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Artificial Reef Research: A Review with Recommendations for
Future Priorities
Article in Bulletin of Marine Science -Miami- · July 1985
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BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, 37(1): 11-39, 1985
ARTIFICIAL REEF RESEARCH: A REVIEW WITH
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PRIORITIES
James A. Bohnsack and David L. Sutherland
ABSTRACT
Artificial reef literature was critically reviewed to determine what knowledge about the
biology, ecology, and economics of artificial reefs had been scientifically established and to
identify and recommend future projects, areas, and methods of research. General agreement
exists that artificial reefs are effective fish attractants and an important fishery management
tool. Most published papers deal with building artificial reefs or are qualitative descriptive
studies detailing successional changes and species observed. Conclusions were often based
on little or no scientific data. Few studies used quantitative experimental methods and many
lacked scientifically valid controls.
Drastically different approaches to artificial reefs in terms of purpose, funding, research,
materials, and size have been taken by Japan and the United States. Most marine artificial
reefs in the United States are large, low budget, and haphazardly constructed from scrap
materials, using volunteer labor. These reefs are usually built in deeper offshore waters for
use by recreational fishermen with boats. Japan's artificial reefs, however, are designed and
constructed by engineers, built of durable, non-waste, prefabricated materials, placed in
scientifically selected sites in shallow and deep water, and are primarily used by commercial
fishermen.
In this paper, 29 recommendations are made for future studies. Improved professional
publication standards and more carefully controlled studies using an experimental approach
are suggested. Greater emphasis should be placed on determining optimal design, size, and
placement of artificial reefs to maximize production. More attention should be given to small,
shallow, nearshore artificial reefs that are accessible without a boat. Also, reefs designed for
increasing larval and juvenile recruitment, survival, and growth should be considered. Improved quantitative assessment techniques are needed to describe artificial reefs, reef communities, and to monitor biotic changes. Artificial reef data bases should be maintained so
that the effectiveness of various artificial reefs can be more easily assessed. The importance
of fish attraction versus fish production and the relationship between standing crop and fish
catch have not been adequately addressed. The economics and social impact of artificial reefs
also have not been carefully examined, especially the benefits from alternative designs and
approaches.
Artificial reefs have become an important and popular resource enhancement
technique. Artificial reefs are thought to improve fishing by concentrating fishes
and by increasing natural production of biological resources. Despite considerable
enthusiasm by various government agencies, private organizations, and individuals, relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of artificial reefs.
Few quantitative scientific studies have been conducted compared to qualitative
assessments. Public support for artificial reef construction has been intense and
considerable funds and effort are being expended by some government agencies
and private organizations to construct artificial reefs, despite the general lack of
fundamental knowledge concerning optimum design criteria, location, and size
of reefs.
In this review we examine literature on artificial reefs to determine what has
been scientifically established concerning the biology, ecology, and economics of
artificial reefs. Much of the available literature about artificial reefs has limited
scientific value and is scattered and difficult to evaluate. By determining what
hypotheses have and have not been adequately tested, we hope to direct future
II
12
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
research toward the important problems and avoid unnecessary and redundant
work. This effort should result in more effective use of public and private funds,
and lead to improved design, construction, and placement of artificial reefs for
resource management purposes.
METHODS
We critically examined 413 artificial reef references through 1983 compiled from a variety ofsources.
We excluded articles that had topics only peripherally related to artificial reefs, and literature not
translated to English. Fortunately, much of the important Japanese literature had either recently been
translated (Vik, 1982) or reviewed and summarized (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Although
the 413 references did not include all artificial reef literature, they did include almost all published
scientific papers.
References were coded in terms of primary focus and specific topics treated. Trends in artificial reef
literature were examined by noting the number of publications printed per year and the frequency of
various topics and approaches in these publications. Many references-treated a variety of broad topics
superficially. Here we cite only the most important references,
RESULTS
Numerical Analysis
The number of publications about artificial reefs has increased greatly during
the past decade (Fig. 1). Peaks in frequency of publications occur in years following
major national or international meetings about artificial reefs or when volumes
of translated material are published. The two most common topics among the
413 references were historical program descriptions for specific geographical areas
(16%, 68), and general, non-technical popular articles of artificial reefs (16%, 68,
Table 1). Other topics cited in 5% or more of the references were general artificial
reef ecology (8%, 35), fish behavior around artificial reefs (8%, 32), productivity
of reefs (7%, 29), recruitment of various organisms (6%, 26) and reef materials
(5%,22).
Most references (Table 2) were non-peer review technical reports (188). Only
31% (129) of the references occurred in peer review journals. In terms of approach,
28% (114) of the publications instructed readers how to obtain permits, select
sites and materials, and construct artificial reefs and buoys. Most papers were
purely descriptive studies (37%, 151). An experimental approach was used in 79
(19%) papers, although many of these lacked rigid experimental controls. Nine
papers were primarily theoretical. The remaining 60 papers were non-scientific
popular articles that did not provide useful scientific information but did provide
insights into general public perceptions about artificial reefs. A total of 282 references presented some technical information.
General Artificial Reef Descriptions and Purposes
Artificial reefs are generally classified into three broad categories: bottom, midwater, and surface. We considered oil and gas platforms a fourth category because
they have functionally similar characteristics to all three reef types.
The purpose of most artificial reefs has been to improve fisheries by increasing
the harvest of algae, lobster, other shellfish, and fishes. In the United States almost
all fishery improvement reefs have been built to attract adult fishes. In Japan
artificial reefs have also been built to improve spawning, recruitment, and survival
of earlier life history stages (Carlisle et al., 1964; Petit, 1972; Paxton and Stevenson, 1979; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Buckley, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983;
Okamoto, 1983b).
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
13
110
100
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90
80
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rzl
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
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36-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-83
YEAR
Figure I. The total number of artificial reef publications has greatly increased since the mid-1950's
although the number of non-peer review publications (filled area) has grown faster than the number
of peer review publications (light area).
Artificial reefs also have been used for a variety of purposes other than directly
improving recreational and commercial harvest. Oil and gas platforms serve secondarily as artificial reefs. Some reefs have been built to serve as breakwaters
(Clady et aI., 1979a; 1979b); control beach erosion (Raymond, 1975; Wang, 1978);
prevent trawlers from using certain areas (Edmund, 1960); restrict fishermen from
shipping lanes; reduce fishing pressure on other stocks (Hammond et aI., 1977);
and mitigate detrimental impacts on habitat (Grant et aI., 1982; Grove, 1982).
Many small reefs have been built solely to experimentally test fishery and ecological theory (Smith and Tyler, 1973; Russell et aI., 1974; Sale and Dybdahl,
1975; MoUes, 1978; Talbot et aI., 1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a; 1983b; Bohnsack
and Talbot, 1980; Ogden and Ebersole, 1981; Gascon and Miller, 1981; 1982).
History and Program Descriptions
Artificial reef construction and research have been centered primarily in Japan
and the United States. The first artificial reefs in the United States were constructed
in the mid-1800's (Stone, 1974), although the Japanese had begun constructing
artificial reefs several hundred years earlier (Ino, 1974). Most artificial reefs in
the United States have been constructed by private organizations, local governments, or private individuals with rather small budgets and little government
funding (Stone, 1974; 1982). Exact expense figures are not available. Traditionally,
great emphasis has been placed on using discarded scrap or waste materials and
volunteer labor. These reefs have been intended primarily for recreational fishing.
