THE WISDOM
OF SOLOMON
A
B
VOLUME 4 3
is a fresh approach to the world's greatest classic.
Its object is to make the Bible accessible to the modern reader; its method
is to arrive at the meaning of biblical literature through exact translation
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This project marks the beginning of a new era of co-operation among
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William Foxwell Albright
David Noel Freedman
GENERAL EDITORS
THE A N C H O R BIBLE
THE WISDOM
OF SOLOMON
A NEW TRANSLATION
WITH INTRODUCTION AND COMMENTARY
BY
DAVID W I N S T O N
THE ANCHOR BIBLE
DOUBLEDAY
The Anchor Bible
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
Bible. O.T. Apocrypha. Wisdom of Solomon.
English. Winston. 1979.
The Wisdom of Solomon.
(The Anchor Bible; vol. 43)
Bibliography: p.
Includes indexes.
1. Bible. O.T. Apocrypha. Wisdom of Solomon—
Commentaries. I. Winston, David. II. Title.
III. Series.
BS192.2.A11964G3 vol. 43
[BS1753] 220.7'7s [229.'3'077]
78-18148
ISBN 0-385-01644-1
Copyright © 7979 by Doubleday,
a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
6
8
10 12 14 15 13 11 9
7
To Irene
who has enabled me to pursue Sophia
without interruption
THE APOCRYPHA
The term Apocrypha (or "Deuterocanonical Books" in Roman Catholic
usage) is popularly understood to describe the fifteen books or parts of
books from the pre-Christian period that Catholics accept as canonical
Scripture but Protestants and Jews do not. This designation and definition
are inaccurate on many counts. An apocryphon is literally a hidden writ­
ing, kept secret for the initiate and too exalted for the general public; vir­
tually none of these books makes such a claim. Not only Roman Catholics
but also Orthodox and Eastern Christians accept these books, wholly or
partially, as canonical Scripture. Roman Catholics do not accept all of
them as canonical Scripture, for I and II Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh are not included in the official Catholic canon drawn up at the Council
of Trent (1545-1563). Many Protestant churches have no official deci­
sion declaring these books to be non-canonical; and, in fact, up to the last
century they were included in most English Protestant Bibles. What is cer­
tain is that these books did not find their way into final Jewish Palestinian
canon of Scripture. Thus, despite their Jewish origins (parts of II Esdras
are Christian and Latin in origin), they were preserved for the most part
in Greek by Christians as a heritage from the Alexandrian Jewish commu­
nity and their basic text is found in the codices of the Septuagint. How­
ever, recent discoveries, especially that of the Dead Sea scrolls, have
brought to light the original Hebrew or Aramaic texts of some of these
books. Leaving aside the question of canonicity, Christians and Jews now
unite in recognizing the importance of these books for tracing the history
of Judaism and Jewish thought in the centuries between the last of the He­
brew Scriptures and the advent of Christianity.
PREFACE
Many scholars have zealously sought to dissociate the author of the Wis­
dom of Solomon as far as possible from the Philonic corpus and the
Hellenistic philosophical tradition generally, in order to claim him as a
representative of traditional Jewish religious piety, but the evidence, in my
opinion, weighs heavily against them. With a few exceptions, however, I
have generally avoided polemic confrontation, preferring to allow the evi­
dence to speak for itself. Of the innumerable commentaries on Wisd, I
have benefited most from the following: Grimm, Deane, Gregg, Goodrick
(despite his singularly perverse approach to the book), Stein, and
Fichtner. In translating the text from the Greek, I have derived much in­
spiration from the spirited versions of the Jerusalem and New English Bi­
bles.
I am most grateful to various friends for reading all or parts of this book
and making many useful criticisms: Baruch Bokser, John J. Collins, John
Dillon, Gerd Liidemann, E. P. Sanders. I owe a special debt of gratitude
to Albert Henrichs, who kindly placed his vast erudition at my service,
saving me from a number of errors, and considerably enriching my com­
mentary. Thanks are also due to Martin Schwartz who was always ready
to discuss with me matters Iranian. I have also derived much benefit from
the careful critique of Anchor Bible editor David Noel Freedman, and
wish to thank Robert Hewetson and Eve Roshevsky for their skillful prep­
aration of the work for publication. The flaws that remain in spite of all
this help are those of the writer.
I wish to thank the Institute for Advanced Studies of the Hebrew Uni­
versity of Jerusalem for the grant of a fellowship in 1976 which enabled
me to start on the book, and my teacher and friend Saul Lieberman, who
invited me to be with him at the Institute and whose consummate scholar­
ship has ever been my guide and inspiration. I am equally grateful to the
National Endowment for the Humanities for granting me a fellowship for
the year 1978 which enabled me to put the finishing touches to the com­
mentary. I am indebted to Claude Welch, President and Dean of the
Graduate Theological Union at Berkeley, who provided the funds for the
typing of my manuscript. I should also like to express my appreciation to
xii
PREFACE
Barbara Saylor Rodgers, who did a magnificent job of typing, and to my
graduate assistant Dan Rothwell who saved me much time by procuring
books and Xeroxing articles. I could never have completed this work
without the understanding patience and encouragement of my wife Irene,
who also helped with the indices, and to whom it is dedicated.
CONTENTS
Preface
Principal Abbreviations
Greek and Latin Authors
Translations of Classical Texts
xi
xvii
xxii
xxiii
INTRODUCTION
I. Contents
n. Structure
HI. Authorship: Single or Composite
IV. Language and Style
V. Genre
VI. Date
VII. Religious Ideas
1. Preexistence and Immortality of the Soul
2. Eschatology
3. Torah and Sophia
4. Logos and Sophia
5. Pursuing Wisdom
6. The Nature and Efficacy of Wisdom
7. Universalism and Particularism
8. Freedom and Determinism
V m . Wisdom of Solomon and Philo of Alexandria
IX. Purpose
X. Manuscripts and Versions
XI. Status and Influence
4
9
12
14
18
20
25
25
32
33
38
40
42
43
46
59
63
64
66
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
70
COMMENTARIES
i. Pre-Nineteenth Century
n. Nineteenth Century
in. Twentieth Century
92
92
93
94
Xiv
CONTENTS
TRANSLATION and NOTES
A.
Wisdom's Gift of Immortality (1 - 6 : 2 1 )
I. Exhortation to Justice which brings immortality
(1:1-15)
II. Speech of the wicked who have covenanted with
Death ( 1 : 1 6 - 2 : 2 4 )
Problems of Reward and Retribution (III-V)
III. Sufferings of the immortal just only a trial
(3:1-12)
IV. Sterility of the virtuous will ultimately be
converted to fruitfulness ( 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 6 )
V. Early death a token of God's solicitous care
(4:7-20)
VI. Vindication of the just and Final Judgment
(5:1-23)
VII. Exhortation to Wisdom which is easily found and
brings immortality and sovereignty (6:1-21)
B. The Nature and Power of Wisdom and Solomon's Quest for
Her ( 6 : 2 2 - 1 0 : 2 1 )
VIII. The nature of Wisdom and her mysteries will be
revealed (6:22-25)
Solomon's Speech (DC-XI)
IX. Solomon is only a mortal (7:1-6)
X. Solomon prefers Wisdom above all else
(7:7-14)
XI. God is sole source of all-encompassing Wisdom
(7:15-22a)
XII. Nature of Wisdom: her twenty-one attributes
(7:22b-24)
XIII. Fivefold metaphor describing Wisdom's essence
and her unique efficacy (7:25 - 8:1)
XIV. Solomon sought to make Wisdom his bride
(8:2-16)
XV. Wisdom a sheer gift of God's Grace (8:17-21)
XVI. Without Wisdom no human enterprise can
succeed (9:1-6)
98
99
111
124
130
136
144
151
158
159
162
167
172
178
184
191
197
200
CONTENTS
XVII.
XVIII.
An Ode
XIX.
XX.
Without Wisdom Solomon could not reign
(9:7-12)
Divine Wisdom brought men salvation
(9:13-18)
to Wisdom's Saving Power in History (XIX-XX)
From Adam to Moses (10:1-14)
The Exodus (10:15-21)
C. Divine Wisdom or Justice in the Exodus (11-19)
XXI. First Antithesis: Nile water changed to blood,
but Israelites obtained water from the desert rock
(11:1-14)
Excursus I: Nature and Purpose of Divine Mercy
(XXn-XXIV)
XXII. God's Mercy toward the Egyptians and its causes
(His Might the source of his merciful love)
(11:15-12:2)
XXIII. God's Mercy toward the Canaanites and its
causes (12:3-18)
XXTV. God's Mercy a model lesson for Israel
(12:19-22)
XXV. Return to theme of measure for measure and
transition to second Excursus (12:23-27)
Excursus II: On Idolatry (XXVI-XXXI)
XXVI. Mindless nature worship (13:1-9)
XXVII. Wretched wooden-image making
(13:10-14:11)
XXVIII. Origin and evil consequences of idolatry
(14:12-31)
XXIX. Israel's immunity from idolatry (15:1-6)
XXX. Malicious manufacture of clay figurines
(15:7-13)
XXXI. Folly of Egyptian idolatry (15:14-19)
XXXII. Second Antithesis: Egyptians hunger through
animal plague, but Israel enjoys exotic quail food
(16:1-4)
XXXIII. Third Antithesis: Egyptians slain by locusts and
XV
203
206
210
219
225
230
237
243
245
247
258
269
281
285
289
292
CONTENTS
XVI
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVHL
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
flies, but Israel survives a serpent attack through
the bronze serpent, symbol of salvation
(16:5-14)
Fourth Antithesis: Egyptians plagued by
thunderstorms, but Israel fed by a rain of manna
(16:15-29)
Fifth Antithesis: Egyptians terrified by darkness,
but Israel illuminated with bright light and guided
through desert by a pillar of fire (17:1 - 1 8 : 4 )
Sixth Antithesis: Egyptian firstborn destroyed,
but Israel protected and glorified (18:5-25)
Seventh Antithesis: Egyptians drowned in the sea,
but Israel passes safely through (19:1-9)
Retrospective review of God's wonders through
which Nature was refashioned for Israel
(19:10-12)
Egypt more blameworthy than Sodom (19:13-17)
Transposition of the elements (19:18-21)
Concluding doxology (19:22)
INDICES
Ancient Authors
Subjects
Scriptural References
Pseudepigrapha, Qumran, and Rabbinic
Literature
Key to the Text
294
297
302
313
323
326
327
330
333
334
337
342
353
360
PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS
Anchor Bible
American Journal of Philology
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature
American Journal of Theology
Analecta Biblica
Ancient Near Eastern Texts, ed. J. B. Pritchard, 2d ed.
Princeton, 1955
Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, Philosophic und
ANRW
Wissenschaften, ed. W. Haase. Berlin, 197?
Anthologia Palatina, eds. H. Stadmiiller and F. Bucherer, 1906
AP
Apocalypse
Apoc.
APOT
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, ed.
R. H. Charles, 2 vols. Oxford, 1913
Abot De-Rabbi Natan, ed. S. Schechter. New York, 1945.
ARN
English trans, by J. Goldin, The Fathers According to Rabbi
Nathan. New Haven, 1955
Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft
ARW
Alttestamentliche Abhandlungen
ATA
Aspects of Wisdom in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. R. L.
AWJEC
Wilken. Notre Dame and London, 1975
*Aboda Zara
A.Z.
Biblical Archaeologist
BA
BBB
Bonner biblische Beitrage
BDF
F. Blass and A. Debrunner, trans, and edited by R. W. Funk,
A Greek Grammar of the New Testament. Chicago, 1961
Berakoth
Ber.
Beitrage zur historischen Theologie
BHT
BibLeb
Bibel und Leben
BIFAO
Bulletin de Vinstitut frangais d'archiologie orientate du Caire.
Cairo
BJRL
Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BR
Bereshith Rabbah, ed. J. Theodor, with additional corrections
by C. Albeck. 3 vols. Jerusalem, 1965
BT
Babylonian Talmud
BVC
Bible et vie chretienne
BZ
Biblische Zeitschrift
BZAW
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
CAH
Cambridge Ancient History, 12 vols. 1923-39
Cat.Cod.Astr. Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum, 1898#
AB
AJP
AJSL
AJT
AnBib
ANET
Xviu
CB
CBQ
CD
CG
CH
CIG
CIL
CNRS
CRAI
DK
Dox.
EJ
Ency.Bib.
Epigr.Gr.
EpJer.
ERE
ETL
ExpT
FGH
FPG
FRLANT
GRBS
Wag.
HR
HSCP
HTR
HUCA
IDB
1EJ
1G
IGR
111
IPE
ITQ
JAAR
PRINCIPAL
ABBREVIATIONS
Cultura biblica
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Codex Damascus or Damascus Document (older designation:
CDC) Cairo Damascus Covenant
Corpus Gnosticum
Corpus Hermeticum
Corpus lnscriptionum Graecarum, 1828$
Corpus lnscriptionum Latinarum, 1862#
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
Comptes rendus des stances de Vacademie des inscriptions et
belles-lettres. Paris
H. Diels and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 8th
ed. 3 vols. Berlin, 1956. (Pagination remains the same in
later editions.)
Doxographi Graeci, ed. H. Diels. Berlin, 1958
Encyclopaedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem, 1972.
Encyclopaedia Biblica. 7 vols, so far. Jerusalem, 1955#.
Hebrew
Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus conlecta, ed. G. Kaibel. 1878
Epistle of Jeremiah
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. J. Hastings. 12 vols.
and index volume. New York, 1908#
Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses
Expository Times
Die Fragmente der grieschischen Historiker ed. F. Jacoby.
Berlin and Leiden, 1923#
Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum Quae Supersunt Graeca, ed.
A. M. Denis. Leiden, 1970. Pseudepigrapha veteris testamenti Graece, eds. A. M. Denis and M. de Jonge, vol. 3
Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen
Testaments
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies
Qfagigah
History of Religions
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
Harvard Theological Review
Hebrew Union College Annual
Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. 4 vols. Nashville, 1962
Israel Exploration Journal
Inscriptiones Graecae, \S73ff
Inscriptions Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes, ed.
R. Cagnat. Paris, vols. 1-4. 1911-1927. (vols. 1 and 2
bound together)
Indo-Iranian Journal
Inscriptiones Orae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini, ed. V. Latyshev, 1890-1901
Irish Theological Quarterly
Journal of the American Academy of Religion
9
PRINCIPAL
JAOS
IB
JBL
JCS
JE
JEA
JHS
JQR
JRAS
JSJ
JTS
JUB
KBG
LAB
LSJ
LXX
M.
MAMA
Mek.
MGWJ
Mid.Teh.
MRS
MT
MVAG
NEB
Nid.
NRT
NTS
Num.R.
OGIS
Pap.
ABBREVIATIONS
xix
Journal of the American Oriental Society
Jerusalem Bible
Journal of Biblical Literature
Journal of Cuneiform Studies
Jewish Encyclopaedia. 12 vols. Ktav reprint, New York, n.d.
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
Journal of Hellenic Studies
Jewish Quarterly Review
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic,
and Roman Period
Journal of Theological Studies
Jubilees
R. Kiihner, Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache,
rev. by F. Blass and B. Gerth. 4 vols. 3d ed. Hannover,
1890-1904
Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, ed. G. Kisch.
Notre Dame, 1949. English trans, by M. R. James, The
Biblical Antiquities of Philo. Reprint New York, 1971, with
prolegomenon by L. H. Feldman
H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (1843),
9th ed., rev. by H. S. Jones. Oxford, 1948
The Septuagint
Mishnah
Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiquae, eds. W. M. Calder and
J. M. Cormack. Manchester, 1928#
Mekilta De-Rabbi Ishmael, eds. H. S. Horovitz and I. A. Rabin.
Jerusalem, 1960. English trans, by J. Lauterbach. 3 vols.
Philadelphia, 1933
Monatsschrift filr Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums
Midrash Tehillim, ed. S. Buber. Reprint, New York, 1947
Mekilta De-Rabbi Shimeon ben Yohal, eds. J. N. Epstein and
E. Z. Melamed. Jerusalem, 1955
Mishneh Torah
Mitteilungen der vorderasiatisch (-agyptsch)en Gesellschaft
New English Bible
Niddah
La nouvelle revue theologique
New Testament Studies
Numbers Rabbah
W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae. 2 vols.
Leipzig, 1903-05
Papyrus (P. when specific edition cited)
P. Corn. Greek Papyri in Cornell University Library, eds.
W. L. Westermann and C. J. Kraemer; New York, 1926
P. Fay. Fay&m Towns and their Papryri, eds. B. Grenfell, A.
Hunt, and D. Hogarth. 1900
P. Lond. Greek Papyri in the British Museum, eds. F. G.
Kenyon and others. 1893#
XX
ParJer.
Pes.R.
PG
PGM
Phil.Woch.
PL
PRE
PRK
PsPT
PW
1Q
RAC
RB
RBen
REG
REL
RevThom
RHR
RivB
RL
RSO
RSPT
RSR
RSV
RV
Sank.
Sed.'OlamR.
S.H.A.
PRINCIPAL
ABBREVIATIONS
P. Mag. Leid. W. Leiden Magical Papyrus W., ed. A.
Dieterich, Abraxas. Leipzig, 1891.
P. Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, eds. B. Grenfell and A.
Hunt. 18980
P. Tebt. The Tebtunis Papyri, eds. B. Grenfell, A. Hunt, and
others. 19200
Paraleipomena Jeremiou
Pesikta Rabbati, ed. M. Friedman. Reprint, Tel-Aviv, 1963.
English trans, by W. G. Braude, Yale Judaica Series,
XVIII: 1. 2 vols. New Haven and London, 1968
J. Migne, Patrologia graeca
Papyri graecae magicae, ed. K. Preisendanz. 2 vols. Berlin,
1928
Philologische Wochenschrift. 19210
J. Migne, Patrologia latina
Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, ed. D. Luria. Vilna, 1837. English
trans, by G. Friedlander, 2d ed. New York, 1965
Pesikta de Rav Kahana, ed. B. Mandelbaum. 2 vols. New
York, 1962. English trans, by W. G. Braude and I. J.
Kapstein. Philadelphia, 1975
Pseudo
Palestinian Talmud
A. Pauly and G. Wissowa, ReaUEnzyklopadie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaften. 18920
First Cave, Qumran
1QH Qumran Hoddyot (Hymns of Thanksgiving)
1QM Qumran Milhamot (Wars between the Children of
Light and the Children of Darkness)
lQpHab Qumran PeSer (Commentary) on Habakkuk
1QS Qumran Serek (Manual of Discipline)
Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum
Revue biblique
Revue benidictine
Revue des etudes grecques
Revue des etudes latines
Revue thomiste
Revue de Vhistoire des religions
Rivista biblica
Religion in Life. New York
Rivista degli studi orientali
Revue des sciences philosophiques et theologiques
Recherches de science religieuse
Revised Standard Version
Revised Version
Sanhedrin
Seder *Olam Rabbah
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, ed. E. Hohl, 1927
PRINCIPAL
Shab.
ShR
SHSR
Sib Or
Sifre DeuU
Sifre Num.
SIG
Smyth
ST
Suk.
SVF
Swete
Ta'an.
Tanfr.
Targ.Yerush.
TDNT
TesuXll
TGF
TGI
TLZ
Tosef.
TrGF
TTZ
TU
TZ
VF
VC
VD
VT
Wayyik.R.
Yeb.
ZAW
ZKG
ABBREVIATIONS
xxi
Shabbath
Shemoth Rabbah
Shir Ha-Shirim Rabbah
Sibylline Oracles
Sifre on Deuteronomy, ed. L. Finkelstein. Republished by
Jewish Theological Seminary. New York, 1969
Siphre d'be Rab, Siphre ad Numeros, ed. H. S. Horovitz.
Jerusalem, 1966
Sylloge lnscriptionum Graecarum, ed. D. Dittenberger, 3d ed.
4 vols. Leipzig, 1915-24
H. W, Smyth, Greek Grammar, rev. by G. M. Messing.
Cambridge, 1956
Studia theologica
Sukkah
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, ed. H. von Arnim. 4 vols.
Reprint, Stuttgart, 1964
H. B. Swete, The Old Testament in Greek according to the
Septuagint, Vol. 3. Cambridge, 1912
Ta'anith
Midrash Tanhuma. Reprint, Jerusalem, 1965. ed. S. Buber. 2
vols. Reprint, New York, 1946
Targum Yerushalmi
Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, eds. G. Kittel
and G. Friedrich. Trans, and ed. G. W. Bromiley. 10 vols.
Grand Rapids, 1964-76
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Translated and edited
by R. H. Charles. Oxford, 1908. (Cited individually as e.g.
Test.Gad)
Trierer Grabungen und Forschungen
Theologie und Glaube
Theologische Literaturzeitung
Tosefta, ed. M. S. Zuckermandel. Reprint, Jerusalem, 1963
Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, ed. B. Snell, Gottingen,
1971
Trierer theologische Zeitschrift
Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen
Literatur
Theologische Zeitschrift
Ugarit-Forschungen
Vigiliae christianae
Verbum domini
Vetus Testamentum
Wayyikra Rabbah, ed. M. Margulies. 3 vols. Jerusalem, 1972
Yebamoth
Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte
xxii
ZKT
ZNW
ZPE
ZWT
PRINCIPAL
ABBREVIATIONS
Zeitschrift filr katholische Theologie
Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
Zeitschrift filr Papyrologie und Epigraphik
Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie
GREEK AND LATIN AUTHORS
Albinus Did. Didaskalikos
Alexander of Aphrodisias=Alex.Aphr.
Aristotle EN Ethica Nicomachea
Augustine Civ.Dei De civitate Dei
Cicero Fin. De Finibus Bonorum
ND De Natura Deorum
Off De Officiis
Tusc. Tusculanae Disputationes
Clement of Alexandria=Clem.Alex. Prot. Protrepticus
Strom. Stromata
Diogenes Laertius=D.L.
Epicurus K.D. Kyriai Doksai (Principal Doctrines)
Eusebius HE Historia Ecclesiastica
PE Praeparatio Evangelica
Hesiod Op. Opera et Dies
Hippolytus Haer. Refutatio omnium Haeresium
Irenaeus Adv. Haer. Adversus Haereses
Josephus=Jos. Ag.Ap. Against Apion
Ant. Antiquities
J.W. The Jewish War
M. Aurel.=Marcus Aurelius
Philo Abr. De A brahamo
Aet. De Aeternitate Mundi
Agr. De Agricultura
Cher. De Cherubim
Conf. De Confusione Linguarum
Congr. De Congressu Eruditionis Gratia
Cont. De Vita Contemplativa
Decal. De Decalogo
Det. Quod Deterius Potiori insidiari soleat
Deus Quod Deus sit lmmutabilis
Ebr. De Ebrietate
Flac. In Flaccum
Fug. De Fuga et Inventione
Gig. De Gigantibus
Her. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres sit
Hypoth. Hypothetica
PRINCIPAL
ABBREVIATIONS
xxiii
Jos. De Josepho
LA Legum Allegoriae
Legat. Legatio ad Gajum
Mig. De Migratione Abrahami
Mos. De Vita Mosis
Mut. De Mutatione Nominum
Op. De Opificio Mundi
Plant. De Plantatione
Post. De Posteritate Caini
Praem. De Praemiis et Poenis
Prob. Quod omnis Probus Liber sit
Prov. De Providentia
QE Quaestiones et Solutiones in Exodum
QG Quaestiones et Solutiones in Genesim
Sacr. De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini
Sobr. De Sobrietate
Somn. De Somniis
Spec. De Specialibus Legibus
Virt. De Virtutibus
Plato Rep. Republic
Symp. Symposium
Tim. Timaeus
Pliny the Elder NH Naturalis Historia
Plutarch Is. et Os. De Iside et Osiride
Seneca the Younger Ep. Epistulae
Sextus Empiricus=Sext.Math. Adversus Mathematicos
Virgil Eel. Eclogues
Xenophon Mem. Memorabilia Socratis
TRANSLATIONS OF CLASSICAL TEXTS
All translations from the following classical authors are cited from the Loeb
Classical Library (LCL): Anacreontea, Pseudo-Aristotle, St. Augustine, Cicero,
Diodorus of Sicily, Pseudo-Demosthenes, Diogenes Laertius (D.L.), Epictetus,
Hesiod, Horace, Hymn to Athena, Josephus (Jos.), Marcus Aurelius
(M. AureL), Menander, Philo, Plato, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus (Sext), Sen­
eca, Propertius, Tacitus, Virgil.
Lucretius is cited from Cyril Bailey's translation (Oxford, 1947); Sophocles
from R. C. Jebb (7 vols. Cambridge, 1924); and Plotinus from S. MacKenna,
4th rev. ed. (London, 1964).
Translations from the following pseudepigrapha have been cited from The
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (APOT), ed. R. H.
Charles, 2 vols.: Assumption of Moses, II Baruch, IV Ezra, I and II Enoch,
Sibylline Oracles, Testaments of the XII Patriarchs.
xxiv
PRINCIPAL
ABBREVIATIONS
Translations from Pseudo-Aristeas and IV Maccabees are from M. Hadas'
editions in the Dropsie College series published by Harper. (U Maccabees is
cited from S. Tedesche's translation in the same series.)
Translations from Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria (Clem.Alex.), and
the Clementina are from three volumes of The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, vols. 1 and 2 reprints, 1967; vol. 8, 1951). Theophilus of
Antioch Ad Autolycum, is cited from R. M. Grant's translation in the Oxford
Early Christian Texts (1970).
Translations of the Mishnah are from P. Blackman (New York: Judaica
Press, 1964). All translations from the Babylonian Talmud (BT) are from the
Soncino edition. Translations from the Pentateuch, Isaiah, Psalms, and the five
Megilloth are from the new Jewish Publication Society (JPS) translation.
Translations from the Qumran scrolls except where otherwise noted are from
G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English (Penguin Books: Middlesex,
1968).
INTRODUCTION
The Wisdom of Solomon* is an exhortatory discourse written in Greek by
a learned and thoroughly hellenized Jew of Alexandria, after that city's
conquest by Rome in 30 BCE, when the earlier optimism of the Alex­
andrian Jewish community for a growing rapprochement with the Greeks
and for social and cultural acceptance by them, had been replaced by a
mounting sense of disillusionment and disappointment. The new Jewish
mood was reflected in III Maccabees (ca. 24/23 BCE), where the concep­
tion of the Jewish diaspora as a temporary exile (paroikia, 6:36) was the
obverse side of the attempt by the Greek community to classify the Jews
among them as "strangers" whose religion was absurd and whose manners
were odd and barbarous. The author of III Macabbees had abandoned the
struggle of the Alexandrian Jews for civic rights, and considered the acqui­
sition of Greek citizenship as treason to Judaism. In contrast to PseudoAristeas' mild criticisms of heathen cults, the author of Wisd's wrathful ex­
hibition of the innumerable crimes and corruptions connected with pagan
idolatry and his unrestrained attack on Egyptian theriolatry (worhip of
animals), is an unmistakable sign of the complete rupture which had in his
time sundered the Jewish community from the native Egyptians and
Greeks (see Tcherikover-Fuks 1. 74-75). We shall later argue more
specifically for the reign of Gaius 'Caligula' (37-41 CE) as the political
setting which best explains the distinctive historical traits of Wisd.
The dating adopted by us makes Wisd roughly contemporary with Philo
of Alexandria, the famous Hellenistic Jewish thinker who radically trans­
formed biblical thought by forcing it into the mold of a mystical Middle
Platonism. We shall find that our author was similarly steeped in this phil­
osophical tradition so influential at that time in Alexandria. Indeed, much
of the earlier misapprehension of Wisd's philosophical views may be at­
tributed to the fact that, until recently, our knowledge of Middle Pla­
tonism has not only been exceedingly sparse but virtually inaccessible to
the non-specialist. J. Dillon, who has contributed greatly to our under­
standing of this tradition, has well described the situation:
[This period in the history of Platonism] seems fated to remain in the posi­
tion of those tedious tracts of the Mid-Western United States through
•Shortened throughout to "Wisd"—Ed.
4
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
which one passes with all possible haste, in order to reach the excitements
of one coast or the other. In Platonism, likewise, one tends to move all too
hastily from Plato to Plotinus, with, at most, a perfunctory glance at those
vast tracts of Academic scholasticism that lie between the two, and which
were of such basic importance in the intellectual formation of the latter
(1977:xiii).
The reader will find that the philosophical sophistication of Wisd is con­
siderable, and that in consequence Parts VII.8 and VIII of our Intro­
duction are somewhat more technical than would ordinarily be expected in
a book of this kind; he may therefore be well-advised to read the text be­
fore turning to the extensive philosophical analysis at VII.8 and VIII,
below.
I.
CONTENTS
The Wisdom of Solomon is readily divided into three parts: A. Wisdom's
Gift of Immortality (1 - 6 : 2 1 ) ; B. The Nature and Power of Wisdom and
Solomon's Quest for Her ( 6 : 2 2 - 1 0 : 2 1 ) ; C. Divine Wisdom or Justice in
the Exodus (11-19), with two excursuses, one on Divine Mercy
( 1 1 : 1 5 - 1 2 : 2 2 ) , the other On Idolatry (13-15).
A. Wisdom's Gift of Immortality ( 1 - 6 : 2 1 ) . The author begins by
addressing to the pagan rulers of the earth an exhortation to justice, with
the added warning that those who pursue immoral ends will ultimately be
exposed and convicted by the Divine Wisdom which scrutinizes all
(1:1-11). He admonishes those who invite death through a deviant way
of life and insists that God is not responsible for their eventual destruction
(1:12-16). The wicked are now allowed to speak for themselves. Con­
vinced that life is chance, and death final, they inevitably conclude that
one ought to derive maximum enjoyment from the pleasures at hand with­
out regard for moral scruple. The man of integrity, who boasts close
kinship with God, must be brutally exterminated as posing a standing
threat to their own frankly amoral way of life (2:1-20). Blinded by their
own malice, they are ignorant of God's mysteries, and thus pass up the
prize of immortality. Harking back to his earlier statement concerning
those who have convenanted with Death, the author points out that though
God had indeed created man as an immortal image of his own proper
being, through the devil's envy, Death has nevertheless entered into the
cosmic order, to be experienced by his devotees (2:21-24).
