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
It was a report from one man to his superior officer
And the eleven men killed.
We must have a firm resolve that such mistakes shall
never happen again.
We must take good care that we do not send back again
into the African areas any unrepentant Mau Mau
supporter.
He may well jeopardize the future and the safety of his
country and of his fellow men.
He may well jeopardize the future and the safety of his
country and of his fellow men.
The preservation of the State, are also the reasons why
detention is unacceptable once normal conditions return.
Only a week or so ago The Times newspaper had
occasion to write in an editorial.
I would illustrate this by reference to a report which has
not been discussed in this House, the report of Mr. Jack,
the Deputy Public Prosecutor, who looked into
allegations of Mr. Shuter.
At Mariira camp in the Fort Hall district there was what
Mr. Jack calls a "riot."
The autopsy showed there were various bruises,
hemorrhage inside the skull probably due to blows with
a blunt instrument.
The two European officers in the prison service who
witnessed this were horrified, but they did not report it
to their superiors.
The two European officers in the prison service who
witnessed this were horrified, but they did not report it
to their superiors.
African detainees were beaten on the testicles with
rubber hoses.
The Special Branch officers concerned were named.
An African called Gichini who was a cripple with both
legs amputated at the knees was found to have been
made to work in a quarry.
The District Commissioner had given his approval as he
thought that it was better for this legless African.
The Colonial Secretary thought fit to give an interview
to the Daily Mail which appeared this morning.
xxiii
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106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
The Conroy Committee finds Mr. Lewis responsible for
the failure to send Sullivan a copy of the Cowan Plan
If this copy of the plan had reached Mr. Sullivan this
massacre would probably never have happened.
There would have been bloodshed even if the Cowan
Plan had been operated in precisely the form that it was
written down
The Commissioner of Prisons went on to say: The plans
Mr. Cowan worked out could be undertaken
He expected that as a routine matter a copy of Cowan's
letter would be sent to Sullivan before carrying out the
operation
The Permanent Secretary for Defence conveyed the
Minister's decision to implement the plan to the Deputy
Commissioner
Why is there no suggestion of any action being taken
against the Minister of Defence?
He is Assistant Commissioner of Prisons and was the
senior of the three officers.
The right hon. Gentleman has put into the Library
records of the proceedings.
I think Campbell's notes (Exhibit S) were inaccurate.
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123
According to Thompson, in his evidence to the Conroy
Committee, Dr. Rogoff, who, I think, is the pathologist,
was asked whether there was any sign of bruising.
There was also the Assistant Superintendent of Police.
I described what I had seen, i.e., man with injury on
back of skull, man with injury to his teeth.
I also told that all the bodies had various minor injuries.
I also told him about the skin peeling.
Campbell wrote down in his report.
This was the conference presided over by the Governor
of Kenya.
Mr. Campbell was not the senior member of the party.
124
He came off the aero plane at Nairobi.
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125
126
The Ministers had a copy of Exhibit S.
The Press Officergo off quietly in a comer to finish off a
communiqué.
I am very glad to say that he did not take the view that it
was.
The Conroy Committee's Report had been in his hands.
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117
118
119
120
121
122
127
128
xxiv
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129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
Why is that report being delayed for five or six weeks?
Several speakers have referred to the importance of the
morale of the Services of the Crown in these territories.
One of the particulars on which Mr. Sullivan is
condemned is that he failed to give his warders adequate
and proper orders.
I should not be surprised if not a single one of Sullivan's
warders spoke Swahili as his native language.
If I wished to speak in his own language to every
African on my farm I should need to know at least six
languages.
He was described by a reliable authority as sympathetic
to the people of whom he was in charge.
These are the kind of people that most of us in this
country would regard as the salt of the earth.
When these kinds of people put on the uniform of the
Kenya Prison Service they cease to be the salt of the
earth and become the scum of the earth.
The causes of an air disaster or a railway accident
should be investigated with the greatest thoroughness so
that as far as is humanly possible no such disaster can
occur again.
The men whose fate we are discussing tonight are men
who have not confessed.
If I were a civil servant, my confidence would not be
greatly reinforced by the knowledge
There is another kind of confidence which we must
restore in Kenya, the confidence of the African in
British justice
We shall never reach the end of the state of emergency
in Kenya if we do not.
He had turned up again as African Affairs Officer to the
Aberdare County Council in another part of Kenya.
He had turned up again as African Affairs Officer to the
Aberdare County Council in another part of Kenya.
First and foremost, of course the Commissioner of
Police
Would 225 hon. Members have confidence if this is
what we did when eleven of their own people had been
killed?
I got it a few minutes before the debate began.
Lewis had the sense to suggest to his Minister
xxv
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148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
The Senior Superintendent of Prisons should be there
He was the chairman of the European Agricultural
Settlement Board
If it is to be argued, as it may be, "But this man gave
wonderful service in the past, and anyway he is going at
the end of the month," I would ask hon.
In the Kenya Newsletter, we have the Kenya
Government's boast
In the Kenya Newsletter, we have the Kenya
Government's boast
The man was forced to resign within 24 hours
The European Agricultural Settlement Board itself
placed on record its appreciation of the eight years
invaluable service he gave to it
It took 24 hours to sack a man who undermined the
confidence of the European investors
For a Minister who undermined the confidence in
British justice of the Africans throughout the whole of
the African continent, there is not the slightest
condemnation.
The notes, or whatever the Colonial Secretary likes to
call them, that Campbell submitted to the Governor said
that it was the opinion of all with whom we spoke
His lie is proved out of the mouth of the District
Commissioner
We all knew in our own minds that the events were
linked.
Aspiration pneumonia is caused when men inhale water
into the lungs
Let me come to the Medical Officer at Hola, Dr. Moyes.
This is our indictment
The Colonial Secretary stands in the dock
He does not deserve to hold his office
It is difficult to find a word to describe, of the water cart
communiqué
The new documents show that the responsibility for all
three aspects of this administrative disaster goes higher
The central document in the White Paper of last week,
and it has often been referred to in this debate
The central document in the White Paper of last week,
and it has often been referred to in this debate
xxvi
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169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
If there is blame for the failure to implement the Cowan
Plan accurately, that responsibility must rest on all those
who should have become aware
He then again referred to the action as planned at (9),
with the risk of someone getting hurt or killed.
It was one he could not advise his Minister to take
alone, without reference to the Security Council.
I quote the expression in the leading article in the Daily
Telegraph yesterday
The proposals were the adaptation of a proved and
successful technique to the circumstances of Hola
He as well as the Minister of Defence had all the
relevant papers in front of him
Those two men took upon themselves, with their eyes
open and with full knowledge
It will not just evaporate into thin air if we do nothing
about it.
my hon. Friend the Member for Leicester, South-Eeast
(Mr. Peel) reminded the House
I realize that felicitations from the other side of the
House are, sometimes, a little tactless
Many hon. Members opposite to realize that he was
expressing views which quite a number of them would
like to express.
Somebody "carries the can.”
It has been associated with almost every fight for
justice, liberty and freedom of significance for the
Western Hemisphere
We found that we were not, perhaps, in some ways, the
great nation we had been.
The colonial civil servants were jolly good chaps
We realized that scurvy was a question of vitamin
deficiency
The magistrate who acted as coroner said in his report
that when he visited the prison, he did not know what
the symptoms of the deficiency were
We do not know what information the doctor gave to the
assistant commissioner
We convict people after a fair trial in our criminal
courts; twenty-two others showed bruises all over their
bodies.
xxvii
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
It goes into the pigeonhole
The Home Secretary is here.