The Japanese have taken a quite different approach. Funded by the national
14
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
Table 1. Frequency of primary topics in 413 artificial reef references
Topic
Frequency
General Papers
Program descriptions
General articles
History and bibliographies
(143)
Biological Studies
Ecology
Behavior
Production
Recruitment
Comparison of artificial and
natural reefs
Fishes
Invertebrates
Algae and seagrasses
Faunal lists
(162)
Communities
68
68
7
35
32
29
26
13
10
6
6
4
1
Design and Construction
Construction materials
Reef construction
Reef design
Permit procedures
Site selection
Buoys
Legal aspects
Currents and oceanographic
factors
Pollution and toxicity
(78)
Sociology and Economics
Sociology and user conflicts
Economics (costs and benefits)
(15)
8
Oil and Gas Platforms
(15)
22
18
13
6
6
6
3
2
2
7
government, most artificial reefs have been built primarily for commercial use
and were carefully designed and constructed without using waste materials (Mottet, 1981; Sheehy, 1981; 1982b; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). In 1976, the
Japanese Government began a 6-year, $700 million fishery improvement plan
which earmarked about $250 million for artificial reef projects (Mottet, 1981;
Grove and Sonu, 1983). Approximately $65.2 million was spent on research and
planning alone (Tanikawa, 1977, in Mottet, 1981). In 1982, they began a second
6-year plan with a funding commitment of$1.5 billion from which approximately
$500 million will be spent on artificial reefs (Grove and Sonu, 1983). These figures
only account for 50% to 70% of any particular project; the remaining funds come
from local governments and organizations.
Descriptions of artificial reef programs in various states and countries are too
numerous to present here, though most citations can be found in bibliographies
compiled by Steimle and Stone (1973), Rickards (1973), and Stanton. I Major
I Stanton, G. In Prep. Annotated bibJiography of artificial
reef research and management. Horida Marine Laboratory, Florida State
University, Tallahassee, FL 32306.
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
15
REEF RESEARCH
Table 2. Frequency of source and approach to artificial reef literature
Source
Peer review journals
Technical reports
Theses and dissertations
Books
Pamphlets
Popular magazines
Total
No.
129
188
5
23
7
19
413
Approach
Theoretical
Descriptive
Experimental
Methods and management
Popular (non-scientific)
Total
No.
9
151
79
114
60
413
historical reviews and proceedings concerning artificial reef research have been
done by Carlisle et al. (1964), Iversen (1968), Ino (1974), Stone (1974; 1982),
Colunga and Stone (1974), Aska (1978; 1981), Mottet (1981), Sheehy (1982a),
Vik (1982), and Grove and Sonu (1983).
Materials and Construction
Most artificial reefs in the United States are constructed from discarded materials. Almost every conceivable solid waste item has been used in artificial reef
construction. Automobile tires and concrete blocks have been the most commonly
used items because they are cheap, available, and easy to handle. Some other
commonly used items include pipes, tile, rock, shell, barges, ships, bundled solid
waste, automobiles, and other vehicles. Brush and trees have been used primarily
in freshwater because they only last a short time in seawater. Recently, reefs have
been made from coal ash (Woodhead et al., 1981; 1982) and from electrodeposition of elements naturally found in seawater (Hilbertz, 1981).
Although some local Japanese groups build artificial reefs from stone and waste
materials, the Japanese National Government does not fund construction of artificial reefs built from waste materials. Approved materials are steel reinforced
or pre-stressed concrete, rubber, polyethylene concrete, and fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP) (Mottet, 1981; Ogawa, 1982b; Shomomura, 1982; Sheehy, 1982a;
1982b; Grove and Sonu, 1983).
Extensive literature exists on various engineering and legal aspects of building
artificial reefs which is beyond the scope of this review. Reviews of artificial reef
planning, construction, and siting requirements are provided by Parker et al.
(1974); Prince et al. (1977); Aska (1978; 1981); Mathews (1981); Myatt (1981);
Vik (1982); Buckley (1982); Kamikita (1982); Nakamura (1982a; 1982b); Nakamura et al. (1982); Sato and Yoshioka (1982); Yoshimuda and Masuzawa (1982);
and Grove and Sonu (1983).
Artificial Reef Ecology
Recruitment and Succession. - Numerous studies have examined recruitment and
succession on artificial reefs. Algae and invertebrates usually colonize new reef
materials rapidly, although attaining an equilibrium community structure can
take several years (Fager, 1971). A uniformity of species can exist during each
season (Coe and Allen, 1937) or a successional pattern can occur where the
dominant species change over time (Turner et al., 1969; Russell, 1975; Goren,
1979). Final composition and abundance of benthic organisms can depend on the
composition of the substrate, the season the material was deposited, and environmental variables including water temperature, chemistry, and current patterns.
16
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
Seeding artificial reefs with algae, oysters, clams, abalone, and sea urchins has
been done frequently in Japan (Mottet, 1981). In the United States, abalone and
kelp have been experimentally introduced on artificial reefs (Carlisle et al., 1964;
North and Hubbs, 1968; Grove, 1982; Grant et al., 1982). In tropical waters,
living corals have been transplanted to establish new reefs (Maragos, 1974; Bouchon et al., 1981).
Fishes also colonize artificial reefs quite rapidly (Russell et al., 1974; Russell,
1975; Lim et al., 1976; Molles, 1978; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980). Sometimes
the first fishes appear within hours after reef material is deposited (Molles, 1978;
Turner et al., 1969). Fishes may remain on a reef for short or long periods of
time, depending on the age and species of fish involved and the characteristics
and location of the reef. Fish populations often reach maximum population sizes
within a few months after reef material is placed in the environment (Turner et
al., 1969; Stone et al., 1979; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980). Equilibrium community
structure is usually achieved within one to a maximum of five years, although
seasonal variations in the equilibrium number of species and individuals often
occur and may have more influence than succession due to reef age (Nolan, 1975;
Turner et al., 1969; Molles, 1978; Smith, 1978; Talbot et al., 1978; Parker et al.,
1979; Prince and Maughan, 1979; Stone et al., 1979; Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980;
Gascon and Miller, 1981; Lukens, 1981; McIntosh, 1981; Stephens and Zerba,
1981; Gallaway and Lewbel, 1982; Kock, 1982; Murdy, 1979; Woodhead et al.,
1982; Bohnsack, 1983b). This pattern of rapid colonization is surprisingly constant
despite extremes in reef size from the smallest (Bohnsack and Talbot, 1980) to
the largest (McIntosh, 1981). Data from several studies indicate a pattern of initial
overshoot in number of species or individuals recruited to a new artificial reef
with an eventual leveling off at some equilibrium level (Turner et al., 1969; Smith,
1978; Stone et al., 1979; Prince et al., 1979; Grant et al., 1982).
The Japanese have developed several classification schemes for describing how
fishes use artificial reefs, including horizontal and vertical use, length of occupancy,
fidelity to a reef, and the part of the life cycle that uses an artificial reef (Grove
and Sonu, 1983; Ogawa, 1982d). Ogawa (l982a; 1982d) provided one ofthe most
useful classifications for describing behavioral patterns of fish attraction and use
of artificial reefs: TYPEA, Surface and midwater fishes that show a swarming
response to a reef and generally remain at some distance from the reef; TYPEB,
fish that swim along the bottom and take a stationary position near a reef but
usually do not remain on the reef permanently; TYPEC, bottom and other fishes
that take a stationary position inside a reef or on the bottom in its vicinity.
A wide variety of environmental factors and senses play an important part in
attracting fishes to artificial reefs. These include current patterns; shadows; species
interactions; visual cues of size, shape, color, and light; sound; touch; and pressure
(Kojima, 1957; Ogawa, 1966; 1967; 1968; 1982d; Ogawa and Aoyama, 1966;
Senta, 1966a; 1966b; Takemura and Ogawa, 1966a; 1966b; Helfman, 1979; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Kuroki, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983; Okamoto, 1983). The
behavioral response to a particular artificial reef varies with the age and species
of fish, season, and reef age and location (Kuwatani, 1982; Ogawa, 1982a; Nakamura, 1982a; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Shimizu (1981) reported the effective
range of attraction for fishes was 300 m. The basic question of what attracts fish
to artificial reefs remains mostly unanswered, even for the most important commercial species, despite numerous studies (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu, 1983).