An attempt is now made to deal with various facets of the problem of
reward and retribution. The suffering and death of the just, we are told,
are in reality only brief episodes of trial in the immortal destiny of right-
INTRODUCTION
5
eous souls which will bring them peace, future glorification, rulership over
nations, and a special divine illumination ( 3 : 1 - 1 2 ) . The barren woman
whose life has been pure shall be fruitful at the great assize of souls, and
the righteous eunuch will receive a delectable portion in the [heavenly]
temple of the Lord. Bastard offspring, on the other hand, will be cut off,
so that even childlessness is to be preferred, if it be accompanied by virtue
( 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 6 ) . Moreover, early death is not necessarily an evil, since it may
actually signify early removal to safety through divine providence, and
true length of life is in any case not to be measured chronologically but by
the degree of wisdom attained ( 4 : 7 - 2 0 ) . A portrait is now provided of
the just man's ultimate vindication, which apparently involves his elevation
to heaven to be among the angelic host, and of the wicked's final remorse
when they come to the full realization of their former folly. There follows
a lively description of the divine judgment, in which the cosmic elements
join battle in order to crush the all-encompassing power of wickedness
( 5 : 1 - 2 3 ) . The author concludes this part of his work with a second
exhortation, this time to Wisdom, which from this point on becomes the
explicit theme of the book, usurping the place of the various synonyms
earlier employed in conjunction with her. The lords of the far corners of
the earth [the reference is probably to Roman rule under Augustus or one
of his early successors] are to take note of the fact that their sovereignty is
God-given, and that their criminal acts will be relentlessly scrutinized and
punished. It therefore behooves them to seek Wisdom so that they may
keep the divine ordinances ( 6 : 1 - 1 1 ) . This task, we are assured, offers no
insuperable obstacles, for Wisdom actually anticipates her lovers, and
graciously seeks out those worthy of her. Employing the sorites, a stand­
ard chain syllogism frequently found in Hellenistic philosophical writings,
the author eloquently argues that the desire for Wisdom leads to sover­
eignty ( 6 : 1 2 - 2 1 ) .
B. The Nature and Power of Wisdom and Solomon's Quest for Her
In this part of the book, which constitutes its core, we
find the author at his best. With engaging imagery he describes his un­
wavering search for the great passion of his life, and with an unbridled ex­
uberance he limns the exalted attributes of his beloved Wisdom. Without
mentioning Solomon by name, in accordance with a stylistic feature of cer­
tain genres of Hellenistic literature (see NOTE on 4 : 1 0 ) , he nevertheless
now clearly identifies himself with that illustrious king (cf. M.
(6:22-10:21).
Smith:210).
In the opening section, the author promises to reveal what Wisdom is,
tracking her from her first beginnings ( 6 : 2 2 - 2 5 ) . Identifying himself now
indirectly in a first-person address as King Solomon, he emphasizes that
kings too are mortal, and therefore in need of divine wisdom ( 7 : 1 - 6 ) . He
6
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
informs us that he loved Wisdom and desired her above all else, though he
quickly discovered that all other good things too are eventually acquired
along with her (7:7-14). The sole source of Wisdom, however, is God,
and her scope includes the entire range of ancient knowledge (7:15-21).
Wisdom's twenty-one attributes are enumerated, followed by an elaborate
fivefold metaphor (exhalation, effluence, effulgence, mirror, image) de­
scribing her essence and unique efficacy. She is pictured as entering gener­
ation by generation into holy souls, rendering them friends of God and
prophets. She surpasses even the celestial lights, and nothing can prevail
over her (7:22-30). She is God's companion, and Solomon sought to
make her his bride, knowing that through her he would have immortality
and also win the admiration of all (8:1-16). Though naturally wellendowed, Solomon knew that he could not otherwise gain possession of
her, unless God graciously bestowed her (8:17-21). There follows a very
moving prayer in which the king, acknowledging his feebleness and ephem­
eral nature, beseeches his Lord to send forth from the holy heavens his
throne-companion, Wisdom, who was present at the world's creation and
through whom man himself was created, to be his guide and guardian
(9:1-12). Mortal reason is at best precarious, weighed down as it is by a
perishable tent of clay, so that man can barely make inferences concerning
what is on earth, let alone what is in the heavens. It is only God's holy
spirit of Wisdom descending from on high which has taught men what is
pleasing to Him, and has brought them salvation (9:13-18). Part two [B]
concludes with a detailed recitation of Wisdom's saving power in history
from Adam through Moses and the Exodus (10:1-21).
C Divine Wisdom or Justice in the Exodus (11-19). In an elaborate
synkrisis or 'comparison,' the author now proceeds with a series of an­
titheses in order to illustrate the theme that Egypt was punished measure
for measure, whereas Israel was benefited by those very things whereby
Egypt was punished. The first antithesis contrasts the turning of the Nile
water into blood for the Egyptians with the supply of water for the
Israelites from the flinty desert rock. The brief trials of the Israelites are
explained on the pedagogical ground that it was necessary for them to re­
ceive a taste of their enemies' punishments so that they would realize how
compassionate God's discipline was in their own regard, being in the na­
ture of a fatherly reproof, whereas the torments of the Egyptians, on the
other hand, were inflicted by a stern king passing sentence. By the same
token, when the Egyptians learned that the Israelites were actually
benefited through their own punishments, they took note of the Lord
(11:1-14).
This leads the author into an excursus on the nature of God's mercy.
The supreme power of the deity which created the world out of formless
INTRODUCTION
7
matter could readily have destroyed the Egyptians with one swift blow, but
it is this very omnipotence which is the source of the compassion he exer­
cises with a view to man's repentance ( 1 1 : 1 5 - 1 2 : 2 ) . This also explains
God's mercy toward the Canaanites, whose loathsome practices included
sorcery, licentious mystery rites, infanticide, and cannibalism. Though
their seed was evil and their viciousness innate, they, too, were never­
theless judged gradually to afford them a chance for repentance
(12:3-18). God's mercy thus serves as a model lesson for Israel, to teach
them humanity, and at the same time instill in them confidence in their
own relationship with the deity (12:19-22). In a transition passage lead­
ing to his second excursus, the author points out that the Egyptians, who
had taken the most despicable of loathsome beasts as their gods, were tor­
mented with their own abominations. Punished by means of the very crea­
tures whom they deemed gods, they came to recognize the true God
(12:23-27).
The author is thus led to his second and rather long excursus on the na­
ture of idolatry. Those who worship Nature are chided for not pressing
their search beyond visible reality, which, for all its beauty and dynamic
character, only points to its supreme author. Though not entirely culpable,
since they are at least searching for the deity, neither are they to be ex­
cused, for if they were resourceful enough to infer the 'Universe,' they
should certainly have discovered its Master (13:1-9). More blameworthy,
however, are the wretches who worship images manufactured of gold and
silver or carved out of crooked wood streaked with knots, addressing their
prayers to lifeless objects that are entirely impotent (13:10-19). The au­
thor now seeks to explain the origin of idolatry, which he claims did not
exist from the beginning but came into the world through the empty illu­
sions of men. A father consumed with untimely grief made an image of the
child so suddenly taken from him, honoring as a god what was once a
corpse, and handed down to his descendants mysteries and initiation rites.
Again, when men were unable to honor their ruler in his presence because
of the remoteness of his dwelling, they honored his image in order to
flatter the absent one as though present. The artists, in their desire to
please the ruler, skillfully forced his likeness into a more beautiful form,
and the masses, charmed by the workmanship, mistook for an object of
worship him who was but lately honored as a man (14:12-31). This
turned out to be the one great trap of human life, for idolatry is the source
of every moral corruption. Worst of all, however, is the malicious manu­
facturer of clay figurines, who, for monetary gain, makes cheap clay coun­
terfeits of gold and silver idols (15:7-13). But the blindest of all are the
Egyptians, Israel's oppressors, for they worship hateful beasts, who com­
pared for brutishness are worse than all the rest, and whose appearance is
without the slightest trace of beauty (15:14-19).
8
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
There now follow six further antitheses between the Egyptians and the
Israelites ( 1 6 : 1 - 1 9 : 8 ) . In the second antithesis, the first of this group,
the Egyptians are depicted as being unable to eat because of the hideousness of the beasts sent against them, while Israel, after briefly suffer­
ing want, enjoys exotic quail food (16:1-4). In the third antithesis, the
Egyptians are described as being slain by locusts and flies, while Israel sur­
vives a serpent attack through the agency of the bronze serpent, inter­
preted by the author as a symbol of God's salvation which was to remind
them of the commandments of the Law. The Israelites are said to have
been prodded sharply and delivered quickly to keep them from falling into
complacency through God's kindness (16:5-14). In the fourth antithesis,
the Egyptians are described as being plagued by thunderstorms in which
fire was marvelously the most dynamic force, so that the cosmic order it­
self can be seen to have been championing the righteous. The Israelites, on
the other hand, were spoonfed with angel food from heaven, equivalent to
every pleasure and suited to every taste. This ice-like manna did not melt
in the fire, which forgot its own power so that the righteous could be
fed. Creation, serving its Maker, thus tensed itself for punishment of the
unrighteous, and relaxed into benevolence on behalf of those who trusted
in Him (16:15-29). In the fifth antithesis, the lawless Egyptians who had
thought that they could remain unnoticed in their secret sins, are described
as being appropriately shackled by the darkness of a long night, during
which they were terrified by crashing noises and grim-faced apparitions.
Though the darkness which gripped them was in reality powerless, since it
came from the powerless infernal realm, the Egyptians were paralyzed by
the betrayal of their own minds, overwhelmed by a sudden and unex­
pected fear. Having kept God's sons captive, through whom the imper­
ishable light of the Law was to be given to the world, they well deserved to
be deprived of light. For Israel, in contrast, there was light supreme
( 1 7 : 1 - 1 8 : 4 ) . In the sixth antithesis, we are told that on the same night
that the Egyptian firstborn were destroyed, Israel was summoned to God
and glorified, while to the chant of their praises of the fathers there echoed
the discordant cries of their enemies. It was at the stroke of midnight that
the all-powerful Divine Logos leaped forth out of the heavens, from the
royal throne, bearing God's unambiguous decree as a sharp sword. It
touched the heavens, yet stood poised upon the earth, and filled all things
with death. The righteous, too, however, had to be touched by an experi­
ence of death, and suffered a mass slaughter in the wilderness. Still, the di­
vine anger did not long abide, for a blameless man, Aaron, interposed
with prayer and atoning incense. On his full-length robe there was a repre­
sentation of the entire cosmos, and the glories of the fathers upon his four
rows of carved stones (18:5-25).
In the seventh and last antithesis, the Egyptians, while still engaged in
INTRODUCTION
9
their mourning, are depicted as adopting one last mad scheme, to pursue
the fugitives whom they had beseeched to leave. For a condign fate drew
them on to this denouement, so that they might fill in the one penalty still
lacking to their torments, and bring upon themselves a bizarre death. The
miracle at the Red Sea is described as involving the refashioning of the
whole of creation in its original nature, so that God's children might be
preserved unharmed (19:1-8). For as the notes of a psaltery vary the
beat [key] while holding to the melody, so were the elements transposed,
land animals becoming aquatic, and things that swim migrating to shore.
Similarly fire retained its force in the water, whereas flames did not waste
the flesh of perishable creatures that walked among them, nor was the ice­
like manna dissolved (19:18-21). In order to emphasize the culpability of
the Egyptians, the better to justify their terrible punishments, the author
adds that they were even more blameworthy than the Sodomites. The lat­
ter refused to welcome strangers who visited them, but the Egyptians
enslaved guests and benefactors, and after a festal welcome, oppressed
with hard labor men who had already shared with them equal rights
(19:13-17). The book concludes with the conventional doxology: "For
in every way, O Lord, you exalted and glorified your people, and did not
neglect to assist them in every time and place" (19:22).
II.
STRUCTURE
Although many earlier scholars had cavalierly carved Wisd up into a
confusing disarray of units (see III. AUTHORSHIP, below), recent scholar­
ship has succeeded in demonstrating the structural unity of the book and
the skill with which it was put together. Fichtner (1938), Maries, and
Pfeiffer had already noted some of its repetitions of vocabulary, but J. M.
Reese (1965) was the first to recognize the author's skillful use of the rhe­
torical device of inclusio or kyklos (the name given by ancient rhetori­
cians to the figure by which a sentence returns to its opening word or
words at the close: see Denniston:90) in order to mark off many sections
of his book, and to have attempted to structure the book on that basis.
A. G. Wright, following in Reese's footsteps, applied this method system­
atically, though somewhat exaggeratedly, in an attempt to establish the
structure of the entire work. According to Wright,
The use of systematic arrangement, announcement of subjects, mots
crochets, and inclusions is attested in biblical and extra-biblical literature
alike. Up to now, the systematic use of all of these indices of structure in
a single work has apparently been observed only in the Epistle to the
Hebrews. (See A. Vanhoye, La structure littiraire de Vepitre aux Hibreux
[Paris-Bruges, 1963]:60-63.) To that work can now be added the Book of
10
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
Wisdom, and one may be permitted to speculate whether this structural
characteristic was an occasional feature of Alexandrian rhetoric and
another instance of Alexandrian contact in the Epistle to the Hebrews.
(1967:184)
Though Wisdom can readily be divided into three parts (designated
here as A, B, and C ) , there is not always complete agreement on their
exact limits, much less as to the various subdivisions of each part. An out­
line of the book's structure that I have adopted follows:
A. Wisdom's Gift of Immortality (1-6:21)
I. Exhortation to Justice which brings immortality (1:1-15)
(dikaiosyne forming an inclusio)
II. Speech of the wicked who have covenanted with Death
(1:16- 2:24) (tes ekeinou meridos forming an inclusio)
Problems of Reward and Retribution (III-V)
III. Sufferings of the immortal just only a trial (3:1-12)
J
IV. Sterility of the virtuous will ultimately be converted to
fruitfulness (3:13-4:6)
V. Early death a token of God's solicitous care (4:7-20)
VI. Vindication of the just and Final Judgment (5:1-23)
(stesetaif antistesetai forming an inclusio)
VII. Exhortation to Wisdom which is easily found and brings
immortality and sovereignty (6:1-21) (basileis/ basileusete
forming an inclusio)
Part I [A] teaches that man's true being is destined for immortality,
though the latter may be forefeited by the abandonment of Wisdom. By
means of pointed contrasts between the just and the wicked, consisting, as
Reese (1965, 391-399) has pointed out, of five sections arranged in
chiastic order (A B C B' A ' ) , the author depicts their opposing life-paths
and ultimate fate.
B. The Nature and Power of Wisdom and Solomon's Quest for Her
(6:22-10:21)
VIII. The nature of Wisdom and her mysteries will be revealed
(6:22-25)
Solomon's Speech (IX-XI)
IX. Solomon is only a mortal (7:1-6) (isos hapasinf panton ise
forming an inclusio)
X. Solomon prefers Wisdom above all else (7:7-14)
XL God is sole source of all-encompassing Wisdom (7:1522a)
XII. Nature of Wisdom: her twenty-one attributes (7:22b-24)
XIII. Fivefold metaphor describing Wisdom's essence and her
unique efficacy (7:25 - 8:1)
XIV. Solomon sought to make Wisdom his bride (8:2-16)
INTRODUCTION
11
XV. Wisdom a sheer gift of God's Grace (8:17-21) (kardial
kardias forming an inclusio)
XVI. Without Wisdom no human enterprise can succeed (9:1-6)
XVII. Without Wisdom Solomon could not reign (9:7-12)
XVIII. Divine Wisdom brought men salvation (9:13-18)
An Ode to Wisdom's Saving Power in history (XIX-XX) (By an­
aphora Wisdom is introduced six times with the emphatic pronoun
haute.)
f XIX. From Adam to Moses (10:1-14)
\
XX. The Exodus (10:15-21)
C. Divine Wisdom or Justice in the Exodus (11-19). (An elaborate
synkrisis employing seven antitheses): with Excursuses on the Divine
Mercy (11:15-12:22) and on Idolatry (13-15)
XXI. First Antithesis: Nile water changed to blood, but Israel­
ites obtained water from the desert rock (11:1-14). In­
troductory Narrative 11:1-4 (edipsesan/dipsesantes form­
ing an inclusio)
Excursus I: Nature and Purpose of the Divine Mercy (XXII-XXIV)
XXII. God's Mercy toward the Egyptians and its causes (His
Might the source of His Merciful Love) (11:15-12:2)
- XXIII. God's Mercy toward the Canaanites and its causes (12:318)
XXIV. God's Mercy a model lesson for Israel (12:19-22)
XXV. Return to theme of measure for measure and transition to
second Excursus (12:23-27)
Excursus II: On Idolatry (XXVI-XXXI)
" XXVI. Mindless nature worship (13:1-9) (ischysan eidenai form­
ing an inclusio)
XXVII. Wretched wooden-image making (13:10-14:11)
XXVIII. Origin and evil consequences of idolatry (14:12-31)
XXIX. Israel's immunity from idolatry (15:1-6)
XXX. Malicious manufacture of clay figurines (15:7-13) (gen/
geddous forming an inclusio)
XXXI. Folly of Egyptian idolatry (15:14-19)
XXXII. Second Antithesis: Egyptians hunger through animal
plague, but Israel enjoys exotic quail food (16:1-4)
(ebasanisthesan/ebasanizonto forming an inclusio)
XXXIIL Third Antithesis: Egyptians slain by locusts and flies, but
Israel survives a serpent attack through the bronze ser­
pent, symbol of salvation (16:5-14) (particle gar used
seven times) (epelthen/ekselthon forming an inclusio)
XXXIV. Fourth Antithesis: Egyptians plagued by thunderstorms,
but Israel fed by rain of manna (16:15-29)
XXXV. Fifth Antithesis: Egyptians terrified by darkness, but Israel
iUuminated with bright light and guided through desert by
THE WISDOM
12
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
OF
SOLOMON
a pillar of fire (17:1-18:4) (katakleisthentes/katakleistous, and skotous/skotei forming inclusions)
Sixth Antithesis: Egyptian firstborn destroyed, but Israel
protected and glorified (18:5-25) (A digression, w. 6-9,
pictures the liturgical enactment of Jewish fidelity to law
and covenant. The Egyptians and Israelites are each set off
by an inclusio: apolesas/apolontai; peira/peira)
Seventh Antithesis: Egyptians drowned in the sea, but
Israel passes safely through (19:1-9)
Retrospective review of God's wonders through which
Nature was refashioned for Israel (19:10-12)
Egypt more blameworthy than Sodom (19:13-17)
Transposition of the elements (19:18-21)
Concluding doxology (19:22)
H I . AUTHORSHIP: SINGLE OR COMPOSITE
The history of the critical literature dealing with Wisd parallels to some
extent that dealing with the Homeric question. By the middle of the seven­
teenth century we begin hearing the voices of those who, like the
chorizontes or ancient grammarians who ascribed the Iliad and Odyssey to
different authors, sought to carve the book up and assign its various parts
to different authors. The first to attack its unity was Charles F. Houbigant,
a priest at the Paris Oratory. Chapters 1-9, he argued [in the preface to
his 1753 edition of Wisd], were of authentic Solomonic origin, whereas
the rest was added by a Greek writer. In 1795, the year in which F. A.
Wolff's Prolegomena ad Homerum was published, J. G. Eichhorn, on bet­
ter grounds, separated the first ten chapters from the rest, explaining the
disharmony between the two parts, either by attributing the second part to
another writer, or considering it a product of the earlier years of the au­
thor of the first part, an idea which had already been broached by J. F.
Kleucker. A few years later, J. C. C. Nachtigal presented his bizarre view
that Wisd was a mosaic, to which no fewer than seventy-nine wise men
had contributed. He divided the work into two main parts (1-9; 10-19),
and saw in them two Israelite wisdom collections. C. G. Bretschneider
(1804) went further than Eichhorn by suggesting that the oldest part
( 1 : 1 - 6 : 8 ) was the fragment of a work composed by a Palestinian Jew of
the Maccabean age, that chaps. 6 : 9 - 1 0 : 2 1 were composed in Greek
about the time of Christ by an Alexandrian Jew, and that the third part
(12-19) also came from that period. (Chapter 11, he claimed, was in­
serted by the editor of the whole.) All these attempts, however, were soon
demolished by Carl Grimm's great commentary of 1860, which demon­
strated that the unity of Wisd was guaranteed by the uniformity of lan-
INTRODUCTION
13
guage and style characterizing the whole. At the turn of the century, R.
Siegfried could speak of "now forgotten hypotheses which assigned various
parts of the book to different hands," without mentioning even one of
them. After a hundred-year gap, however, the search for multiple author­
ship revived. In 1903, L. Lincke argued that 1:1 —12:8 was written by a
Samaritan, whereas 12:19-19:22 was the product of an Alexandrian Jew.
A year later, W. Weber postulated four authors (one, Book of Eschatology: 1-5; two, Book of Wisdom: 6-11; three, Book of Divine Method
of Punishment: 11:2-13, 15, 18-19; four, Book of Idolatry: 1 3 - 1 5 : 1 7 ) ,
and E. Gartner adopted the same position. F. Focke divided the book into
two parts ( 1 - 5 ; 6-19), but suggested that the author of the second part
may also have been the translator of the Hebrew original of the first part.
(Peters, Speiser, and M. Stein [1936] accepted Focke's view that the first
part was a translation from Hebrew.) Others, like Gregg, Goodrick, Feldmann (1926), Fichtner (1938), and Pfeiffer, continued to maintain unity
of authorship, and this is now the consensus. (See Focke 1913:1-16;
Purinton:276-278; Grimm 1860:9-15.)
Focke's arguments for attributing chaps. 1-5 and 6-19 to two different
authors (one Palestinian, the other Alexandrian), seem at first sight quite
plausible and must therefore be examined in detail. He claims that Greek
philosophical terminology is absent in chaps. 1-5; that Wisdom, who plays
a central role in chaps. 6-19, is of minor significance in chaps. 1-5; that
there is nothing of God's mercy in chaps. 1-5, but always only the strict
judge, unlike chaps. 6-19, where much emphasis is placed on the attribute
of mercy; that the God-concept in chaps. 1-5 is purely ethical, but in
chaps. 6-19 nationalistic; that there is an implied doctrine of resurrection
in chaps. 1-5, whereas in chaps. 6-19 the body is denigrated and the
soul's immortality emphasized; that chaps. 1-5 contrasts Sadducees and
Pharisees, while chaps. 6-19 Israelites and heathen. Now, the argument
that Greek philosophical terminology is absent from chaps. 1-5 is palpa­
bly false. One need but cite the following words or phrases: to synechon ta
panta (1:7), soterioi hai geneseis tou kosmou (1:14), rhembasmos
epithymias (4:12), and sbesthentos (2:3), which are Stoic formulations;
aphtharsia (2:23), an Epicurean term; diaskedasthesetai (2:4) and poreia
(3:3), echoes from Plato's Phaedo; athanasia ( 3 : 4 ) , used by Plato, Aris­
totle, and Epicurus; polia de estin phronesis anthrdpois (4:9), a common
theme in Greek diatribe. Moreover, it is hard to believe that chaps. 1-5
contain an implicit doctrine of resurrection, since that teaching, which
had taxed the credulity of even the staunchest believers of the ancient
world, would have required explicit formulation on the part of the author
1
i S e e Winston 1966:210-211.
14
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
with the likely accompaniment of supportive arguments. The argument that
Wisdom plays only a minor role in 1-5 would be neutralized if we are cor­
rect in seeing 6:1-21 as the conclusion of part I [A]. The claim that 1-5
contrasts Sadducees and Pharisees must be branded purely speculative,
since the characteristic doctrines of these sects are nowhere attested in the
text.
The arguments concerning the nationalistic conception of God and the
emphasis on his mercy which characterize 6-19 but are lacking in 1-5
carry little weight once it is realized that part I was probably designed as a
broadside against asssimilated Alexandrian Jews who had turned their
backs on their spiritual heritage (cf. Philo Mos. 1.31), some ultimately re­
sorting to apostasy, and those pagans (either Alexandrians or Romans or
both) who were hostile to Judaism. In this case, the emphasis was bound
to be on the divine wrath which the author was convinced would finally
overtake the enemies of his people, both internal and external. In part n
[B], on the other hand, in the course of a historical retrospect in which
the author surveys the saving power of God in Jewish history in order to
comfort and encourage his fellow Jews, he naturally turns his attention to
the questions of divine mercy and God's special relationship to Israel. Fi­
nally, Focke points out that in 1-5, the parallelismus membrorwn is never
abandoned, whereas in 6-19 there are many passages which read as prose.
In 6 - 1 2 : 1 8 , the Hebraising poetry is predominant, along with some
prose; 12:19-19:22, however, is largely prose, with scattered paral­
lelisms. He therefore suggests that the author of part II wrote his own work
in close connection with part I, which he had already found complete be­
fore him. He tried at first to imitate its Hebraic form, although his own po­
etic art burst the bounds he had set for it, and with 12:19 he finally, un­
willingly and apparently unconsciously, abandoned it, allowing it to appear
only here and there. It is difficult to believe, however, that an author
whose style is as elaborate as that of the author of Wisd did anything un­
willingly or unconsciously. I prefer to think that he had carefully planned
the writing of the whole, employing a variety of styles in its sundry parts
(note the elaborate similes even in part I [5:10-21]) in order to heighten
the rhetorical effect. In sum, Focke's arguments for composite authorship
turn out to be either unfounded or at best inconclusive.
I V . LANGUAGE AND STYLE
The strongest argument for the unity of Wisd may be drawn from its lan­
guage and style. In spite of some Hebrew coloring, such as parallelismus
15
INTRODUCTION
2
membrorum, Hebraisms, the simple connection of clauses by conjunc­
tions such as kai, de (less frequently te), dia touto, dio, gar, and hoti,
Grimm has correctly pointed out that the author's Greek was on the whole
rich and spontaneous, and that St. Jerome's judgment that his style was
"redolent of Greek eloquence'" (Preface to the Books of Solomon, Migne
PL XXVIII. 1242) was completely justified. Thus the author of Wisd is
quite capable of constructing sentences in true periodic style (12:27;
13:11-15), and his fondness for compound words is almost Aeschylean.
His manner at times has the light touch of Greek lyric poetry (17:17-19;
2:6-9; 5:9-13), and occasionally his words fall into an iambic or hex­
ameter rhythm. He employs chiasmus (1:1,4,8; 3:15), hyperbaton, the
3
4
5
6
2
7
E . g . haplotSs kardias (1:1); metis and klSros (2:9); triboi (2:15; 5:7; 9:18;
10:10); logizesthai eis ti (2:16); pleroun chronon (4:13); thentes epi dianoia
(4:14); hosioi tou theou (4:15); hyposteleitai prosopon (6:7); heuriskesthai (7:29;
8:11); eks holes kardias (8:21); euthytes psyches (9:3); huioi anthropon (9:6);
ariston en opthalmois tinos (9:9); aidn (13:9; 18:4); plittein aorasia (19:17);
stenochdria pneumatos (5:3); diadema tou kallous (5:16). See Grimm:5; Reider
1957:24, n.118.
It should be noted, however, that paratactic structure was also characteristic of
the early (i.e. Hellenistic) Greek diatribe. See Wendland:41; RAC 3.993.
For detailed studies of Wisd's vocabulary, see Gartner: 102-229; Reese
1970:1-31. For the author's supposed misuse of the words metalleuo (4:12) and
philopsychos (11:26), see NOTES. It is difficult to believe that a writer who, as
Speiser:469 noted, "had enough insight into the language to form new words after
the regular manner, could be charged with not knowing a verb (metalloiod) that was
used at that period by much inferior writers (Ps-Aristeas 17)." As for richness of
language, it has been pointed out that the entire book contains only 6,952 words, but
employs a vocabulary of 1,734 words, of which 1,303 appear only once (Reese
1970:3).
*Hypermachos (10:20; 16:17); homoiopathes (7:3); gegenes (7:1); polychronios
(2:10; 4:8); oligochronios (9:5); polyphrontis (9:15); petrobolos (5:22); pantodynamos (7:23; 11:17; 18:15); panepiskopos (7:23); philanthrdpos (1:6; 7:22;
12:29); protoplastos (7:1; 10:1); kakotechnos (1:4; 15:4); adelphoktonos (10:3);
splangchnophagos (12:5); dysdiegetos (17:1); genesiourgos (13:5); nepioktonos
(11:7); teknophonos (14:23); genesiarches (13:3); kakomochthos (15:8); brachyteles (15:9); metakirnasthai (16:21); eidechtheia (16:3); anapodismos
(2:5);
eudraneia (13:19); autoschedios ( 2 : 2 ) . (Grimm:6; Palm:39, 43, 79-81.)
Iambics: ek ponon errysato (10:9); psychon miasmos, geneseos
enallage
(14:26); eidos spildthen chrdmasin (15:4); pothei te nekras eikonas . . . hon opsis
aphrosin eis oneidos erchetai (14:5); kakdn erastai (14:6). Hexameters: synapoleto
thymols (10:3); aidni didosthai (18:4). See Gregg 1909:xv. Thackeray has at­
tempted to show that a similar rhythmical principle (the mutual assimilation of be­
ginnings and endings of sentences) runs through both the Epistle to the Hebrews and
Wisd, but although Blass accepted it, Wilamowitz's judgment in this regard was nega­
tive (see Focke 1913:54, n . l ) . (According to Cicero, sentence endings or clausulae
are rhythmically most important, though the rest of the sentence is not to be
neglected.)
"In contrast to the LXX version of Isaiah," writes Reese, "which has only eight
examples of this figure, and the Psalter, which has only three, Wisdom contains 240
examples of hyperbaton, an average of more than one for each five stichs. The figure
is more frequent in the last nine chapters, which show more freedom and poetic im8
4
6
7
16
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
8
Sorites (6:17-20), antithesis, accumulation of epithets (accumulatio;
synathroismos) (7:22-23), alliteration, assonance,
homoioteleuton,
paranomasia, isokolia (balance of clauses), litotes, anaphora (c. 10),
and Greek philosophical terminology.
These characteristics, in addition to the author's many favorite 'theme'
words and expressions which recur throughout the work, argue for unity
9
12
10
11
13
14
15
agery, but many examples appear in the early part of the work. This feature of style
argues for a Greek original; it also offers confirmation for the unity of the work"
(1970:26-27).
oliga paideuthentes megala euergetethesontai (3:5); katakrinei de dikaios kamon
tous zontas asebeis (4:16); mia de panton eisodos eis ton bion eksodos te ise (7:6);
ta en chersin . . . ta de en ouranois (9:16); soteria men dikaion, echthron de apdleia
(18:7).
Presbytou . . . polias polychronious (2:10); barys . . . kai blepomenos (2:14);
krinousin . . . kratesousin (3:8); tekna . . . atelesta (3:16); periklasthesontai klones
(4:5); belous blethentos (5:12); korytha krisin anypokriton (5:18); hosios . . .
hosia hosiothesontai (6:10); dikaios . . . dikaios . . . katadikasai (15:15); lampro
. . . katelampeto (17:20); dynatoi de dynatos (6:6).
ous-throus (1:10); empaigmon . . . paigniois (12:25-26); nosouses . . .
enosoun (17:8); en opsei . . . ten opsin (14:17); idios . . . idiotetos (2:23);
eumathos . . . euprepos (13:11); adolds . . . aphthonds (7:13); asebous . . . chnous
(5:14); panoplian . . . hoplopoiesei (5:17).