If he likes he can do it
If he says after a day or two, "I will not do it any longer
This is the issue for which we fought through the Red
Cross during the war.
We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the
Burma railroad
We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the
Burma railroad
We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the
Burma railroad
When did this word "rehabilitation" come in?
I pay tribute to the work of the civil servants very often
the record of Kenya in the courts of justice is deplorable
enough
I have paid tribute to the East African Supreme Court
One of the most forthright and best of the European
members of the Legislative Assembly today was the
District Commissioner
When the hon. Member for Blackpool, South (Sir R.
Robinson) speaks with his great knowledge, his
financial knowledge, of the Colonics, one has the
assumption that if someone is locked up he is guilty.
God bless my soul, the prisons of the world have been
full of people we have locked up who have turned out to
be some of the great men of the world.
Among those whom we have locked up are to be found
Mr. Gandhi, Mr. Neru, Dr. Nkrumah under a Labour
Government, too, and under the Colonial Office.
I was in his company a fairly long time
If I had to choose between taking the evidence of
AchiengOneko and that of Sir Evelyn Baring on
anything connected with Kenya, I would take
AchiengOneko's as more likely to be accurate, honest
and correct.
If we are going to lock up men, someone should be
entitled to know why they are locked up
A very large number of the murders committed in
Kenya altogether.
If he keeps his mouth shut he will get a job a few
xxviii
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
months later
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
If he had made inquiries he might have given a little
more information
We are conducting our discussion with hopelessly
inadequate information because of the slap-happy way
the right hon. Gentleman treats the House
The hon. and learned Member was not fortunate enough
to catch Mr. Speaker's eye
If the hon. and learned Gentleman will look at paragraph
10 of the White Paper that we are considering he will
see that the detainees were given the opportunity of
going out to the open camp.
If the hon. and learned Gentleman will look at paragraph
10 of the White Paper that we are considering he will
see that the detainees were given the opportunity of
going out to the open camp.
If they agreed to work on the scheme, for which they
would be paid, and to co-operate with the Government,
they would be released to the open camp.
As soon as it is clear that, with safety to the community
as a whole, the detention order can be lifted
I would ask the House as a whole to realize that there
was no serious attempt to challenge the view of the
Attorney-General
I vigorously deprecate the suggestion that the AttorneyGeneral might have arrived at a different conclusion if
the eleven men who died had been Europeans.
I shall deal with the Fairn Report
They have been redeemed their actions in a large part
rest with their own local friends
They can safely be allowed to return to their homes.
There has been a certain dualism of control and
responsibility, with the Ministry of African Affairs and
the Ministry for Internal Security
He will be responsible for the executive control of the
camps which are designed to restore the detainees to
normal life, and for their reabsorption in their home
districts.
He will have as his Deputy Mr. Hillin, at present Senior
Superintendent of Prisons.
Rehabilitation will therefore no longer be that of the
Prison Department.
xxix
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
I hope that hon. Members will realize that to somebody
who is interested in his work and is dedicated to it,
compulsory retirement from the Service is a very serious
penalty.
The Opposition thinks they can lake any comfort from
the fact that the best critical speech came from the
Conservative benches
If the operation had been carried out as planned, that
would not have been the consequence.
The Press handouts were irrelevant
My hon. Friend the Member for Wolverhampton, SouthWest made reference to Mr. Sullivan's situation report
The safeguards were explained in great detail in the
debate
If he could have known beforehand that some of the
fundamentals of the plan were to be altered, and trouble
would therefore quite likely ensue, obviously he would
have said explicitly that there must be no variation.
The C.I.D. had begun its investigation
The C.I.D. had begun its investigation
Why was it deliberately designed to give the wrong
impression
If we had known then such information as human
pyramids, serious rioting, absolute refusal by detainees
to go to work, and the reported use of violence, our first
communiqué would have taken account of these matters
and would have been very differently worded
His notes represented an honest appreciation
If he had wanted to mislead, he would certainly not have
committed anything to writing.
All Governments in the United Kingdom in recent years
have had to practise it.
The right hon. Gentleman said that I had unfairly
criticised a distinguished public servant
Did the Minister of Agricultural Affairs know anything
about the food
If the hon. Member had attended to my speech in that
debate he would know the answers to these questions.
After five years close association with the hon. Lady I
can assure her that I can deal with her interventions
The Kenya Government made some sort of attempt to
pull the wool over people's eyes
xxx
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
If they were setting out deliberately to mislead—which,
of course, they were not—they chose a most curious
way to set about it.
They can rejoin as freementhe society they have done so
√
much to endanger.
His servants who did so much to make this achievement
possible, and who, faced with this setback, immediately
and energetically set themselves to ensure that, as far as
is humanly possible, a tragedy of this kind cannot occur
again.
The right hon. Gentleman's speech was an attempt to
√
defend the indefensible
If he hesitates about it, I remind him that the magistrate,
in the course of his findings, expressed himself as being
unable to decide whether it was even made in good
faith.
We on this side would have had much more sympathy
with the Secretary of State if he had been frank with the
House and not sought to gloss over that which cannot be
defended on any rational basis and if he had said that it
was grossly wrong for the Government of Kenya to
issue a statement which must have misled millions of
readers in a matter
How far does the Secretary of State think that those for
whom he is responsible can go in misjudgment without
incurring his displeasure?
If it does not strike the Secretary of State in that form I
am sure, vast numbers of people who considered the
matter would prefer the view of the magistrate to his
own.
Total
183
√
√
√
√
√
√
7
14
9
0
38
1: Existential Presupposition
2: Factive Presupposition
3: Lexical Presupposition
4: Structural Presupposition
5: Non-factive Presupposition
6: Counterfactual Presupposition
The two tables above show the occurrence of the type of Presupposition in the two speeches.
There are 74 sentences found in the River of blood speech, 65 (87.83%) Existential
Presupposition, no Factive (0%) Presupposition, 4 (5.40%) Lexical Presupposition, no (0%5)
xxxi
Structural Presupposition, no (0%) Non-factive Presupposition and 5 (6,75%)Counterfactual
Presupposition. And there are 251 sentences found in the Parliamentary Speech, 183
(72.90%) Existential Presupposition, 7 (2.78%)Factive Presupposition, 14 (5.57%) Lexical
Presupposition, 9 (3.58%) Structural Presupposition, no (0%) Non-factive Presupposition,
and 38 (15.13%)Counterfactual Presupposition. So, from the two speeches, there are
325sentences that are found.
3. Data Analysis
After identifying the data of this research, the writer separated the 325 sentences that are
found and combined them into their each category that is called Data Analysis. Data analysis
is where the data is explained detail according to the theory that is used. Before explaining
them, all the sentences that contain of the type of Presupposition in the two speeches
wereclassified to each type and wereanalyzed based on the six types of presupposition from
the theory of George Yule (1996).
Classification of the Data
1. Existential Presupposition
Existential presupposition is assumed to be present in possessive construction and in any
definite noun phrase. The possessive construction such as “My, Your, His, Her, Their and
Our” show the existential of something/certain thing that the subject has. The particle
“The” in the Noun Phrases shows the existential of a certain thing that has been existed in
the time of utterances. The speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the
entities named. There are 248 sentences that contained of the Existential Presupposition
that were found in the two speeches.
The River of Blood Speech
TableIV.3
The List of Existential Presupposition in the River of Blood Speech
No
Sentences
1
This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called ‘River of Blood’ speech.
2
This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called ‘River of Blood’ speech.
3
Avoidable evils is the most unpopular and at the same time the most necessary
occupation for the politician.