Artificial Reef Function. - Fishes use artificial reefs for shelter, feeding, spawning,
and orientation (Kojima, 1956; Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Hunter and Mitch-
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND: REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL REEF RESEARCH
17
ell, 1967; Kakimoto, 1982a; Ogawa, 1982c; 1982d; Yoshimuda, 1982). However,
the ecological basis for artificial reef function is only poorly understood (Mottet,
1981; Kuwatani, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Artificial reefs function by either
aggregating existing scattered individuals, or they allow secondary biomass production through increased survival and growth of new individuals because of
shelter and food resources provided by the reef.
Attraction is usually considered the only important factor in surface and midwater reefs (Klima and Wickham, 1971; Wickham et aI., 1973; Wickham and
Russell, 1974; Hammond et aI., 1977; Myatt, 1978; Matsumoto et aI., 1981),
although the relative importance of attracting versus producing fishes on bottom
artificial reefs and oil and gas platforms is quite controversial (Stone, 1978; Shinn,
1974). Net fish production requires production and availability of suitable food.
Rarely have the trophodynamics of artificial reefs been examined, although many
studies assume food production by reef fauna and flora is an important factor
(e.g., Ranasinghe, 1981; Ogawa, 1982d; Vik, 1982). The quantity of attached and
affiliated organisms on bottom reefs is not correlated with the abundance of
migratory species (Mottet, 1981), although predator presence has been correlated
with the availability of prey fishes (Ranasinghe, 1981; Kock, 1982).
Prince et al. (1975; 1976; 1979) conducted some of the more detailed studies
on food production associated with freshwater artificial reefs. They found that
periphyton productivity and nutrient concentration was several times greater than
productivity of a littoral phytoplankton control. Periphyton of the artificial reefs
recycled nutrients that otherwise would have been lost to lake bottom sediments,
shortened and modified the food web to increase net production, was the most
important dietary component for bluegill, and formed the basis of the food web
supporting carnivorous reef fishes. Prince et al. (1979) presented a preliminary
food web model of this artificial reef community. Food pathways were quantified
using an index of relative importance which relied on numerical, volumetric, and
frequency of Occurrence food habits data. However, direct measurements of energy
flow between trophic levels were not made.
Many studies reported observations of fishes feeding on artificial reefs; however,
these observations were often incidental and the artificial reefs were not likely to
be a mainstay in supporting fish populations (Russell, 1975; Murdy, 1979). Prince
and Gotshall (1976) found that small copper rockfish fed on reef-associated organisms but the larger individuals tended to feed on organisms found away from
artificial reefs. Hueckel and Slayton (1982) found the opposite pattern: medium
and large fish foraged more on organisms associated with artificial reefs than did
small fishes of the same species. Many gut content studies indicate that most
fishes do not feed directly on artificial reefs (Randall, 1963; Kakimoto, 1982a;
Russell, 1975; Gyosho, 1976b, in Mottet, 1981; Mottet, 1981; Steimle and Ogren,
1982). Most fish biomass around oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico represents
species that are trophically independent from the platform (Gallaway and Lewbel,
1982). Pardue (1973), using small pools, found a linear increase in fish production
when the amount of artificial substrate equalled 50 to 100% of the bottom substrate. However, Pardue and Nielsen (1979) and Wege and Anderson (1979)
showed that increasing the amount of artificial substrate in larger ponds did not
affect total fish production. Manges (1960) and Beguery (1974) concluded that
bottom artificial reefs increased fish availability but not net productivity. Reefs
do not have to produce food to attract most fishes, although they do need to be
close to appropriate feeding areas (Mottet, 1981).
Area of Inj/uence.- The area around a reef where fishes are caught is termed the
18
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
enhanced fishing zone. General agreement existed that the effective boundary for
this zone is 200 to 300 m for midwater and surface fishes and between I and 100
m for benthic fishes, depending on the species (Mottet, 1981; Kakimoto, 1982b;
Ogawa, 1982c; 1982d; Yoshimuda and Fujii, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). These
zones are not usually circular because fishes tend to congregate either upcurrent
or downcurrent from the reef in response to lee waves, stagnation zones, and the
availability of food as it arrives from up current (Mottet, 1981; Grove and Sonu,
1983). Grove and Sonu (1983) reported that most catches occur within 60 m of
a reef. Yoshimuda and Fujii (1982), however, reported that 48% of permanent
resident fishes on a 190- by 240-m reef were caught within 370 m from the center.
Kakimoto (1982b) concluded the primary effective fishing boundary was 200 m,
but that a secondary effective boundary for certain species extended 400 to 800 m.
Few studies have examined the effects of artificial reefs on the surrounding
biota. Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded that the range of biological influence
extended 120 m. Clarke et ai. (1967) found certain sand species were removed or
absent near a Sealab II site, presumably because of predation. Thomas and Bromley (1968) found artificial reefs encouraged the growth of macrophytic vegetation
in fresh water. Dewees and Gotshall (1974) concluded that artificial reefs did not
attract fishes from other surrounding reefs, although Fast and Pagan (1974) found
fishes moved from natural reefs to artificial reefs but not vice versa. Some researchers have suggested that a separation of at least 600 m was necessary to
maintain the identity between natural and artificial reefs (Yoshimuda and Masuzawa, 1982). Davis et ai. (1982) found that the density of tube-dwelling polychaetes, Diopatra spp., increased within 5 months after artificial reef construction,
and the sea pen, Stylatula elongata, was eliminated within a 200-m radius of an
artificial reef. They found these trends to be more pronounced for larger structures
like oil platforms and bridge pilings.
Comparison of Artificial Reefs with Natural Habitats.-Most
studies on the effectiveness of artificial reefs have attempted to compare artificial reef communities
with communities on natural reefs or in randomly chosen control areas. In almost
all cases artificial reefs had higher density and biomass than randomly selected
bottom control areas (Rodeheffer, 1939; Arve, 1960; Clarke et ai., 1967; Petit,
1972; Pierce, 1967; Deroche, 1973; Chapman, 1975; Alfieri, 1975; Lim et ai.,
1976; Prince and Maughan, 1979; Prince et ai., 1979; Walton, 1982). Walton
(1982) found about four times the density and nine times the biomass of flatfishes,
and eight times the biomass and density of all fishes on artificial reefs relative to
control reefs. Clarke et al. (1967) found 35 times greater biomass on artificial
reefs than on open bottom areas. Only a few studies found artificial reefs had no
effect (Charles, 1967; Lindenberg, 1973).
Most studies comparing natural and artificial reefs have found general similarity
in community structure (Randall, 1963; Buchanan, 1973; 1974; Buchanan et ai.,
1974; Nolan, 1975; Russell, 1975; Lim et aI., 1976; Jones and Thompson, 1978;
Molles, 1978; Smith et aI., 1979; Talbot et aI., 1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a;
1983b; Murdy, 1979; Stone et aI., 1979; Walton, 1979; Gascon and Miller, 1981).
Fast and Pagan (1974) found fewer species on artificial reefs. Paxton and Stevenson (1979) and Aadland (1982) concluded that the ability to use both artificial
and natural reefs depended on the species.
Fish abundance and biomass on artificial reefs often greatly exceeded that found
on similar sized natural reefs even though general community composition may
have been similar (Rodeheffer, 1939; Moseley, 1961; Anonymous, 1968; Petit,
1972; Lim et ai., 1976). When comparing artificial and natural reefs, Turner et
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
19
aI. (1969) found two to three times the biomass; Fast (1974) and Fast and Pagan
(1974) found twice the individuals and seven to eight times the biomass; Russell
(1975) found 10 to 14 times the biomass; and Smith et aI. (1979) found six times
the number of individuals on artificial reefs. Walton (1979) found 16 times the
density but the same biomass when he compared artificial reefs to control reefs.