^agapesate
. . . phronesate . . . zetesate; en agathoteti . . . haploteti (1:1);
apanastesetai . . . elengchthesetai (1:5); apobesetai . . . diachythesetai . . . epilesthesetai ( 2 : 3 - 4 ) ; egapethe . . . metetethe (4:10).
stenochdrian . . . stenaksontai (5:3); atrapon . . . tropios (5:10); potamoi . . .
apotomos (5:22); prodosia . . . prosdokia (17:12-13); adranestaton . . . eudraneia
(13:19); parodeuso . . . synodeuso (6:22-23); arga . . . erga (14:5).
F o u n d seventeen times (1:2; 19:22; 1:11; 3:11; 11:7; 12:9,10,13). Many exam­
ples involve the use of alpha-privative formation; the same feature of style is charac­
teristic of Diodoros of Sicily (Palm: 154; Reese 1970:30).
In addition to the terms referred to above in part HI [C], we may note:
eustatheia (6:24); systasin kosmou, energeian stoicheion (7:17); pneuma noeron,
polymeres, lepton, eukineton, tranon (7:22); akolyton, philanthropon,
bebaion,
asphales (7:23); kinetikoteron, diekei de kai chorei dia panton (7:24); aporroia
eilikrines (7:25); apaugasma, eikon (7:26); metabainousa (7:27); diateinei, dioikei
( 8 : 1 ) ; syngymnasia, phronesis (8:18); euphyeis, mimema (9:8); barynei, brithei,
skenos (9:15); alogon zoon (11:15); amorphou hylis (11:17); epieikeia (12:18);
technites (13:1); analogos (13:5); pronoia (14:3); kenodoksia (14:14); oreksis
(16:3); epiteinetai . . . kai anietai (16:24); prosdokia (17:12); phantasmatdn
(17:14) (Gregg 1909:xv).
^apotomos
(5:20-22; 6:5; 11:10; 12:9; 18:15); eksetazein, eksetasis, eksetasmos
(1:9; 4:6; 6:3; 11:10); metalleuo (4:12; 16:25); synkrinesthai, synkrisis (7:8,29;
15:18); skolioi logismoi, asynetoi logismoi, logizesthai ouk orthos (1:3,5; 11:15;
2:1); parodeuein (1:8; 2:7; 5:14; 6:22; 10:8); ekbasis (2:17; 11:14; 8:8); entrepesthai (2:10; 6:7); parapiptein (6:9; 12:2); syngndstos (6:6; 13:8); en cheiri
theou (3:1; 7:16); triboi (2:15; 5:7; 9:18; 10:10); katadynasteuein (2:10; 15:14;
17:2); enedreuein (2:12; 10:12); euteles (10:4; 11:15; 13:4; 15:10); knodala
(11:15; 16:1; 17:9); homothymadon (10:20; 18:5; 5:12); kibdelos (2:16; 15:9);
peirazein (2:24; 12:26); okseos (3:18; 16:11); episthasthai tint (6:5,8; 19:1);
therion thymoi (7:20; 16:5); eukinetos (7:22; 13:11); diepein (9:3, 12:15); thronoi
(9:4,12; 18:15); euergetein (3:5; 11:5,13; 16:2); diodeuein (5:7; 11:2); anypokritos
(5:18; 18:16); phthanein+inf. (4:7; 6:13); tekesthai (1:16; 6:23); dioikein (8:1;
s
9
1 0
1 2
13
1 4
INTRODUCTION
17
of authorship, and make the hypothesis that Wisd is a translation of a He­
brew original virtually untenable. Significant, too, is Wisd's quotation in
2:12 of the LXX of Isa 3:10, which is radically different from the He­
brew, and of Isa 44:20 and Job 9:12,19 (in 15:10 and 12:12), a fact
16
12:18; 15:1); tauta elogizanto, tauta logisamenos (2:21; 8:17); arneisthai ton theon
eidenai (12:27; 16:16).
Church Fathers like Clement of Alexandria (Stromata 6.11 and 14), Tertullian
(De Praescriptione Haereticorum 7: "What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?
. . . Our instruction comes from the 'porch of Solomon' who had himself taught that
'the Lord should be sought in simplicity of heart'"), Cyprian (De Mortalitate 2 3 ) ,
and Lactantius (Divinae lnstitutiones 4.16), having ascribed Wisdom to Solomon, nat­
urally assumed a Hebrew original. The same view was held by some medieval rabbis.
Nafcmanides, in a lecture dealing with Ecclesiastes which he delivered in Gerona in
1266 or 1267, asserts: "We find another book called The Great Wisdom of Solomon
which is written in difficult Aramaic and the Christians have translated it from that
language. I believe that this book was not arranged by the men of Hezekiah, the king
of Judah [cf. Prov 25:1], but that it went with the Jews to Babylon orally and there
they fixed it in their language, for it only contains sayings of wisdom and has not
been written by inspiration." (See Marx:60. Cf. Gedaliah ben Joseph ibn Yabya,
Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah (Venice, 1587; Warsaw, 1882) 46b; [after ascribing Wisd to
Philo, he writes]: "Others say that King Solomon wrote it".) The theory of a He­
brew original was also held by many Catholic theologians, several Protestant mystics
(see Grimm: 17), and even by the Jewish Haskalah poet and exegete N. H. Wessely,
who began his literary career with the translation of Wisd (from Luther's German
rendering) to which he appended a brief commentary, later elaborated into a fulllength exegesis, Ru'afy If en (Berlin, 1780); see the introduction to his translation.
The first Hebrew translation made directly from the Greek was that of Edmund
Menahem Stein, in A. Kahana's Ha-Sefarim Ha-I$itzonim (Tel-Aviv, 1936). The
earlier Hebrew version of Isaac Seckel Fraenkel included in his translation of the
Apocrypha into Hebrew, entitled Ketuvim Akaronim (Leipzig, 1830) is a free para­
phrase made from the German. According to Y. M. Grintz (EJ 15. 120): "Recently
a 16th-century manuscript was found (now in Hechal Shlomo in Jerusalem) which is
a translation of the whole apocryphon, seemingly from the Latin, into a corrupt He­
brew."
An early nineteenth-century advocate of a Hebrew original for Wisdom was C. G.
Bretschneider, who even emended the text that he had retroverted. Later, D. S.
Margoliouth's bizarre effort (1890) on behalf of this hypothesis was easily
demolished by J. Freudenthal (1891). Margoliouth's retroversion is into a language
he calls New Hebrew, and which, as F. Zimmermann puts it, "in reality is no more
than an amalgam of Hebrew and Aramaic expressions, even rabbinic constructions,
not found before or since." A more recent and sophisticated attempt to defend this
position was that of Speiser (1923-24), who, like Bretschneider before him, had
emended his own retroversions from the Greek (see Zimmermann 1966:4, 11).
The Aramaic hypothesis has also had its advocates. The Renaissance Jewish Italian
scholar Azariah dei Rossi (ca. 1511-ca. 1578) long ago suggested that Solomon had
composed his book in Aramaic in order to send it to some king in the distant East
(Meor 'Einayim, Imre Binah, chap. 57), and in recent years a similar suggestion has
been made by Zimmermann, who believes that the book was composed in the first
quarter of the first century CE in Antioch on the Orontes, a third of whose popula­
tion was Jewish. "It was written in Aramaic because it was the language of the Jews
in the Syrian Diaspora, and addressed to Jews. Naturally, there was a quick demand
to have the Aramaic translated into Greek because of the bilingual character of the
Syrian population" (1966:133-134). His retroversions, like those of Speiser, are
highly speculative, and have failed to convince the majority of scholars.
1 6
18
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
which compelled Margoliouth to conclude that the Greek translators of
Isaiah had utilized the Greek text of Wisd. As Pfeiffer (321) has correctly
indicated, "if any part of Wisdom was translated from the Hebrew, the
rendering was so free and so rhetorically Greek that it amounts to an orig­
inal work with only the vaguest resemblances to its supposed prototype."
In short, although it is possible to maintain that the author may have used
an earlier Hebrew document or documents deriving from Palestine in the
composition of chaps. 1-10, we should nevertheless have to admit that
they were not simply translated by him but rather served as the raw mate­
rial for a new literary production.
V.
GENRE
The literary genre employed by the author of Wisd, as Focke had already
noted (1913:86), is the logos protreptikos or exhortatory discourse. Ac­
cording to the Rhetorica ad Alexandrum (1421b21), "exhortation (protrope) is an attempt to urge people to some line of speech or action," and
"one delivering an exhortation (protreponta) must prove that the courses
to which he exhorts are just, lawful, expedient, honorable, pleasant and
easily practicable" (cf. Wisd 6:12; 8:7,10,16,18). The protreptic was a
union of philosophy and rhetoric and originated with the Sophists, whose
sham productions were criticized in Plato's Euthydemus, which has pre­
served for us the earliest example of the genre (278E-282D). Socrates'
questioning of Cleinias in that section of the dialogue which serves as an
illustration of what he desires a hortatory argument to be, leads to the fol­
lowing conclusion: "Since you think wisdom is both teachable and the
only thing in the world that makes man happy and fortunate, can you help
saying that it is necessary to pursue it and that you intend to do so?" For a
better understanding of the structure and style of a protreptic discourse,
however, we must turn to Aristotle's Protrepticus, which (at least in the
view of some) has been plausibly reconstructed by scholars, and is a eu­
logy on the life of reason, exhorting men to "exercise moral virtue for the
sake of wisdom, for wisdom is the supreme end" (B21, Dttring; cf.
B85-86; Wisd 6:15), and "everything exists for the sake of reason"
17
18
19
1 7
For a detailed discussion, see Reese 1970:117-121.
See Hartlich:224-229; Gaiser:25, During: 19. For the pseudo-Platonic Epinomis
as a protreptic to the purer and happy life, see Taran:66#; Festugiere 1973:101-156;
and for an example of protreptic discourse found in the Arabic summary of Galen's
Peri ethon (end of the second book), see Walzer: 164-174.
See W. Jaeger 1948:54-101; and especially During, and the bibliography cited
there.
1 8
1 9
19
INTRODUCTION
(B23; cf. Wisd 8:4). Happiness is not determined by external goods but
depends on the condition of the soul (cf. Wisd 7:8-10). Since man is not
born to wisdom, which comes only through learning, one should pursue
philosophy unhesitatingly (B2 $ 5; cf. Wisd 6:12). Wisdom should be
chosen "not for the sake of anything else, but for itself" (B44), and "of
thoughts those are free which are pursued for their own sake" (B25).
Moreover, in the other arts and crafts men do not take their tools from
what is primary (auton ton proton), but at second or third hand, basing
their reasonings on experience. The philosopher alone copies from that
which is exact; for what he looks at is the exact itself, not copies (m/mematon) (B48; cf. Wisd 9:8). Consequently, just as a builder should use
the rule (kanoni) rather than any existing building as his standard for
straightness, so the philosopher-statesman cannot expect to create good
laws if he uses as his standard the existing laws of some state, for an imita­
tion of what is itself neither divine nor stable (cf. Wisd 7:23) cannot be
stable either. It is clear, then, that to the philosopher alone belong laws
that are stable, for he alone lives with his eye on nature and the divine,
and like a good sea captain moors his life to that which is eternal and
unchanging (B49-50; cf. Wisd 6:24). The conjunction of soul with
body, says Aristotle, is reminiscent of the Etruscan custom of torturing
captives "by chaining dead bodies face to face with the living" (B107; cf.
Wisd 9:15). The exhortation ends on the note that wisdom is man's
only immortal possession, and is alone divine (B108; cf. Wisd 6:18;
8:13,17), "for 'Reason is the god in us,' and 'Mortal life contains a por­
tion of some god'" (B110; cf. Wisd 7:25-27; 2:23). The anonymous
exhortation To Demonicus, which Jaeger believes to be a rejoinder to
Aristotle's Protrepticus, similarly concludes by promising a share in im­
mortality to those who pursue virtue with devoted toil (46, 50) .
20
21
22
JB
2 0
That virtue can be taught is one of the key elements of protreptic discourse, and
appears in Plato's Euthydemus 282CD quoted above, and in Posidonios' lost work of
this genre (Frag. 2, Kidd. The only other certain piece of information we have of
this work, Frag. 1 asserts that disagreement is no reason for abandoning philosphy).
We know that among the Stoics ethical philosophy included the theme of "induce­
ments to act or refrain from acting" (protropon te kai apotropdn, D.L. 7.84). For a
list and discussion of authors of protreptics, see Burgess:89-261, esp. p. 234.
This is in sharp contrast with Aristotle's view in EN 1094bl2# and 1095a30#.
Aristotle's earlier view of the soul may be gleaned from the fragments of his lost
dialogue Eudemus which contained a series of arguments for the immortality of the
soul. In this work he also "apparently argued that the soul is in its true and natural
state when it is separated from the body. Cicero (Frag. 1, Ross) reports a story
which implies that Aristotle concurred in the view that when a man dies his soul re­
turns to its true home, and a passage in Proclus (Frag. 5) suggests that he compared
the soul's existence without the body to health, and its life in the body to disease. Fi­
nally, two of our sources (Frags. 5 and 11, Ross) suggest that the soul has certain vi­
sions in its disembodied state" (see Lloyd 1968:29-30; Jaeger 1948:39-53).
28 See Jaeger 1948:58.
2 1
2 2
20
THE W I S D O M OF S O L O M O N
Although it is clear that the author of Wisd has shaped his work
in the form of a protreptic discourse it is equally clear that his argumen­
tation, unlike that of Aristotle's Protrepticus, is largely rhetorical rather
than demonstrative. On the other hand, there is considerably more closeknit argumentation and philosophical reasoning in Wisd than, say, in
Isocrates' Cyprian discourses, where, as the author expressly states else­
where (Antidosis 6 8 - 6 9 ) , he merely wishes to give advice, not to con­
nect his argument so as to prove a thesis. If we had a large selection of ex­
amples from the genre under discussion we should undoubtedly find a
model for Wisd which would come much closer than any of those avail­
able. In any case, although the protreptic is not a formal philosophical
treatise, but a highly charged appeal designed to persuade a large audience
to succumb to the charms of the philosophical life, there must have been
considerable variety in its mode of presentation, with different authors
varying the doses of demonstrative reasoning or rhetorical flourishes to be
lavished on their readers.
The protreptic discourse readily lent itself to the incorporation of dia­
tribe, the popular moral invective so characteristic of the Hellenistic
period, and Wisd contains a number of diatribal features. We may
note the following: personified abstractions (1:4-6,8,16; 7-10; 18:15);
speeches of an imaginary adversary (2 and 5 ) ; imaginary objections of the
adversary accompanied with answers (13:6-9); simple paratactic style
( 1 - 6 ) ; parallelism,
isokola, and antitheses ( 1 - 1 0 ) ; accumulatio
(7:22-23; 14:25); evocation of mythological heroes or wise men (4:10;
10); elaborate similes (5:10-12); protreptic conclusion with monitory im­
peratives aimed at deflecting the evildoer from his path ( 6 : 1 - 1 1 ) ; invec­
tive (13-15).
24
25
26
V I . DATE
No consensus has thus far emerged regarding the date of Wisd, and vari­
ous scholars have placed it anywhere between 220 BCE and 50 CE. There
27
2 4
"I detach one part from another, and breaking up the discourse, as it were, into
what we call general heads, I strive to express in a few words each bit of counsel
which I have to offer."
On the diatribe, see the following. Burgess:234-240; Wendland:39-50; RAC 3.
990-1010; Wallach; Kustas; Reese 1970:90-116; Bultmann. For the influence of the
diatribe on rabbinic midrash, see Marmorstein: 48-71.
26 The paratactic style and use of parallelism are undoubtedly due in this case to
biblical influence, but they coincide with characteristics of the diatribe with which the
author was quite familiar.
D. S. Margoliouth (1900), arguing that Isaiah made use of Wisdom, ascribed
the book to King Solomon.
2 5
2 7
INTRODUCTION
21
is virtual agreement that the author made use of the LXX version of
Isaiah which would carry us at least to the end of the third century BCE
(see NOTES on 2:12 and 15:10). Zeller, however, had already suggested
that the address to the rulers of the four corners of the earth (6:1) re­
ferred to the period of Roman rule, and that the reference to the remote­
ness of the rulers' dwelling in 14:17 indicated more specifically the age of
Augustus.
Although many commentators have interpreted Wisd 14:16-20 as refer­
ring to the period of the Ptolemies, such a view, in my opinion, is untenable. First, the reference to the remoteness of the rulers' dwelling readily
| applies to Egypt under Augustus (and his immediate successors), who or­
ganized it not as a province under designated military authority, but as his
own private domain, and ruled it in absentia through a prefect chosen
from the knights. As Nock put it, "Asia had been delivered from bondage
but Egypt had merely passed into the hands of absentee landlords who
28
29
(
2 8
For Pfeiffer, it brings us to ca. 150 BCE, when, in his view, Isaiah was translated
into Greek. Holmes argues that "if the line in I Enoch 5:7 is the source of Wisd 3:9
the book must be later than the translation of Enoch into Greek, which was probably
undertaken as a whole, seeing that the fragments which survive include chap. 89. The
latest part of Enoch consists of chaps. 37-71 and the date of this according to
Charles is 94-79 BCE. We may suppose Enoch to have been translated at some date
between 70 and 50 BCE and adopt this period as the terminus a quo" (APOT: 1.
520. The second part of the book, he dates between 30 BCE and 10 CE). On the
Greek version of Enoch, see now Milik: 70-78. Unfortunately, as Milik points out,
"There are no studies of the dates of the translation of the various Enochic writings
—studies that should take as their starting-point a comparison of the vocabulary and
phraseology of the Greek Enoch with those of classical texts, and more especially,
with the language of the papyri and of the Hellenistic and Roman periods." Grimm
(:32-35) dates the book between 145 (the date of the accession of Ptolemy Euergetes
II, with whose name is connected the first attempt at Jewish persecution in Hellenis­
tic Egypt [Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.53-55. The same story is attributed to Ptolemy IV Philopator in the legendary account of III Maccabees] and 50 BCE (since Wisd shows no
knowledge of Philo's Logos doctrine). According to Focke (1913:78-84), chaps. 1^5)
were written in Palestine during Alexander Janneus' massacre of his Pharisaic oppo­
nents (88-86 BCE), whereas chaps. 6^12 were composed when Ptolemy Soter II
(89-80), upon his return from his war with Janneus in 88-87, persecuted the Jews of
Alexandria (this is based on an ingenious reconstruction by H. Willrich [Hermes 39
(1904) 244-258] of the data in IH Maccabees and Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.51-56). In an in­
teresting variation of Focke's 1913 theory, Ruppert has proposed that Wisd 2:12-20
and 5:1-7 originally constituted an apocalypticizing dyptich on the theme of the
suffering just (based on Isa 5 2 : 1 3 - 5 3 : 1 2 ) , composed in Palestine ca. 100-J5_BCE in
Hebrew under the impact of Alexander Janneus' persecution of the Pharisees in 86.
It was translated in Egypt relatively early into Greek by the author of Wisd, and
served as a fillip for the composition of his own book (Ruppert:70-105).
In the first edition of his Die Philosophic der Griechen, E. Zeller suggested on
the basis of 6:1 the period of the Second Triumvirate (43-31 BCE), but later, on the
basis of 14:17, he altered his view to the time of Augustus (vol. 3.2 [reprint, Hildesheim 1963]:295 n . l ) . The latter view was accepted by Bousset (31); and
Holmes, in APOT: 1.521; Motzo, 1924:31-66; Graetz 3. 611-613; Goodrick
1913:13-17; and Scarpat also opted for the Roman period, but specified the reign of
Caligula. On the grounds of its inimical attitude to the religion of the pagans, V. A.
Tcherikover places Wisd in the early Roman period (1957, 1. 7 5 ) .
2 9
22
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
kept strict bailiffs" (CAH 10. 486). More important, however, is the fact
that the Ptolemies had openly and explicitly proclaimed themselves gods
(theoi), and had established a full dynastic cult, centrally organized with a
hierarchy of provincial priests appointed by the crown, whereas our pas! sage envisages a process which only gradually led to the idolatrous wor! ship of rulers, a situation which can only apply to the Augustan period.
"Octavian's portrait appeared on Egyptian monuments in the guise of the
Pharaohs (at Dendera, Philae, Dendur and other sites) and his statue was
probably erected in all the temples of the land" (L. R. Taylor 1931:143).
In Alexandria the temple that Cleopatra had begun as a shrine of Antony
was completed as a temple of Octavian, where he received the cult name
Epibaterios, as protector of seafarers. Philo described this Sebasteum as
"fitted on a scale not found elsewhere with dedicated offerings, around it a
girdle of pictures and statues in silver and gold" (Legat. 151). Yet the liv­
ing Caesar was never raised officially to the level of a deity, and not even
in Egypt was he officially designated theos. In spite of his official reserve
in this matter, Augustus was undoubtedly for his Eygptian subjects a divine
king with the attributes of the Pharaohs of old. It is only in this context
that one can make any sense at all out of Wisd's theory that it was the
desire on the part of subjects to flatter a distant ruler which ultimately led
to idolatry. * If this analysis is correct, it appears certain that the word
kratesis in 6:3 refers to Augustus' conquest of Egypt (see NOTES on 6:3;
14:20, for the significance of the word sebasma; and 14:16).
Although attention has often been drawn to certain words and usages
which are first attested in Wisd and do not appear in secular Greek litera­
ture before the first century CE, no comprehensive study of this aspect of
the book's vocabulary has so far been made. My own analysis reveals
that there are some thirty-five such words or usages and that they are
fairly well distributed throughout the book (fourteen appear in chaps.
1-10, and twenty-one in 1 1 - 1 9 ) . This provides additional confirmation
30
31
81
32
33
3°SeeFraser 1. 213-246.
si See Blumenthal; Taylor:240, 244; Bell 1957:56-58.
I am well aware that the author's theory concerning the origin of idolatrous
worship is undoubtedly etiological in nature, but the form an etiology takes is gener­
ally shaped by the social and historical context in which the author finds himself,
3 1 a
cf. NOTE on 14:15.
3 2
The most detailed studies so far have been those of Scarpat and Reese
(1970:1-25), but they have provided only a very small sampling of such words.
1 list them in the order of their occurrence: *autoschedids (2:2); anapodismos
(2:5); ekbasis (2:17); aneksikakia (2:19); epitimia (3:10); *akeliddtos (4:8); *epibasis (5:11); *anypokritos (5:18); akatamachetos (5:19); dekameniaios (7:2); *en
synkrisei ( 7 : 8 ) ; genetin (7:12); amolyntos (7:22); panepiskopos (7:23); *apaugasma
(7:26); lythrddes (11:6); splangchnophagon (12:5); genesiarches (13:3); genesiourgos (13:5); *diereunao (13:7, in sense of Search, examine'); *syngndstoi (13:8, used
of persons); emmeletema (13:10); apoblemata (13:12); eudraneia (13:19); *anatypod
(14:17); *threskeia (14:18); pelourgos
(15:7); chrysourgos (15:9); synolke
(15:15); indalmasin (17:3); eulabeia (17:8, in bad sense); proiiphestdtos (19:7);
33
INTRODUCTION
23
for the unity of the book, but more important, it is very strong evidence
that the date of Wisd cannot be earlier than the Augustan age, and that
very likely (though by no means decisively) it was written in the first half
of the first century CE. Although much of the literature of the first century
BCE has been lost, a fact which virtually converts our inference into an ar­
gument from silence, the occurrence of so large a number of such words
within so small a compass is not likely to be due to chance. When used in
conjunction with the evidence for dating adduced above, it makes the be­
ginning of the Roman period in Egypt (30 BCE) the only acceptable ter­
minus post quern for the composition of the book.
There are further considerations, however, which point to the reign of
Gaius 'Caligula' (37-41 CE) as the likeliest setting for Wisd. The apoca­
lyptic vision in which the author describes the annihilation of the wicked
with such ferocious passion (5:16-23) could only be called forth by a
desperate historical situation in which the security of the Jewish commu­
nity of Alexandria (and for a short while even that of Palestine) was dan­
gerously threatened by a power against which it was hopeless to put up
any serious resistance. The riots which broke out in Alexandria in 38 CE
involved the demolition of many synagogues in areas where few Jews
lived, the rendering unfit of synagogues in the two "Jewish districts" by
placing portraits of Gaius in them (Philo Legat. 133-134), and above all
a proclamation by the Roman prefect A. Avillius Flaccus declaring the
Jews "aliens and foreigners" (ksenoi kai epeludes; Philo Flae. 54) in
Alexandria. This measure, as Small wood (240) puts it, "degraded them
from their legal status of resident aliens, on which the existence of the
84
anadysis (19:7, in sense of 'emergence'); dieskirtesan (19:9); achanei (19:17). It
may also be noted that prytaneis kosmou applied to the sun and moon is first attested
in our author (13:2). I have omitted the words katalalia (1:11) and prdtoplastos
(7:1) also first attested in Wisd, since they occur again only in Jewish or Chris­
tian writings or both (whither they may presumably have found their way from Wis­
dom itself), but do not appear in secular Greek literature. (Words with an asterisk
before them are also attested in Philo.)
It should be pointed out that the author of Wisd is very fond of neologisms and
that there are twenty-seven hapax legomena (five are hapax only in the peculiar
sense in which they are used in Wisd in the book. This may somewhat diminish
the force of our argument above, but does not, I think, seriously damage it. I list
these neologisms in the order of their occurrence: *rhembasmos (4:12); *metalleuei
(4:12, in sense of 'change'); hoplopoied (5:17, in sense of *make or use as a
weapon'); *phriktds (6:5, adverbial form only here); *aneklipes (7:14; 8:18); *pantodynamos (7:23; 11:17; 18:15 [pandynamos is found in Plotinus]); hairetis (8:4);
*katabasion (10:6); *nepioktonos (11:7); synektripsai (11:19); myriotes (12:22);
teknophonos (14:23); *skiagraphos (15:4); kakomochthos (15:8); *brachyteles
(15:9); *argyrochoos (15:9); *chalkoplastes (15:9); *eidechteia (16:3); *enkentrizo (16:11, in sense of 'spur on'); antiparelthen (16:10, in sense of 'come up and
help'). *metekirnato (16:21); *diastrapto (16:22); *dysdiegetos (17:1); *periekompoun (17:4, in sense of 'sound round about'); *proanamelpontes (18:9); prosodyromenoi (19:3); *misoksenia (19:13); *heortasmaton (19:16). (Words with an aster­
isk before them occur in Patristic literature.)
8 4
24
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
politeuma depended, to that of aliens without the right of domicile. Le­
gally they could now all be expelled." Although Flaccus was soon exe­
cuted, "the situation remained unstable and the Jews lacked security for a
further two years and a half, until their rights were officially and explicitly
re-established by Claudius in 4 1 " (Smallwood:242). Moreover, in his
famous letter to the Alexandrians, Claudius, as V. A. Tcherikover has cor­
rectly noted, hardly reveals himself as a 'philo-Semite.' Far from enlarging
the civic rights of the Jews or at least facilitating their acquisition of such
rights, his measures had the opposite tendency. He forbade Jews to partici­
pate in gymnastic contests, thus depriving them of gymnasium education
which was a prerequisite to citizenship. His order for Jews to be satisfied
with their situation and not to aim at the acquisition of new rights, culmi­
nates with the ominous threat that if they should prove recalcitrant, he
would "by all means take vengeance on them, as fomenting something like
a general plague for the whole world." The Jewish tendency toward
'emancipation' which had undoubtedly intensified after Augustus' imposi­
tion of the laographia, or poll tax, was thus brought to an end (Tcherikover-Fuks 1. 73-74). In this tense atmosphere, saturated with frustration
and disappointment, the author of Wisd's disguised invective against the
Alexandrians and Romans, and probably also the renegade Jews who sup­
ported them, finds its appropriate setting.
35
36
3 5
See Graetz:612, where the 'just' man of chaps. 2-5 is identified with Israel. It
may also be noted that the title 'son of God,' which in 2:18 is applied to the 'just'
man, is in 18:13 applied to Israel. Cf. Ill Maccabees, where Augustus is disguised as
Ptolemy IV. See the article by A. Tcherikover referred to in fn. 36, below, and M.
Hadas' edition (1953): 18-23. For Philo's political polemic "in code" or "by innu­
endo," see Goodenough 1967:21-63. It should also be noted that the single-minded
intensity with which the author describes the Egyptian plagues in part C with its con­
cluding doxology of the Lord who "did not neglect to assist [his exalted people] in
every time and place" (19:22), clearly implies his confident hope that God will soon
overwhelm Israel's present enemies with a similar series of plagues. Cf. the
Apocalypse of Abraham 29-30, where we are told that God "will bring upon all
creatures of the earth ten plagues," which are then enumerated in detail. See also
PRK, Wayehi Babasi Hallaylah, Mandelbaum:133; and Tank. Buber 2. 22a.
Another period of troubles for Alexandrian Jews came in 66 CE, when riots
again erupted, and the prefect Tiberius Julius Alexander, a renegade Jew, let his le­
gions loose on the "Delta" quarter with permission to burn and loot Jewish property
as well as to kill the rioters. The death toll was put at fifty thousand (Jos. J.W.
2.487$). It is unnecessary, however, to move the date of Wisd mat far up, and it is
also less likely that a book as spirited as Wisd, which in spite of its hostility to the
pagan world, was still aiming at a Jewish Hellenistic synthesis, would have been pro­
duced in that bleak age. Nickelsburg (90-91) accepts Motzo's attempt to show that
Greek Esther was dependent on III Maccabees, and since Bickerman dated the for­
mer before 78/77 BCE (A. Tcherikover preferred 114/13), he concludes that that date
may serve as the terminus ante quern for III Maccabees. He then goes on to suggest
that m Maccabees was dependent on Wisd, thus requiring a date for the latter be­
fore 78/7, but surely Motzo's arguments (1924:274) were based on his assumption
that III Maccabees was to be dated ca. 100 BCE, whereas Tcherikover's researches
later demonstrated that the book should be dated ca. 24/23 BCE, so that its rela­
tionship with Greek Esther must necessarily be reversed (see Tcherikover 1945).
Hadas (1953) arrved at the same date as did Tcherikover, and Smallwood (1976:
3 6
INTRODUCTION
25
Most commentators have assumed an Egyptian provenance for Wisd,
and in this they are undoubtedly correct. The intensity of the author's
hatred of the Egyptians can only reflect the persecution of the Jewish com­
munity in Alexandria at the hands of the Greeks aided and abetted by the
native Egyptians. It is difficult not to see an allusion to contemporary con­
ditions in Egypt in the manner in which the author imputes greater blame
to Egypt than even to Sodom (19:13-17, see NOTES ad l o c ) , and there
may even be an allusion at 17:16 to the phenomenon of anachdresis espe­
cially characteristic of Egypt in the Roman period (see NOTE ad loc.).
It is interesting to note that Jewish hatred for the Egyptians and
Romans which is still carefully disguised in Wisd, finds explicit and much
sharper expression in a later Alexandrian Jewish writing, the fifth Sibylline
Oracle (finally redacted between 115 and 132 CE). Three of the six ora­
cles of the book deal with woes to come upon Egypt, and, in particular,
the sibyllist revels in the expectation of the destruction of the shrines of
Isis and Sarapis (484#). The outburst against Rome is especially bitter:
Woe unto thee all unclean city of Latin land, frenzied and poison-lov­
ing. . . . Didst thou not know what God can do and what are his designs?