4
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will have the whip hand over the
white man.
5
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will have the whip hand over the
white man.
6
In this country in 15 or 20 years’ time the black man will have the whip hand over the
white man.
7
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in my own town, says to me, his
member of Parliament that his country will not be worth living in for his children.
8
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in my own town says to me, his
member of Parliament, that his country will not be worth living in for his children.
xxxii
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in my own town says to me, his
member of Parliament, that his country will not be worth living in for his children.
Ordinary fellow Englishman, who in broad day light in my own town says to me, his
member of Parliament, that his country will not be worth living in for his children.
I simply do not have the right to shrug my shoulders.
There will be in this country three and a half million commonwealth immigrants and
their descendants.
That is the official figure given to parliament by thespokesman of the Register
General’s Office.
It must be in the region of five to seven million, approximately one-tenth of the whole
population.
That is the official figure given to parliament by the spokesman of the Register
General’s Office.
Parts of town across England will be occupied by sections of the immigrant.
The proportion of this total will rapidly increase.
The evils to be prevented or minimized lie several parliaments ahead.
Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first made mad.
We must be mad, as a nation, who is for the most part the material of the future
growth of the immigrant descended population.
The commonwealth doctors who, to the advantage of their own countries, have
enabled our hospital service.
The commonwealth doctors who, to the advantage of their own countries, have
enabled our hospital service
Nobody can make an estimate of the numbers which with generous assistant would
choose either to return to their countries or to other countries.
The immigrant and his descendant should be elevated into a privileged or special
class.
The citizen should be denied his right.
There would be no grosser misconception of the realities than is entertained by those
who vociferously demand legislation, whether they be leader writers of the same
kidney and sometimes on the same newspaper.
There would be no grosser misconception of the realities than is entertained by those
who vociferously demand legislation, whether they be leader writers of the same
kidney and sometimes on the same newspaper
Archbishops who live in palaces, faring delicately with the bedclothes pulled right up
over their heads.
Archbishops who live in palaces, faring delicately with the bedclothes pulled right up
over their heads
Nothing is more misleading than comparison between the Commonwealth immigrant
in Britain and the American Negro.
The Negro population of the United States already in existence.
xxxiii
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
They found themselves made strangers in their own country.
They found their wives unable to obtain hospital beds in childbirth.
Their children unable to obtain school places, their homes, and neighborhood.
Their children unable to obtain school places, their homes, and neighborhoods.
They found that employers hesitated to apply to the immigrant worker.
They now learn that a one-way privilege is to be the stranger, the disgruntled and the
agent-provocateur.
They now learn that a one-way privilege is to be the stranger the disgruntled and the
agent-provocateur.
All members of Parliament are used to the typical anonymous correspondent.
She lost her husband and both her sons in the war.
She lost her husband and both her sons in the war.
She turned her seven-roomed house.
The quietstreet became a place of noise and confusion.
Her white tenants moved out.
She was awakened by two Negroes who wanted to use her phone to contact their
employer.
She was awakened by two Negroes who wanted to use her phone to contact their
employer.
She would have been attacked but for the chain on her door.
She would have been attacked but for the chain on her door.
Immigrant families have tried to rent rooms in her house.
Her little store of money went; she has less than £2 per week.
The girl said, “Racial prejudice won’t get you anywhere in this country.
Her family pay the bill.
Immigrants have offered to buy her house.
The prospective landlord would be able to recover from his tenants in weeks.
The prospective landlord would be able to recover from his tenants in weeks
The new Race Relation Bill is passed.
The cloud no bigger than a man’s hand that can so rapidly overcast the sky.
The cloud no bigger than a man’s hand that can so rapidly overcast the sky.
The Sikh communities’ campaign to maintain customs inappropriate in Britain is
much to be regretted.
They should be prepared to accept the terms and conditions of their employment.
Here is the means of showing that the immigrant communities can organize to
consolidate their members, to agitate and campaign against their fellow citizens.
The immigrant communities can organize to dominate the rest with the legal weapons.
I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman.
I seem to the River Tiber foaming with much blood.
The existence of the State itself is coming upon us.
xxxiv
Parliamentary Speech
Table 2
The List of Existential Presupposition in the Parliamentary Speech
No
Sentences
1
I would commend to Ministers who are still on the Treasury Bench
2
My hon. Friends and I want to take this opportunity to raise two closely related
matters.
3
I want to say at once that we on this side of the House make no apology for returning
to the subject of Hola.
4
The second document throws a good deal of fresh light upon the events at Hola.
5
This was with relation to the operation of the Cowan plan and is on page 23 of the
further documents.
6
We must either let them stew and risk the contamination of the convicts and the open
camp detainees
7
It appears quite clearly from that passage, taken with the coroner's report
8
Did he react as, according to the coroner, any reasonable person would have reacted?
9
Did he consult his colleagues
10 I would refer in particular, coming to the evidence before the coroner and the record of
the evidence, to the evidence of the Chief Warder
11 I went out with the Askaris that morning
12 Mr. Campbell dictated his written record in which he said
13 Let us first turn to the supplementary documents
14 The very different gloss which was put on it in the written report, when "bruises"
become "slight bruises"
15 Now let us look at how the matter was put by Mr. Campbell in his written report
16 The Medical Officer informed us that quite a number of those in hospital were
suffering from slight bruises
17 Their incarceration would not end
188 Will not the hon. and learned Gentleman agree that it can be a perfectly voluntary act
on the part of any detainee to set himself on the move from the innermost camps to the
outer ones, back to the civilization where he had been living?
19 Will not the hon. and learned Gentleman agree that it can be a perfectly voluntary act
on the part of any detainee to set himself on the move from the innermost camps to the
outer ones, back to the civilization where he had been living?
20 The inquest was resumed, and a little later the witness was again recalled.
21 His prospect of release, may well depend upon the evidence he gives at that inquiry.
22 It was used because there had been industrial trouble in the Copperbeltand some of the
African trade union leaders were taken away.
23 It was used because there had been industrial trouble in the Copperbelt and some of the
African trade union leaders were taken away.
24 Can the hon. and learned Member be asked to withdraw that remark?
xxxv
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
I say the Governor was not prepared to await the result of the impartial inquiry.
I want to come to my second proposition.
The people concerned have been guilty of some criminal act.
Those on Manda Island were the blackest of the Mau Mau offenders.
They went before the Advisory Committee.
You were the editor of a near-seditious newspaper.
I want to come to the persistent refusal of Ministers at the Dispatch Box.
You were the editor of the suppressed newspaper.
They suppress the newspaper.
The hon. and learned Member leaves that part of his speech.
That is why we have put our Motion on the Notice Paper
I see in his place the right hon. Gentleman the Leader of the House.
There was no deep-laid plot of any sort either by the Governor of Kenya or the Kenya
Government or by Her Majesty's Government to do anything illegal.
Their peers who form the members of the triumvirate are guardians of the good name
of the Service
They are the best guardians.
Their consciences are entirely clear in respect of the millions of men.
Children who suffered the most appalling fate when independence was given to the
Indian sub-continent.
These weapons are being used against us by our enemies
It has been said that the magistrate who investigated this made the point about lack of
adequate European supervision.
The House knows that I have myself paid tribute—and I gladly do so again.
It is as common for hon. Members from this side who are privileged to visit the
Colonies to pay tribute to such people as it is for hon.
These people at Hola were not merely in the custody of the Askaris and Mr. Sullivan
and the officers in charge of the camp.
These people at Hola were not merely in the custody of the Askaris and Mr. Sullivan
and the officers in charge of the camp.