A few studies found less biomass, abundance, or fishing success on artificial reefs
for lobster (Scarratt, 1968) and fishes (Charles, 1967; Lindenberg, 1973). Murdy
(1979) found larger fishes on natural reefs versus tire reefs, presumably because
more cover was available. The cross-sectional area of fish schools has been correlated with the cross-sectional area of a reef (Yoshimuda and Fujii, 1982; Grove
and Sonu, 1983). Artificial reefs with a bulk volume between 2,500 and 130,000
m3 maintained larger schools of fish (volumetrically) than natural reefs of the
same size. Smaller reefs have also shown significantly greater fish density than
the same sized natural reefs (Bohnsack, 1979; Talbot et aI., 1978).
A common explanation for greater biomass and density of fishes on artificial
reefs versus natural reefs is that artificial reefs are more complex and provide
more cover than natural reefs (Smith et aI., 1979). However, Randall (1963) and
Russell (1975) attributed artificial reef success to position in the surrounding
habitat.
Fishing Effectiveness
Artificial reef effectiveness has usually been measured in terms of either increased fish abundance or fishing success at the artificial reef site. Many studies
report greater fishing effort and catches at artificial reefs than at control sites
(Rodeheffer, 1939; Moseley, 1961; Turner et aI., 1969; Buchanan, 1973; Wickham
et aI., 1973; Crumpton and Wilbur, 1974; Fast, 1974; Myatt, 1978). Paxton and
Stevenson (1979) concluded that catch from artificial reefs varied depending on
the species. Wilbur (1978) found decreased fishing success at reefs in the year
after construction. Buchanan (1974) and Buchanan et aI. (1974) found greater
fishing effort being expended on artificial reefs, but catch per unit effort declined
with time. Liao and Cupka (1979) reported overfishing on artificial reefs relative
to natural reefs.
Mottet (1981) reported that fish production from Japanese reefs was greatly
influenced by the fishing method and depended primarily on the number of fish
migrating through the area. Angling generally produced the lowest catches; trawling and seining produced the best results. The important commercial species were
migratory. Increased biomass from permanent residents was only a minor contribution to increased catch. Buckley (1982) found that transient fishes accounted
for 67.4% and 59.5% of the total catch for the first 2 years after reef construction.
Grove and Sonu (1983) and Mottet (1981) concluded that the evidence for
increased fish production from Japanese artificial reefs is circumstantial and far
from being conclusive, despite the great investment in artificial reef building.
Evidence supporting increased fish production was mostly based on opinion polls
and comparisons of gross regional catches before and after building artificial reefs.
In 1983, the Japanese began an intensive 3-year monitoring program to collect
the necessary data for showing production effects from specific artificial reefs
(Grove and Sonu, 1983). The program will monitor 30 reef projects and will
involve 10 fully equipped research vessels.
Huntsman (1981) reviewed the theoretical basis for fishery yields from artificial
reefs and concluded that bottom artificial reefs increased recreational fishing opportunities for reef fishes but were not practical for sustained commercial use.
20
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
Reef fish were easy to over-exploit because of their low mobility, low natural
mortality, and slow growth rates. Similarly, surface and midwater artificial reefs
concentrate pelagic fishes, making them easier to exploit (Wickham et al., 1973).
The effect of this exploitation on populations of highly mobile pelagic species,
however, has not been documented.
Reef Failures.-Many
artificial reefs have failed, Reefs have been destroyed by
storms (Breuer, 1963), destroyed by corrosion in as little as 4 years (Stevens,
1963), and disappeared into mud (Mathews, 1978). Artificial reef materials have
damaged fishing nets (Harrington, 1972; Mauermann, 1974; Laitin, 1983; Skupien, 1983) and corals and sea grass beds (Mathews, 1978) because materials had
been deposited in the wrong place or had shifted. Some reefs have not improved
total population numbers (Rounsefell, 1972; Walton, 1979; Wege and Anderson,
1979), biomass (Pardue and Nielsen, 1979), or fishing success for certain species
(Charles, 1967; Clady et al., 1979b). Lindenberg (1973) reported the failure of an
artificial reef to concentrate fish in eutrophic waters. Wege and Anderson (1979)
found that artificial reefs resulted in increased growth rates and improved fishing
success for bass, but did not increase total population size and could potentially
lead to overfishing. Murdy (1979) found that a tire reef did not improve standing
stock primarily because ofthe reefs close proximity to a natural reef. We suspect
that many additional failures have occurred but not been reported because artificial
reefs were not monitored after their construction and because of a bias against
reporting negative results in the literature.
Optimum Design and Placement
Numerous parameters involving artificial reef design and placement have been
indicated as biologically important to the success of artificial reefs (Risk, 1981;
Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Optimum ranges exist for each parameter
where effectiveness is maximized. Below we discuss some of these factors.
Area Covered. - The volume and area of a reef (the amount of reef material
deposited and the amount of bottom area covered) are important design considerations (Ogawa and Onoda, 1966; Ogawa and Takemura, 1966a; 1966b; Smith,
1972; Huntsman, 1981; Walton, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Yoshimuda(1982)
found attractiveness generally increased with greater reef size although some small
reefs could be very productive as well. Rounsefell (1972) suggested that artificial
reefs should be at least 200,000 ft3 (5,700 m3) to maintain self-sustaining fish
populations. Russell (1975) theorized reasons for the existence of optimum sized
reefs for certain species. Some suggested optimum reef sizes were a maximum of
200,000 ft3 (5,700 m3) in California (Turner et al., 1969); 2 to 3 acres (0.8 to 1.2
ha) in New York (Jensen, 1975); and 2,000 m3 (71,000 ft3) in Japan (Ogawa et
al., 1977). Ogawa et al. (1977) noted that production increased directly with reef
size from 400 m3 to a maximum size of 4,000 m3.
Japanese researchers have suggested that artificial reefs should optimally be
placed in a hierarchal arrangement where many blocks (or unit modules) form a
set, 10 to 20 sets are clustered in a group, and several clustered groups compose
a reef complex (Ogawa, 1982c; Ohshima, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Different
terms have been used for these levels depending on the translation. The optimum
size for individual blocks has not been determined. In practice, most blocks vary
between I and 5 m3 but may reach 60 m3. Fabricated unit modules range from
100 to 250 m3. The minimum effective size for a reef set is considered to be 400
m3. Optimum recommended sizes are 800 to 1,000 m3 for a set, 8,000 to 10,000
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
21
m3 for a group, and 80,000 to 100,000 m3 for a reef complex. Reef complexes in
Japan vary between 600 x 600 m (360,000 m2) and 5,000 x 10,500 m (52,500,000
m2).
Vertical Relief -Conflicting reports exist on the importance of reef height or relief
(Miyazaki and Sawada, 1978; Mottet, 1981; Vik, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983).
Some studies indicated height as an important consideration while others minimized its importance. Higo and Nagashima (1978) found height was not an
important variable for stone reefs, although a minimum height was necessary for
concrete reefs. Greater vertical relief apparently supported more fishes on small
experimental reefs (Molles, 1978; Walton, 1979). Ogawa (1967) found certain
species were attracted by the height of reefs while others were equally attracted
by increased horizontal size. Height was not always a critical factor on large reefs.