But thou hast said, I am unique, and none shall bring ruin on me. But now
God whose Being is forever shall destroy thee and all of thine (162-78).
(See Collins 1974:76-80.)
The earliest stages of the Sibylline Oracles (3.175#., 350#.) contain
oracles directed against Rome, but as Collins 1974:78 has correctly noted,
these oracles were part of the general opposition of the Near Eastern
world to Rome and were not indicative of any specific quarrel between
Rome and the Jews.
V I I . RELIGIOUS IDEAS
1. Preexistence and Immortality of the Soul
It has been suggested by a number of commentators that, in his attempt
to point out the superior endowments of young Solomon, the author of
Wisd was led to the designation of the body as the personal subject which
receives the soul, inasmuch as he was referring to the origins of his exist­
ence (8:19: "I was, indeed, a child well-endowed, having had a noble soul
fall to my lot"). Since, however, in his view, it was with the soul rather
than with the body that the personal T is to be connected, he proceeded
to correct his initial formulation in v. 20 ("or rather being noble I entered
an undefiled body"), which nevertheless went somewhat beyond his origi232), too, has accepted i t As for the claim that Paul had already made use of Wisd,
one can only say that the evidence for this is inconclusive, since most of the similarities
involve common Hellenistic themes. (See Larcher 1969:14-20, who takes the same
position, though adding that in his opinion it is at least very likely that Paul did have
knowledge of Wisd; and Keyser.)
26
THE W I S D O M OF
SOLOMON
nal intention (Larcher 1969:273-274). The preexistence referred to here
is therefore not to be taken in its Greek philosophical sense but to be un­
derstood only as consisting in the creation of the soul immediately before
its "coming" into a determinate body, as in the case of Adam
(Larcher:277). It seems to me, however, that had the author merely
wished to emphasize the primacy of the soul in the identity of the personal
T , his initial formulation would have been completely apt, and in need of
no further revision. For once having asserted that the body-soul complex
constituting the child Solomon could be called "well-endowed" merely by
virtue of its being allotted a noble soul, he had already thereby clearly in­
dicated the primacy of soul over body. (Larcher's statement that pais ap­
parently refers to the "etat embryonnaire" is unwarranted.) Since he was
not indeed satisfied with his initial formulation, and felt constrained to
correct it, we must conclude that the words "I entered an undefiled body"
are meant to suggest the preexistence of souls of varying spiritual capaci­
ties, and that in the case of Solomon it was a noble soul that had taken the
initiative of entering an undefiled body. In this the author was plainly as­
sociating himself to some extent with Platonic doctrine, though at the same
time suppressing the major elements of Plato's myth about the procession
of souls and the fall of some of them into bodies. (That this is so may be
further inferred from the fact that in 9:15, he reproduces the distinctive
Platonic dualism regarding body and soul, replete with verbal echoes from
the Phaedo.) According to the myth of Er, Lachesis, the daughter of Ne­
cessity, addresses the souls marshaled before her as follows:
Souls that live for a day, now is the beginning of another cycle of mortal
generation. . . . Let him to w h o m falls the first lot first select a life to
which he shall cleave of necessity. . . . The prophet placed the patterns of
lives before them on the ground, far more numerous than the assembly.
They were of every variety, for there were lives of all kinds of animals and
all sorts of human lives, for there were tyrannies among them . . . and
there were lives of men of repute for their forms and beauty and bodily
strength otherwise and prowess and the high birth of their ancestors. (Rep.
617E-618B).
It is essential at this point to emphasize those elements in Plato's theory
of soul which are conspicuously absent in Wisd. We have already
alluded to the author's suppression of the conception of the soul's "fall."
This particular omission, however, is neither surprising nor really at vari­
ance with Middle Platonism. Although in the Phaedrus, the incarnation of
souls seems to be the result of an intellectual 'fall,' in the Timaeus, the
soul seems to be destined from the beginning to give life to a body. Mortal
creatures came into being so that the Heaven or universe not be imperfect
(ateles), which would be the case if it did not contain all the kinds of liv­
ing being (41BC; cf. Plotinus 4.8.1). Middle Platonists had already noted
this inconsistency in Plato's writings and attempted to resolve it by empha­
sizing one or the other of these positions, the majority apparently opting
INTRODUCTION
27
for the pessimistic rather than the optimistic view. Taurus was one of the
few who adopted the optimistic attitude. We read in Iamblichus' De
Anima (ap. Stobaeus 1.378, 25#, Wachsmuth):
37
The Platonists 'about' Taurus say that souls are sent by the gods to
earth, either, following the Timaeus, for the completion of the universe, in
order that there may be as many living things in the cosmos as there are in
the intelligible realm; or declaring that the purpose of the descent is to pre­
sent a manifestation of the divine life. For this is the will of the gods, for
the gods to reveal (ekphainesthai) themselves through souls; for the gods
come out into the open and manifest themselves through the pure and un­
sullied life of souls. (Dillon's translation:245.) (Cf. Festugiere 1950:
3.219 and 63-96.)
In his discussion of this issue, Albinus enumerates four reasons (unfortu­
nately highly compressed) for the soul's descent, two of which (Did.
25.6, Louis: "either awaiting their numbers, or by the will of the gods"
cf. Dorrie 1957:414-435) appear to be similar to those given by Taurus.
The other two are 'wantonness' (dkolasia), i.e. sinful willfulness on the part
of the soul, and 'love of the body' (philosdmatia), which indicates a nattural affinity or weakness for embodiment. "Body and soul have a kind of
affinity towards each other," writes Albinus, "like fire and asphalt" (Did.
25.6). To judge from Iamblichus, it was the theory of 'wantonness' that
Albinus favored, thus taking the pessimistic view (De Anima 375.10-11;
Dillon:246). Philo seems to allude to all four of Albinus' explanations. At
Somn. 1.138, he speaks of souls that are "lovers of body" (philosdmatoi)
(cf. Didymus Comment, on Job: 56, 24-27); at Her. 240, of souls "una­
ble to bear the satiety (koron) of divine goods" (a variation of Albinus'
akolasia); at QG 4.74 (cf. Op. 135; Somn. 1.147) he suggests that the
reason for descent might be in order that even terrestrial things might not
be without a share in wisdom to participate in a better life (this is similar
to Taurus' second reason, "the will of the gods to reveal themselves" cf.
Didymus Comment, on Job: 56, 28-29); and at Plant. 14, we are told
that some souls enter into mortal bodies and quit them again according to
certain fixed periods (kata tinas horismenas periodous). (Cf. Somn.
1.138, where we hear of souls selected for return according to the numbers
and periods determined by nature: kata tons hypo physeos horisthentas
arithmous kai chronous; Origen Contra Celsum 8.53: mechri an tais tetagmenais periodois.) This emphasis on numbers and periods implies that the
incarnation of souls is part of the mathematical structure of the universe
and is thus similar to Taurus' first reason, "for completion of the universe"
and Albinus' "souls awaiting their numbers" (arithmous menousas). At
According to Dillon (245), "it is possible that Iamblichus is simply recording
two different views of Taurus himself, whom he may well not have consulted at first
hand, and making somewhat eccentric use of the common periphrasis those about
8 7
x:"
28
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
QG 4.74, Philo even suggests a fifth reason, namely, "in order that it
might be akin to created beings and not be continuously and completely
happy." Undoubtedly regarding this matter as an impenetrable mystery,
Philo vacillates and simply retails to his readers the various explanations
which he found before him in the Middle Platonic tradition. As for Plotinus, as Armstrong 255 has pointed out, he "firmly resolves the con­
tradiction which appears in Plato's thought between the ideas of embodi­
ment as a fall of the soul and as a good and necessary fulfilment of its
function to care for body, by maintaining that it is both. It is in accordance
with the universal order, which requires that everything down to the lowest
level should be ensouled, that souls descend, and appropriate bodies and
lower selves are prepared for them. But they want to descend, and are
capable of descending, only because they have already a weakness, a
tendency to the lower, which seems to be a development of the original
tolma which carried Soul outside Intellect" (cf. Plotinus 4.8.5). It is thus
evident, that in suppressing the pessimistic view of the soul's 'fall,' the
author of Wisd, though clearly under the influence of Jewish tradition, was
not necessarily being innovative even from the Greek point of view, but
was simply aligning himself with that Middle Platonic position which was
most congenial to his own way of thinking. The Jewish attitude toward
this question is well illustrated in a late midrash:
The angel immediately fetches the soul before the Holy One blessed be He,
and when she arrives she bows forthwith before the King of Kings,
whereupon the Holy One blessed be He commands the soul to enter into
the drop of semen contained in so and so; but the soul replies, "Lord of the
universe, sufficient for me is the world in which I have dwelt from the mo­
ment you created me, why do you wish to install me in this fetid drop,
since I am holy and pure and hewn from your glory?" The Holy One
blessed be He answers, "The world into which I am about to place you will
be more lovely for you than the world in which you have dwelt hitherto,
and when I created you, it was only for this seminal drop that I created
you." The Holy One blessed be He then immediately installs her against
her will {Tanhi. Ptk&de 3).
On the other hand, there is no allusion in Wisd to Plato's elaborate doc­
trine of metempsychosis, which involves certain souls over a period of ten
thousand years in a series of reincarnations according to their order of
merit, with some transmigrating into animal bodies, though souls of phi­
losophers escape the "wheel of birth" after three thousand years. It should
be noted, however, that there is also no mention of this doctrine in two
38
8 8
Migration into animal bodies is briefly referred to in Phaedrus 249B, expanded
on in Rep. 620, but ignored in Laws 904A-905A. Although prevalent among Middle
Platonists (e.g. Albinus Did. 178, 29/), and followed also by Plotinus (3.4.2; 4.3.12),
it was rejected by Neoplatonists from Porphyry on.
29
INTRODUCTION
Ciceronian treatises, Tusculan Disputations I and The Dream of Scipio,
which contain an elaborate theory of immortality presented along Platonic
lines, though with Stoic characteristics. (See Dillon:96-102.) Nor is there
any reference to Plato's doctrine of anamnesis, according to which the ac­
quisition of knowledge during one's earthly existence is seen as a process
of recollecting the knowledge which the soul had once attained through its
partial vision of true Being during its preexistent state (Phaedrus
247C-248E). As to the parts of the soul, although there is no reference
to the formal Platonic tripartition into rational, spirited, and desiderative
(Rep. 4 ) , there may be a passing allusion in Wisd 4:12 ("the giddy dis­
traction of desire perverts the guileless mind") to two parts of the soul,
reflecting either the actual bipartition of the soul into rational and irra­
tional common in Middle Platonism (epithymia representing the irra­
tional and nous the rational; similarly, in 4:11, dolos may represent the ir­
rational soul and psyche the rational [cf. Philo LA 3.161; Her. 55]), or
the Stoic division of the unitary soul into the ruling element (hegemonikon
or nous) and its seven physical faculties (all of which, including the pas­
sions, represent various states of the same psychic pneuma) .
Although it is usually claimed that the author of Wisd never speaks of
the immortal nature of the soul as such, as Greek philosophers do, and
makes immortality depend on the practice of justice, this assertion thus
baldly stated is incorrect. In the first place, Wisd 2:23, according to which
God created man for immortality, and made him an image of his own
proper being, clearly implies that man's immortality derives from the fact
39
40
41
8 9
In Philo, too, however, there is no "suggestion of recollection in the Platonic
sense of the recollection of ideas. There are only three references to recollection in
his writings (Mut. 100; Praem. 9; Mos. 1.21), and none of them is used in that Pla­
tonic sense" (Wolfson 1948:2. 8 ) .
Even in Plato himself, the basic stress in the Timaeus is upon the soul's biparti­
tion into mortal and immortal parts. As for the so-called tripartition itself, "it is in
fact more fairly described as bipartition with a further subdivison within it." In the
Laws, tripartition is never mentioned at all. See T. M. Robinson: 120-125. (There
appears to be no reference to bipartition of the soul in rabbinic literature.)
A third possibility is that he is following the Platonic view in the Phaedo which
had banished epithymia from the soul altogether and had assigned it to the body.
What makes it especially difficult to determine the author's view, is both his apparent
unconcern with such details and the fact that in Middle Platonism, Stoic and Platonic
terminology could be readily conjoined without any sense of contradiction. Thus
Philo, for example, usually employs the bipartite division of the soul (LA 2.5; Det.
82, 91-92; Conf. I l l , 176; Sacr. 112; Her. 132; Spec. 1.201, 333; 3.99; cf. Cicero
Tusc. 1.80, 4.10-11, 2.47: Albinus Did. chap. 24), sometimes the tripartite division of
Plato's Republic (Spec. 49.2: Mig. 66-67; LA 1.70, 3.115), and at other times, the
Stoic division (Op. 117; Her. 232; Mut. I l l ; Abr. 29, where, for exegetical reasons,
there are seven instead of eight parts). In response to certain biblical passages, Philo
can even distinguish two different souls, a lower blood soul and a higher rational
soul: QG 2.59; Det. 82-83. In Her. 55, however, he says that blood is the substance
of the soul as a whole, whereas the divine breath or spirit is that of its most domi­
nant part. See Dillon: 174-175; Billings:50-52.
4 0
4 1
30
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
that his soul is an image of the Divine Wisdom, the "proper being" of the
Deity. Second, even according to some versions of the Platonic myths
concerning the soul, we are told that some souls are "judged incurable
because of the enormity of their crimes and are hurled into Tartarus,
whence they never more emerge" (Phaedo 113E; cf. Gorgias 525C; Rep.
615E). Nevertheless, it is true that for Plato, the majority of souls are
eventually purified through a process of purgation and thus have a natural
claim to immortality, and that the Platonists usually offer proofs for im­
mortality from the very nature of soul whereas the author of Wisdom
places the emphasis not on this natural claim but on whether or not one
has lived a life of righteousness. In so doing, however, he may (if our
dating is accepted) have been following in the footsteps of Philo, who
implies that only the souls of the wise enjoy immortality (QG 1.16; Op.
154; Conf. 149). Both he and Philo were undoubtedly influenced at this
point by biblical tradition, but at the same time could claim to be fol­
lowing the Stoic view adopted by Chrysippus, though without the latter's
limitation on the preservation of wise souls only until the next ekpyrdsis
or world conflagration (SVF 2. 809,811).
One of the distinctive features of the Greek concept of immortality
which acquires a new emphasis in the Ciceronian treatises mentioned
above and again in Seneca, is equally characteristic of Wisd, although
there is only a brief allusion to it in the eschatological section of the book.
Plato had already described in glowing terms the region above the heavens
where with varying degrees of success the souls attempt to obtain a vision
of true Being, many of them being sucked downward in the process and
suffering incarnation. After a series of purgations, however, they ulti­
mately return to their heavenly home and presumably achieve the vision
which had largely eluded them heretofore. This luminous goal comes into
sharper focus in Cicero Tusc. 1.47:
42
Surely objects of far greater purity and transparency will be discovered
when the day comes on which the mind is free and has reached its natural
home. For in our present state, although the apertures which are open
from the body to the soul, have been fashioned by nature with cunning
workmanship, yet they are in a manner fenced in with a compound of
earthy particles: when, however, there shall be soul and nothing else, no
physical barrier will hinder its perception of the true nature of everything.
4 2
See, for example, Cicero Tusc. 1.55: 'The soul then is conscious that it is in mo­
tion, and when so conscious it is at the same time conscious of this, that it is selfmoved by its own power and not an outside power, and that it cannot ever be aban­
doned by itself; and this is proof of eternity." Cf. Plato Phaedo 72ff; Rep.
10.608-611; Phaedrus 245C. Proofs for immortality take up most of chap. 25 of Al­
binus' Didaskalikos. Philo, on the other hand, like the author of Wisdom, is uncon­
cerned with the presentation of elaborate proofs for the immortality of the soul.
INTRODUCTION
31
(Cf. 1.45: What, pray, do we think the panorama will be like when we
shall be free to embrace the whole earth in our survey, its situation, shape,
and circumference? Somnium Scipionis [De Re Publico] 6.16).
Seneca's eloquent description of the soul's future knowledge reaches the
heights of religious rapture:
Some day the secrets of nature shall be disclosed to you, the haze will be
shaken from your eyes, and the bright light will stream in upon you from
all sides. Picture to yourself how great is the glow when all the stars mingle
their fires; no shadows will disturb the clear sky. The whole expanse of
heaven will shine evenly; for day and night are interchanged only in the
lowest atmosphere. Then you will say that you have lived in darkness, after
you have seen, in your perfect state, the perfect light (is/?. 102.28).
The author of Wisd similarly promises the immortal righteous: "In the
moment of God's gracious dispensation they will blaze forth. . . . They
will judge nations, and hold sway over peoples. . . . Those who have put
their trust in Him shall attain true understanding" (3:7-9; cf. I Enoch
5:8). There are passages in the Qumran Hdddydt that breathe a spirit sim­
ilar to that which had moved Seneca, and which recall the author of
Wisd's passionate eloquence when he speaks of his beloved Sophia. We
read in 1QH 3.19-23:
I give thanks unto Thee, O Lord, for Thou hast freed my soul from the pit,
and drawn me up from the slough of hell to the crest of the world. So walk
I on uplands unbounded and know that there is hope for that which Thou
didst mold out of dust to have consort with things eternal. For lo, Thou
hast taken a spirit distorted by sin, and purged it of the taint of much
transgression, and given it a place in the host of the holy beings, and
brought it into communion with the sons of heaven. Thou hast made a
mere man to share the lot of the Spirits of Knowledge, to praise Thy name
in their chorus.
Here the writer is convinced that he already enjoys eternity and walks with
the angelic hosts. His fervor soon reaches an even higher pitch:
For Thou hast made them to know Thy deep, deep truth, and divine Thine
inscrutable wonders . . . to be one with them that possess Thy truth and to
share the lot of Thy Holy Beings, to the end that this worm which is man
may be lifted out of the dust to the height of eternal things, and rise from
a spirit perverse to an holy understanding, and stand in one company be­
fore Thee with the host everlasting and the spirits of knowledge and the
choir invisible [literally, "Those versed in concerted song"], to be forever
renewed with all things that are (1QH 11.9-14, Gaster 1976).
Like the composer of the Hddaydt, and like Philo (for whom mystical ex­
perience of God is obtainable in this life), the author of Wisd experiences
32
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
the raptures of Divine Knowledge in his present existence (chap. 7 ) and
already enjoys his prize of immortality.
The centrality of Wisd's theory of immortality represents a new empha­
sis in the history of Jewish tradition, although it must be seen as part of a
continuous development in Jewish Hellenistic thought. According to 1
Enoch 1 0 2 : 5 , the spirits of the righteous descend to Sheol, but at the judg­
ment will ascend to a life of joy as companions of the hosts of heaven
( 1 0 3 : 3 - 4 ; 1 0 4 : 6 ) . Jubilees 2 3 : 3 1 ("and their bones will rest in the earth,
and their spirits will have much joy") seems to presume an immediate as­
sumption of the spirit, and in Test.Asher 6 : 5 - 6 , the soul of the right­
eous is led by the angel of peace into eternal life. Finally, in IV Mac­
cabees, a book which may be roughly contemporary with Wisd, the
patriarchs are already in heaven ready to receive the souls of those who
have died for the sake of God ( 7 : 1 9 ; 1 3 : 1 7 ; 1 6 : 2 5 ; cf. 7 : 3 ; 9 : 2 2 ; 1 4 : 5 ;
1 5 : 3 ; 1 6 : 1 3 ; 1 7 : 1 2 ; 1 8 : 2 3 ; cf. Luke 1 6 : 2 2 , and see E. W. Saunders,
IDB, s.v. "Abraham's Bosom;" also Pseudo-Phocylides 1 0 5 - 1 0 8
[FPG.152]. Wisd's doctrine of preexistence, on the other hand, may
be the earliest attestation of this teaching in Jewish literature (see NOTE on
48
44
8:19).
2. Eschatology
The author's eschatological descriptions form a sort of chiaroscuro,
lacking any clear definition. He moves fitfully through alternating patches
of darkness and light, almost deliberately blurring the points of transition.
The picture which emerges is somewhat confused, but its broad outlines
are nevertheless not difficult to draw. The just souls, after passing through
the crucible of suffering during their earthly existence, are portrayed as
being in the hand of God and perfectly at peace (either in some neutral
zone in Hades, or more likely in Heaven). Conversely, the wicked who
had oppressed their weaker brothers with apparent impunity, become ig­
nominious carcasses, eternal objects of outrage among the dead. The pic­
ture is now abruptly transposed to the "moment of God's gracious dispen­
sation," when the just will blaze forth, and in contrast to their formerly
passive though peaceful state, will be rendered eminently active. Taking
4 3
There is a similar emphasis in Plato Tim. 90BC: "But he who has seriously
devoted himself to learning and to true thoughts, and has exercised these qualities
above all his others, must necessarily and inevitably think thoughts that are immortal
and divine, if so be that he lays hold on truth, and insofar as it is possible for human
nature to partake of immortality, he must fall short thereof in no degree; and inas­
much as he is for ever tending his divine part and duly magnifying that daemon who
dwells along with him, he must be supremely blessed." Cf. Philo Spec. 1.207. Simi­
larly, according to the Muslim philosopher Alfarabi (d. ca. 950), a man at the stage
of "acquired" intellect enters into the state of immortality even before the death of
his body, and herein consists "supreme happiness." (Al-Madina al-Fadila, ed.
F. Dieterici [Leiden, 1895]: 46, 4 - 6 5 ) .
SeeNickelsburg:32-33, 198.
44
INTRODUCTION
33
his indignation as full armor, and employing the elemental forces of nature
as his weapons, God will now devastate and smash the lawless kingdoms
of the earth, thus inaugurating a new, trans-historical era of divine rule.
Screened by the divine power, and in receipt of royal insignia of the
highest majesty, the just souls (now clearly among the angelic hosts)
will, as God's agents, judge the nations of the world, while enjoying an un­
surpassed vision of the truth (cf. NOTE on 3:8-9). But what was a gra­
cious dispensation for the just will constitute the day of reckoning for the
souls of the wicked, who are pictured as coming forward cringing to be
convicted to their face by their own criminal acts. As is common in Jewish
apocalyptic literature, the wicked and the just are thought to be able read­
ily to witness each other's reversed roles under the new divine dispensation
(see NOTE on 5:2). The righteous are therefore pictured as taking their
stand with poised confidence to outface their former oppressors, who, in
turn, are pictured as full of remorse and given to long self-deprecating
monologues. It is not clear, however, whether the wicked face a double
judgment, one immediately after death, and a second one at the time of
the gracious visitation of the just, or whether they are at first automatically
hurled speechless into the depths of Hades, only later to face formal
charges in the presence of their former victims (cf. Nickelsburg:88-89).
3. Torah and Sophia
As we approach the core doctrines of the book, it becomes immediately
apparent that its subtle blending of heterogeneous conceptions has inevita­
bly entailed a degree of ambiguity in their formulation which makes it
difficult to determine which elements are primary and which are second­
ary. Moreover, the author's habit of frequently alluding in passing to vari­
ous doctrines, often of considerable significance, without any subsequent
elaboration, adds to one's sense of uncertainty. He fleetingly refers, for ex­
ample, to the view of the Zoroastrians concerning the origin of death and
their peculiar notion of khrafstra, the emanation of Wisdom from God, the
creation of the world out of formless matter, the cosmological and
teleological proofs for the existence of God, the preexistence of souls, the
mutual interchange of the elements, and the Stoic theory of tonos. If we
add to this the fact that his argumentation is largely rhetorical rather than
demonstrative, we soon realize that much in our interpretation will ulti­
mately depend on what we sense to be the general drift of his thought and
the special ambience in which it was formed. The latter, it is unmistakably
clear, was the philosophical sphere of Middle Platonism, whose bounda­
ries stretch from ca. 80 BCE to ca. 220 CE. The Stoicising Platonism of
Wisd is the characteristic trademark of Middle Platonic scholasticism, and
it is undoubtedly misleading to brand this philosophical mode as 'eclectic.'
Eclecticism has a use, but, as Dillon has correctly noted,
34
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
it surely implies the assembling of doctrines from various schools on the
basis of the personal preferences of the thinker concerned, rather than on
the basis of any coherent theory as to the historical development of philos­
ophy, and it is thus not, I think, a fair word to use for what the Middle
Platonists, from Antiochus on, were doing. Antiochus, as I shall try to
show, thought he had a coherent view of how philosophy had developed,
and that view may not have been quite as perverse as it now appears to us.
H e and his successors felt justified in appropriating from the Peripatetics
and the Stoics such doctrines and formulations as seemed to them to ex­
press better what Plato had really meant to say. At most, they were 'mod­
ernizing' Plato. The rationale of their procedure was clear and consistent,
and it does not seem to me to be profitable to characterize it as eclectic (p.
xiv; cf. Fruchtel:129).
When placed in its proper philosophical context, Wisd no longer appears
to contain a pastiche of Greek philosophical doctrines used merely for or­
namental decoration. The remarkable similarity of its teaching on many
points with that of Philo of Alexandria [see part VIII, below], whose writ­
ings were roughly contemporary with it, only reinforces the view that its
philosophical orientation is Middle Platonist.
The central figure which strides across the book is Sophia or Dame Wis­
dom, appearing at first under a variety of names (chap. 1), then gradually
coming into sharper focus, until she begins to dominate the stage com­
pletely (6:12ff), but then again receding into the background and merging
almost imperceptibly with the deity, only suddenly to emerge one last time
in full power under one of her alternate titles (18:15). She is no innova­
tion of the author of Wisd, but had already made her appearance as a cos­
mic force in Proverbs (8:22#; 1:20#), and Job (28:12#) under the
guise of a charming female figure playing always before Yahweh, after
having been created by Him at the beginning of His work (Prov 8:30),
and having obvious roots in ancient Near Eastern myth. She is undoubt­
edly a 'hypostasis' as that term was very broadly defined by Oesterly and
Box, i.e. "a quasi-personification of certain attributes proper to God, occu­
pying an intermediate position between personalities and abstract beings"
(:169). Hu and Sia, for example, are in Egyptian tradition the
creative word and the understanding of the high god Re-Atum, per­
sonified and separated from their originator. Mythologically expressed,
45
4
« For Prov 8:1-36, see R. B. Y. Scott's commentary: AB 18, 69-71. Cf. Job
I5:7ff where Wisdom is conceived as a kind of independent entity, which it is possi­
ble to detach from God to such an extent that somebody else can seize it. In Prov­
erbs and Job, however, as also in Ben Sira, Wisdom is not yet an 'hypostasis' in the
sense quoted above, since according to these texts she is clearly only the first creation
of God. In Philo and Wisd, on the other hand, where Sophia is considered to be an
eternal emanation of the deity, we undoubtedly have a conception of her as a divine
hypostasis, coeternal with him. See G. Scholem, Elements of the Kabbalah and its
Symbolism (Jerusalem, 1976) :260-262 (Hebrew). For the significance of Job 28,
see Weinfeld:257-260.
INTRODUCTION
35
they are, as Ringgren has put it, "the first begotten children of Re-Atum
and his assistants in the creation of the world. They follow him on his
journey in the sun-barque, aiding him in his capacity as the ruler of the
world, thus personifying his intelligence and his command. Later on, they
attain so high a degree of independence that they can be associated with
any other god" (Ringgren 1947:27). Similarly, Egyptian Maat is a per­
sonification of the concept maat or 'right order in nature and society'
(originally a function of the high god) who became the daughter of Re,
and was vouchsafed a cult of her own. She protects the sun-god, destroys
his enemies, and embraces him day and nigjit. As a guardian of moral life,
the highest judge calls himself the priest of Maat and wears an image of
her on his breast (cf. Prov 1:9; 3:22). According to one text, "Re has
created Maat, he rejoices over her, he delights in her, he loves her, his
heart is joyful when he sees her." An example from the Akkadian sphere
are MeSaru and Kettu, Righteousness and Right, who were sometimes
conceived only as qualities of the sun-god or as gifts granted by him, and
sometimes in a more concrete way as personal beings, even independent
deities (cf. Ps 85:11-14. See Ringgren 1947:53-58). So, too, the divine
word is praised in several Sumerian and Akkadian texts as an independent
physical cosmic potency. Diirr has shown that the hypostatization of the
word proceeds via its character of breath and wind (Saru). Thus it is con­
ceived as something concrete, nearly material, which, having left the
mouth of the deity, acquires an independent existence (Ringgren
1947:65-68). We also have an early Semitic reference (sixth century
BCE) to Wisdom who is dear to the gods in The Words of Ahiqar 94-95
(found at Elephantine): "For all time the kingdom is hers. In heaven is
she established, for the lord of holy ones has exalted her"
(ANETMZ)*
Wisdom appears again in The Wisdom of Ben Sira (ca. 180 BCE), a
Jewish Palestinian work which, having been translated into Greek, left a
distinct mark on Wisd. Both books, for example, use virtually identical im­
ages to describe their authors' ardent pursuit of Wisdom, and both place a
similar emphasis on God's mercy. Like Proverbs 8, Ben Sira describes
Wisdom as having been created from the very beginning (1:4; 24:9), and
as having been infused into all of God's works ( 1 : 9 ) . She is further de­
scribed as traversing the entire cosmos, but finally, at the divine behest,
48
1
48
4 6
In an Egyptian Coffin text we read: "Nun said to Atum: kiss your daughter
Maat, after placing her at your nose, then will your heart live." See Ringgren
1947:49-52; Kayatz:93-119. See also Keel:63-74.
7Hengel writes: "Dormer derives his conception from the Egyptian doctrine of
maat. . . . However, we cannot exclude the possibility that this bokma dwelling with
God in heaven at the same time represents a transformation of the Semitic mother
goddess and goddess of love who had even been set alongside Yahweh as parhedros
[coadjutor] by the Jews at Elephantine, under the name of 'Anatyahu" (1. 154).
«Cf. Wisd 6:12-24; 7:7-14 with Sir 15:2; 51:26; 13; Wisd 11:23; 12:16 with Sir
18:11-13 (also Wisd 3:16 with Sir 23:25).
4
4
36
THE W I S D O M OF S O L O M O N
making her home in Israel, in God's beloved city of Jerusalem
(24:3-12). More important, going beyond the Book of Deuteronomy
which had identified the laws of the Torah with wisdom (4:6), Ben Sira
identified Wisdom with Torah (24:23), "as a result of which both were
conceived together as a heavenly element which descended from heaven to
take up its abode among the children of Israel" (Weinfeld:256). The au­
thor thereby reached the uneasy compromise of a Divine Wisdom
which pervades the cosmos, yet maintains its concentrated focus in Zion
and in the teachings of the Torah, which thus achieves a new universal
significance.
At almost the same time as Ben Sira, we find a highly developed Wis­
dom doctrine in Aristobulus' Interpretations of the Holy Laws (ca.