They were in the custody of Sir Evelyn Baring and the Government.
The doctor checks up, because he, after all, has the evidence if there has been illtreatment."
Would not the hon. Gentleman agree that their own people who are perfectly all right
and respected members of society have declined to take these people back into their
midst?
There are plenty of people who are not welcomed back in their own community.
I sought to catch your eye tonight.
The plain fact is that the architect of the past policy is remaining securely in office.
The duty of his office is to accept responsibility when things go wrong.
Baring presided over the Council of Ministers which issued the most misleading report
xxxvi
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
of all time, which indicated to the world that through drinking water these men had
died.
Large numbers of the detainees have been restored to normal life that people were
content.
It was the black man in Kenya who suffered more from Mau Mau murders than the
white man.
The brutality of the people with whom they were dealing, it is, in my opinion, a great
credit to them.
It is clear that the instructions were not carried out by the man in the field.
That is the man who is now losing his position.
The warders and the men in the field were inadequately briefed.
The whole Cowan Plan was quite mad.
The Government has sensibly tackled the situation with the suggestions.
There must be one responsible Minister to take the authority in Kenya for the
rehabilitation camps.
There should be a fresh and clear directive on the whole subject.
People have their ascorbic acid tablets whether they like it or not.
It was a report from one man to his superior officer
And the eleven men killed.
He may well jeopardize the future and the safety of his country and of his fellow men.
He may well jeopardize the future and the safety of his country and of his fellow men.
The preservation of the State, are also the reasons why detention is unacceptable once
normal conditions return.
Only a week or so ago The Times newspaper had occasion to write in an editorial.
I would illustrate this by reference to a report which has not been discussed in this
House, the report of Mr. Jack, the Deputy Public Prosecutor, who looked into
allegations of Mr. Shuter.
At Mariira camp in the Fort Hall district there was what Mr. Jack calls a "riot."
The autopsy showed there were various bruises, hemorrhage inside the skull probably
due to blows with a blunt instrument.
The two European officers in the prison service who witnessed this were horrified, but
they did not report it to their superiors.
The two European officers in the prison service who witnessed this were horrified, but
they did not report it to their superiors.
African detainees were beaten on the testicles with rubber hoses.
The Special Branch officers concerned were named.
An African called Gichini who was a cripple with both legs amputated at the knees was
found to have been made to work in a quarry.
The District Commissioner had given his approval as he thought that it was better for
this legless African.
The Colonial Secretary thought fit to give an interview to the Daily Mail which
xxxvii
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
appeared this morning.
The Conroy Committee finds Mr. Lewis responsible for the failure to send Sullivan a
copy of the Cowan Plan
The Commissioner of Prisons went on to say: The plans Mr. Cowan worked out could
be undertaken
He expected that as a routine matter a copy of Cowan's letter would be sent to Sullivan
before carrying out the operation
The Permanent Secretary for Defence conveyed the Minister's decision to implement
the plan to the Deputy Commissioner
He is Assistant Commissioner of Prisons and was the senior of the three officers.
The right hon. Gentleman has put into the Library records of the proceedings.
I think Campbell's notes (Exhibit S) were inaccurate.
According to Thompson, in his evidence to the Conroy Committee, Dr. Rogoff, who, I
think, is the pathologist, was asked whether there was any sign of bruising.
There was also the Assistant Superintendent of Police.
I described what I had seen, i.e., man with injury on back of skull, man with injury to
his teeth.
I also told that all the bodies had various minor injuries.
I also told him about the skin peeling.
Campbell wrote down in his report.
This was the conference presided over by the Governor of Kenya.
Mr. Campbell was not the senior member of the party.
He came off the aero plane at Nairobi.
The Ministers had a copy of Exhibit S.
The Press Officergo off quietly in a comer to finish off a communiqué.
The Conroy Committee's Report had been in his hands.
Several speakers have referred to the importance of the morale of the Services of the
Crown in these territories.
One of the particulars on which Mr. Sullivan is condemned is that he failed to give his
warders adequate and proper orders.
He was described by a reliable authority as sympathetic to the people of whom he was
in charge.
These are the kind of people that most of us in this country would regard as the salt of
the earth.
When these kinds of people put on the uniform of the Kenya Prison Service they cease
to be the salt of the earth and become the scum of the earth.
The men whose fate we are discussing tonight are men who have not confessed.
There is another kind of confidence which we must restore in Kenya, the confidence of
the African in British justice.
He had turned up again as African Affairs Officer to the Aberdare County Council in
another part of Kenya.
xxxviii
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
First and foremost, of course the Commissioner of Police
Lewis had the sense to suggest to his Minister
The Senior Superintendent of Prisons should be there
He was the chairman of the European Agricultural Settlement Board
In the Kenya Newsletter, we have the Kenya Government's boast
In the Kenya Newsletter, we have the Kenya Government's boast
The man was forced to resign within 24 hours
The European Agricultural Settlement Board itself placed on record its appreciation of
the eight years invaluable service he gave to it
It took 24 hours to sack a man who undermined the confidence of the European
Investors
For a Minister who undermined the confidence in British justice of the Africans
throughout the whole of the African continent, there is not the slightest condemnation.
The notes, or whatever the Colonial Secretary likes to call them, that Campbell
submitted to the Governor said that it was the opinion of all with whom we spoke
His lie is proved out of the mouth of the District Commissioner
We all knew in our own minds that the events were linked.
Aspiration pneumonia is caused when men inhale water into the lungs
Let me come to the Medical Officer at Hola, Dr. Moyes.
This is our indictment
The Colonial Secretary stands in the dock
He does not deserve to hold his office
It is difficult to find a word to describe, of the water cart communiqué
The new documents show that the responsibility for all three aspects of this
administrative disaster goes higher
The central document in the White Paper of last week, and it has often been referred to
in this debate
The central document in the White Paper of last week, and it has often been referred to
in this debate
It was one he could not advise his Minister to take alone, without reference to the
Security Council.
I quote the expression in the leading article in the Daily Telegraph yesterday
The proposals were the adaptation of a proved and successful technique to the
circumstances of Hola
He as well as the Minister of Defence had all the relevant papers in front of him
Those two men took upon themselves, with their eyes open and with full knowledge
my hon. Friend the Member for Leicester, South-Eeast (Mr. Peel) reminded the House.
Somebody "carries the can.”
It has been associated with almost every fight for justice, liberty and freedom of
significance for the Western Hemisphere
We found that we were not, perhaps, in some ways, the great nation we had been.
xxxix
141 The colonial civil servants were jolly good chaps
142 The magistrate who acted as coroner said in his report that when he visited the prison,
he did not know what the symptoms of the deficiency were
143 We do not know what information the doctor gave to the assistant commissioner
144 We convict people after a fair trial in our criminal courts; twenty-two others showed
bruises all over their bodies.
145 It goes into the pigeonhole
146 The Home Secretary is here.
147 This is the issue for which we fought through the Red Cross during the war.
148 We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the Burma railroad
149 We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the Burma railroad
150 We said to the Japs, "You cannot put our men on the Burma railroad
151 I pay tribute to the work of the civil servants very often
152 the record of Kenya in the courts of justice is deplorable enough
153 I have paid tribute to the East African Supreme Court
153 One of the most forthright and best of the European members of the Legislative
Assembly today was the District Commissioner
155 When the hon. Member for Blackpool, South (Sir R. Robinson) speaks with his great
knowledge, his financial knowledge, of the Colonics, one has the assumption that if
someone is locked up he is guilty.