Ogawa (1982c) noted some reefs had been built up to 10 m high but suggested
that 3 to 4 m was sufficient. Fujii (1973, in Ogawa, 1982d) and Gyosho (1976a,
in Mottet, 1981) concluded that reef height was not important in depths less than
40 m but became more important in depths greater than 40 m. Reefs with greater
vertical relief were more effective in deep water. In shallower waters there was
little apparent difference between reefs 1 to 2 m high versus 3 to 4 m high in
attracting fishes (Ogawa, 1982d; Mottet, 1981). Fujii (1982) recommended an
aspect ratio (reef height/water depth) of 0.1 although little evidence apparently
exists to support this recommendation (Mottet, 1981). Yoshimuda and Fujii
(1982) and Ogawa (1982c) reviewed reef height and design and concluded that
the effectiveness of height depended on the species; spreading material over a
larger area was more important for bottom fishes than increasing height. Grove
and Sonu (1983) discussed conflicting Japanese studies and decided that conclusions were not definitive, but suggested that height was probably more important
to migratory fishes than sedentary demersal fishes and that horizontal spread was
probably more important to demersal fish than to migratory midwater or surface
fishes. Mottet (1981) concluded reef height was important but probably not as
important as total area and complexity.
The profile of a reef may be more important than actual height. Reefs with
nearly vertical sides are considered best because they increase turbulent flow,
producing attractive sounds and creating stagnation zones and lee waves (Nakamura, 1982a; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Gyosho (1976b, in Mottet, 1981) concluded that attraction of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) was almost directly
proportional to vertical angle. Fujii (1982) suggested a slope angle of 90° was best
for yellowtail.
Complexity. - Complexity is important for artificial reef success (Ogawa and Takemura, 1966a; 1966b; Higo and Nagashima, 1978; Higo and Tabata, 1979;
Smith et aI., 1979; Walton, 1979; Higo et al., 1980). Complexity includes design,
spatial arrangement, number of chambers and openings, and the amount of interstitial space. Chang et al. (1977a) suggested that the most complex reefs were
the best. A mathematical model by Crowder and Cooper (1979), however, predicted that fish maximize their feeding efficiency and growth at intermediate levels
of structural complexity.
The size and number of internal spaces has been correlated with the size and
number of certain fishes on artificial reefs (Higo et al., 1980; Buckley, 1982).
However, Russell et al. (1974), Molles (1978), Talbot et al. (1978), and Gascon
and Miller (1981) found hole size was not an important factor influencing fish
composition or size. Void space on most Japanese reefs is generally greater than
22
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
70% and can be as high as 98% or more (Mottet, 1981). Ogawa (1982c) noted
that mid water and bottom fish do not inhabit reef interiors if chambers are too
large, and suggested that artificial reefs built from several types of material were
superior to reefs built from one type of material. Chambers with openings 2 m
or greater were considered too large; the best size opening was between 0.15 and
1.5 m (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Fishes may avoid enclosed chambers with only
one opening (Shinn, 1974; Mathews).2 Lobsters are known to prefer shelters with
secondary escape exits (Cobb, 1971; Grove and Sonu, 1983).
Vertical panels on artificial reefs have been found to be more effective at attracting fishes than skeletal members. Horizontal and diagonal skeletal members
are more effective than vertical members (Grove and Sonu, 1983). Attraction
probably occurs because these elements create shadows (Grove and Sonu, 1983),
which are known to be preferred resting locations (Helfman, 1979).
Texture. - The texture and composition of reef material can influence the composition and abundance of benthic organisms, although materials are usually
selected based on availability and durability. Whether specific materials are best
suited for particular organisms has not been determined (Sato and Yoshioka,
1982). In general, uneven surfaces with cracks, crevices, and holes increase benthic
diversity and biomass (Kensler and Crisp, 1965; Higo and Nagashima, 1978;
Hirose and Uchida, 1979). Grove and Sonu (1983) reported surface roughness
was especially important for abalone, and sharp edges may be more effective for
attachment of seaweeds and kelp. Schuhmacher (1974) found that corals did not
generally settle on non-calcarious substrates such as metal.
Spatial Arrangement and Orientation.-Spatial
arrangement and orientation are
important considerations in the design of artificial reefs (Vik, 1982; Grove and
Sonu, 1983). Nakamura (1982a) suggested artificial reefs should be oriented perpendicular to prevailing currents and fish migratory pathways. Turner et al. (1969)
suggested leaving 50 to 60 ft (15-18 m) diameter open spaces in artificial reefs.
Suggested spacing for Japanese artificial reefs was a few meters between individual
blocks, 50 to 150 m between sets, 300 to 500 m between groups, and 3 km for
reef complexes (Ogawa, 1982c; Grove and Sonu, 1983). However, experimental
testing of spacing distances has not been conducted (Ogawa, 1982a). Mottet (1981)
noted that the Japanese attempted to place reefs far enough apart to avoid overlapping the enhanced fishing zones around individual reefs.
Location.-Ogawa
(1982d) and Kuwatani (1982) concluded that the site chosen
for an artificial reef was more important than reef design. Oceanographic conditions, including wave direction and force, as well as tidal and oceanic currents,
influence the design success of artificial reefs (Kojima, 1960; Hamashima et al.,
1969; Okamoto et al., 1979; Katoh and Itosu, 1980; McAllister, 1981; Vik, 1982;
Grove and Sonu, 1983). Nakamura (1982a) suggested that artificial reefs should
be placed in areas with current turbulence: areas of upwelling, downwelling, ascending currents, and vortex currents. On the continental shelf, reefs should be
placed along the front line of internal waves and perpendicular to currents. Nakamura (1982a) also noted that temperature gradients and topography greatly influenced reef success. Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded that reefs were best placed
on gently sloping or relatively flat profile areas, on either side of a ridge, or in
proximity to a shoreward encroachment of an underwater valley. Distance from
shore (Wickham et al., 1973) and depth (Fujimura and Kami, 1958; Walton,
, Mathews, H. Pers. Comm. SI. Petersburg Junior College, Clearwater, Florida.
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
23
1979) were important although Manges (1960) and Smith et al. (1980) concluded
that the placement of reefs with regard to physiographic features was more important than depth, spacing, bottom type, or slope. Hueckel and Buckley (1982)
based their reef site selection criteria on a combination of physical parameters
and a biological index.
Success of an artificial reef often depends on the productivity and availability
of benthic food resources in the surrounding habitat (Randall, 1963; Hirose et
ai., 1977; Huntsman, 1981). Artificial reefs isolated from natural reefs have been
found to be the most effective (Rodeheffer, 1945; Ogawa and Onoda, 1966; Vasey,
1971; Chang et ai., 1977a; 1977b; Miyazaka and Sawada, 1978a, in Mottet, 1981;
Higo et ai., 1980; Bohnsack, 1979; Murdy, 1979; Yoshimuda and Masuzawa,
1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). Japanese specialists recommended spacing artificial
reefs 600 to 1,000 m from natural reefs to minimize fish interaction between reefs
(Grove and Sonu, 1983).
Other Factors. -Other factors influencing the success of artificial reefs include
natural mortality (Huntsman, 1981) and reef age (Walton, 1979), and changes in
ontogenic requirements of fishes (Kuwatani, 1982).
Midwater and Surface Attractors. -Fish attraction to midwater and surface reefs
was related to several design factors. Hunter and Mitchell (1967) found that threedimensional structures were more effective than two-dimensional structures.
Wickham (1972) and Wickham etal. (1973) reported thatthe numbers and species
of fish attracted to structures were related to the number of structures, distance
offshore, and water depth. Wickham and Russell (1974) noted no significant
differences in numbers of fishes attracted to structures of different sizes and colors.
However, Hunter and Mitchell (1967) reported more fishes under larger structures,
and Klima and Wickham (1971) concluded that attraction was related to the
visibility of the structure. Smith et al. (1980) found greater success in freshwater
near points of land than near coves.