175-170 BCE). Aristobulus wishes the reader to understand the Torah
"truly" (physikos) i.e. philosophically, and "not slip into the mythological
mode," for "those who are capable of thinking rightly, are amazed at
Moses' wisdom and divine spirit, by reason of which he has won fame as a
prophet" (FPG.-217-218). The goal of Aristobulus' allegorical exegesis is
to demonstrate the rationality of the Torah, and, like Philo, he chides
those who cling to the letter (to grapto) for their lack of strength and in­
sight, and for providing a reading of the Torah in the light of which Moses
fails to appear to be proclaiming great things. Moreover, if anything un­
reasonable (alogian) remains in the biblical text in spite of his inter­
pretations, says Aristobulus, the cause of this must be attributed not to
Moses, but to his own inability to describe correctly what Moses meant
(FPG.-218). He then proceeds to identify the number seven with wisdom
and light:
49
50
9
God created the world, and, because life is troublesome for all, he gave us
for rest the seventh day, which in reality (physikds) could also be called
the prime source of light, through which all things are comprehended. The
latter could also be metaphorically transferred to Wisdom, for all light
comes from her; just as some members of the Peripatetic school say that
wisdom has the role of a beacon-fire, because those who follow her
unremittingly will remain undisturbed their whole life through. But one of
our forefathers, Solomon, said more clearly and more beautifully that Wis­
dom existed before heaven and earth (FPG.-224).
The Pythagorean Philolaus had already associated the number seven with
wisdom and light (DK, A. 12), and Philo later made a similar identifica4 9
See Rylaarsdam: 18-46; Hengel 1. 157-162. Hengel concludes: "Without question
there is an inner logic in this development in Jewish wisdom speculation, but we
should ask whether a movement in this direction would have developed at all if it
had not been furthered by the necessity to ward off foreign influences. We must
therefore agree with J. Fichtner, who sees the decisive motive force in the 'contro­
versy with Hellenism.'"
w On Aristobulus, see Walter: esp. 124-171; Hengel 1. 164-169; Gutman 1.
186-220.
37
INTRODUCTION
tion, asserting that "the reason why the man who guides himself in accord­
ance with the seventh and perfect light is both blessed and holy is that the
formation of things mortal ceases with the seventh day's advent" (LA
1.16-18; cf. Deus 12; Spec. 2.59: seven is the light which reveals as com­
pleted what six has produced; Her. 216). Aristobulus' luminous Wisdom
is also further identified with the Logos, when he asserts that the seventh
day is "a symbol of the seventh logos [probably, the nous hegemon, as in
Philo Abr. 28-29, which in turn is an inseparable fragment of the Logos]
through which we have knowledge of human and divine things," and that
"the entire cosmos revolves through sevens" (FPG.-225). Thus, accord­
ing to Aristobulus, Preexistent Wisdom or Logos, which is identical with
the Primordial Light (the Archetypal Sun or intelligible phds of Philo)
and symbolized by the number seven, gives the true Sabbath rest to those
who follow Her.
In the light of this tradition of Wisdom speculation, it is no longer
difficult to understand why the author of our text chose the Wisdom figure
as the mediator of his own message to his contemporaries. She was the
perfect bridge between the exclusive nationalist tradition of Israel and the
universalist philosophical tradition which appealed so strongly to the Jew­
ish youth of Roman Alexandria. Moreover, as Reese and Mack have
recently shown, the author of Wisd skillfully adapted the Isis aretalogies
for his own use in describing Sophia. The cult of Isis and Sarapis was
one of the most popular of the oriental religions from the fourth century
BCE to the fourth century CE, though its peak of popularity was reached in
the second century CE. It should also be noted that Gaius, who had
decorated a room (the Aula Isiaca) in his palace on the Palatine with
paintings depicting numerous Egyptian religious symbols, had built a
temple to Isis, and had instituted Isiac mysteries in which he is said to
have participated himself while dressed in female garb (Jos. Ant. 19.1.5
and 11). Koberlein has suggested that he had even created his own
"Mysteries," called Hggemomka (Philo Legat. 56), which dealt with his
own person and the Imperial House, and which included 'Hymns' cele­
brating his aretai or great accomplishments (Dio Cassius 59. 29.6;
Suetonius Caligula 16.4; cf. Philo Legat. I44ff and NOTE on 10:1. See
K6berlein:24-25; 32-38. The Philonic evidence for these so-called
Hegemonika, however, is by no means unambiguous, and as E. M. Smallwood has indicated (in her note ad l o c ) , the language of the Mysteries
51
52
5 1
A similar interpretation is found in Philo Abr. 28-29: The Sabbath is so called
because the number seven is always free from factions and war. This is attested by
the faculties within us, for six of them wage ceaseless and continuous war, namely
the five senses and speech. But the seventh faculty is that of the dominant mind,
which after triumphing over the six, welcomes solitude and accepts a life of calmness
and serenity. Cf. Her. 225, where the Divine Logos, the Archetypal Sun, is desig­
nated as standing over the six parts (3 x 2) of the soul as the seventh; LA 1.19.
2 R e e s e 1970:36-50; Mack:63-107. These parallels were already seen by Knox
1937:230-237; 1939:55-89; cf. Conzelmann:225-234.
5
38
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
at Legat. 5 6 is probably metaphorical.). It was only fitting that the
author of Wisd reclaim the falsely appropriated aretai for 'Her' to whom
they truly belonged.
4. Logos and Sophia
The most remarkable feature about the author's description of Sophia is
that he depicts her as an effluence or emanation of God's glory. Most Mid­
dle Platonists (at least those of whom we have any knowledge) seem to
have avoided such a conception, but it was apparently adopted by some of
the Neopythagoreans, and was clearly implied by Philo, who often
'Pythagorizes,' though in this case he may very well have gotten the notion
from the Middle Stoa (see NOTE on 7 : 2 5 ) . Since, according to the writer,
Wisdom pervades the entire cosmos and yet at the same time enjoys inti­
macy with God ( 7 : 2 4 ; 8 : 1 , 3 ) , it may be said that there is an aspect of
God's essence in everything, including the human mind, which remains in­
separable from God. The only thing comparable to this view in ancient
Jewish thought is Philo's similar notion of an all-penetrating Divine Logos
which reaches into each man's mind, thus converting it into an extension
of the Divine Mind, albeit a very fragmentary one (Det. 9 0 ; Gig. 2 7 ; LA
1 . 3 7 - 3 8 ; cf. M. Aurel. 8 . 5 7 ; CH 1 2 . 1 ) . Like Philo, too, the author of
Wisd evidently teaches that God created the world by means of Wisdom.
Although his statement that "God made all things by his 'word' (logo),
and through his 'wisdom' (sophia) formed man" ( 9 : 1 - 2 ) is in itself am­
biguous, since it is by no means clear that 'word' and 'wisdom' here refer
to Logos-Sophia, the matter is, I think, settled by the description of Wis­
dom as "chooser of God's works" ( 8 : 4 ) , which clearly implies that Wis­
dom is identical with the Divine Mind through which the Deity acts. In the
light of this, the assertion that "with you is Wisdom who knows your
works and was present when you created the world" ( 9 : 9 ) must signify
that Wisdom contains the paradigmatic patterns of all things (cf. 9 : 8 ) and
serves as the instrument of their creation.
The author further specifies that God created the world "out of formless
matter" ( 1 1 : 1 7 ) , and we must now further inquire whether he believed
that this formless matter was itself created by God, thus espousing a dou­
ble creation theory, or whether he considered it to be eternal. There is
considerable evidence, both internal and external, which makes it unmis­
takably clear that the latter alternative is the correct one. First, since no
explicit theory of creation ex nihilo had heretofore been formulated in ei­
ther Jewish or Greek tradition, we should expect an emphatic and unam53
5 3
See Winston 1971:185-191. There is no evidence that the normative rabbinic
view was that creation was ex nihilo. Rabban Gamaliel's formulation in BR 1.9, ThAlb:8 came only under the impact of a polemic with someone who was undoubtedly
a Gnostic. In the context of such a confrontation, it would only be natural for the
rabbi to counter with the notion that even the apparently primordial elements to
39
INTRODUCTION
biguous statement from the author in this matter, if that were indeed his
position. Second, as Grimm had already pointed out long ago (in his 1860
commentary on 11:17), it was the author's object to adduce as great a
proof as possible of the power of God. Since creation ex nihilo would be
an even greater marvel than that of conferring form on an already existent
matter, he could hardly have failed to have specified the former had he
thought it possible. Third, in his account of some of the miracles per­
formed by God on behalf of the Israelites (especially the splitting of the
Red Sea), the author employs a Greek philosophical principle in order to
make the notion of miracles more plausible (see NOTE on 19:6), but had
he held the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo, he could hardly have been trou­
bled by lesser miracles and sought a philosophical principle to explain
them, for creatio ex nihilo is the miracle of miracles. It quickly became the
paradigm for God's miraculous powers, and its denial was taken to
betoken the undermining of revealed religion (cf. Maimonides, Guide
2.22, 25; Albo Iqqarim 1.12.1; Abravanel Mifalot Elohim 6a). It is true
that Eudorus of Alexandria (fl. ca. 25 BCE), alone among the Middle Platonists, held the view, under the influence of Neopythagoreanism, that the
One or Supreme God is the cause both of the Ideas' and of matter, but
unfortunately we lack further information as to how this was understood
by him (Simplicius In Aristotelis de Physica Commentarii 181,10$, Diels;
Alex.Aphr. In Metaphysica 988a 10-11, Hayduck; Dillon: 126-128). If,
as is likely, he conceived of the One as emanating both the Monad and the
Dyad (see NOTE on 7:25), it would be difficult to imagine that the author
of Wisd could be comfortable with such a notion. To conceive of Wis­
dom as part of God's essence is one thing, but to allow that the material
principle is itself also part of the divine essence would probably have been
too much for him to swallow. In any case, the concept of creation ex
nihilo formed no part of Greek philosophical thought or of Jewish
Hellenistic or rabbinic thought, and its first explicit formulation appeared
in second-century Christian literature, where (undoubtedly under the im64
which the Gnostic ascribed a dynamic cosmogonic function were created by God.
Nothing may be inferred from this discussion as to the common rabbinic view of cre­
ation. Indeed, there is a passage in the Mekilta (Shirta 8 ) , which provides strong
prima facie evidence that the rabbis did not subscribe to the notion of creation ex
nihilo. Ten examples are given there for the uniqueness of God's acts in contrast
with those of man. The best example of all: that God can create ex nihilo, is not
given. Moreover, example six states that to make a roof man requires wood, stones,
dirt, and water, whereas God, on the other hand, has made of water a roof for his
world (cf. BR 4.1, Th-Alb:25). In other words, when he created the heavens, he
used water. (I owe this reference to the kindness of Prof. J. Goldin.)
Like Philo, his Stoic use of materialistic language in describing Wisdom
(7:22-24) was probably metaphorical. (For Philo, cf. Gig. 22, and see Billings:54-56.)
5 4
40
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
petus of the Gnostic challenge) the argument for a double creation is
made on the grounds that creation out of an eternal primordial element
would compromise the sovereignty of God (Tatian Oratio ad Graecos 5;
Theophilus Ad Autolycwn 2.4,10 ad fin.).
Finally, we must raise the question of the author's conception of the na­
ture of God's creative act. Did he conceive of it as temporal or as eternal?
The author nowhere addresses himself to this issue and all we can do is in­
dicate what his answer would be if he were a consistent Middle Platonist.
With the exception of Plutarch and Atticus, the Middle Platonists denied
that Plato had taught the temporal creation of the world, maintaining that
the description given in the Timaeus was only for the sake of "clarity of
instruction." Since the temporal interpretation of Plutarch and Atticus was
based on their dualistic notion of a Maleficent Soul which (at least in Plu­
tarch's version), before God created the cosmos proper, had itself created
a dim prefiguration of the cosmos, which was then brought to completion
by Logos, it is plain that the monotheistic author of Wisd could not have
followed in their footsteps. For most Platonists, there could be no ade­
quate explanation of why God should wait before beginning to improve
the eternal formless matter. Moreover, since the author of Wisd conceives
of Sophia as a continuous emanation of the Godhead, and since it contains
the paradigmatic forms of all things and is the instrument of creation, it
would be reasonable to presume that its creative activity is also con­
tinuous. The fact is, however, that there are no grounds for assuming such
philosophic consistency in a writer who seeks boldly to bridge two diverse
traditions and must constantly maintain a delicate balance between them
(and who, we might add, is more of a rhetorician than a philosopher).
Even the redoubtable Philo falters on this issue, and although asserting a
theory of eternal creation in his treatise On Providence (De Providentia
1.6-9), elsewhere he adopts the formula that "there was a time when the
world was not" (DecaL 5 8 ) . But while in the case of Philo, it might
perhaps not be unreasonable to brush aside those passages which adopt
the biblical idiom of temporal creation, we could feel no such confidence
with regard to our author, and so, I think, the question must be left un­
resolved.
56
65a
5. Pursuing Wisdom
In depicting Sophia, the author is all aglow with a burning enthusiasm
that fills the verses dealing directly with her with a luminous and passion­
ate intensity. His confident words convey a conviction, evidently confirmed
by his personal experience, that Wisdom is easily found by those who seek
her, to the point of even anticipating them in their search (almost like the
w Plutarch Is. et Os. 373G See Dillon:203-204.
55a See Winston, "Philo's Theory of Eternal Creation," in the forthcoming Ameri­
can Academy of Jewish Research Jubilee Volume.
41
INTRODUCTION
woman who pursues a man until he catches her) (6:12-16). He speaks of
his love for her and his seeking to make her his bride so that he might live
with her (8:9; 7:28; 8:16). It is noteworthy that the terms of the descrip­
tion of Wisdom's union with God correspond very closely to those of the
description of the student's union with Wisdom. This undoubtedly
implies that man's ultimate goal is union with God, which may, however,
be achieved only through union with His Wisdom, which is but one of His
aspects (see Wilckens in TDNT 7. 499). This union with Sophia is possi­
ble because of man's kinship with her (8:17), through his possession of a
rational mind, which is permeated by the intelligent spirit of Wisdom
(7:23-24). But if Wisdom is already present in man's mind, as she is in­
deed in every part of the universe, what is the significance of man's hot
pursuit of her and the need for special supplication to the Lord to send her
down from his heavenly throne (9:10)? We have already seen that Wis­
dom is both immanent and transcendent (she pervades the universe, yet
remains in unbroken union with God), so that both forms of description
may easily be interchanged depending on the particular focus of the writer.
Seneca employs a vivid simile (which probably stems from the Middle
Stoa, and, incidentally, recurs later in Habad Hasidism) in order to ex­
plain this double aspect:
66
When a soul rises superior to other souls . . . it is stirred by a force from
heaven. A thing like this cannot stand upright unless it be propped up by
the divine. Therefore, a greater part of it abides in that place from whence
it came down to earth. [Cf. Wisd 7:27.] Just as the rays of the sun do in­
deed touch the earth, but still abide at the source from which they are sent;
even so the great and hallowed soul, which has come down in order that we
may have a nearer knowledge of divinity, does indeed associate with us,
but still cleaves to its origin; on that source it depends, thither it turns its
gaze, and strives to go, and it concerns itself with our doings only as a
being superior to ourselves (Ep. 41.5).
57
The Neoplatonist Proclus later provides a concise expression of this bifo­
cal perspective: "The gods are present alike to all things; not all things,
however, are present alike to the gods, but each order has a share in their
presence proportioned to its station and capacity, some things receiving
them as unities and others as manifolds, some perpetually and others for a
time, some incorporeally and others through the body" (Elements 142).
From the human viewpoint, the Divine Wisdom enters man and departs;
from the eternal perspective of God, however, it is ever present to man,
5 6
Wisdom is God's throne-companion: cf. 9:4 with 6:14. For Wisdom's intimacy
with God: cf. 8:3 with 8:9,16; and 9:9 with 6:23; 7:28; 8:18; 9:10. That God loved
her: cf. 8:3 with 6:12; 7:10; 8:2, 18.
Cf. Philo QG 2.40; Det. 90; M. Aurel. 8.57; Justin Dialogus cum Tryphone
Judaeo 128.3-4; Tertullian Apologeticus 21.10-13; Lactantius Divinae institutiones
4.29, 4-5.
5 7
42
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
though its consummation in any particular case is conditioned by the
fitness of the recipient. Hence our author speaks in no uncertain terms of
"desire for instruction (6:17), "training in Wisdom's society" (8:18),
and the need for pre-dawn vigilance on her behalf (6:14-15).
There appears to be good reason, then, to conclude that the author's
highly charged language concerning the pursuit of Wisdom and her prom­
ised gifts, may allude to a mystical experience through which, he believes,
man is capable of some measure of union with the Deity, at least under his
aspect of Sophia. The road to this mystic consummation, however, is not
through the attainment of some esoteric disclosure, or through the efficacy
of special modes of prayer (from the mystic's viewpoint, prayer is in real­
ity God's address to man), but rather through passionate and unremitting
devotion to the acquisition of wisdom. Nowhere, however, does the author
describe, as Philo and Plotinus do, the various traits which characterize
the experience of mystical union, so that we may speak of his writing as
containing at best an incipient movement along the road to mysticism.
58
,,
6. The Nature and Efficacy of Wisdom
As the Divine Mind immanent within the universe and guiding and con­
trolling all its dynamic operations, Wisdom represents the entire range of
natural science (7:17-21). She is also the teacher of all human arts and
crafts, including shipbuilding and the art of navigation (7:16; 14:2). She
is skilled in the intricacies of logic and rhetoric, and having unsurpassed
experience of both past and present, she also infers the future and
possesses the key to the divinatory arts (8:8). Moreover, she is the source
of all moral knowledge (8:7), is man's counsellor and comforter, bringing
rest, cheer, and joy, and bestows riches and glory on her own, though her
greatest boon is the gift of immortality (8:9-13). Above all, she is synon­
ymous with Divine Providence, controlling historical events, and in each
generation guiding the friends of God and inspiring his prophets (7:27;
14:3). It is significant that the author, unlike Ben Sira, nowhere explicitly
identifies Wisdom with Torah ("the keeping of her laws" in 6:18 is am­
biguous, since it could refer to the statutes of natural law), although he
refers to Israel's mission of bringing the imperishable light of the Law to
59
5
«Cf. Philo Op. 23; CH 10.4; Plutarch De Genio Socratis 20,589B; Plotinus 6.5.11
fin.; 6.9.8; Ps-Dionysius De Divinis nominibus 3.1. This was also the teaching of
many Hasidic masters. "Where is the dwelling of God?" asked the Rabbi of Kotzk
(1787-1859). Answering his own question, he said: "Wherever man lets him in." See
Buber: 175-176. Dodds (1963:274) notes that this is a favorite doctrine of the Cam­
bridge Platonists, e.g. Benjamin Whichcote, Discourses (Aberdeen, 1751) 3. 102: "It
is the incapacity of the subject, where God is not . . . for God doth not withdraw
himself from us, unless we first leave Him: the distance is occasioned through our
unnatural use of ourselves."
Moreover, unlike Ben Sira, he makes no mention of the sacrificial cult
6 9
INTRODUCTION
43
the world (18:4), and says that Wisdom is the source of prophecy
(7:27). (He is indeed confident that idolatry will ultimately disappear:
14:13-14.) Very likely he believed with Philo that the teachings of the
Torah were tokens of the Divine Wisdom, and that they were in harmony
with the laws of the universe and as such implant all the virtues in man
(cf. Jos. Ant. 1. Proem 4.24); Ps-Aristeas 161; IV Mace 1:16-17; 5:25;
Philo Op. 3; Mos. 2.52), but when he concentrates his attention on Wis­
dom, it is philosophy, science, and the arts that are uppermost in his mind.
Wisdom is conceived by him as a direct bearer of revelation, function­
ing through the workings of the human mind, and supreme arbiter of
all values. She is clearly the Archetypal Torah, of which the Mosaic
Law is but an image. When he insists that unless God send his Wis­
dom down from on high men would not comprehend God's will (9:17),
he is certainly implying that the Torah is in need of further interpre­
tation for the disclosure of its true meaning, interpretation which Wisdom
alone is able to provide. Once again the author closely approaches the
position of Philo of Alexandria, in whose view, even before the Sinaitic
Revelation, the Patriarchs were already constituted nomoi empsychoi or
living embodiments of Divine Wisdom. (Similarly, in Wisd 10, Sophia had
already served as a personal Guide to six righteous heroes who lived
before the Sinaitic Revelation.) An echo of this notion may later be found
in the statement of Rav Avin (fourth century) that the Torah is an incom­
plete form (nobelet, literally, the fruit falling prematurely off the tree)
or image of the Supernal Wisdom (BR 17.5; 44.12, Th-Alb:157, 239).
7. Vniverscdism and Particularism
Although the substantive philanthrdpia never occurs in Wisd, the adjec­
tive philanthrdpos 'humane, benevolent' appears thrice. Twice Wisdom is
described as philanthropes (1:6; 7:23), and in 12:19 we are told that
God's mercy is a model-lesson for Israel, teaching them that the righteous
man must be humane. God loves all that exists, loathing nothing that he
has created (11:24), and as the lover of all that lives, he spares all, for his
imperishable spirit (aphtharton pneuma) is in them all (11:26; 12:1). We
have here a faint intimation of the Middle Stoic doctrine of philanthrdpia,
or 'humanity,' which is fully elaborated in the writings of Philo. The spe­
cial kinship between God and man, based on the notion of a Divine Logos
at once immanent and transcendent, led inevitably to the concept of the
unity of man. The Stoics spoke of the common community of gods and
men: "The world is as it were the common house of gods and men, or the
city belonging to both; for they alone make use of reason and live accord­
ing to right and law" (Cicero ND 2.154; SVF 2. 527-528). The early
Stoics, however, still emphasized the dichotomy between the wise and the
foolish, and Zeno insisted that only the wise are capable of concord and
44
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
unity (D.L. 1. 32.3; SVF 3. 672,674,725). The Cynics had gone so far
as to say that the non-wise are not men (D.L. 6.41, 60). It was only in the
Middle Stoa, in the writings of Panaetius and Antiochus (through a fusion
of the Stoic concept of oikeidsis and the Peripatetic doctrine of oikeiotes),
that an all-embracing doctrine of human unity took shape.
Panaetius focused his attention on the ordinary man, and thus produced
an ethical ideal suited to the capacity of all (Seneca Ep. 116.5; Cicero Off.
1.46, 99). Going beyond the negative formulation of justice which forbids
man to injure another, he advances the positive definition of it as an active
beneficence which forms the bond of society (Cicero Off. 1.20-22). The
fundamental principles on which this is based are elucidated as follows:
eo
We must go more deeply into the basic principles of fellowship and associ­
ation set up by nature among men. The first is to be found in the associa­
tion that links together the entire human race, and the bond that creates
this is reason and speech, which by teaching and learning, by com­
munication, discussion, and decision brings men into agreement with each
other and joins them in a kind of natural fellowship (Off. 1.50).
Philo similarly writes: "All we men are kinsmen and brothers, being re­
lated by the possession of an ancient kinship, since we receive the lot of
the rational nature from one mother" (QG 2.60; cf. Decal. 41, 132-134;
Det. 164; Spec. 4.14; 1.294, 317; Praem. 92). Following Panaetius, Philo,
too, emphasizes the positive aspect of justice as an active beneficence
(Virt. 166ff). This quality is epitomized by him in the word philanthrdpia,
a term which apparently came into philosophical prominence in the writ­
ings of Panaetius and Antiochus, and later in those of Epictetus' teacher
Musonius Rufus, and with especial emphasis in those of Plutarch (see
Hirzel 1912:23-32). In a section of his treatise De Virtutibus devoted to
philanthrdpia (51-174), Philo points out that it has eusebeia or piety as
its sister and twin, for the love of God involves the love of man, inasmuch
as man, "the best of living creatures, through that higher part of his being,
namely, the soul, is most nearly akin to heaven . . . and also to the Father
of the world, possessing in his mind a closer likeness and copy than any­
thing else on earth of the eternal and blessed Archetype" (Decal. 134).
Moreover, in practicing philanthrdpia, man is imitating God. "For what
one of the men of old aptly said is true, that in no other action does man
so much resemble God as in showing kindness, and what greater good can
there be than that they should imitate God, they the created, Him the
Eternal?" (Spec. 4.73; cf. 1.294; Congr. 171). Here, indeed, we touch
upon the formula which for Philo constitutes the best way to describe the
telos of man's life, homoidsis thed (imitation of God), and in adopting
eo See Baldry: 177-203.
INTRODUCTION
45
this Platonic goal he was following, as Dillon has pointed out, in the foot­
steps of Eudorus of Alexandria.
Many commentators find the "undisguised particularism" of part III
[C], of Wisd, where God appears "as partial to the Jews and inimical
to their enemies" (Reider 1 9 5 7 : 4 1 ) , and the verses regarding the innate
viciousness of the Canaanites and their primal accursedness ( 1 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) ,
irreconcilable with the universalism which we have found encapsuled in
the adjective philanthrdpon. It seems apparent, however, that the an­
cient Egyptians and Canaanites merely served the author as symbols for
the hated Alexandrians and Romans of his own day, upon whom he
visited an apocalyptic vengeance in chap. 5. The intense hatred breathed
in part III can only be understood in the light of contemporary conditions.
Finding himself in similar circumstances, Philo, who has a much more
elaborate doctrine of philanthrdpia and is always at great pains to tone
down Jewish particularism (see NOTE on 1 8 : 4 ) , is nevertheless quite ca­
pable not only of depicting the future divine punishment of Israel's ene­
mies, but also of setting God's people apart as the special concern of the
Deity who employs the Romans (not mentioned by name) as pawns in his
larger historical plan:
61
Everything will suddenly be reversed, God will turn the curses against the
enemies of these penitents, the enemies who rejoiced in the misfortunes of
the nation and mocked and railed at them, thinking that they themselves
would have a heritage which nothing could destroy. . . . In their infatua­
tion they did not understand that the short-lived brilliance which they had
enjoyed had been given them not for their own sakes but as a lesson to
others, who had subverted the institutions of their fathers, and therefore
grief—the very painful feeling aroused by the sight of their enemy's good
fortune—was devised as a medicine to save them from perdition. . . . But
these enemies who have mocked at their lamentations, proclaimed public
holidays on the days of their misfortunes, feasted on their mourning, in
general made the unhappiness of others their own happiness, will, when
they begin to reap the rewards of their cruelty, find that their misconduct
was directed not against the obscure and unmeritable but against men of
high lineage retaining sparks of their noble birth, which have to be but
fanned into a flame, and from them shines out the glory which for a little
while was quenched. (Praem. 169-72; cf. Mos. 1.69-70; Praem. 96-97:
"He promises to marshal against them to their shame and perdition,
swarms of wasps [cf. Exod 23:28] to fight in the van of the godly.")
6 1
See Fug. 63, where he quotes Plato's Theaetetus 176AB; Op. 144; Virt. 8, 168,
204-205; Spec. 4.188; Decal 73; LA 2.4. Cf. Plato, Tim. 90Aff; Laws 7163. For
Eudorus, see Dillon: 115-135. The idea of imitatio Dei was, of course, also distinc­
tively Jewish. See Mek. Shirta 3, Lauterbach 2. 25; BT Shab. 113b; Sotah 14a; and
Marmorstein 1950:106-121; Schechter 1936:199#.
46
THE
W I S D O M OF
SOLOMON
This is not to deny that there is a certain degree of tension between the
universalist and particularist tendencies both in Philo and in Wisd, but it is
not distinctly more pronounced in the latter than it is in the former.
8. Freedom and Determinism*
In a monotheistic creed there is almost an ineluctable tendency to fault
the Omnipotent Deity for human sin. A late midrash, for example, put the
following critique into the mouth of Cain:
Master of the world, if I have killed him, it is thou who hast created in me
the Evil Ye$er [i.e. Instinct, Drive]. Thou watchest me and the whole
world. Why didst thou permit me to kill him? It is thou who hast killed
him . . . for if thou hadst received my sacrifice I would not have become
jealous of him (Mid.Tanh.Gen. 9; cf. Midrash Hagadol on Gen 4:9).
That this form of critique was taken seriously even in earlier rabbinic liter­
ature is made clear by the statement of R. Simeon b. Yohai:
It is a thing hard to say, and it is impossible for the mouth to utter it. It is
to be compared to two athletes who were wrestling in the presence of the
king. If the king wills, he can have them separated; but the king wills not;
in the end one overwhelmed the other and killed him. And the dying man
shouted: Let my case be examined before the king (BR 22.9, ThAlb:216).e2
In a more pointed attempt to locate the source of human motivations in
God, the rabbis plead in favor of the brothers of Joseph, "When thou didst
choose, thou didst make them love; when thou didst choose thou didst
make them hate" (BR 84.18, Th-Alb:1022). Elijah, too, spoke insolently
toward heaven saying to God, "Thou hast turned their heart back again,"
and God later confessed that Elijah was right (BT Ber. 31b; cf. Sank.
105a) (see Schechter:264-292). A similar critique is voiced with almost
consistent monotony by the author of IV Ezra: "This is my first and last
word; better had it been that the earth had not produced Adam, or else,
having once produced him, (for thee) to have restrained him from sin­
ning" (7:116, APOT 1; cf. 3:8,20-22; 7:47-48; 8:42-44). The author
of the Apocalypse of Abraham is equally exercised over the divine license
for evil to invade the human psyche: "O Eternal, Mighty One! Wherefore
hast thou willed to effect that evil should be desired in the hearts of men,
since Thou indeed art angered over that which was willed by Thee" (23,
* This section is an expanded version of Winston 1973.
The midrashic parable of an athletic contest seems to be drawn from Greek
Sophistic discussions. Plutarch, for example, tells us that a certain athlete had hit
Epitimus the Pharsalian with a javelin, accidentally, and killed him, and Pericles
wasted an entire day discussing with Protagoras whether it was the javelin or rather
the one who hurled it or the judges of the contests, that ought to be held responsible
for the disaster (Pericles 3 6 ) .
6 2
INTRODUCTION
47
Box). Even in the polytheistic ambience of Homeric man we find an anal­
ogous attempt to put the burden of sin on Zeus. "Not I was the cause of
this act," cries Agamemnon,
but Zeus and my portion and the Erinys who walks in darkness: they it
was who in the assembly put wild ate [i.e. folly] in my understanding, on
that day when I arbitrarily took Achilles' prize from him. So what could I
do? Deity will always have its way (Iliad 19.86#).