156 God bless my soul, the prisons of the world have been full of people we have locked up
who have turned out to be some of the great men of the world.
157 Among those whom we have locked up are to be found Mr. Gandhi, Mr. Neru, Dr.
Nkrumah under a Labour Government, too, and under the Colonial Office.
158 I was in his company a fairly long time
159 A very large number of the murders committed in Kenya altogether.
160 We are conducting our discussion with hopelessly inadequate information because of
the slap-happy way the right hon. Gentleman treats the House
161 The hon. and learned Member was not fortunate enough to catch Mr. Speaker's eye
162 If the hon. and learned Gentleman will look at paragraph 10 of the White Paper that we
are considering he will see that the detainees were given the opportunity of going out
to the open camp.
163 As soon as it is clear that, with safety to the community as a whole, the detention order
can be lifted
164 I shall deal with the Fairn Report
165 They have been redeemed their actions in a large part rest with their own local friends
166 They can safely be allowed to return to their homes.
167 There has been a certain dualism of control and responsibility, with the Ministry of
African Affairs and the Ministry for Internal Security
168 He will be responsible for the executive control of the camps which are designed to
restore the detainees to normal life, and for their reabsorption in their home districts.
xl
169 He will have as his Deputy Mr. Hillin, at present Senior Superintendent of Prisons.
170 Rehabilitation will therefore no longer be that of the Prison Department.
171 The Opposition thinks they can lake any comfort from the fact that the best critical
speech came from the Conservative benches
172 The Press handouts were irrelevant
173 My hon. Friend the Member for Wolverhampton, South-West made reference to Mr.
Sullivan's situation report
174 The safeguards were explained in great detail in the debate
175 The C.I.D. had begun its investigation
176 His notes represented an honest appreciation
177 All Governments in the United Kingdom in recent years have had to practise it.
178 The right hon. Gentleman said that I had unfairly criticised a distinguished public
Servant
179 Did the Minister of Agricultural Affairs know anything about the food
180 After five years close association with the hon. Lady I can assure her that I can deal
with her interventions
181 The Kenya Government made some sort of attempt to pull the wool over people's eyes
182 They can rejoin as freemen the society they have done so much to endanger.
183 The right hon. Gentleman's speech was an attempt to defend the indefensible
Those two classification tables of Existential Presupposition in the River of Blood Speech
and in the Parliamentary Speech show that there are 248 sentences found in the two speeches.
There are 65 sentences in the River of Blood Speech, and 183sentences in the Parliamentary
Speech. The sentences that contain of the possessive construction such as My, Your, His,
Her, Our and Their function to show the existential of something in that place when the
utterance is uttered.
Factive Presupposition
The verb like know, realize, regret, aware, odd, glad and sad have Factive Presupposition.
The information following the verb can be treated as a fact. The sentence of Factive
Presupposition was not found in the River of Blood Speech, while in the Parliamentary
Speech there are 7 sentences of Factive Presupposition that are found as shown in the table
below.
Parliamentary Speech
Table IV.5
The List of Factive Presupposition in the Parliamentary Speech
No
Sentences
1 I’m glad to know that there are responsible people belonging to all races in that
multiracial nation who are ashamed of the brutalities revealed at Hola.
2 I’m veryglad to say that he did not take the view that it was.
3 I realize that felicitations from the other side of the House are sometimes a little
tactless.
xli
4
5
6
7
My hon. Members opposite to realize that he was expressing views which quite a
number of them would like to express.
We realized that scurvy was a question of vitamin deficiency and largely associated
with the provision of fresh fruit or vegetables.
I would ask the House as a whole to realize that there was serious attempt to challenge
the view of the Attorney General of Kenya.
I hope that hon. Members will realize that to somebody who is interested in his work
and is dedicated to it, compulsory retirement from the service is a very serious
penalty.
This table of the sentences that contain of Factive Presupposition shows that there are 7
sentences found in the Parliamentary speech. While, in the River of Blood Speech, there is no
Factive Presupposition is found. So, there are 7 sentences found from the two speeches.
2. Lexical Presupposition
Lexical items such stop, start and again in a sentence show lexical presupposition. The word
“Stop” show that there was a usual thing that was done, the word “Start” shows that there
was something that was never done, and the word “Again” shows that there was something
that is used to do and the actor do it in the next time. The word “Start” can also be the same
with “Began”. The sentences found in the two speeches can be seen as in the table below.
The River of Blood Speech
Table.6
The List of Lexical Presupposition in the river of Blood speech
No
Sentences
1 The United States started literally as slaves.
2
3
4
They began to hear.
She worked hard and did well, paid off her mortgage and began to put something by
for her old age.
I begin to wonder.
Parliamentary Speech
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table .7
The List of Lexical Presupposition in the Parliamentary Speech
Sentences
It began on 11th February, when Mr. Cowan drew up his plan.
Again, for all that they knew, they would be held for an indefinite period under the
care of the same guards.
The House knows that I have myself paid tribute—and I gladly do so again.
Let us have it again.
Again, I have taken care to bring the documents with me.
The whole lot was taken out again.
We must have a firm resolve that such mistakes shall never happen again.
We must take good care that we do not send back again into the African areas any
xlii
9
10
11
12
13
14
unrepentant Mau Mau supporter.
The causes of an air disaster or a railway accident should be investigated with the
greatest thoroughness so that as far as is humanly possible no such disaster can occur
again.
He had turned up again as African Affairs Officer to the Aberdare County Council in
another part of Kenya
I got it a few minutes before the debate began.
He then again referred to the action as planned at (9), with the risk of someone getting
hurt or killed.
The C.I.D. had begun its investigation
His servants who did so much to make this achievement possible, and who, faced with
this setback, immediately and energetically set themselves to ensure that, as far as is
humanly possible, a tragedy of this kind cannot occur again.
Those two tables above show the occurrence of Lexical Presupposition in the two speeches.
There are 4 sentences found in the River of Blood Speech and 14 sentences found in the
Parliamentary Speech. So, from the two speeches, there are 18 sentences that contain Lexical
Presupposition.
3. Structural Presupposition
The wh-question (when, where, why and how) is interpreted with the presupposition that the
information after thewh form is already known to be the case. This type of presupposition can
lead the listeners to believe that the information presented is necessarily true. The sentences
that contain Structural Presupposition can be seen as in the table below.
The River of Blood Speech
The sentences that contain the wh-question such as when, where, why, and how or the
Structural Presupposition sentences was not found in the River of Blood speech.
Parliamentary Speech
Table 8
The List of Structural Presupposition in the Parliamentary Speech
No
Sentences
1
Why should we confess to something we have never done?”
2
Why should it be that the prison regulations in these various territories apply to
detainees?
3
Why, for example, should they not be given access to newspapers when they have
committed no crime?
4
Why are standards falling so much that apparently nothing is enough to shift people
whose skin is thick enough to sit there in the face of public opinion?
5
Why is there no suggestion of any action being taken against the Minister of Defence?
6
Why is that report being delayed for five or six weeks?
7
When did this word "rehabilitation" come in?
xliii
8
9
Why was it deliberately designed to give the wrong impression
How far does the Secretary of State think that those for whom he is responsible can go
in misjudgment without incurring his displeasure?
This table 8 tells that there are 9 sentences found in the Parliamentary Speech that has the
Structural Presupposition. In the River of Blood Speech there is no Structural Presupposition
that is found. So, there are 9 sentences found from the two speeches.