Socio- Economics
Comparatively
few studies have examined
in detail the sociological and eco-
nomic aspects of artificial reefs, although artificial reefs are usually considered an
economic asset to nearby communities (Buchanan, 1973; 1974; Buchanan et aI.,
1974; Hanni, 1978). Economic analysis is usually limited to reporting the cost of
particular reef projects. The economics of various alternative strategies for building artificial reefs have generally not been reported. Carlisle et ai. (1964) and Duffy
(1974) compared costs of various materials in California and concluded quarry
rock was the most cost-effective material. Buchanan (1973) found that an artificial
reef off Murrell's Inlet, South Carolina, was responsible for a 16% increase in the
number of private boat anglers in the marine sport fishery and a 10% increase in
the gross expenditures by private boat anglers. Hanni (1978) concluded that expenses for one Florida artificial reef program were justified based on cost-benefit
ratios. Ditton (1981) and Graefe (1981) concluded that costs of fuel discouraged
use of artificial reefs far away from home ports. Also, the distance traveled away
from a home port was directly related to boat size for reasons of safety.
Ditton (1981) and Graefe (1981) noted the lack of available data and presented
sociological and economic factors needing consideration. The major needs were
to document who benefits from artificial reefs and how they benefit. Graefe (1981)
suggested that data are lacking because of the great expense, length of time, and
difficulty in conducting sociological and economic research on artificial reefs.
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BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
Gyosho (1976a, in Mottet, 1981), Mottet (1981), and Ohshima (1982) discussed
the economics of Japanese reefs. Expenses between 1976 and 1982 averaged
$45,500 for each of 2,200 "regular sized" reefs with volumes less than 2,500 m3,
$545,000 for each of 352 larger reefs, and $2,150,000 for each of 107 enhanced
fishing grounds which had total volumes averaging about 50,000 m3 (Mottet,
1981). The average Japanese artificial reef cost 4,700 yen/m3 ($20.43) and produced a catch of 20 kg/m3 for average sized reefs and 16 kg/m3 for large reefs.
Assuming fish prices at 400 yen/kg, reefs returned between 6,000 and 8,000 yen/
m3/year, which offset the cost of the reef within 1 year.
Despite the above figures, Mottet (1981) and Grove and Sonu (1983) concluded
that the economic and biological data justifying some of the Japanese projects
were grossly inadequate. Mottet (1981) noted that if the catch is primarily migrating fish then the increased catch in one community may mean fewer fish can
be caught somewhere else. Real economic gains occur only when artificial reefs
enable capture of fishes that could not have been caught elsewhere for the same
or less cost. Artificial reefs can be economic assets when fish are concentrated,
resulting in less use aflabar and fuel, and lower risk. Huntsman (1981) suggested
that artificial reefs had limited potential for commercial use because the expense
and time necessary to build artificial reefs meant that only small areas could be
covered. The area covered would be insignificant relative to the abundance of
natural reef habitat.
Obviously, considerable savings can be realized by building reefs out of scrap
or waste materials (Prince and Maughan, 1978). The Japanese, however, have
rejected using these materials because of their low stability and low durability,
and have decided that building specially designed reefs with manufactured components oflasting materials was probably more economical in the long run (Mottet,
1981). Mottet (1981) and Sheehy (1981; 1982b) noted that although scrap materials may be inexpensive or free, their limited design flexibility and the expense
of handling, proper preparation, and transportation may make building welldesigned fabricated units more economical.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDA nONS
The artificial reef programs in Japan and the United States have had quite
different approaches to funding, construction, and conducting research. Philosophically, reef programs in the United States appear to be in a "hunter-andgatherer" phase and are directed mainly toward harvesting present resources,
whereas Japan's artificial reef programs represent an "agrarian phase" and are
directed more toward habitat manipulation. We speculate that cultural attitudes
about ocean resources have contributed to these great differences. Americans seem
to consider ocean resources as essentially free and unlimited and are therefore
reluctant to spend money for research and management. Conversely, the Japanese
have a more businesslike approach to ocean resources. Artificial reefs are considered to be an investment. The absolute amount of money spent is not as important
as the potential economic and political return on the investment.
Politics in both countries appears to have overriding importance. Mottet (1982)
and Grove and Sonu (1983) noted that Japan seemed determined to increase its
fisheries production, regardless of cost, so it would be less susceptible to foreign
manipulation. Preliminary results often did not appear to justify expenses for
some projects despite intense research efforts. In the United States there is similar
intense political support for building artificial reefs, especially if public expenses
are kept to a minimum. This usually means publicity is high while research efforts
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIRCIAL
REEF RESEARCH
25
are nil. We are concerned that the warning by Turner et al. (1969) still holds true
today: "Without basing a reefs construction upon proper scientific [principles],
it becomes at best a temporary high relief area of questionable value, or at worst
an ocean junk pile whose major value has been as a promotional gimmick publicizing a special interest group."
We found that the quality of much of the reviewed artificial reefliterature was
poor in terms of scientific merit. The literature was often filled with speculation
with little or no facts. Below are criticisms of artificial reef research and suggestions
for its improvement; order does not imply priority.
General Recommendations
and Criticisms of Past Research
Conduct More Carefully Controlled Experimental Studies.-Most
scientific research has been purely descriptive with no attempt to scientifically test hypotheses.
Descriptive studies have limited usefulness because they do not lend themselves
to definitive conclusions and may perpetuate unsubstantiated or biased observations. Often a little additional effort or expense would produce a much better
study providing considerably more useful information. Many studies attempting
to use an experimental approach lacked replication and suitable controls, apparently because of oversight and budget and time constraints.
Collect More Quantitative Data.-Every
published artificial reef paper should
include a minimum of specific information about the reef studied, including depth,
volume, size, design, reef composition, amount of material, distance offshore,
surrounding bottom type, and date deposited. Much of this information could
easily be collected as part of the permitting process. In addition, artificial reefs
should be monitored long enough after their construction to determine their
effectiveness and to collect baseline data. Due to inadequate long-term monitoring,
critical knowledge about why artificial reefs work or do not work is lacking.
Technical (though unpublishable) information about specific artificial reefs could
be archived in central accessible locations for later use by researchers.
Publish in Reputable Peer Review Scientific Journals.- Valuable information has
been collected that is unavailable and useless because it was either not published
or appeared only in technical reports that were difficult to obtain. Information in
technical reports is often preliminary, faulty, inconclusive, or subject to interpretation.
Clearly State Assumptions and Critically Examine Conclusions.-Many
conclusions in the artificial reef literature are questionable because of unstated or insupportable assumptions, untested or faulty logic, and a lack of supporting data.
For example, some papers claimed that artificial reefs increased net production
by increasing recruitment. These conclusions were often based on incidental observations of recruits at artificial reefs. The assumptions are that the artificial reef
habitat is a limiting factor, that new recruits would not have found other suitable
habitat, and that survival is high. The possibility that a species may go through
a "bottleneck" stage or be limited at some other point in the life cycle is often
ignored. Usually no data are available showing that observed recruits do survive
or are numerically significant in the population.
Another common assumption is that artificial reefs increase adult population
size which, in turn, will increase spawning and larval recruitment. Increased fishing
efficiency at artificial reefs can actually decrease adult populations, especially for
species which are strongly aggregated (Wege and Anderson, 1979). Also, it is not
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BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
necessarily true that more adults increase larval recruitment, especially considering
evidence indicating that, due to stochastic (chance) factors, recruitment success
is often independent of adult population size (Williams and Sale, 1981; Williams,
1983). Stochastic events, like predation or variable weather and current patterns,
may have a much more significant effect on recruitment.
Transfer and Adapt Technical Knowledge about Artificial Reefsfrom Japan. - The
expense of independently developing the Japanese reef technology in the United
States would be prohibitive. Many Japanese recommendations could be used as
null hypotheses for experiments (e.g., optimal reef size is 2,000 m3, reef height is
not important in depths less than 40 m, and sound is important in attracting
fishes to artificial reefs).