That this is no idiosyncratic whim of Agamemnon is attested by the under­
standing response of Achilles:
Father Zeus, great indeed are the atai [i.e. follies] thou givest to men. Else
the son of Atreus would never have persisted in rousing the thymos [i.e.
will] in m y chest, nor obstinately taken the girl against m y will (Iliad
19.270#) .<»
In a sense, the Bible itself encouraged this feeling that God is ultimately
responsible for man's wicked deeds. A distinct complex of historic events
is explicated in Scripture through the primitive but potent concept of psy­
chic invasion. God directly intervenes in Pharaoh's inner deliberations,
"hardening his heart" in order to demonstrate ultimately his divine might
(Exod 10:1; cf. Sir 16:15). He similarly hardens the heart of Sihon, king
of the Amorites (Deut 2:30), and applies the same divine strategy to the
Canaanites (Josh 11:20: "It was the Lord's purpose that they should offer
an obstinate resistance to the Israelites in battle, and that thus they should
be annihilated without mercy and utterly destroyed, as the Lord had com­
manded Moses"). Inversely, God does not permit Abimelech, king of
Gerar, to sin with Abraham's wife Sarah (Gen 20:6; cf. BR 52.6, ThAlb:548). In an encounter with Saul, David suggests that it may have
been the Lord who has incited Saul against him (I Sam 26:19), and when
the Lord's anger is kindled against Israel, we are told that he incites David
to count them (II Sam 24:1; and for a contrary view, see I Chron 21:1).
God prevented Eli's sons from taking their father's admonitions seriously,
because he wished to slay them (I Sam 2:25), and in order to fulfill his
word to Ahijah the Shilonite spoken to Jeroboam (I Kings 11:31), he in­
duced Rehoboam to refuse the people's request that he lighten their yoke
6 3
Cf. Herodotus 1.45: "But it is not you that I hold the cause of this evil [says
Croesus to Adrastus], save in so far as you were the unwilling doer of it: rather it is
the work of a god, the same who told me long ago what was to be"; Odyssey
1.32-34: "Look you now [says Zeus], how ready mortals are to blame the gods. It is
from us, they say, that evils come, but they even of themselves, through their own
blind folly, have sorrows beyond that which is ordained." See Dodds 1959:3;
Theiler:46-103; Wust:95; Pohlenz 1966:124-160. For similar notions in Egypt and
Mesopotamia, see S. Morenz and D. Miiller, Untersuchungen zur Rolle des Schicksalls
in der agyptischen Religion (Berlin, 1960); A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia
(Chicago, 1964): 198-206; S. Morenz, Egyptian Religion (London, 1973): 57-80.
48
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
(I Kings 12:15). Isaiah takes up the same theme: "Make the heart of this
people fat, and their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with
their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their hearts, and
turn and be healed' (Isa 6:10; cf. 29:10). Finally, both Jeremiah and
Ezekiel foresee God's direct future intervention in order to transform the
human psyche and redeem it from its congenital evil (Jer 31:30-33;
32:39-40; Ezek 36:16-30; 20:32-44; cf. Deut 30:6; Jub 1:23; 5:12).™
In the light of this background of ideas, in addition to the deterministic
elements running through ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature, it is not
difficult to see how Jewish wisdom and apocalyptic writings came to
emphasize the decisive importance of God's prior gift of wisdom for the
determination of a man's moral character. What baffles the reader of this
ancient literature, however, is the easy coexistence in it of two apparently
contradictory strands of thought, namely, an emphasis on God's ultimate
determination of all human action coupled with an equally emphatic con­
viction that the human will is the arbiter of its own moral destiny. We shall
begin our analysis of this problem with an examination of the Wisdom of
Ben Sira and the Qumran scrolls, where the free will dilemma becomes im­
mediately apparent.
Ben Sira clearly states that God has predetermined man's character
from birth.
1
To fear the Lord is the beginning of Wisdom,
And with the faithful was she created in the womb.
With faithful men is she, and she hath been established from eternity;
And their seed shall she continue (1:14-15, APOT 1).
This is but a part of the larger cosmological picture which the author de­
picts.
When God created His works from the beginning,
After making them He assigned them (their) portions.
He set in order His works for ever,
And their authority unto their generations.
They hunger not, neither are they weak,
And they cease not from their works.
Not one thrusteth aside his neighbour,
They never disobey His word (Sir 16:26-28, APOT 1).
4
« S e e Liitgert; Kaufmann 3. 2, 438, 560-561. Cf. also H Chron 25:20; I Kings
22:20-23; Ps-Philo Liber antiquitantum biblicarum 12:3: "And when Aaron said this,
they hearkened not unto him, that the word might be fulfilled which was spoken in
the day when the people sinned in building the tower, when God said: 'And now if I
forbid them not, they will adventure all that they take in mind to do, and worse.'"
For the Greek notion of psychic intervention, see Dodds 1959:10^ (and for the
Greek notion of ate as a deliberate deception which draws the victim on to fresh
error whereby he hastens his own ruin, the grim doctrine that Quern deus vult perdere, prius dementat, see Dodds:38-39). For the similar Muslin notion of 'sealing'
(Qur'an 2:5-6; 7:92-99), see Watt: 15-16.
INTRODUCTION
49
The notion of portions recurs throughout the book. "Praise is not seemly
in the mouth of the wicked, for it hath not been apportioned him by God"
(15:8, APOT 1; cf. 40:1; 38:1; 17:7; 41:3; 11:22; I Enoch 67:1; Ps Sol
5:6). A more detailed account of God's fashioning of man spells out the
polar plan of creation which provides for two antithetical categories of
people.
Likewise also all men are made from the clay,
And Adam was created of earth.
In His great wisdom God distinguished them,
And differentiated their ways.
Some He blessed and exalted,
And others He hallowed and brought nigh to Himself;
Some He cursed and abased,
And overthrew them from their place.
As the clay is in the power of the potter,
To fashion it according to his good pleasure;
So is man in the power of his creator,
To make him according to His ordinance
[cf. Isa 45:9; Jer 18:6; Test.Naphtali 2:2-7; 1QH 1:21; 3:23; 4:29; Rom
9:20; Amen-em-opet 25, ANET:424],
Over against evil (stands) the good, and against death life;
Likewise over against the godly the sinner.
Even thus look upon all the works of God,
Each different, one the opposite of the other
[Sir 33:10-15, APOT 1; cf. I Enoch 41:8].
Moreover, the hopeless condition of the sinner is explicitly related to his
genetic endowment.
(As for) the wound of the scorner [i.e. his lack of wisdom],
there is no healing for it,
For an evil growth is his plant [Sir 3:28, APOT 1].
How can we now reconcile this stark predestinarianism with the equally
emphatic teaching of Ben Sira concerning man's freedom to choose his life
path?
Say not: 'From God is my transgression,'
For that which He hateth made He not.
Say not: '(It is) He that made me to stumble,'
For there is no need of evil men.
Evil and abomination doth the Lord hate,
And He doth not let it come nigh to them that fear Him.
God created man from the beginning,
And placed him in the hands of his Yeser [i.e. Instinct, Drive].
If thou (so) desirest, thou canst keep the commandment,
And (it is) wisdom to do His good pleasure.
50
THE W I S D O M
OF
SOLOMON
Poured out before thee (are) fibre and water,
Stretch forth thine hand unto that which thou desirest.
Life and death (are) before man,
That which he desireth shall be given to him
[Sir 1 5 : 1 1 - 1 7 , APOT 1].
The dilemma under scrutiny confronts us even more poignantly in the
Qumran scrolls. The author of the Hoddyot or thanksgiving psalms, for
example, is acutely conscious of God's overwhelming and all-regulating
power.
I know through the understanding which comes from Thee that right­
eousness is not in a hand of flesh, that man is not master of his way and
that it is not in mortals to direct their step. I know that the inclination of
every spirit is in Thy hand; Thou didst establish all its ways before ever
creating it, and h o w can any man change Thy words? Thou alone didst
create the just and establish him from the womb for the time of good­
will. . . . But the wicked Thou didst create for the time of Thy wrath,
T h o u didst v o w them from the womb to the D a y of Massacre, for they
walk in the way which is not good. . . . Thou hast ordained them for great
chastisements before the eyes of all Thy creatures . . . that all men may
know Thy glory and Thy tremendous power ( 1 Q H 1 5 . 1 2 - 2 1 ) .
Only God and his elect are privy to the "mysteries" of his predestined plan
for the ages:
By the God of Knowledge is everything wrought. Before they occur H e has
set down all their designs; and when they come into being for the
fulfilment of their functions they carry out their activity according to His
glorious design, without any deviation. . . . H e created the spirit of light
and darkness, and upon them H e founded every work and every action
(1QS 3.150; cf. 1QH 1.21; 2.13; 10.2-5; 11.10; 1QS 9 . 1 8 ) .
Yet in spite of the inevitability of the divine plan with its prior determi­
nation of every human psyche for all time, we find alongside it a recurrent
emphasis on man's voluntaristic action. We find reference, for example, in
1QS 6.13 to: "every man, born of Israel, who freely pledges himself
to join the Council of the Community" and again in 1QS 5.1: "And
this is the Rule for the men of the Community who have freely
pledged themselves to be converted from all evil and to cling to all His
commandments according to His will" (cf. 1QS 1.7, 11; 1QM 7.5; 10.5).
The depth of feeling involved is clearly manifest in 1QH 15.10: "I have
loved Thee freely and with all my heart and soul." The covenanter of
Qumran must identify his will with that of God: "He shall freely delight in
all that befalls him and nothing shall please him save God's will. He shall
51
INTRODUCTION
delight in all the words of His mouth and shall desire nothing except His
commands" (1QS 9.23-24) .
Before attempting to resolve the riddle before us, we must briefly survey
the development of the free will problem in Greek philosophy. Even a cur­
sory reading makes it at once evident that before Epicurus the well-known
polemics concerning freedom and determinism are absent from Greek
thought. Plato and Aristotle seem to be content with a notion of relative
free will, but their virtual unconcern with the classical dilemmas which
came to characterize the later debates over this issue has caused modern
commentators no little trouble in elucidating their positions. Unfortu­
nately, the objective cool with which the Classical period was able to ap­
proach this question gave way in the Hellenistic age to an earnest and
impassioned anxiety. A feeling of helpless fatality begins to take hold of
men, and Epicurus, whose major concern was the liberation of man from
the grip of myth and superstition, could no longer ignore the new chal­
lenge to man's freedom. In Epicurus, for the first time in Greek philosophy
(according to one interpretation), we encounter the concept of absolute
free will. The absence of primary sources, however, makes it difficult to
determine the exact nature of Epicurus' doctrine of the atomic swerve. If
we follow the Giussani-Bailey interpretation, according to whom Epi­
curus posited an atomic swerve for every instance of free action, it would
be necessary to classify Epicurus' doctrine as one of absolute free will. The
latter teaches that voluntary motion is uncaused, and that no fixed inner
structure of the will determines action. We find a similar doctrine in the
65
66
67
68
«s See Licht; cf. Ringgren 1963; Merrill.
«See Wolfson 1948: 1. 430; Furley:210-226; Winston 1974-75:49-50 (and litera­
ture there cited); Loening: chap. 18; Allan:325-340.
The expression libera potestas occurs first in Lucretius 2.256. See Huby.
(Pohlenz, on the other hand, thinks that Epicurus dealt with the free will problem
under the impetus of Zeno. See his 1955: 1. 59-60.) Huby's explanation, however, of
the Epicurean preoccupation with this problem, as a reaction to the thoroughgoing
determinism of Democritus, seems to me inadequate. In addition to the fillip im­
parted by the encroaching forces of astrological fatalism, I should like to point to an
inner motivation for Epicurus' free will doctrine. The soteriological thrust of
Epicurus' teachings required a clear hope for human salvation grounded in the theo­
retical principles of his atomic system. Since, on the one hand, the infinite causal
atomic chain could easily be misconstrued by the common man as precluding even
the slightest possibility of achieving happiness by special human efforts, and since the
realistic limitations of human character, on the other, would dampen the prospects of
any substantial success on the part of Epicurus with most men, it suddenly became
essential to find a way to guarantee the effectiveness of the atomic world view in se­
curing human happiness. The atomic swerve allowed the new teaching to break
through the causal nexus which shaped man's character and moral destiny from an
infinitely remote past and permitted the Epicurean philosophy to espouse a hopeful
and confident meliorism.
«»See Bailey:432-437; GiussanL
6
6 7
52
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
writings of Alexander of Aphrodisias (an early third century CE commen­
tator on Aristotle), according to whom free will depends upon uncaused
motion (anaitios kinZsis) and this in turn depends upon an admixture of
non-being. Non-being destroys uniform and consistent action and accounts
for the fact that persons of similar endowments and breeding frequently
differ from one another, If, on the other hand, we follow Furley's inter­
pretation (pp. 161-237) which is by far the more likely, according to
which Epicurus taught that the motions of the psyche are not determined
ab initio because of the discontinuity brought about by the atomic
swerve which allows new patterns of motion to emerge which cannot be
explained by the initial constitution of the psyche, we should have to clas­
sify his doctrine as a relative free will theory of the 'modified causal' type.
The latter teaches that man's volitional motion, though unconstrained by
an external force and thus relatively free, is a product nonetheless of man's
own psyche, which is not a completely autonomous agent. In the causal
variety of this doctrine, the soul is itself a part of the universal causal
chain and fully detennined by it (Stoicism), whereas in its 'non-casual' va­
riety the soul is autonomous though limited by the irrational motions of
the body, which is a part of the universal causal chain (Plato, Middle Platonism, Neoplatonism), and in its predestinarian variety, it is God who ul­
timately determines its nature (Ben Sira, Qumran scrolls, rabbinic
thought). In the 'modified causal* version of the Epicureans, although the
atomic soul cluster is a part of the causal nexus, the latter can be broken
through and hence training and conditioning in the light of the Epicurean
teachings could more or less rectify improper proportions in the soul and
thus secure the ultimate sovereignty of reason in the life of man (Lucretius
3.307-322).
According to the causal variety of relative free will taught by the Stoics,
voluntary motion is caused both by Heimarmene or the universal causal
69
70
6 9
De Anima in Alexandri Aphrodisiensis praeter commentaria scripta minora. De
Anima liber cum mantissa, ed. Ivo Bruns (Supplementum Aristotelicum II [Berlin,
1887-92]:170-171; 22-27. Cf. Pack:418-436. The only example of such a doctrine
in Arabic philosophy seems to be that of Thumama b. Ashras (d. 828), from the
school of Baghdad, who taught that generated effects have no author at all (see
Fakhry:67-68). For a modern example, cf. the Russian Orthodox thinker Nicholas
Berdyaev who developed the notion of 'meontic' freedom (see Nucho: 37-40; cf. also
Shestov:218).
70 For the atomic swerve, see Lucretius 2.216-250: If the atom were always falling
perpendicularly downwards through the void at uniform speed, worlds could never
have formed since the atoms would never have met. Hence arises the need for a mi­
nute swerve of atoms which takes place "at no fixed time and at no fixed place"
(293). Moreover, "if every motion is always linked on, and the new arises from the
old motion in order determined, nor by swerving do the first-beginnings make a cer­
tain start of movement to break through the decrees of fate, so that cause may not
follow cause from infinite time; whence comes this free will for living things all over
the earth?" (251-256). Cf. Cicero De Fato 22-23; Plutarch Moralia 764C.
INTRODUCTION
53
chain (frequently identified with God), as well as man's inner character,
which in turn is also a part of that chain. They maintained, however, that
our choices are within our power (eph hemin) by distinguishing between
the proximate cause (prokatarktike aitia) and the principal cause (autoteles aitia), and asserting that Heimarmene provides only the proximate
causes of man's actions, while man himself provides the principal causes
thereby participating in the process which initiates action (Cicero De Fato
4 1 ) . Since the principal causes provided by man are themselves "the gift
of Heimarmene" (SVF 2. 991), one has two options in describing human
acts. Objectively, man's mind is but an extension of the Divine Mind, and
therefore all its activities are in reality the activities of God; subjectively,
the logos fragment constituting each human mind is that of the individual
who deploys it and exemplifies his very own power of thought and deliber­
ation. This readily accounts for the varying degrees of emphasis in both
the Stoic and Philonic writings on either man's activity or his passivity.
The paradoxes which result from this double conception are elegantly ex­
emplified by the Persian mystic Bayazid of Bistam: "I went from God to
God, until they cried from me in me, 'O thou F " (Nicholson 1963:17).
The 'non-causal' variety of relative free will is represented by Carneades, Pseudo-Plutarch, Albinus, Apuleius, and Alexander of
Aphrodisias in his Peri Heimarmenes. * These thinkers denied that there
was a universal causal chain which encompassed even acts of will and
insisted that voluntary motion was its own cause. According to Albinus,
for example, acts of will belong to the category of the 'possible' (dynaton)
which is 'indeterminate' (aoriston) and the soul is its own master
(adespoton) . It is unlikely, however, that the Middle Platonists would
have disagreed with Plato that the soul is subject to contamination by the
body and that if the latter is radically diseased, the soul might not always
succeed in becoming sufficiently decontaminated to restore it to complete
health. Albinus, for example, writes that involuntary evils may be commit­
ted either through ignorance or passion, but that these are conditions that
can be removed by reason, good traits, and training (Did. 31.2, Louis).
But this statement is probably only meant to emphasize that education and
71
72
73
7
9
76
7 1
Diels: 322: en he symploke kai to par hemas, hoste ta men heimarthai, ta de
syneimarthai. Cf. Cicero De Fato 30; SVF 2.979, 991, 1000.
An excellent analysis of the Stoic position is given by Long 1971:173-199. See
also Rieth: 134-168; Reesor:288-297; Pohlenz 1940:105-108; 1955: 1. 101-106.
For Philo, see Winston 1974-75:47-70.
See Albinus Did. 26.3; Louis; Apuleius De Platone 1.12; Ps-Plutarch De Fato,
ed. E. Valgiglio (Rome, 1964). On Alexander, see Verbeke 1968:73-100;
Long:247-268. For Calcidius, see the annotated edition by den Boeft. A detailed dis­
cussion of this problem in the Middle Platonists will be found in Dillon.
Similarly, according to Calcidius, "the soul is free and acts according to its own
authority'* (In Timaeum 180b). For the term adespoton, cf. Plato Rep. 617E;
Epicurus Epistulae 3.133.
7 2
7 8
7 4
7 5
54
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
training can have a decisive influence on one's moral actions, and not to
deny that there may be some residual recalcitrance in a soul encased in a
body diseased by heredity and environment which cannot be completely
overcome. Calcidius explicitly acknowledges that though the moderate are
supported by the happy amalgamation of body fluids, the extravagant or
immoderate suffer from the disharmonious mixture of these fluids, and
that in the mind of the moderate man deliberation always has the upper
hand, whereas the weakness of the immoderate man supports the defective
parts of his mind (the desiderative and spirited) against reason (In
Timaeum 181-184). These very debates, however, between reason and
the defective parts of the soul, he argues, are proof of our freedom, al­
though he concedes that when "excited or perverted by passion, we are
not capable of judgment" (184b). It is clear, then, that the most Calcidius
is arguing for is a relative freedom, since he allows that the logistikon may
be thwarted by certain bodily conditions. The Middle Platonists would not
deny that the human soul, as part of the World Soul, was ultimately deter­
mined either by that cosmic entity, or by the Supreme God who ordered
and governed it. They could, thus, under no circumstances maintain an
absolute free will doctrine. It appears, however, that most of them would,
like Plato, have further restricted the soul's freedom by allowing for its
partial contamination by body. Still, in spite of this restriction, the soul's
freedom was in their view guaranteed if it could be shown that although it
was capable through association with the body of being affected by 'Fate'
or the causal chain of the physical universe, it was nevertheless, as an ab­
solutely transcendent entity, not subject to its control. Their disa­
greement with the Stoics was thus not over the relative character of human
freedom, but whether or not to subject the soul to Tate.' Indeed, what
unites Carneades, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and the Middle Platonists, is
their common polemical thrust against the Stoic doctrine of the universal
causal chain. Alexander, for example, felt that the subtle distinctions made
by the Stoics would undoubtedly be lost on the average man, who would
easily succumb to the so-called 'lazy argument' (argos logos) and resign
himself to Fate (On Fate 16). He claimed that the Stoic causal chain
theory was too rigidly conceived and needed to be modified to allow for
the contingent and the possible (On Fate 22-24). Not even the gods, he
argued, would be able to predict the future completely, but would *foreknow possible things (ta endechomena) only as possible." (For Carneades'
76
7 6
Philo, on the other hand, seems deliberately to avoid the Platonic notion that the
soul may become diseased through the body (Virt. 13; Spec 3.10-11). He thus ap­
parently held that a healthy soul can essentially overcome the diseased conditions of
the body and that even when sick (i.e. when the eukrasia of its three faculties is de­
fective), it still functions autonomously since its sickness is in no way caused by any­
thing external (i.e. Philo seems to have believed it was defective when it entered the
body), ( a . Her. 294ff.)
INTRODUCTION
55
similar view, see Cicero De Fato 14.32-33.) Aiming at practical results (a
fact which is further indicated by his dedication of the treatise to the em­
perors Septimius Severus and Caracalla), Alexander's polemic seriously
misrepresented the Stoic position, and the popular character of his argu­
mentation becomes emphatically clear when he proceeds at one point to
defend his free will theory by claiming after the manner of Pascal's famous
Svager' that "men would not err in their actions by reason of the convic­
tion of free will (even if it did not exist). But, on the other hand, suppos­
ing that some power of free will does exist . . . if we are persuaded that
we have no control over anything, we shall let many things go that should
be done by us" (On Fate 21). What especially irritated the critics of the
Stoa was the severity and explicitness of their theory of causality.
Although Aristotle probably did not believe that there was an element
of absolute contingency in nature (the matter has been much debated),
unlike the Stoics, he did not provide his readers with a clearly articulated
doctrine of universal causality. Chrysippus, on the other hand, allegedly
asserted that "HeimarmenS is a natural order of the whole by which from
eternity one thing follows another and derives from it in an unalterable in­
terdependence" (Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae 7.2.3), and Cicero pro­
vides us with a Stoic statement which virtually anticipates Laplace: "If
there were a man whose soul could discern the links that join each cause
with every other cause, then surely he would never be mistaken in any pre­
diction he might make" (De Divinatione 1.125-128): cf. Sambursky:58.
It was these stark formulations which aroused the philosophical ire of their
antagonists, even though the position of almost all parties on human free­
dom was substantially the same.
It is not at all surprising that the Stoic formulation appears to be
reflected in Jewish literature, since both traditions were similarly moti­
vated. Both taught an emphatic doctrine of Divine Providence, yet were at
the same time keenly concerned with the ethical responsibility of the indi­
vidual. Although loyal to traditional Judaism, Ben Sira often absorbs
Hellenistic ingredients which are thoroughly assimilated to his own think­
ing. It has been correctly pointed out, for example, that the polarity princi­
ple which he uses to good advantage is a characteristically Greek pattern
of thought, that his statement that God is all (43:27) bears a distant
echo of Stoic terminology, and that his doctrine of the purposefulness of
all created things was common Stoic teaching. It is therefore not unlikely
that in dealing with the free will problem, which by that time had begun to
become troublesome, he made use of the well-known Stoic line of argu77
78
77 See Lloyd 1966.
See Pautrel; Hengel: 146-147; Marbock; Middendorp. For the question of free­
dom and determinism in Ben Sira, see Maier; Hadot.
7 8
56
THE W I S D O M
OF
SOLOMON
ment. Hence he could maintain the wisdom tradition which emphasized
predestinarianism, and still admonish his readers not to attribute their sins
to God. If we turn to rabbinic discussions of this issue, we find a similar
set of parameters. Although the statement of R. Hanina b. Hama (a Pales­
tinian Amora of the first generation) that "everything is in the hand of
Heaven except the fear of Heaven" (BT Ber. 33b) has often been taken
to imply an absolute free will doctrine, it is most unlikely that this inter­
pretation is correct. The rabbi probably only meant to imply that whereas
God's Providence in every other aspect of human life involves direct guid­
ance and at times even intervention, this does not apply to man's moral
deliberations which ultimately depend upon the spiritual endowments ini­
tially bestowed upon him by God. On the other hand, the famous paradox
of R. Akiba which asserts that "everything is foreseen (by God), yet man
has the capacity to choose freely" (M. Aboth 3.15) is clearly a Jewish ver­
sion of the well-known Stoic paradox, adapted to a predestinarian frame­
work, in the same manner as the later version of St. Augustine, who could
say paradoxically that man sins freely even though his sinning is predeter­
mined by his irresistible concupiscence. This predestinarian emphasis is
made explicit in the following passage from the Mekilta, Pisfra 16 (Lauterbach, 1. 134):
79
We find that the names of the righteous and their deeds are revealed before
God even before they are bora, as it is said, "Before I formed thee in the
belly I knew thee" (Jer 1:5). We thus learn that the names of the righteous
and their deeds are revealed before God. How about those of the wicked?
Scripture says: "The wicked are estranged from the womb" (Ps 58:4).
The splitting of mankind by God into two rival camps (as in Ben Sira and
the Qumran scrolls) is also clearly stated in BR 3.8, Th-Alb:23:
From the beginning of the world's creation God foresaw the deeds of the
righteous and the deeds of the wicked. . . . "And God separated the light
from the darkness," between the deeds of the righteous and the deeds of
the wicked.
80
™ See Wolfson 1951:158-176.
so Cf. Tank WayyeSeb 4: "So, too, said Adam before the Holy One blessed be He,
Lord of the universe, Two thousand years before you created your world, the Tora
was beside you, like a master workman, and in it is written, 'This is the procedure:
when a person dies in a tent.' Had you not decreed death for man, would you have
thus written in it? But you have come to hang the libel ['alilah] on me. This is
meant by H e is terrible in his doing ['alilah] toward the children of men.' [Ps
66:5]." (See Urbach: 227-253.) With this one may compare Al-Bukhari Qadar
b . l l : "The prophet of God said that Adam and Moses maintained a debate before
God, and Adam got the better of Moses who said: Thou art that Adam whom God
created and breathed into thee his own spirit, and made the angels bow down before
thee, and placed thee in Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth,
from the fault which thou didst commit. Adam replied: Thou art that Moses, whom
57
INTRODUCTION
Although we need not look for Stoic influence in the Qumran scrolls, it
will be instructive to compare their view with that of the Stoa. The sec­
tarians of Qumran, like the Stoics, accented the all-controlling hand of
omnipotent Providence and tended to view all things from the divine per­
spective. Neither wished thereby to deny man's relative freedom, but their
sharp focus on the divine rather than the human pole, made a harsh im­
pression on their contemporaries. The Qumranites were prone to see
man's spiritual capacities as the sheer gift of divine grace, without which
he would be bereft of all power and of all good. Thus, even when empha­
sizing man's voluntary decision they couple it with the notion of its com­
plete assimilation to the will of God. In much the same way, the Stoics,
too, said in effect that man has freedom to the extent that he can con­
sciously participate in the rational process of the cosmos, and that the
height of that freedom is achieved when he consciously and voluntarily ac­
cepts his appointed lot within the scheme of things. The prayer of
Cleanthes (SVF 1. 527; cf. 2. 975; 3. 191; M. AureL 5.27) is an expres­
sion of one who has achieved that supreme stage of freedom which marks
the upper limit of man's rational activity. Precisely this sentiment is ex­
pressed by the Sufi mystic Rumi, when he says that freedom in the full
sense of the term belongs only to the man who loves God so perfectly that
his will is one with the divine will: "The word 'compulsion' makes me im­
patient for Love's sake, 'tis only he who loves not that is fettered by com­
pulsion" (Nicholson 1950:162).
In short, within the framework of a theory of relative freedom, the con­
cepts of determinism and predestination may freely coexist with that of
voluntarism. God could be envisaged as predetermining man's nature to in­
clude the power of deliberative choice, though as its sovereign author he
also determined its mode of operation and consequently all that resulted
from it. It did not particularly bother most ancient writers, however, that
God was thus ultimately responsible for man's moral delinquencies and
the punishments that followed. They simply accepted this hard reality as
part of the divine mystery. It was only under the impact of extraordinary
81
God selected for his prophecy and to converse with, and he gave thee twelve
tablets. . . . Then how long was the Bible written before I was created? Moses said:
forty years. Then said Adam: Didst thou see in the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?
Yes. Dost thou reproach me on a matter which God wrote in the Bible before creat­
ing me?" (see E. Sell, The Faith of Islam [London, 1880] 173). The great mystical
poet Ibn 'al-Farid of Cairo (1182-1235) cites the Hadith [a tradition associated with
the prophet Muhammad] that when Allah created Adam, he drew forth his posterity
from his loins in two handfuls, one white as silver and one black as coal, and said:
"These are in Paradise and I care not; and these are in HeU and I care not" (Ta'iya
746).
si Cf. Hengel 1. 231.
58
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
catastrophes that their concepts of freedom and predestination became
unglued and required new and more subtle interpretations to put them to­
gether again. Much of the perplexity of modern critics at the seeming con­
tradictions discussed above has been occasioned by their attempt to view
the ancient documents through the lenses of later theological conceptions
and needs.
In the light of all this, the apparent contradictions which are found in
Wisd can be quickly dismissed. According to the author of Wisd the im­
pious summoned 'Death' themselves and made a covenant with him
(1:16) because they are worthy to be of his portion (2:24). The idea of
being worthy of either Death or Wisdom occurs more than once. Wisdom
goes about seeking them that are worthy of her (6:16). Grace and mercy
belong to God's chosen. In contrast to the wicked, the righteous were
found by God to be worthy of himself (3:5). Wisdom takes the initiative
in making herself known (6:13), and without her no one can comprehend
God's plan or will (9:13,17). Furthermore, were it not for divine grace
(8:21), even one who possessed the best natural endowments (8:19-20)
would be of no account and would be rejected from among God's children
(9:4,6). For even the best body is perishable and it weighs down the
mind by encumbering it with distracting cares. Hence, only when God
sends his Wisdom down from its heavenly abode can man's paths upon the
earth be made straight and salvation be achieved (9:17-18). Moreover,
the children of the impious are wicked and their generation is accursed
(3:12). Of the Canaanites, the author asserts that their seed was evil and
their viciousness innate, and that their mode of thought would in no way
vary to the end of time (2:10-11). Finally, we are told that a condign fate
(anangke) drew the Egyptians to their destruction (19:4). On the other
hand, training, instruction, and pre-dawn vigilance seem to be prereq­
uisites for the attainment of Wisdom (6:17; 8:18; 6:14-15), and men
must seek her in prayer (8:21). The world's rulers are exhorted to seek
wisdom if they do not wish to go astray ( 6 : 9 ) . "The gift of grace," as
Rylaarsdam puts it, "is thus not irresistible" (:97). The answer to these
apparent inconsistencies is once again that man's freedom is only relative,
and that from the higher perspective, it is God who in reality makes cer­
tain individuals worthy of Wisdom, and destines others for 'Death.' As in
the Qumran scrolls, mankind is seen as split into two camps, those sought
out by Wisdom and those who belong to the portion or party of Satan
(3:24). But though relative, man's freedom enables him to participate ac­
tively in the divine plan, and from the more limited human perspective, it
may be said that he chooses his own life-path (cf. Amir: 329-335).
82
8 2
See, for example, Dalbert:85.