4. Non-factive Presupposition
Verbs like dream, imagine, and pretend shows the Non-factive presupposition which is
assumed not to be true. The sentences of this type consist of the meaning where the event is
not true or is not happened at the time of utterances. Unfortunately, the write did not find any
sentence that has Non-factive Presupposition even from the River of Blood Speech and from
the Parliamentary Speech.
5. Counterfactual Presupposition
Counterfactual Presupposition is the meaning that what is presupposed is not only not true,
but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts. Counterfactual presupposition can be
found in a conditional sentence. A conditional sentence presupposes that the information in
the if-clause is not true at the time of utterance. The sentences that have the Counterfactual
Presupposition can be seen in the table below.
The River of Blood Speech
Table IV.9
The List of Counterfactual Presupposition in the River of Blood Speech
No
Sentences
1
If only people wouldn’t talk about it, it probably wouldn’t happen.
2
If I had the money to go, I wouldn’t stay in this country.
3
If all immigration ended tomorrow, the rate of the growth of the immigrant and
immigrant-descended population would be substantially reduced.
4
If such a policy were adapted and pursued with the determination which the gravity of
the alternative justifies, the resultant outflow could appreciably alter the prospects.
5
They would risk penalties or reprisals if they were known to have done so.
Parliamentary Speech
No
1
2
3
4
5
Table IV.10
The List of Counterfactual Presupposition in the Parliamentary Speech
Sentences
They had no means of knowing when, if ever, they would be released.
You will be transferred if you give evidence.
If the Government is not prepared to take either course, Ministers should be prepared
to come to the Dispatch Box and answer in detail for the action which has been taken.
If the hon. Gentleman waits, I propose to deal with that point in due course.
If they are in exceptional circumstances to be published, I should say that very great
care is necessary.
xliv
6
7
20
If he had resigned he would have forfeited his pension, and I do not believe that hon.
If those who proclaim in this House that they are interested in the welfare of our
Commonwealth would think twice before saying or doing anything which is
calculated to exacerbate racial tension, the path towards building a stable multiracial
society in Africa would be more certain.
It would have shown a greater spirit of fairness if the whole picture had been painted
at that time.
If the hon. and learned Member for Ipswich believes that these people had not taken
the Mau Mau oath, he will believe almost anything.
If it had been carried out, it might well have had a very real chance of success.
If this copy of the plan had reached Mr. Sullivan this massacre would probably never
have happened.
There would have been bloodshed even if the Cowan Plan had been operated in
precisely the form that it was written down
I should not be surprised if not a single one of Sullivan's warders spoke Swahili as his
native language.
If I wished to speak in his own language to every African on my farm I should need to
know at least six languages.
If I were a civil servant, my confidence would not be greatly reinforced by the
knowledge
We shall never reach the end of the state of emergency in Kenya if we do not.
Would 225 hon. Members have confidence if this is what we did when eleven of their
own people had been killed?
If it is to be argued, as it may be, "But this man gave wonderful service in the past,
and anyway he is going at the end of the month," I would ask hon.
If there is blame for the failure to implement the Cowan Plan accurately, that
responsibility must rest on all those who should have become aware
It will not just evaporate into thin air if we do nothing about it.
21
If he likes he can do it
22
If he says after a day or two, "I will not do it any longer
23
If I had to choose between taking the evidence of AchiengOneko and that of Sir
Evelyn Baring on anything connected with Kenya, I would take AchiengOneko's as
more likely to be accurate, honest and correct.
If we are going to lock up men, someone should be entitled to know why they are
locked up
If he keeps his mouth shut he will get a job a few months later
If he had made inquiries he might have given a little more information
If the hon. and learned Gentleman will look at paragraph 10 of the White Paper that
we are considering he will see that the detainees were given the opportunity of going
out to the open camp.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
24
25
26
27
xlv
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
If they agreed to work on the scheme, for which they would be paid, and to co-operate
with the Government, they would be released to the open camp.
I vigorously deprecate the suggestion that the Attorney-General might have arrived at
a different conclusion if the eleven men who died had been Europeans.
If the operation had been carried out as planned, that would not have been the
consequence.
If he could have known beforehand that some of the fundamentals of the plan were to
be altered, and trouble would therefore quite likely ensue, obviously he would have
said explicitly that there must be no variation.
If we had known then such information as human pyramids, serious rioting, absolute
refusal by detainees to go to work, and the reported use of violence, our first
communiqué would have taken account of these matters and would have been very
differently worded
If he had wanted to mislead, he would certainly not have committed anything to
writing.
If the hon. Member had attended to my speech in that debate he would know the
answers to these questions.
If they were setting out deliberately to mislead—which, of course, they were not—
they chose a most curious way to set about it.
If he hesitates about it, I remind him that the magistrate, in the course of his findings,
expressed himself as being unable to decide whether it was even made in good faith.
We on this side would have had much more sympathy with the Secretary of State if he
had been frank with the House and not sought to gloss over that which cannot be
defended on any rational basis and if he had said that it was grossly wrong for the
Government of Kenya to issue a statement which must have misled millions of
readers in a matter
If it does not strike the Secretary of State in that form I am sure, vast numbers of
people who considered the matter would prefer the view of the magistrate to his own.
Those two tables of the list of sentences that has the Counterfactual Presupposition show that
there are 44 sentences that were found, 38 sentences found in the Parliamentary Speech and 5
sentences found in the River of Blood Speech.
After identifying all the data and classifying the data, the writer analyzed or explained them
based on the definition of each.
4.2.2 Discussion
The data that had been classified into each of the type were discussed and explained in this
section. In this case, the writer made the detail explanation according to the definition of each
type.
1. Existential Presupposition
In Existential Presupposition, the article “the” and the possessive pronoun (My,
Your, Her, His, Our, Their) are the key to show that there was an existed thing that
xlvi
follows the key word. There are 248 sentences that were found. The writer limited to
explain just 5 sentences from the 248.
1) This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called River of Blood speech.
It means that there is a full text at the time of utterances.
2) This is the full text of Enoch Powell’s so called River of Blood speech.
It means that there is a speech at the time of utterances.
3) I would commend to Ministers who are still on the Treasury Bench.
It means that there is a treasury bench at the time of utterances.
4) My hon. Friends and I want to take this opportunity to raise two closely related
matters.
It means that there is the ho. Friends of the speaker at the time of utterances.
5) I want to say at once that we on this side of the House make no apology for
returning to the subject of Hola.
It means that there is a house at the time of utterances.
2. Factive Presupposition
1) I’m glad to know that there are responsible people belonging to all races in that
multiracial nation who are ashamed of the brutalities revealed at Hola.
It means that There were responsible people belonging to all races in that
multiracial nation who are ashamed of the brutalities revealed at Hola.
2) I’m veryglad to say that he did not take the view that it was.
It means that He did not take the view that it was.
3) I realize that felicitations from the other side of the House are sometimes a little
tactless.
It means that Felicitations from the other side of the House were sometimes a
little tactless.
4) My hon. Members opposite to realize that he was expressing views which quite a
number of them would like to express.
It means that He was expressing views which quite a number of them would like
to express.
5) We realized that scurvy was a question of vitamin deficiency and largely
associated with the provision of fresh fruit or vegetables.
It means that Scurvy was a question of vitamin deficiency and largely associated
with the provision of fresh fruit or vegetables.
6) I would ask the House as a whole to realize that there was serious attempt to
challenge the view of the Attorney General of Kenya.
It means that There was serious attempt to challenge the view of the Attorney
General of Kenya.
7) I hope that hon. Members will realize that to somebody who is interested in his
work and is dedicated to it, compulsory retirement from the service is a very
serious penalty.