Explore Engineering Advances and Improvements. -Artificial reef construction is
still more an art than a science. We need effective, inexpensive, long lasting, easily
handled, easily transported structures. In the United States, more attention should
be given to designing and building prefabricated reefs versus dumping scrap materials. Reef designs that selectively attract or increase production of more desirable species might be preferred to those that randomly attract the surrounding
biota.
In the United States, soft bottom and high energy environments are not considered suitable for artificial reef sites because reef materials can disappear in the
mud or be destroyed by currents and wave surge. The Japanese, however, have
developed successful designs for these habitats and the United States should
explore their use. In terms of new materials, the use of new technologies such as
electrodeposition (Hilbertz, 1981), fiberglass (Sheehy, 1982), and coal combustion
products (Woodhead et al., 1982) should be explored further. Also, greater use
of obsolete oil and gas structures should be examined.
Biological Priorities
Far greater advances have been made in artificial reef engineering and construction techniques than in assessing the biological basis of artificial reef function.
Below we address some of the unanswered biological questions concerning artificial reefs.
Use the Term "Productivity" More Carefully. -Many papers have confused standing crop, primary productivity, primary production, net productivity, and net
production. Improper use of these terms has caused considerable confusion. Production refers to absolute biomass; productivity refers to the rate of biomass
production. Standing crop is the amount of biomass present at a specific time.
Primary production is the amount of carbon fixed by plants; net production is
the amount of biomass at some trophic level. Primary productivity is the rate of
carbon fixation by plants; net productivity is the rate biomass is produced at some
specified trophic level (Odum, 1971).
Distinguish and Measure Production and Productivity More Carefully. - Measurements of standing crop have been misused as direct measures of net productivity.
In fact, a reef with low standing crop could produce more fish (net production)
than a reef with high standing crop if turnover was high. High rates of immigration
or production could increase the net yield much more than would be indicated
by the standing crop alone.
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REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
27
Improve Monitoring Techniques and Methods for Quantifying Data. -Improved
methods are especially needed for monitoring fishes, fishing effort, and catch
statistics. Better methods are also required for quantifying habitat characteristics
and environmental factors. Parameters that relate to the effectiveness of reefs such
as void space, profile, number of exits, configuration, complexity, and proximity
to surrounding habitat have been noted, although their importance has been only
rarely quantified.
Determine How Artificial Reefs Attract Fishes.-Despite
considerable effort, the
mechanisms for attraction are still not completely understood (Grove and Sonu,
1983). Understanding these factors could lead to improved designs which would
enhance the attractiveness of artificial reefs.
Determine Behavior, Life Cycles, and Food Web Dynamics, Especially for Economically and Ecologically Important Species. - How various species use artificial
reefs varies with their behavior, life cycle stage, and trophic level. Only limited
information is available on any of these topics. Most trophic pathways, for instance, have only been assumed or examined qualitatively. Few data show the
importance of food resources produced directly on a reef. Incidental observations
of fishes feeding off the reef substrate are not sufficient to show that the artificial
reef is a significant food resource. Estimates of primary productivity associated
with reef substrate have occasionally been used to support the importance of food
provided by artificial reefs. However, there are few data showing if, how, and
how much primary productivity is transferred into net productivity or biomass.
With the exception of Prince et al. (1979), quantitative and descriptive models
of trophic dynamics were absent in the literature. Even Prince et al. (1979) measured only the relative importance offood and not the actual energy flow between
trophic levels.
Determine the Relative Importance of Attraction versus Production.- The relative
importance of benthic reefs attracting fish biomass versus producing new fish
biomass is an important controversy that has not yet been resolved. Attraction
of fishes appears to be the major important factor despite claims to the contrary.
The rapid speed with which colonization and equilibrium occur support the importance of attraction. The importance of production probably varies with the
physical characteristics of a reef and its location.
Examine Interactions of Reef Fauna with the Surrounding Habitat. - We suggest
that increased fish biomass is far more likely to result from feeding in the habitats
around artificial reefs than from the primary production on a reef. The possibility
of increasing fish biomass by allowing fishes to forage in new areas lacking suitable
reef habitat, or at least increasing the foraging efficiency in some areas, appears
to have been overlooked. Mottet (1981) noted that artificial reefs do not need to
provide food but they do need to be in areas where appropriate food resources
occur. The so-called "barren habitat" around most reefs is often a productive
food resource for many fishes.
Identify and Quantify Factors Influencing Artificial Reef Success and Failure.-A
problem exists in oversimplifying the factors important to artificial reef success.
Many "rules of thumb" exist which have not been scientifically tested (i.e., reefs
should only be placed on hard bottoms or reef height should be 10% of the water
depth). Experimental studies are needed to determine which factors or combination of factors are important. Agreement on criteria that define success would
be helpful.
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BIOMASS
INCREASES
BIOMASS
ATTRACTION
LOSSES
LOSSES
Adult Immigration
Emigration
Larval
Respiration
Juvenile
Recruitment
Reproduction
Recruitment
~
GROWTH
Growth from Food
Resources on AR's
ARTIFICIAL
REEF
~
MORTALITY
Fishery
Harvest
Predation
Growth from Benthic
Food Resources
Around
AR's
Pollution
Other Mortality
Growth from Plankton
Food Resources
Figure 2.
General model for increases and losses of fish biomass on artificial reefs.
Develop and Test Predictive Models on Artificial Reef Function.-A
comprehensive theory on how artificial reefs function is one of the most often recognized
needs (Kuwatani, 1982; Grove and Sonu, 1983). The general impression we gained
from most artificial reef papers is that three mechanisms influence artificial reef
dynamics: recruitment by juveniles and adults, food production from the reef
itself, and harvesting. Obviously, more complex and realistic models are needed
for considering other possible important factors (Fig. 2). We expect that such
models will vary considerably in different regions and habitats.
Combine Theory, Such as Optimal Foraging Theory or Island Biogeographic Theory, with Artificial Reef Function. -Optimal foraging theory (Hughes, 1980) might
be useful for explaining movement patterns and densities offishes that use artificial
reefs for shelter but forage away from the reef. Island biogeographic theory
(MacArthur and Wilson, 1967) might be a useful starting point for explaining
community dynamics for both theoretical and applied artificial reef research. At
present it has received only limited attention on a small scale (Nolan, 1975; Molles,
1978; Bohnsack, 1979; 1983a), and may have to be modified to consider seasonal
factors (Lukens, 1981).
Use Large Reefsfor Experimentation. - Most theoretical work in the United States
has utilized very small experimental reefs. These studies might not be applicable
to larger reefs such as those in use in Japan.
Explore the Use of Natural Materials for Enhancing Artificial Reefs.-Seeding
algae or invertebrates on an artificial reef might greatly increase productivity.
Transplanting kelp and abalone has been done with some success in temperate
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
29
water. Transplanting live corals might be a tremendously effective although presently overlooked technique in suitable tropical habitats (Maragos, 1974).
Explore the Idea of Building Reefs to Improve Recruitment, Growth and Spawning.-Building reefs in the United States to improve larval recruitment may be
more economical and more effective for increasing net production and catch rates
than building fishing reefs primarily designed to attract adults. Eventually we
could have reefs that increase harvest (fishing reefs), those that increase recruitment (recruitment reefs), and those that improve growth of juvenile fishes (production reefs).
Build Different Types of Fishing Reefs. - Many marine artificial reef programs
have catered only to boaters by building reefs offshore in deep water. Shallow
water artificial reefs built in conjunction with fishing piers are needed for shorebased fishermen. These should be effective, able to withstand turbulent water,
and be minimum navigation hazards. Besides recreational reefs, reefs constructed
primarily for commercial use should be considered. Such reefs could be very
successful, especially iflocated in areas away from urban centers. Buckley (1982)
suggested designing reefs with features that control removal and prevent overfishing. Very complex reefs could provide refugia from overharvesting.