INTRODUCTION
59
V H I . WISDOM OF SOLOMON AND PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA
A glance at our commentary will quickly reveal a considerable degree of
similarity in many of the literary and religious themes discussed both by
Wisd and Philo, including a number of striking linguistic parallels. The
most natural conclusion to be drawn is that the one is dependent on the
other, but it is difficult to determine which of the two has the priority, nor
can it be ruled out that both are drawing on common sources. Much
depends on the date of Wisd, and we have already seen that this is a much
debated issue. I have attempted to demonstrate that Wisd was written
sometime between 30 BCE and 50 CE, and have further conjectured that it
was likely to have been composed ca. 37-41 CE. If this dating should turn
out to be correct, then we must conclude that (barring dependence on
common sources) it was the author of Wisd who was deeply influenced by
Philo rather than the other way around. In the absence of any degree of
certainty with regard to the dating of Wisd, the best we can do is to show
that the author of that book shares most of the major themes of Philo's
philosophy, at the same time indicating those Philonic ideas which either
make no appearance at all in his work or to which he only alludes. It need
not, of course, surprise us if in a brief protreptic discourse such as Wisd,
the author should have made his own selection from the vast Philonic cor­
pus, omitting whatever did not particularly appeal to him or did not read­
ily fit his purpose, and emphasizing those thoughts which did. In any case,
pending ultimate decision of the issue of priority, it will be useful to pro­
vide a brief summary of those ideas shared by Wisd and Philo, so that the
intimate connection between them may readily be ascertained.
The central figure of Wisd is Sophia, described as an 'effluence' or
'effulgence' of God's glory, and his agent in creation (7:25-6; 8:4;
9:1-2). Philo similarly speaks of Sophia as streaming forth from God
(Sornn. 2.221), and acting as the agent of his creation (Her. 199; Det.
5 4 ) . Wisd implies that Sophia contains the paradigmatic patterns of all
things (9:9; cf. 9:8), a basic doctrine in Philo's cosmology. Both describe
Sophia as 'bright' (lampros) (6:12; LA 3.35, 171; Op. 30; Plant. 40),
and insist that she is more radiant than the sun (7:29; Mig. 40). Both em­
ploy sexual imagery in connection with the pursuit of Sophia, calling her
'bride' or 'spouse' (8:2; Congr. 74; QG 3.21; Post. 79), and speak of 'liv88
8 3
In LA 1.63, Philo explicitly identified Sophia with Logos. Cf. Plato Philebus
30C. For a resolution of the apparent contradictions in Philo's descriptions of Logos
and Sophia, see Drummond 2. 207-211; Wolfson 1948 1. 258-261; Friichtel: 177-178. Wilckens points out that sophia is used by Philo over two hundred
times, and sophos some three hundred times (TDNT 7. 500).
60
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
ing with her' (symbioun) (8:3,16; Cont. 68; Ebr. 30; Congr. 5) and en­
joying 'kinship' (syngeneia) with her (8:17; Op. 14.5-6; Spec. 4.14; QG
2.60). Sophia anticipates those who desire her (6:17; Congr. 122-123;
Virt. 185), and those who seek her will not weary (6:14; Deus 160). She
has no fellowship with pining envy (6:23; Prob. 13-14; Congr. 13, 122123; Spec. 1.320-321; QG 4.103), and must be wooed guilelessly (7:13;
Ebr. 49; Virt. 6 2 ) . Without Sophia man is nothing (9:6; Post. 136; LA
1.82) and all his words and thoughts are in God's hands (7:16; Cher.
71). She spans the whole range of scientific knowledge (7:17-21; Det.
87-88), Congr. 14-19), and is the source both of morality and prophecy
(8:7; 7:27; LA 1.63-65; QG 3.9; Gig. 2 3 ) . Man must make his soul a
proper abode for Sophia (1:4; Somn. 1.149; 2.251; QE 2.51; Virt. 188;
Sobr. 62; Praem. 123), but the godless, inviting Death, make a pact with
him (1:16; Her. 45; Deus 56; LA 2.18; Mig. 16). True age is not shown
by length of days, but through wisdom and perfection (4:8; Cont. 67; Abr.
271; Fug. 146; Her. 290; Sobr. 7; Deus 120; Plant. 168). Sophia is a di­
rect bearer of revelation, functioning through the workings of the human
mind, and supreme arbiter of all values (9:17; chap. 10; Op. 3; Mos.
2.52; Abr. 3-6, 34, 275-276; Prob. 62; Virt. 194).
Wisd and Philo also have virtually identical theories of creation. God
created the world out of primordial matter (11:17; Prov. 1.22, Aucher;
Op. 8; Spec. 4.187; Mos. 2.267; Spec. 2.225), and Sophia, the agent of
creation, pervades it through and through ( 8 : 1 ; 1:7; Conf. 136; Plant. 9;
Mig. 181; Deus 35-36; Mut. 28; Det. 9 0 ) . She is, however, both im­
manent and transcendent, and while pervading all things, yet remains in
unbroken union with God (7:24; 8:1,3; Det. 90; Gig. 27; LA 1.38).
Teleological and cosmological arguments are employed to demonstrate the
existence of God, the supreme artificer (technites) (13:1-9; Spec.
3.187-189; 1.33; Praem. 41-42; Deed. 60; Abr. 7 1 ; LA 3.97-103; QG
2.34; Fug. 12; Post. 28, 167; Mut. 54). All created things possess an inner
drive to preserve their being (1:14; Aet. 35; Op. 4 4 ) , and the entire uni­
verse is held together by a continuous outward-inward pneumatic motion
or tension ( 8 : 1 ; 16:24; Conf. 136; Plant. 9; Mig. 181; Deus 35-36; Mut.
28; Det. 9 0 ) . The universe is governed by mathematical law (11:20;
Somn. 2.193; Prov. ap. Eusebius PE 7.21.336b; Her. 152, 143) and cer­
tain miracles may be explained as due to a transposition of the elements
through the mathematical manipulation of their pneumatic tension
(19:18; Mos. 2.266-267). Creation itself serves as God's weapon in his
punishment of the wicked (5:17-23; Mos. 1.96).
The doctrine of immortality plays a central role in both Wisd and Philo.
The just live forever (5:15; Jos. 264); their souls, after death, are in
God's hands ( 3 : 1 ; Abr. 258; QG 1.85-86; 3.11; 1.16; Her. 280; Fug.
9 7 ) . The godless, on the other hand, are spiritually dead even while physi­
cally alive (1:11; 3:24; Det. 49; Fug. 55; Spec. 1.345). The soul is a pre-
INTRODUCTION
61
existent spiritual entity (8:19-20; Somn. 1.133-143; Gig. 6-9; Plant.
11-14), and its descent into a body has an oppressive effect upon it
(9:13-18; Gig. 31; LA 3.152; Det. 16; Spec. 4.114; Plant. 25; Her. 295).
The fundamental principles of Wisd's ethical theory also find their
analogues in Philo. Four cardinal virtues are enumerated (8:7; LA
1.71-72), and we are told that a man's true glory is his virtue (3:15; Abr.
31; Deus 117-118). There is an allusion to Virtue's contest (agon) and
her victory, undoubtedly meant to contrast the sage's contest for virtue
with 'unholy' athletic contests (4:2; Agr. 113, 119; Mut. 106; Abr. 48).
One should seek Wisdom for her own sake, but external goods will later
follow in any case (7:7-11; Her. 285-286). Sophia is described as
philanthropos, and God's mercy is a model-lesson for Israel, teaching
them that the righteous man must be humane (1:6; 7:23; 12:19;
11:24,26; 12:1; QG 2.60; Decal. 41, 132-134; Det. 164; Spec. 4.14,73;
1.294,317; Praem. 92; Congr. 171). Without natural endowments, the
mind cannot be brought to its fullness (8:19; Her. 212; Fug. 138; LA
3.96; Sacr. 7; Congr. 71, 122; Mut. 212; Gig. 2; Cher. 101; Mos. 1, 9, 15,
18), but training with Sophia is indispensable (8:18; Congr. 141). The
wicked are in anguish because of their own conscience (17:11; Det.
22-23; Fug. 117-118, 131; QE 2.13; Deus 50, 126, 135-138, 182-183;
Decal. 17; Op. 128; Post. 59; Virt. 206; Jos. 47-48). Man's freedom is
only relative, and from the higher perspective, it is God who in reality
makes certain individuals worthy of Wisdom, and destines others for
'Death', though, unlike the Qumran scrolls, both Wisd and Philo insist
that God is not the direct author of either death or evil (2:24; 6:16; 3:5;
6:13; 9:13,17; 8:21,19-20; 9:4,6,17-18; 3:12; 2:10-11; 19:4; 6:17;
8:18; 6:14-15; 8:21; 6:9; Deus 47; Frag. 8, Harris; Cher. 128; LA
3.136; Somn. 2.253; and NOTE on 1:12.).
Finally, we may note several particularly striking similarities involving
linguistic parallels. Both present elaborate critiques of idolatry (including
the Mysteries), which follow the same pattern and employ similar vocabu­
lary (13-15: see especially introductory NOTE to chap. 13; Decal 52ff;
Spec. 1.13#; Cont. 3ff; Congr. 133; 12:3-18; Spec. 1.319-25). Both are
equally exercised to justify the Israelites' conquest of Canaan (12:3-18;
Hypoth. 356), and their despoiling of the Egyptians (10:17; Mos.
1.140-142), and both, again using similar language, accuse the Egyptians
of practicing hostility toward strangers (19:13-14; Mos. 1.36). As we
have pointed out in the commentary, however, these themes were com­
monplaces in Jewish-Hellenistic literature.
In spite of all the parallels noted, it is clear that the author of Wisd has
omitted a number of characteristic Philonic conceptions. He makes at best
only vague allusions to the Platonic theory of "Ideas" (cf. NOTE on 13:7),
a core doctrine in Philo's thought, and makes no mention of God's
"Powers." He completely ignores Philo's doctrine of the unknowability of
62
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
God's essence, and makes no attempt to correlate the Mosaic command­
ments with the philosophic virtues, or provide an explicit formulation of
natural law (although there are hints that he may have held such a doc­
trine (see Introduction VII.6). There are vague references to 'spirits'
(7:20,23), but nothing like Philo's elaborate doctrine of 'daemons' or
'angels' (Somn. 1.133-143; Gig. 6-9; Plant. 11-14). There is only a bare
hint that he knows the Stoic doctrine of eupatheiai or rational emotions
(8:16), which forms an important part of Philo's ethical theory. His
emphasis on union with Sophia implies a preference for the contemplative
over the practical life (see Introduction VII.5), but, unlike Philo, he does
not describe the characteristic traits of the experience of mystical union.
The closest he comes to Philo's concern with proselytism is his brief
reference in 18:4 to Israel's mission to spread the teachings of the Torah
to the rest of the world. More important, however, is the fact that he
makes no use of Philonic 'allegory' proper, although he is fond of symbolic
interpretations (10:7, Lot's wife is a symbol of the untrusting soul;
16:5-7, the bronze serpent is a symbol of salvation; 16:28, gathering the
manna before the sun melted it, points to prayer at the crack of dawn;
17:21, the Egyptian darkness is equivalent to hell; 18:24, Aaron's robe is
a symbol of the entire cosmos; cf. introductory NOTE to Section X X X V ,
1 7 : 1 - 1 8 : 4 ) . It may very well be that he considered allegory too far­
fetched a method of exegesis, and therefore deliberately avoided it.
The reader of our commentary will also have noticed a great number of
rabbinic parallels to many of the themes employed both by the author of
Wisd and Philo, and may wonder to what extent rabbinic literature may
have influenced these two authors. Unfortunately, it is virtually impossible
to date much of the rabbinic material and it is exceedingly difficult to es­
tablish the extent of the penetration of Palestinian traditions into Alex­
andria around the turn of the first century CE. Lieberman, however, has
pointed out (1968:29-31) that the "twelve questions" (BT Nid. 69b;
Tosef. Nega 'im, end) which the Alexandrians put to R. Joshua b. Hananiah (first-second centuries CE) prove that they were great rabbinic schol­
ars, and were familiar with rabbinic customs. * It is therefore likely that
Palestinian traditions had already penetrated into Alexandria during the
period of Philo and the author of Wisd, and it should occasion no surprise
if these authors had some knowledge of them. On the other hand, it must
84
84
8 4
Cf. the detailed discussion of the relationship between Wisd and Philo provided
by Larcher 1969:151-178. Larcher concludes that in spite of the many striking paral­
lels between the two, there is no evidence that the author of Wisd knew and utilized
the writings of Philo. It should also be noted that Wisd has a clear conception of a
divine covenant with the Patriarchs (12:20-22; 18:20-25), whereas Philo either
understands the diatheke of the LXX as "testament," or has allegorized it to mean
"grace" or "Logos." (See Jaubert 1963:375-442).
84a See also Lieberman in The Jewish Expression, ed. J. Goldin (New Haven and
London, 1976): 119-133.
INTRODUCTION
63
be remembered that it is unlikely that either Philo or the author of Wisd
knew Hebrew, and whatever knowledge of Hebrew sources they acquired
must have been through secondary channels. Moreover, many of the
parallelisms noted may simply be due to similar modes of exegesis of
the biblical text.
Finally, in assesssing Wisd's connections with earlier Jewish literature, it
should be noted, that, as our commentary makes clear, there is a close
affinity between Wisd's eschatology and that of I Enoch (esp. chaps.
91-104, mediated through a Greek translation) and the Dead Sea scrolls.
Moreover, there is in Wisd a continuous reflection of ideas from JewishAlexandrian literature, such as Pseudo-Aristeas, the Testament of Or­
pheus, Aristobulus, Demetrius, Artapanus, Ezekiel the Tragedian, the
third Sibylline Oracle, and III Maccabees. (For a detailed analysis, includ­
ing an assessment of Wisd's dependence on Scripture, see Larcher
1969:85-151).
I X . PURPOSE
Although we have already alluded to the author's purpose in writing the
book, and the audience for which it was intended, we can now spell it out
in greater detail. The author is primarily addressing his fellow Jews in an
effort to encourage them to take pride in their traditional faith. He seeks to
convince them that their way of life, rooted in the worship of the One true
God, is of an incomparably higher order than that of their pagan neigh­
bors, whose idolatrous polytheism has sunk them into the mire of immo­
rality. Moreover, he attempts to justify their present suffering through the
promise of immortality as a reward for their steadfast perseverance in the
pursuit of righteousness. His accusing finger is especially pointed, how­
ever, at the pagan kings (i.e. the Roman rulers) who have abandoned the
principles of divine justice and who will therefore suffer the consequences
of their lawlessnesss. Following the philosophy of Greco-Roman kingship
tracts, he insists that the king, above all, must pursue wisdom (6:21,24).
According to Diotogenes, for example, the king
must excel the rest in virtue and on that account be judged worthy to rule,
but not on account of his wealth, or power, or military strength. . . . He
must separate himself from the human passions, and draw himself up close
to the gods, not in arrogance, but in high-mindedness and in the exceeding
greatness of his virtue. . . . Royalty is an imitation of divinity (Goodenough 1928:70-73). (Cf. Sthenidas of Lokri: The king must be a wise
man, for so he will be a copy and imitator of the first God [Goodenough:73-74].)
At the same time, the author naturally tones down the divine nature to
which the pagan writers sought to assimilate the king. Ecphantus had writ­
ten:
64
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
Accordingly the king, as a copy of the higher king, is a single and unique
creation, for he is on the one hand always intimate with the one who made
him, while to his subjects h e appears as though he were in a light, the light
of royalty. . . . A n d the one who thus lives in royalty ought to share in its
immaculate nature, and to understand how much more divine he is than
the rest ( G o o d e n o u g h : 7 6 - 7 7 ; cf. N O T E on 7 : 1 ) .
Wisd emphasizes instead the king's lowly and mortal origins (7:1-5; 9:5).
Moreover, the Greco-Roman doctrines of kingship, as indeed all the high
philosophic ideals of Greek thought, are identified by the author with the
teachings of Judaism (cf. Pseudo-Aristeas 187-294). The Torah, as we
have already seen, has been refracted through his sharp philosophical
lense, with the result that it has taken on the appearance of a Middle Platonist world view with mystical overtones. In the author's mind, undoubt­
edly, the process is reversed, and he would prefer to say that the Platonic
philosophy is in reality nothing but the traditional teachings of Moses. By
presenting Judaism in intellectually respectable terms, he sought to shore
up the faith against hostile anti-Semitic attacks from without and gnawing
doubts from within, and through a determined counterattack against the
immoral pagan world which he threatened with divine retribution, he at­
tempted to revive the flagging spirits of his hard-pressed people. The phil­
osophical sophistication of his discourse is cloaked by the omission of
elaborate demonstrative argumentation or technical detail. Although the
style is highly wrought, it is not until we reach the third part of the book
that the author's rhetorical prowess is fully displayed. The writing is in­
tense and frequently passionate, but also highly allusive, allowing those
possessed of a wider range of learning to enjoy the full thrust of its intent.
The audience addressed was thus considerably wider than could be reached
by a narrow technical treatise, although it must have comprised a some­
what restricted and highly literate group of readers. Finally, it must be said
that in addition to the social and political factors which stimulated the
author to write the book, we must reckon above all with his unbounded
love and enthusiasm for wisdom, which verged on the mystical, and lent to
his writing (at least to its central part) an extraordinary degree of intellec­
tual excitement as appealing today as when the book had first left its
author's study.
X.
MANUSCRIPTS AND VERSIONS
The basis for our translation is the text published by Joseph Ziegler as part
of the Gottingen LXX in 1962. It is the first critical edition of Wisd es­
tablished on the basis of the whole of the pertinent recorded evidence in
manuscripts, citations, and versions, and is furnished with a full apparatus
INTRODUCTION
65
detailing that evidence and an introduction evaluating it. The text of Wisd
is well preserved, in whole or in part, in five uncial Manuscripts: A or
codex Alexandrinus (London, British Museum), fifth century; B or codex
Vaticanus (Rome, Vatican Library), fourth century; C or codex
Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale), fifth century (a
palimpsest written over by St. Ephraem in the twelfth century, and contain­
ing only a part of Wisd; the original was restored by a chemical process);
S or codex Sinaiticus (the "Leningrad" text, now in British Museum),
fourth century; V or codex Venetus (Venice, Library of St. Mark), eighth
century (important for its witness to many Origenic readings). According
to Ziegler, the original form of the text of Wisd is best transmitted through
the uncials B and S (which are so closely related that Ziegler treats them
as a single witness, B-S) and A. When these manuscripts agree and are
followed by most of the minuscules, we may be certain of the correct read­
ing of the text. The later uncials C and V are secondary, C mostly because
it contains large gaps, and V because it has many variants due to scribal
errors. The cursive manuscripts or minuscules are of later age and inferior
(forty-five are listed by Ziegler). There are also several papyrus fragments
(Antinoopolis Papyrus 8, third century; Vienna, Nationbibliothek,
Sammlung Erzherzog Rainer, Litt. theol. 5, fourth-fifth centuries; and a
fragment from Khirbet Mird), and two Greek commentaries (one by
Malachias Monachus, from the fourteenth century, in the Escorial, which
is important because he makes use of Greek manuscripts no longer availa­
ble today; the other by Matthaeus Cantacuzenus, from the sixteenth cen­
tury, in the Vatican Library, has no special significance).
The book is known as the Wisdom of Solomon in Manuscripts A, B, S,
and V (B: Sophia Salomonos; A and V: S. Solomontos; S: S. Salomontos). In the Syriac Peshitta version, it is known as the "Book of the
Great Wisdom (flakmeta Rabba) of Solomon, son of David," and in the
Arabic, as the "Book of the Wisdom of Solomon, son of King David, who
ruled over the children of Israel." In the Vetus Latina, it is simply Liber
Sapientiae, "Book of Wisdom." Cyprian, who quotes Wisd frequently,
habitually refers to it as "Solomon," or the "Wisdom of Solomon," while
Clement and Qrigen call it the Divine Wisdom. Epiphanius and John of
Damascus call it panaretos, "[The Wisdom of Solomon] which comprises
all virtues." (See Gregg 1909:ix-x; Ziegler 1961:17.)
For textual criticism, the most useful of the versions is the Vetus Latina,
originating in Africa in the second half of the second century (and left un­
touched by Jerome when he redid the rest of the Bible). The monks of
San Girolamo collected all the Manuscripts available for a new edition of
the Vulgate and Ziegler was able in March 1957 to collate all this material
for the Gottingen LXX. The importance of the Vetus Latina lies in the
fact that it represents the reading of Greek manuscripts earlier than any
66
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
that have come down to us. Of the Coptic translations, we have the com­
plete text of Wisd only in the Sahidic dialect, transmitted through two
good manuscripts from the sixth-seventh centuries, and published respec­
tively by Paul de Lagarde and Sir Herbert Thompson. According to W. C.
Till, this translation did not aim at a faithful rendering, but sought only to
reproduce the sense of the original. In the Bohairic dialect we possess only
the four lections from the liturgy of Holy Week, and it is clear that this
version is dependent on the Sahidic. There are also three Syriac versions:
(1) The Peshitta, found in Brian Walton's London Polyglot of 1657 (a
reprint from Le Jay's Paris Polyglot of 1645). The latest edition is that of
J. A. Emerton (Leiden, 1959). According to Holtzmann, this is hardly an
exemplary translation. It is marked by many misunderstandings, un­
successful etymological derivations, incorrect connections between single
words and sentences, and false interpretation of ideas. These faults, how­
ever, are not sufficiently numerous to rob the translation of all value. (2)
A Syro-Palestinian translation, of which only a few fragments survive. It is
frequently dependent on the Peshitta and its text-critical value is slight.
(3) Syro-Hexaplar translation, an important witness for the Origenic
recension of the LXX (the fifth column of the Hexapla). The great value
of the Hexaplaric minuscule 253 was first recognized by Nestle and Klostermann. Fragments of this translation are also available in citations made
from it by Mar Ko'dad of Merw (ca. 850). The Old Ethiopic (Ge'ez)
translation (published by Dillmann in 1894) conscientiously follows the
word order and sentence structure of the Greek, often doing violence to
Ethiopic idiom. In spite of this, many difficult words of the Greek are ren­
dered freely. The Arabic translation (found in the London Polyglot) is
often very free in its rendering of chaps. 10-19, but it alone has preserved
the original reading of 5:7a. The Armenian version generally follows the
uncials S and A (as against B ) . It is generally a good translation, with few
additions or omissions. Still, Feldmann's assessment of it ("It follows the
Greek word for word and reproduces it with great fidelity" 1902:34) is
too favorable. Because of its free renderings, the Armenian version must
be used with great caution for establishing conjectural readings on its
basis. For more information, see Ziegler's introduction to his 1962 edition
of Wisd.
XI.
STATUS AND INFLUENCE
In the Sinaitic and Alexandrian codices, Wisd stands between the Song of
Songs and Ben Sira (in the Vaticanus, Job stands before it), with the pro­
phetic books following. The sapiential books thus hold an intermediate po-
INTRODUCTION
67
sition between the historical and prophetic. St. Jerome recognized that
Wisd was a pseudepigraphon and placed it among those books formally
excluded from the Canon (PL 28: 1241#. See Larcher 1969:58). St.
Augustine, who quotes Wisd close to eight hundred times, at first at­
tributed it to Ben Sira but later declared the author to be unknown. In his
De Praedestinatione sanctorum 14.26-29, he nevertheless came out in
favor of the canonicity of Wisd, citing apostolic, liturgical, and traditional
evidence. (See La Bonnardiere:56-57.) The Council of Trent (1545-63)
decided the issue of canonicity raised by the reformers by decreeing the
book's canonical status. For the Greek Church, the Synod of Jerusalem in
1672 introduced Wisd and other deuterocanonical books to a place in
Holy Scripture. "There appears to be no unanimity, however, on the
subject of the canon in the Greek Orthodox Church today. Catechisms
directly at variance with each other on this subject have received the
Imprimator of Greek Ecclesiastical authorities and the Greek clergy may
hold and teach what they please about it" (Metzger:195). From the time
of the Reformation, Protestant Churches, following the example of Luther,
separated the so-called Apocryphal books from the rest of the Scripture
(Deane:37-39).
The oldest reference to Wisd appears to be in Clement of Rome's Epis­
tle to the Corinthians 27 (end of first century): "Who shall say unto Him,
what hast thou done? or who shall resist the power of His strength?" (cf.
Wisd 11:21 and 12:12). Irenaeus, in Adv. Haer. 4.38.3, alludes to Wisd
6:19 (cf. Eusebius HE 5.8.8), and according to Eusebius (HE 5.26) he
mentioned, in a book now lost, Hebrews and Wisd, quoting passages from
both. On the other hand, Wisd is explicitly mentioned in the Muratori
Canon (a catalogue of the New Testament writings with comments on
each of them published in 1740 by Muratori from an eighth-century
palimpsest manuscript which he found in the Ambrosian Library in Milan.
The catalogue originated in Rome ca. 200, and was originally composed in
Greek and then translated into a barbarous Latin, with the result that
much of it remains unintelligible): "Further an epistle of Jude and two
with the title John are accepted in the Catholic Church, and the Wisdom
written by friends of Solomon in his honor" (68-70. See E. Hennecke and
W. Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, tr. and ed. by R. McL.
85
8 5
"Among the several Protestant Churches today, none of which regards the
Apocrypha as the Word of God, various degrees of respect are shown the
Apocryphal books. The Church that accords them the greatest degree of consid­
eration is the Anglican or Episcopal Church. The latest revision of the Lectionary
used by the Anglican Church in Great Britain contains 44 Lessons from the
Apocrypha, and the latest revision of the Lectionary used by the Protestant Episcopal
Church in America contains 110 such Lessons" (Metzger:203). For a detailed dis­
cussion, see Metzgr: 175-204; and Larcher 1969:63-84.
68
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
86
Wilson [Philadelphia, 1963] 1. 4 4 - 4 5 ) . In the African Church, the first
explicit use of Wisd is in Tertullian Adv. Valentinianos 2.2, where the
Sophia of the Valentinians is contrasted with the true Sophia of Solomon
in Wisd.
R. M. Grant has suggested that Wisd 7:25 "was in the mind of the
apologist Athenagoras, writing about the year 177 perhaps at Alexandria,
when he first quotes Prov 8:22 and then states that the Holy Spirit which
spoke in Proverbs is called by Christians 'an emanation of God, flowing
forth and borne along as a ray of the sun' (Legatio ad Graecos 10.4). The
mention of the sun's ray conceivably reflects a text of Wisd which, like
that underlying the Armenian and Ethiopic versions, read aktis instead of
atmis." Clement of Alexandria treated Wisd as Scripture (Strom. 5.108.2)
and says that it was written by Solomon (6.93.2). Although in his major
writings he never alludes to Wisd 7:25-26, of which later Alexandrians
made much use in their christological speculations, he does seem to refer
to it in a fragment from his lost Hypotypdses (Frag. 23, Stahlin, 3:202),
where it is said that "the Son is also called Logos, but is a certain power of
God such as an emanation of his Logos." According to Photius, Clement
tried to demonstrate the truth of his statement by using "some expression
of scripture," and he could have found aporroia, 'emanation,' only in Wisd
7:25.
Origen admits that Wisd "is not held by all to have authority" (De Principiis 4.4.6), but he himself uses it freely. Although he sometimes quotes it
with the skeptical formula h$ epigegrammene tou Solomontos Sophia (In
Iohannem Commentarius 20.4; Contra Celsum 5.29), he also quotes it al­
most as frequently as a work of Solomon. Moreover, in De Principiis
1.2.9ff, he provides an elaborate explanation of the christological meaning
of Wisd 7:25-26 (cf. In lohan. comment. 13.25; In Matt, comment,
Klostermann: 375-376). Similarly, Dionysius of Alexandria (third cen­
tury), a pupil of Origen, appeals to Wisd 7:26 to prove a point: "Since
Christ is 'radiance of eternal light,' he is absolutely eternal. For since the
light always exists, obviously there is always radiance . . ." (Refutation
and Apology, Feltoe:186, 11). And "since God is spirit . . . analogously
Christ is also called Vapor'; for, it says, he 'is a vapor of the power of
8 6
The placing of Wisd among the writings of the New Testament is certainly sur­
prising, and various efforts have been made to explain this anomaly. It has been
suggested that, given the feeble abilities of the Latin translator, the text here proba­
bly represents an original Greek version which read as follows: kai he Sophia Salomdnos hypo Phildnos eis doksan autou gegrammene ("The Wisdom of Solomon
written by Philo in his honor"). (Already suggested by Tregelles [1867:53] and
Bishop Fitzgerald, and later accepted by T. Zahn, M. J. Lagrange, G. Bardy, and B.
Motzo. See Larcher 1969:40.) The author of the Canon thus placed Wisd among the
writings of the New Testament, following a tradition according to which Philo had
been converted to Christianity (Eusebius HE 2.17.1; Jerome De Viris lllustribus 11;
Photius Bibliotheca 105. a . Motzo 1924:34; Brans 1973:141-145).
INTRODUCTION
69
God [Wisd 7:25]' (cf. 187, 17-21; Quasten 2. 105-106). So, too,
Theognostus (most probably the successor to Dionysius as head of the
school of Alexandria, which he directed from ca. 265 to 282) utilized
Wisd in a fragment first published (in 1902) by Diekamp. There he says
that the Logos is also called the radiance of the glory of God [Heb 1:3]
and an unspotted mirror [Wisd 7:26]. In another fragment preserved by
Athanasius (PG 25, 460c) he writes: "The ousia of the Son originated
from the ousia of the Father like radiance from light, like vapor from
water [Wisd 7:25-26]." (See Grant:70-82. For a detailed discussion of
the use of Wisd in Patristic literature, see Larcher 1969:36-63).
Finally, we must note the close affinities that exist between the Teach­
ings of Silvanus (late second or early third century), the only non-Gnostic
document in Codex VII of Nag Hammadi, and Jewish wisdom literature,
particularly The Wisdom of Solomon. Schoedel has pointed out that Sil­
vanus is dependent on three main literary genres: classical Jewish wisdom,
the Stoic-Cynic diatribe, and the Hellenistic hymn. We have already seen
that these three literary strands are characteristic features of Wisd. In one
of Silvanus' hymns we have an explicit allusion to Wisd 7:25-26: "For he
[the Logos] is a light from the power of God, and he is an emanation of
the pure glory of the Almighty, and he is the spotless mirror of the ac­
tivity of God, and he is the image of his goodness. For he is also the
light of the Eternal Light" (The Teachings of Silvanus 113. Robinson
1977:359).
87
87
T h e r e are other echoes of Wisd in Silvanus. At 114, for example, he writes:
"But no one prevents him [God] from doing what he wants. For who is stronger
than he that he may prevent him? (cf. Wisd 12:12; 11:21). There is also a reference
to the symbolism of the High Priest's garment at 89: "I am giving you a high-priestly
garment which is woven from every kind of wisdom" (cf. Wisd 18:24). At 115 we
read: "Only the hand of the Lord has created all these things. For this hand of the
Father is Christ, and it forms all" (cf. Wisd 11:17; 7:12). (There is a sorites at 108.