It means that To somebody who is interested in his work and is dedicated to it,
compulsory retirement from the service is a very serious penalty.
xlvii
3. Lexical Presupposition
The river of blood speech
1) The Negro population of the United States started literally as slaves.
It means that The Negro population of the United States was not slaves before.
2) They began to hear.
It means that They didn’t hear before.
3) She worked hard and did well, paid off her mortgage and began to put something
by for her old age.
It means that she did not put something by for her old age before.
4) I began to wonder.
It means that I didn’t wonder before.
Parliamentary Speech
1) It began on 11th February, when Mr. Cowan drew up his plan.
It means that it did not begin before.
2) Again, for all that they know, they would be held for an identified period under
the care of the same guards.
It means that They were held for an identified period under the care of the same
guards before.
3) The House knows that I have myself paid tribute, and I gladly do so again.
It means that I did it before.
4) Let us have it again.
It means that We had it before.
5) Again, I have taken care to bring the documents with me.
It means that I took care to bring the documents with me before.
6) The whole lot were taken out again.
It means that The whole lot were taken out before.
7) We must have a firm resolve that the defects shall never happen again.
It means that The defects happened before.
8) We must take good care that we do not send back again into the African areas.
It means that We sent back into the African areas before.
9) The causes of an air disaster or a railway accident should be investigated with the
greater thoroughness so that as far as is humanly possible no such disaster can
occur again.
It means that The disaster had occurred before.
10) He had turned up again as African Affairs officer to the Aberdare Country
Council in another part of Kenya.
It means that he had turned up before.
11) I got it a few minutes before the debate begun.
It means that the debate did not begin before.
12) He then again referred to the action as planned at (9), with the risk of someone
getting hurt or killed.
It means that He had referred to the action as planned at (9) before.
xlviii
6.
13) The C.I.D had begun its investigation.
It means that The C.I.D had not begun its investigation before.
14) A tragedy of the death at Hola cannot occur again.
It means that A tragedy of the death at Hola occurred before.
4. Structural Presupposition
Structural Presupposition is not found in the River of Blood Speech.
Parliamentary Speech
1) Why should we confess to something we have never done?
It means that We shall confess to something we have never done
2) Why should it be that the prison regulations in these various territories apply to
detainees?
It means that The prison regulations in these various territories apply to detainees
3) Why for example, should they not be given access to newspaper when they have
committed no crime?
It means that they were not given access to newspaper.
4) Why are standards falling so much that apparently nothing is enough to shift
people whose skin is thick enough to sit there in the face of public opinion?
It means that Standards were falling so much that apparently nothing is enough
to shift people whose skin is thick enough to sit there in the face of public
opinion
5) Why is there is no suggestion of any action being taken against the Minister of
Defence?
It means that No suggestion of any action is being taken against the Minister of
Defence.
6) Why is that report being delayed for five or six weeks?
It means that That report was being delayed for five or six weeks.
7) When did this word “rehabilitation” come in?
It means that The word “rehabilitation” came in.
8) Why was it deliberately designed to give the wrong impression?
It means that It was deliberately designed to give the wrong impression.
9) How far does the secretary of State think that those for whom he is responsible
can go in misjudgment without incurring his displeasure?
It means that The secretary of State thinks that those for whom he is responsible
can go in misjudgment without incurring displeasure.
5. Non-factive Presupposition
No sentence contain Non-factive Presupposition that was found in both speeches, in
the River of Blood Speech and in the Parliamentary speech.
Counterfactual Presupposition
The river of blood speech
1) If only people wouldn’t talk about it, it probably wouldn’t happen.
It means that People talked about it.
2) If I had the money to go, I wouldn’t stay in this country.
xlix
It means that I don’t have the money.
3) If all immigration ended tomorrow, the rate of growth of the immigrant and
immigrant-descended population would be substantially reduced.
It means that All immigrants will not end tomorrow.
4) If such a policy were adapted and pursued with the determination which the
gravity of the alternative justifies, the resultant outflow could appreciably alter
the prospects.
It means that a policy were not adapted.
5) They would risk penalties or reprisals if they were known to have done so.
It means that They are not known to have done so.
Parliamentary Speech
1) They had no means of knowing when, if ever, they would be released.
It means that They had means of knowing when.
2) You will be transferred if you give evidence.
It means that You do not give evidence.
3) If the Government is not prepared to take either course, Ministers should be
prepared to come to the Dispatch Box and answer in detail for the action which
has been taken.
It means that The government is prepared to take either course.
4) If the hon. Gentleman waits, I propose to deal with that point in due course.
It means that the hon. Gentleman doesn’t wait.
5) If they are in exceptional circumstances to be published, I should say that very
great care is necessary.
It means that They are not in exceptional circumstances to be published.
6) If he had resigned, he would have forfeited his pension.
It means that He has not resigned.
7) If those who proclaim in this House that they are interested in the welfare of our
Commonwealth would think twice before saying or doing anything which is
calculated to exacerbate racial tension, the path towards building a stable
multiracial society in Africa would be more certain.
It means that Those who proclaim in this House that they are interested in the
welfare of our Commonwealth will not think twice before saying or doing
anything which is calculated to exacerbate racial tension
8) It would have shown a greater spirit of fairness if the whole picture had been
painted at the time.
It means that The whole picture has not been painted at the time.
9) If the hon and learned member for Ipswich believes that these people had not
taken the Mau Mau oath, he will believe almost anything.
It means that Thehon and learned member for Ipswich do not believe that these
people had not taken the Mau Mau oath
10) If it had been carried out, it might well have had a very real chance of success.
It means that It has not been carried out.
l
11) If this copy of the plan had reached Mr. Sullivan, this massacre would probably
never have happened.
It means that This copy of the plan has not reached Mr. Sullivan.
12) There would have been bloodshed even if the Cowan Plan had been operated in
precisely the form that it was written down and I do not believe, as my hon.
It means that The Cowan Plan has not been operated in precisely the form that it
was written down and I do not believe, as my hon.
13) If I wished to speak in his own language to every African on my farm, I should
need to know at least six languages.
It means that I do not wish to speak in his own language to every African of my
farm.
14) I should not be surprised if not a single one of Sullivan’s warders spoke Swahili
as his native language.
It means that One of Sullivan’s warders doesn’t speak Swahili as his native
language.
15) If I were a civil servant, my confidence would not be greatly reinforced by the
knowledge.
I am not a civil servant.
16) We shall never reach the end of the state of emergency in Kenya if we do not
restore the confidence of the African.
We restore the confidence of African.
17) Would 225 hon. Members have confidence if this is what we did when eleven of
their own people had been killed?
It means that this is not what we did when eleven of their own people had been
killed.
18) If it is to be argued, as it may be, "But this man gave wonderful service in the
past, and anyway he is going at the end of the month," I would ask hon.
It means that It is not argued.
19) If there is blame for the failure to implement the Cowan Plan accurately, that
responsibility must rest on all those who should have become aware
It means that there is no blame for the failure.
20) It will not just evaporate into thin air if we do nothing about it.
It means that We do something about it.
21) If he likes he can do it.
It means that he doesn’t like.
22) If he says after a day or two, I will not do it any longer.
It means that He doesn’t say it after a day or two.
23) If I had to choose between taking the evidence of AchiengOneko and that of Sir
Evelyn Baring on anything connected with Kenya, I would take AchiengOneko’s
as more likely to be accurate, honest, and correct.
I have not to choose between taking the evidence of AchiengOneko and that of
Sir Evelyn Baring on anything connected with Kenya.
li
24) If we are going to lock up men, someone should be entitled to know why they are
locked up.