Socio-Economic Priorities
Examine Alternative Artificial Reef Strategies. - Particular attention should be
given to examining the economics of long-term versus short-term strategies and
the economics of building prefabricated versus waste material reefs. Presumed
savings by present strategies could be examples of false economy.
Determine Optimum Reef Size, Design, Density, and Configuration for Particular
Habitats. - This research should include economic, social, and biological factors.
We find it incredible that some programs spend hundreds of thousands of dollars
building reefs without spending anything on research or monitoring the status of
reefs over time. Proper research should show how to balance costs and benefits.
Even when using waste materials it would be important to know, for example,
whether grouping materials in several small reefs would be more effective than
one large reef.
Document Direct and Indirect Economic and Social Benefits. - Documenting only
the direct economic benefits of.artificial reefs is not likely to be very realistic. This
kind of approach fails to consider indirect benefits; these are not easily translated
into dollar values and are consequently often ignored. Social and indirect economic
benefits can exceed the actual dollar value of the catch, especially in the United
States where hook and line fishing, a relatively inefficient harvesting technique,
is prevalent. Socio-economic analyses must be able to properly evaluate abstract
concepts such as user satisfaction. The aesthetic value of fishing could be more
important than the actual dollar value of the catch. People who never use artificial
reefs may receive indirect benefits or may benefit merely because they appreciate
the opportunity offered by their presence.
Management Priorities
Most of our critical comments have centered on scientific investigations. However, much of the blame for the lack of progress in understanding artificial reef
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BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
function and management rests with the administrators and managers who determine research and funding priorities. Unfortunately, a naive (and usually unstated) attitude exists among some managers: they know artificial reefs work; they
do not need to know how they work. In fact, knowing how artificial reefs function
is crucial for devising appropriate management strategies. For example, if reefs
primarily concentrate individuals already present in the environment, then artificial reefs could increase the danger of overexploiting some limited stocks (Gulf
of Mexico Fishery Management Council, 1980; Gallaway, 1981). However, if
reefs increase production, then harvests could be increased through habitat improvement. Therefore, not only do managers need to know if artificial reefs work,
they must know how they work and their relative effectiveness.
Increase Research Funding.-Inadequate
research funding in the United States
appears to be the major problem for advancing artificial reef knowledge. We realize
that this conclusion is often invoked as the major problem in any area of study.
However, we truly think that funding for artificial reef research has approached
a crisis, in part because of the cost but also because of the mistaken belief that
additional scientific research is unnecessary or that nothing useful will develop.
As McIntosh (1981) noted, most artificial reef funds are spent on construction
and installation. Research, which could lead to intelligent management decisions,
has not been adequately funded.
Develop Comprehensive Plans for Artificial Reef Development and Deployment.Greater emphasis should be placed on developing a theoretical foundation for
building and managing artificial reefs based on professional input. Too much
emphasis is often given to amateur input especially in deciding where and where
not to build reefs. Some programs appear to continually build reefs without having
a well defined objective or end point.
Examine Sources of Information More Critically with Increased Emphasis on
Education and Awareness.-Managers
should be more critical in examining scientific research and other sources of information on artificial reefs. We have found
that newspaper articles and unpublished papers (progress reports, technical reports, manuscripts, newsletters) are often given the same consideration as legitimate, peer-reviewed, scientific publications. Many managers and agencies do not
understand the scientific process, an important part of which is the peer review
system where work is closely scrutinized by other scientists in the same field.
Theories are not accepted as fact until carefully tested and evaluated. Without
this review process, there is a greater danger of accepting incorrect or insupportable
conclusions. While the peer review process is not completely infallible, it does
remove considerable potential error.
Establish Experimental Artificial Reef Research Zones. - The complex and timeconsuming permitting process is a major factor discouraging some artificial reef
research, especially at academic institutions where publishing pressures demand
speedy results (Dammann, 1974). Designating areas where experimental reefs
could be installed, monitored, altered, and removed ifnecessary would circumvent
many of the problems facing researchers. The rapid rate at which new artificial
reefs are being constructed (Seaman, 1982) could pose a problem for future
research in that suitable experimental artificial reef sites may be exhausted, especially near large urban centers where facilities for research are often located.
Off Miami, Florida, for example, large areas of suitable bottom have already been
used. In these zones, local governments could hold long-term blanket permits
BOHNSACK AND SUTHERLAND:
REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL
REEF RESEARCH
31
(with broad restrictions) so that large-scale experimental research could be facilitated.
Reduce User Conflicts. -Conflicts often arise between divers and fishermen, sport
and commercial fishing, and different fishing methods, such as gill netting and
hook and line fishing. Even among divers, conflicts arise between consumptive
and non-consumptive uses, such as spearfishing versus photography and underwater observation. Possible strategies to explore include the use of different types
of reefs and color coded buoys for designated uses. For example, certain reefs
could be designed primarily for spearfishing while others are designed for other
more aesthetic diving activities. Instead of concentrating reef materials at one
site, multiple reefs could be used to dilute user concentration and reduce conflicts.
Conduct Legal Studies on Liabilities and Property Rights Associated with Artificial
Ree.fs.-Many management problems are a result ofa poorly defined and understood legal basis for artificial reefs. Little has been done to anticipate and resolve
legal problems.
CONCLUSIONS
Artificial reefs have become a tremendously popular habitat enhancement technique even though relatively little experimental research has been done on artificial
reef biology. We caution, however, against prematurely embracing a habitat enhancement technique that is poorly or incompletely understood. Perhaps too much
effort has been expended in building artificial reefs and not enough in research.
As noted earlier, not all artificial reefs have increased fish harvest or productivity.
In many areas, managers have the mistaken belief that they can proceed with
large-scale programs without research. Decisions are often made based on political
expediency, absolute cost, materials readily available, navigational considerations,
or solid waste disposal problems, without considering biological, economic, or
social effects. The potential exists for major mistakes which could be difficult,
costly, or impossible to correct.
Numerous studies of artificial reefs have qualitatively described succession,
compared artificial reefs with natural habitats, and established that artificial reefs
can be very effective at attracting and concentrating fishes. Priority should not be
given to further redundant qualitative and descriptive studies. High priority should
be given to experimental and quantitative studies designed to test predictive
models to determine causes of phenomena associated with artificial reefs.
Research is still needed to develop a comprehensive theory on artificial reef
operation and management and to further optimize reef design, size, and location.
Japanese efforts in particular have provided a basis for further applied research;
however, their results and recommendations need independent testing and confirmation elsewhere.
In conclusion, we believe that artificial reefs offer tremendous potential for
habitat enhancement. We hope that artificial reef technology will eventually be
employed within an integrated management strategy for ultimately improving
fishery resources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank G. Beardsley, E. Prince, L. Pulos, D. Stone of the National Marine Fisheries Service; R.
Buckley and G. Hueckel of the State of Washington Department of Fisheries; G. Stanton of Florida
State University; J. Halusky, B. Lindberg, and W. Seaman of the Florida Sea Grant Reef Science
32
BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE, VOL. 37, NO. I, 1985
Advisory Committee, and S. Bannerot of the University of Miami for their contributions and critical
comments. This article was developed under the auspices of the Florida Sea Grant College Program
with support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Sea Grant, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Grant No. NA80AA-D-00038. The U,S. Government is authorized to
produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation
that may appear hereon.
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DATEACCEPTED: December 20, 1984.
ADDRESS: (l.A.B.) Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies. 4600 Rickenbacker
Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149; (D.L.S.) National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries
Center. 75 Virginia Beach Dr., Miami. Florida 33149. PRESENTADDRESS:(l.A.B.) National Marine
Fisheries Service. Southeast Fisheries Center. 75 Virginia Beach Dr., Miami. Florida 33149.
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