It means that We are not going to lock up men.
25) If he keeps his mouth shut he will get a job a few months later.
It means that He doesn’t keep his mouth.
26) If he had made inquiries he might have given a little more information.
It means that He has not made inquiries.
27) If the hon and learned Gentleman will look at paragraph 10 of the White Paper
that we are considering he will see that the detainees were given the opportunity
of going out to the open camp.
It means that Thehon and learned Gentlemen will not look at paragraph 10 of the
White Paper that we are considering.
28) If they agreed to work on the scheme, for which they would be paid, and to cooperate with the government, they would be released to the open camp.
It means that They do not agree to work on the scheme for which they would be
paid and to co-operate with the government.
29) I vigorously deprecate the suggestion that the Attorney-General might have
arrived at a different conclusion if the eleven men who died had been Europeans.
It means that The eleven men who died are not Europeans.
30) If the operation had been carried out as planned, that would not have been the
consequence.
It means that The operation has not been carried out as planned.
31) If he could have known beforehand that some of the fundamentals of the plan
were to be altered, and trouble would therefore quite likely ensue, obviously he
would have said explicitly that there must be no variation.
It means that He does not know beforehand that some of the fundamentals of the
plan were to be altered, and trouble would therefore quite likely ensue.
32) If we had known then such information as human pyramids, serious rioting,
absolute refusal by detainees to go to work, and the reported use of violence, our
first communiqué would have taken account of these matters and would have
been very differently worded.
It means that We have not known then such information as human pyramids,
serious rioting, absolute refusal by detainees to go to work and the reported use
of violence.
33) If he had wanted to mislead, he would certainly not have committed anything to
writing.
It means that He has not wanted to mislead.
34) If the hon. Member had attended to my speech in that debate, he would know the
answer to these questions.
It means that The hon. Member has not attended to my speech in that debate.
35) If they were setting out deliberately to mislead-which, of course, they were notthey chose a most curious way to set about it.
lii
It means that They are not setting out deliberately to mislead which of course
they are not.
36) If he hesitates about it, I remind him that the magistrate, in the course of his
findings, expressed himself as being unable to decide whether it was even made
in good faith.
It means that he doesn’t hesitate about it.
37) We on this side would have had much more sympathy with the Secretary of State
if he had been frank with the House and sought to gloss over that which cannot
be defended on any rational basis and if he had said that it was grossly wrong for
the Government of Kenya to issue a statement which must have misled millions
of readers in a matter about which they felt acutely.
It means that He has not been frank with the House and sought to gloss over that
which cannot be defended on any rational basis and if he has not said that it was
grossly wrong for the Government of Kenya to issue a statement which must
have misled millions of readers in a matter about which they felt acutely.
38) If it does not strike the Secretary of State in that form, I am sure, vast number of
people who considered the matter would prefer the view of the magistrate to his
own.
It means that It strikes the secretary of State in that form.
4.3 Research Findings
Research Findings is the result or the conclusion of the data classification and data analysis
where the writer made the data analysis into the number of its type of presupposition. By
counting the sum of each type, the writer concluded the number of each type of
presupposition and the most important is what the dominant type used in Enoch Powell’s
speeches is.The number of each type is called the Recapitulation of the data and the number
of each type is described in the table below.
Table IV.11
The Recapitulation of Data
No
Speech
Existential Factive Lexical Structural
Nonfactive
Counterfactual
Total
1
River of Blood
Speech
65
0
4
0
0
5
74
2
Parliamentary
Speech
183
7
14
9
0
38
251
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Total
Percentage
248
76.31%
7
18
2.15% 5.54%
9
0
43
325
2.77%
0%
13.23%
100%
This table shows that from the two speeches, the writer found 325 sentences contain the Type
of Presupposition. Existential Presupposition has 248 sentences (76.31%), Factive
Presupposition has 7 sentences (2.15%), Lexical Presupposition has 18 sentences (5.54%),
Structural Presupposition has 9 sentences (2.77%), and Counterfactual Presupposition has 43
sentences (13.23%). Non-factive Presupposition is the only one type of Presupposition that
cannot be found in the two speeches. From the table of the Recapitulation of Data, it can be
concluded that Existential Presupposition has the highest number of occurrence in the two
speeches than the other type. The differences of each types of Presupposition can be seen in
the diagram below.
Diagram 1
The Occurrences of the Type of Presupposition
Types of Presupposition
300
250
200
150
100
Types of Presupposition
50
0
This diagram aims at showing clearly and easily the differences among the six types of
presupposition. It’s clear enough that the Existential point is the highest number of
occurrence, followed by the Counterfactual point, Lexical, Structural and Factive. The Nonfactive has no chart because this type was not found in the two speeches.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
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5.1 Conclusions
Conclusion is the final decision or the last part of something. In making Conclusion, the
writer wrote the statement of finishing this research. The conclusions are as follows:
a. This thesis studies about the types of Presupposition in the two speeches of a politician,
Enoch Powell. The first speech is the River of Blood Speech and the second speech is the
Parliamentary Speech. The writer used the theory of George Yule as the basic theory to
analyze the data. They are Existential Presupposition Factive Presupposition, Lexical
Presupposition, Structural Presupposition, Non-factive Presupposition,
and
Counterfactual Presupposition
b. From the data, the writer found that there are 5 (five) types of presupposition in the
speeches. They are Existential Presupposition Factive Presupposition, Lexical
Presupposition, Structural Presupposition, and Counterfactual Presupposition. The Nonfactive Presupposition was not found in the speeches. John Enoch Powell didn’t use it in
the two speeches.
c. The most dominant type of presupposition that used in the speeches is the Existential
Presupposition.
5.2 Suggestions
After making some conclusion, now the writer would like to suggest the readers as follows:
a. Considering the meaning of Presupposition, namely to know the hidden meaning and the
case prior of an utterances, the writer would suggest the students, the lecturers or other
people who read this research to not ignore what that is called Presupposition. Because,
by understanding it the hearer will be able to get unstated meaning of an utterance.
b. For the politician or the people who would like to concept a speech, they should have to
know the use of a Presupposition sentence, because it is very useful and important thing.
c. For the listeners of any speech, understanding the meaning of presupposition is needed in
order to get the content of a speech well. The hearer will not only get stated information
but also unstated information in the speech.
d. The last is for the next researcher. This research can be used by the next researcher as the
reference to a research in the same subject, which is Presupposition.
e.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
f.
g. Creswell, John w. 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed methods approaches(second Edition). London: Sage Publications.
h.
i. Cruse, D.Alan. 2000. Meaning in Language, an Introduction to Semantic
and Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press.
j.
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k. Geurts, Bart. 1999. Presupposition and Pronoun. Netherlands: University
of Nijmegen: Elsevier.
l.
m. Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics,(second edition).
Malaysia: Pearson Education.
n.
o. Hornby, A.S. 2000.Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary.New York:
Oxford University Press.
p.
q. Mulyana, Yayan G.H. 2009. A Practical Guide: English for Public
Speaking. Jakarta: Kesaint Blanc.
r.
s. Peccei, Jean Stilwell. 1999. Pragmatics. China: Taylor & Francis
Limited.
t. Potts, Christopher. 2014. Presupposition and Implicature. Stanford:
Linguistics.
u.
v. Roberts, Noel Burton. 1986. Analysing Sentences An Introduction To
English Syntax. London and New York: Longman.
w.
x. Robins, R.H. 1979. General Linguistics. An Introductory Survey(Third
Edition). London: University of London.
y.
z. Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. New York. Oxford University Press.
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