Cf. Wisd 6:17-20.) Schoedel has also correctly noted that "it is only in writings like
the Wisdom of Solomon and the Teachings of Silvanus that reasons regularly support
exhortations in a way that goes beyond the older wisdom. The frequent repetition of
the conjunction gar 'for' both in Silvanus and Wisd is quite different from the usage
in classical Jewish wisdom. Not experience but a metaphysic determines the senti­
ments." See Schoedel: 169-199.
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SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
89
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J
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90
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
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1967a The Literary Genre Midrash. Staten Island, New York: Alba
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1947-48 "The Wisdom of Solomon," RL 17: 70-81.
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WISDOM
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Zeller, E.
1963 Die Philosophie der Griechen. Reprint, Hildesheim.
Zenner, J. K.
1898 "Der erste Theil des Buches der Weisheit," ZKT 22: 417-431.
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1961a Chokma, Sophia, Sapientia, Wiirzburger Universitatsreden 32.
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1961b "Zur griechischen Vorlage der Vetus Latina in der Sap. Salomonis. Pages 275-291 in Lex Tua Veritas. Festschrift fur H.
Junker. Trier.
Ziener, G.
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1957 "Die Werwendung der Schrift im Buch der Weisheit," TTZ 66:
138-152.
1957 "Weisheitsbuch und Johannesevangelium," Biblica 38: 396-41$
39: 37-60.
Zimmermann, F.
1966 "The Book of Wisdom: Its Language and Character," JQR 57:
1-27,101-135.
Zorell, F.
1922 "Salomonis pro imploranda Sapientia ad digne gubernandum populum Dei oratio," VD 2: 264-269.
1927 "Principes invitantur ad quaerendam sapientiam. Sap. ex graeco,"
VD 7: 28-32.
,,
COMMENTARIES
I. Pre-Nineteenth Century
Rabanus Maurus
856 Commentariorum in Sapientiam libri tres, PL 109.671-763. Paris,
1852.
Hugo a s. Caro
1260 Postilla in librum Sapientiae, Opera omnia, T. 3. Lyon, 1669.
S. Bonavenrura
1274 Commentarius in librum Sapientiae, Opera omnia 6. 105-235.
Quarachi (Italy), 1893.
Nicolaus Liranus
1341 Postilla, Opera omnia T. 3. Venice, 1588.
Robertus Holkot
1349 In Librum Sapientiae praelectiones CCXXIIL Venice, 1509. Basileae, 1587, 180#.
M. Cantacuzenus
1370 'H cro<t>ia rov SoAo/uwro? ifriyrjOeicra, Vat. Graec. 1233. Latin
COMMENTARIES
93
translation between 1586-1594 by G. Brunelli, Sapientia Salomonis
explicata a religiosissimo rege domino Matheo Cantacuzeno. Rome:
P.U.G. Archivio II. 1345: 1310.
Dionysius Carthusianus
1471 Ennarationes in Sapientiam et Ecclesiasticum. Paris, 1548.
Petrus Nannius
1557 Scholia et commentaria in Librum Sapientiae* Basileae, 1551.
C. Jansenius, Episcopus Gondavensis
1569 Annotationes in librum Sapientiae Salomonis, 247-279. Antwerp,
1614.
J. Lorin
1607 In Librum Sapientiae commentarius. Lyon, 1619.
Christophorus de Castro
1613 In Sapientiam brevis ac dilucidus Commentarius. Lyon.
Cornelius a Lapide
1627 Commentarius in librum Sapientiae, Opera omnia. Paris.
C. Jansenius, Episcopus Iprensis
1644 Analecta in Proverbia, Ecclesiasten, Sapientiam. Louvain.
Le Maistre de Sacy
1673 Le Livre de la Sagesse. Traduit en francais avec une explication
tir6e des saints Peres. Brussels, 1713.
Badvellus, Castellio, Clarius, Lucas Brugensis, and Grotius
1698 Annotata ad Sapientiam Solomonis: Critici Sacri 6. Amsterdam.
A. Calmet
1713 Commentaire littiral sur le livre de la Sagesse. Paris.
1792 Commentarius in omnes libros sacros. Wirceburgi (Wurzburg).
Hugo Grotius
1732 Opera Omnia theologica in quatuor tomos divisa, Tom. 1: Annota­
tiones ad VT: In librum Sapientiae Salomonis, 588-610. Basileae.
Gulielmus Smits
1749 Sapientia vulgatae editionis dilucidata. Antwerp.
Lucas Brugensis, Estius, Mariana, Malvenda, Menochius, Tirin, Gordon, and
Bossnet
1751 Liber Sapientiae: Biblia Sacra Vulgata editionis . . . cum selectissimis Litteralibus Commentariis 14, 200-478. Venice.
J. J. Duguet and J. V. D'Asfeld
1755 Explication du livre de la Sagesse. Paris.
Naphtali Hirtz Wessely
1780 Sefer Hokmath Shelomo (with commentary Ru'ah gen) Berlin.
(Hebrew)
C. F. Houbigant
1797 Notae criticae in universos V.T. libros 1. 465-480. Frankfurt/M.
II. Nineteenth Century
Bauermeister, J.
1828 Commentarius in Sapientiam Salomonis. Gottingen.
94
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
Grimm, C. L. W.
1837 Kommentar uber das Buck der Weisheit. Leipzig.
1860 Das Buch der Weisheit, Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu
den Apokryphen des A.T. g. Leipzig. (All Grimm references are to this
volume.)
Gutmann, M.
1841 Die Apokryphen des Alten Testament. Altona.
Schmid, J. A.
1865 Das Buch der Weisheit. Vienna, First ed. Eichstatt, 1856.
Corluy, J.
1874 Commentarius in Librum Sapientiae. Louvain.
Gutberlet, C.
1874 Das Buch der Weisheit. Miinster.
Reuss, E.
1878 La Sapience. Paris.
Bissell, E. C , ed.
1880 The Apocrypha of the Old Testament. Edinburgh.
Lesetre, H.
1880 Le Livre de la Sagesse. Paris. Second ed. 1896.
Deane, W. J.
1881 The Book of Wisdom. Oxford.
Farrar, F. W.
1888 The Wisdom of Solomon, Apocrypha 1, ed. H. Wace. London.
Zockler, O.
1891 Die Weisheit Salomos. Kurzgefasster Kommentar zu den heiligen
Schriften A. und N.T. A 9. Munchen.
Fillion, L.-C1.
1894 Le Livre de la Sagesse, La Sainte Bible commentee 5. Paris.
III. Twentieth Century
Siegfried, K.
1900 Die Weisheit Salomos, Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des
A.T. 1, ed. E. Kautzch. Tubingen.
Gregg, J. A. F.
1909 The Wisdom of Solomon, Cambridge Bible for Schools. Cambridge.
Comely, R.
1910 Commentarius in librum Sapientiae. Opus postumum, ed. F. ZorelL
Cursus Scripturae Sacrae 2.18, vol. 5. Paris.
Heinisch, P.
1912 Das Buch der Weisheit, Exegetisches Handbuch zum A.T. 24.
Miinster LW.
Goodrick, A. T. S.
1913 The Book of Wisdom. London.
Holmes, S.
1913 The Wisdom of Solomon, APOT, ed. R. H. Charles, 1. Oxford.
COMMENTARIES
95
Oesterley, W. O. E.
1918 The Wisdom of Solomon. London, New York.
Kalt, E.
1925 Das Buch der Weisheit, Ubersetzt und erklart. Missions-druckerei
Steyl (Netherlands).
Feldmann, F.
1926 Das Buch der Weisheit. Bonn.
Stein, M.
1936 Sefer Hokmath Shelomo, in Ha-Sefarim Ha-Hitzonim, ed. A.
Kahana. Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew)
Henne, E.
1937 Das Buch der Weisheit. Paderborn.
Fichtner, J.
1938 Weisheit Salomos. Tubingen.
Gerotti, P. G., ed.
1938 // Vecchio Testamento 6: / Sapienziali. Turin.
Weber, J.
1939 Le Livre de la Sagesse. Paris.
Fischer, J.
1950 Das Buch der Weisheit. Echter Bibel, Das A.T. 10. Wurzburg.
Osty, E.
1950 Le Livre de la Sagesse. Paris. (E. Osty and J. Trinquet, La Bible
[Lausanne, 1971], 241-365 [reviewed by M. Gilbert in NRT 93
(1971) 1092-1095].
Lattey, C.
1953 The Book of Wisdom: A Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture,
eds. B. Orchard, E. F. Sutcliffe, R. C. Fuller, R. Russel. London.
Drubbel, A.
1957 Wijsheid, De Boeken van het Oude Text. 8. Roermond-Maaseik.
Reider, J.
1957 The Book of Wisdom. New York.
Guillaumont, A.
1959 La Sagesse de Salomon, Bible de la P16iade. Paris.
Geyer, J.
1963 The Wisdom of Solomon, Torch Bible Commentaries. London,
des Places, E.
1965 De libro Sapientiae (cap. 13-15). Rome.
Drouet, A.
1966 Le Livre de la Sagesse, Paroles de vie 5. Paris.
Wright, A. G.
1968 "Wisdom" in The Jerome Biblical Commentary 1, eds. R. E.
Brown, J. A. Fitzmeyer, R. E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Pages
556-558.
Watson, W.
1969 Wisdom: A New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture, eds.
R. C. Fuller, L. Johnston, C. Kearnes. London.
96
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
Vilchez, J.
1969 Sabiduria, La Sagrada Escritura, Texto y commentario, A.T. 4.
Madrid.
Romaniuk, K.
1969 Pismo Swiete Starego Testamentu, Tom VIII. 3: Ksiega Mqdrokci.
Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski. Poznan-Warszawa: Pallottinum.
Clarke, E. G.
1973 The Wisdom of Solomon. The Cambridge Bible Commentary. New
English Bible.
WISDOM OF SOLOMON
Translation and Notes
A . WISDOM'S G I F T O F I M M O R T A L I T Y
I.
II.
Exhortation to Justice which brings immortality ( 1 : 1 - 1 5 )
Speech of the wicked w h o have covenanted with Death
Problems of Reward and Retribution
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
(1-6:21)
(1:16-2:24)
(III-V)
Sufferings of the immortal just only a trial ( 3 : 1 - 1 2 )
Sterility of the virtuous will ultimately be converted to
(3:13-4:6)
Early death a token of God's solicitous care ( 4 : 7 - 2 0 )
fruitfulness
Vindication of the just and Final Judgment ( 5 : 1 - 2 3 )
Exhortation to Wisdom which is easily found and brings immortality
and sovereignty ( 6 : 1 - 2 1 )
L EXHORTATION T O JUSTICE
BRINGS
WHICH
IMMORTALITY
(1:1-15)
1
i Love justice, you who rule the earth;
be mindful of the Lord in goodness,
and seek him in singleness of heart.
2 For he is found by those who do not test him,
and reveals himself to those who have full trust in him.
3 Devious thoughts cut men offfromGod,
and the divine power, when made trial of,
exposes the foolish.
For Wisdom will not enter a fraudulent mind,
nor make her home in a body mortgaged to sin.
5 The holy spirit, that divine tutor, willflyfrom cunning
stratagem;
she will withdrawfromunintelligent thoughts
and will take umbrage at the approach of injustice.
6 Wisdom is a benevolent spirit
and she will not hold a blasphemer immune from his own
utterances;
because God is a witness of his thoughts,
the real guardian of his mind,
who hears his every word.
7 For the spirit of the Lordfillsthe world,
and that which holds all things together has knowledge of all
articulate sound.
8 No one, therefore, who celebrates injustice will escape
notice,
nor will justice the accuser pass him by.
9 The schemings of the godless man will be scrutinized,
and a report of his words will come before the Lord
for the conviction of his lawless acts.
10 For an impassioned ear overhears all,
and the murmur of his muttering does not go undetected.
4
100
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§1
11 Beware, then, of futile grumbling
and refrain from slanderous speech;
for no secret utterance will go unheeded,
and lying speech spells self-destruction.
12 Do not court death through a deviant way of life,
nor draw down destruction by your own actions.
13 For God did not make death,
nor does he take delight in the destruction of the living;
14 he created all things that they might endure.
All that has come into existence preserves its being,
and there is no deadly poison in it.
Death's rulership is not on earth,
15 for justice is immortal.
NOTES
1:1-15. The author begins with an exhortation to the pagan rulers of
the earth to love justice and seek God with single-minded devotion and
trust. The terms 'justice,' 'goodness,' 'wisdom,' 'spirit of the Lord,'
'holy spirit,' and 'power,' are here employed synonymously (cf. 9:17),
personified as a divine entity which cannot abide fraudulence and injustice
and swiftly withdraws from their presence. Like the Stoic pneuma, an in­
telligent 'gas' composed of fire and air, the divine spirit is described as per­
vading all things and thus holding the world together. (The materialistic
Stoic terminology was undoubtedly understood figuratively by the author,
as it had been by Philo.) Inasmuch as it also constitutes the reasoning ele­
ment in man, no human thought or sentiment, however fleeting or unarticulated, may escape its scrutiny, and the godless should therefore be
forewarned. Cf. Test.Naphtali 2:4: "For there is no inclination of thought
which the Lord knoweth not, for He created every man after His own
image."
1:1. Love justice. Cf. Ps 45:7-8.
who rule the earth. For 'judge' in the sense of 'ruler,' see Amos 2:3;
Micah 4:14; Ps 2:10; Wisd 6:1. Similarly, in the Ugaritic Baal cycle,
'judge' (tpt) seems to be synonymous with 'prince': "Strike the back of
Prince Yamm, / Between the arms of Judge Nahar" (ANET:131 lines 1415). So distinctive of the royal office was the function of justice, that
in the Aqht text Dn'eFs resumption of his normal routine after his cere­
monial seclusion is described as follows: "He rises to take his seat at the
1:1-15
EXHORTATION
TO
JUSTICE
101
opening of the gate. . . . He decides the case of the widow, he judges the
suit of the orphan." (Gray 1965:221; ANET:151.) The author is clearly
addressing the pagan world-rulers. The fiction of Solomonic authorship
requires that that renowned monarch address his pagan colleagues; cf. I
Kings 5:14, 10:23-24. Reese would take the royal address figuratively.
Such an address was characteristic of the Hellenistic tracts on Kingship
(e.g. Dio of Prusa's four orations on Kingship which appear to have been
delivered in the presence of the Emperor Trajan; Plutarch's To an Un­
educated Ruler). "The author was showing that true kingly dignity is a
life of justice and wisdom, for God fashioned men to rule his creation 'in
piety and justice' (9:3) and destined them to share in his eternal kingship
(5:16; 6:21)" (1970:149-150).
goodness. Cf. Philo LA 1.59: "Now the tree of life is virtue in the most
comprehensive sense, which some term goodness. From it the particular
virtues derive their existence."
singleness of heart. Cf. I Chron 29:17, LXX; I Mace 2:37; Test.
Reuben 4 : 1 ; Test.Levi 13:1; Eph 6:5. The opposite is "with a double
heart," i.e. with duplicity: Ps 12:3 (beleb waleb); cf. I Chron 12:33; Sir
1:28; I Enoch 91:4; James 1:8; Euripides Hippolytus 612: "My tongue
has sworn, but my heart is unsworn"; Aristophanes Thesmophoriazusae
275; Ranae 101, 1471; SVF 2.132; 3.554; BT Meg. 14a; Tank. Buber, Ki
Tavo 3. See Lieberman 1942:142-143. The fundamental virtue in Test.
XII is haplotes (see R. Eppel. Le piitisme juif dans les Testaments des
douze Patriarches [Paris, 1930]:USff; Jaubert 1963:274$). "In the
same way, says Otzen, the parallel concepts to this wholeheartedness torn
and yoSer are central in the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Ringgren 1963:136); cf.,
however, H. C. Kee, "The Ethical Dimensions of the Testament of the XII
as a Que to Provenance," NTS 24:2 (1978):259-270. See also J.
Amstutz, Haplotes: Eine begriffsgeschichtliche Studie zum jiidisch-christlichen Griechisch (Bonn, 1968). Among the Stoics, Marcus Aurelius is
apparently the only one to refer to haplotes as an ethical ideal. Cf. 6.30;
4.26 (haploson seauton, "study to be simple"); 4.37: 'A moment and
thou wilt be dead; and not even yet are thou simple (haplous), nor un­
perturbed"; 9.37; 7.31. Cf. also Philo Op. 156: "prompted by a mind
devoid of steadfastness and firm foundation, Eve gave her consent and
ate of the fruit, and gave some of it to her husband; this instantly brought
them out of a state of simplicity and innocence into one of wickedness";
Op. 170; LA 3.44; Plotinus 6.9.11.23.
Love . . . be mindful. . . seek. The Aorist imperatives here are ingressive, expressing "the coming about of conduct which contrasts with prior
conduct" (BDF 337.1).
2. test him. Cf. Deut 6:16; Mai 3:15; Pss 78:18; 95:8-9; Isa 7:12 (see
102
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
also Lieberman 1950:177; F. Rosenzweig, The Star of Redemption [New
York, 1970-71], 265-267).
3. Devious thoughts. Cf. Theognis 1.1147: adikon andron skolion logon,
full trust. Cf. 6:12; Jer 29:13-14, Isa 55:6; Prov 8:17.
cut men off. Cf. Isa 59:2; Test.Reuben 4:6 (chdrizousa theou);
Test.Simeon 5:3; Philo Mut. 265: "God is the season which departs far
away from all the impious."
4. fraudulent, kakotechnos, a poetic word. Cf. ILIAD 15.14; AP 5.129
(where it refers to lascivious postures); IV Mace 6:25. Philo refers to the
intellectually uprooted apostates as kakotechnountes or malicious critics of
the law (Agr. 157; cf. Sacr. 32; III Mace 7:9).
nor make her home. We have here a favorite conception of the Late
Stoa, which was frequently used by Philo: "Be zealous therefore, O soul,
to become a house of God (theou oikos), a holy temple, a most beauteous
abiding-place, for perchance, perchance the Master of the whole world's
household shall be thine too and keep thee under his care as his special
house, to preserve thee evermore strongly guarded and unharmed"
(Somn. 1.149); cf. QE 2.51; Virt. 188; Sob. 62; Somn. 2.251; Fug. 117;
Praem. 123; Plato Tim. 90C; Epictetus Discourses 2.8.14: "It is within
yourself that you bear Him, and do not perceive that you are defiling Him
with impure thoughts and filthy actions. Yet in the presence of even an
image of God you would not dare do anything of the things you are now
doing. But when God Himself is present within you, seeing and hearing
everything, are you not ashamed to be thinking and doing such things as
these, O insensible of your own nature, and object of God's wrath!"
id.1.14.13; Seneca Ep. 83: "Nothing is shut off from the sight of God. He
is witness of our souls, and he comes into the very midst of our thoughts—
comes into them, I say, as one who may at any time depart"; Ep. 87.21;
Porphyry Ad Marcellam 11 and 19; I Cor 3:16; Theophilus Ad Autolycum 1.2: "As a burnished mirror, so ought man to have his soul pure.
When there is rust on the mirror, it is not possible that a man's face be
seen in the mirror, so also when there is sin in a man, such a man cannot
behold God." For the non-Platonic body-soul distinction, cf. II Mace
7:37; 15:30; 14:38; Ps 84:3.
mortgaged, katachreos is first attested in Polybius 13.1.1, and used met­
aphorically only here. Cf. II Kings 17:17; Jub 7:23; I Mace 1:15; Rom
7:14.
5. The holy spirit. The LXX uses the same expression (to pneuma to
hagion) at Isa 63:10 and Ps 51:13. For the association of Wisdom and
Spirit, cf. Isa 11:2, "where every attribute assigned to the Spirit of the
Lord is connected with wisdom," and I Enoch 49:3, where the spirit
which dwells in the Elect One is the "spirit of wisdom, insight, under­
standing, and might" (Suggs 1970:54).
1:1-15
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will take umbrage. The word elengchthesetai has baffled all the com­
mentators. Grimm translates: 'frightened or driven off' (citing late Greek
usage, especially Chrysostom); Fichtner (1938): 'insulted'; RV: 'will be
put to confusion'; JB: 'is taken aback'; NEB: 'will throw up her case.' The
idea is clearly that the holy spirit is unable to abide the presence of evil,
and is virtually driven away by it. Cf. BT Kid. 31a: "R. Isaac said: He
who transgresses in secret is as though he pressed the feet of the
Shekhinah, for it is written, 'Thus saith the Lord, the heaven is my throne,
and the earth is my footstool' (Isa 66:1)"; BR 19.7: "The main dwelling
of the Shekhinah was originally below, but after the sin of Adam, she took
off to the first heaven"; I Enoch 42:2: "Wisdom went forth to make her
dwelling among the children of men, and found no dwelling-place. Wis­
dom returned to her place, and took her seat among the angels"; 44:5; IV
Ezra 5:10: "Then shall intelligence hide herself and wisdom withdraw to
its chamber"; II Bar 48:36; CH, Asclepius 24: "Godhead will go back
from earth to heaven"; Philo QG 1.40: "For wisdom is most common,
most equal and most helpful. But when it sees them perversely increase in
the opposite direction and being altogether uncontrolled and willful, it re­
turns to its own place." (For wisdom's dwelling in heaven, see I Bar 3:29;
Sir 24:4-5.) We find the same notion in Greek literature: Theognis
1.1135: "Hope is the one good God yet left among mankind; the rest have
forsaken us and gone to Olympus. Gone ere this was the great Goddess
Honesty (Pistis), gone from the world was Self-Control (Sophrosyne)";
Hesiod Op. 197: "And then Aidds and Nemesis, with their sweet forms
wrapped in white robes, will go from the wide-pathed earth and forsake
mankind to join the company of the deathless gods"; Aratus Phaenomena
96-136; Virgil Eel. 4.6. Similarly, in Egyptian literature, we find that in
the era of the primordial gods "Maat came down from heaven and joined
those who lived on earth. At that time there was no injustice, no pain, no
hunger" (Theban Temple, 95K, from the Greek and Roman period. This
text clearly implies the return of Maat to heaven. See K. Sethe, Amun und
die acht Urgotter von Hermopolis [Berlin, 1929]: 125). It was on the
basis of some of this data that Bultmann had suggested that Matt
23:34-39 (Luke 11:49-51; 13:34-35) was based on a speech by Sophia
cited from some lost wisdom document which recounted the myth of a
searching and disappointed Wisdom, whose conclusion "you will not see
me again until . . ." was explained in terms of "the myth of the divine
wisdom who, after tarrying in vain on earth, and calling men to herself
takes departure from earth, so that one now seeks her in vain (cf. Prov
1:28; Gospel of Thomas, Saying 38; I Clement 57.3#)." (R. Bultmann,
"Der
religionsgeschichtliche
Hintergrund
des
Prologs
Johannesevangelium," in Eucharisterion, Festschrift H. Gunkel [Gottingen,
1923]:IL 1-26; Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition [Gottingen,
104
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
1964]: 120-121); J. M. Robinson and H. Koester, Trajectories Through
Early Christianity (Philadelphia, 1971): 103-104. A critique of Bultmann's theory may be found in E. S. Fiorenza 1975:17-41.
6. benevolent. For philanthropon cf. Philo Op. 81 and see NOTE on
7:23.
from his own utterances. Cf. Sir 1:29: "keep guard over your lips."
thoughts. Literally, reins. Cf. Greek phrenes (R. B. Onians, The Origins
of European Thought [rep. New York, 1973] 23#, identifies the phrenes
with the lungs); Pss 16:7; 73:21; Prov 23:16; Jer 11:20; 17:11; 12:2;
Rev 2:23; BT Ber. 61a: "Our Rabbis taught: Man has two kidneys, one
of which prompts him to good, the other to evil" BR 61.1, Th-Alb:657:
"The Holy One blessed be He made his [Abraham's] two kidneys serve
like two teachers, and these welled forth truth and taught him wisdom."
witness . . . guardian. For the collocution martys kai episkopos, cf.
Iliad 22.254; Sib Or Frag. 1.3-4; Philo LA 3.43; Herodian Historiae
7.10.3. See also Job 20:29, LXX; Ps 94:9; Philo Virt. 219; Deus 9; Jos.
265; Mig. 135, 115, 81; Somn. 1.91; Mut. 216, 39; Sir 17:19-20;
23:18-20; 42:18-20; Ps-Aristeas 133: "He showed that even if a man
but think of compassing evil, and not alone if he actually do it, he could
not escape notice"; TestJudah 20:5: "And the spirit of truth testifieth all
things, and accuseth all, and the sinner is burnt up by his own heart and
cannot raise his face to the judge." Cf. also Xenophanes of Colophon:
"God is all eye, all mind, all ear" (DK, B.24).
hears his every word. Cf. Ps 139:4.
7. fills the world. Cf. Jer 23:24; Isa 6:3; Ps 139:7#; Philo Her. 188.
that which holds all things together. The phrase is Stoic. Cf. SVF 2.439
(to synechon, i.e. pneumatic being, contrasted with to synechomenon, i.e.
hylic being); 2.448 (hen ti synechei ton te synolon kosmon) \ D.L. 7.148.
Although not found in the extant works of Plato, the formula is already
employed by Xenophon Mem. 4.3.13 (ho ton holon kosmon synechon);
Cyropaedia 8.7.22. It is also found in Philo Conf. 136 (hypo de tou theou
peplerdtai ta panta, periechontos, ou periechomenou); Somn. 1.63-64
(for periecho cf. Anaximines, DK, B.2; Anaximander, DK, A . l l ; Epiphanius Haereses 31.5); LA 3.6; Mos. 2.133; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo
398b 20-25; CH 11.5.13; Col 1:17.
8. escape notice. Cf. Job 34:21-3; Sir 16:17; 17:19; Ps-Aristeas 210:
outhen an lathoi adikon poiesas. In a fragment from a Greek satyr-play
variously ascribed to Euripides or Critias, Sisyphus gives an atheistic ac­
count of the origins of 'The Divine.' The gods, he says, are the invention
of a wise and clever man who introduced them as the official watchdogs of
public morality: "Hence he introduced the Divine, saying that there is a
God flourishing with immortal life, hearing and seeing with his mind, and
thinking of everything and caring about these things, and having divine na-
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105
ture, who will hear everything said among mortals, and will be able to see
all that is done. And even if you plan anything evil in secret, you will not
escape the gods in this (tout' ouchi lesei tous theous), for they have
surpassing intelligence" (Critias, TrGF 43F 19.16$).
justice the accuser, elengcho occurs sixty-four times in the LXX, and
elengchos is used thirty-one times for Hebrew tokahat. (See TDNT 7.
913.) Dike was personified in Greek literature. One of the Horae (Hesiod
Theogonia 902), she reports to Zeus the wrongdoings of men: "And there
is a virgin Justice, the daughter of Zeus . . . and whenever anyone hurts
her with lying slander (skolios onotazon), she sits beside her father Zeus,
the son of Kronos, and tells him of men's wicked heart. . ." (Hesiod Op.
256-264). In Aratus (Phaenomena 96$), she is the constellation Virgo,
who finally left the earth when the Bronze Age began (Cf. NOTE on v. 5
above); some (as Ovid Met. 1.149-150) call her Astraea in this connec­
tion. For justice as avenger, see Plato Laws 715E (where he is following
Orphic tradition); 872E; Epinomis 988E; Sophocles Electra 475, 528;
Aeschylus Agamemnon 1432; Ps-Demosthenes (-Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta 23) 25.11: "each juryman must reflect that he is being watched by
hallowed and inexorable Justice, who, as Orpheus, that prophet of our
most sacred mysteries, tells us, sits beside the throne of Zeus and oversees
all the works of men"; SIG 1176; Jos. J.W. 1.3.6; Wisd 11:20; IV Mace
4:13,21; 9:9. Philo adapts the old tradition of Dike as "assessor" of Zeus
(Dios paredros: Pindar Olympia 8.22); Mut. 194; Jos. 48,170; Conf. 118;
Decal. 95. See TDNT 2. 178$; E. Goodenough 1969:59$; E. Brehier,
Les Idies philosophiques et religieuses de Philon d'Alexandrie (Paris,
1950): 149$: R. Hirzel, Themis, Dike und Verwandtes (Leipzig,
1907): 138$, 412$.
pass him by. parodeuein is used five times by our author (here, and in
2:7; 5:14; 6:22; 10:8), and in its transitive sense is found only in late
Greek prose. Cf. Diodorus Siculus 32.27; Plutarch Moralia 973D; Lucian
Nigrinus 36.
9. schemings. For diaboulion cf. Ps 10:2, LXX (Hebrew mezimot); Sir
15:14; 44:4; Ezek 11:5, LXX; Hosea 4:9, LXX.
10. an impassioned ear. ous zeldseos, an imitation of Hebrew adjectival
genitive. Cf. Num 5:14, LXX; Xenophon Cyropaedia 8.2.10; Philo Somn.
1.140 (the 'ears' and 'eyes' of the great king).
murmur of his muttering. Cf. Eccles 5:1; II Enoch 61:5: "And if
his words made it [the gift for God], but his heart murmur . he has not
any advantage"; 63:2: "But if his heart murmur, he commits a double
evil, ruin of himself and of that which he gives"; III Bar 8:5; 13.4. Tempt­
ing God (above, v. 2) and murmuring are connected by Paul (I Cor
10:9-10), working backwards through Numbers 21 and 14. For the mur­
muring motif, see G. W. Coats, Rebellion in the Wilderness (Nashville,
106
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
1968); B. S. Childs, The Book of Exodus (Philadelphia, 1974):
256-264.
muttering. For gongusmos. Cf. Exod 16:8; Num 17:5-10, LXX.
ous . . . throus. Play on words. Grimm reproduces it in German:
Lauschen und Rauschen.
11. grumbling, katalalia is first attested here and Test.Gad 3:3; cf. II
Enoch 52:2; III Bar 8:5; 13:4; II Cor 12:30; I Peter 2 : 1 . The corre­
sponding verb, however, is frequent in the LXX (in Num 21:5, 12:8; Pss
77:19; 49:20; Hosea 7:13, it is used in the sense of speaking evil of
God).
spells self-destruction. Through sin the soul forfeits its 'true' life. "The
writer is thinking of that soulless existence of the wicked which, meta­
phorically speaking, is death" (Gregg). Cf. BT Ber. 18b: "The wicked
even when alive are called dead"; Philo Det. 49; Fug. 55; Spec. 1.345:
"For in very truth the godless are dead in soul."
12. The sentiment expressed here is already found in the beautiful poem
in Proverbs 8. In w . 32-36 we have in effect "a summons in the form of
an ultimatum, to listen to wisdom, for on this depends life or death" (von
R a d ) ; in w . 35-36: "For he who finds me finds life . . . all who hate me
love death." Cf. CH 1.28: "Why, earth-bora men, have you surrendered
yourselves unto death, since you have the power to partake of immor­
tality? Repent, you who travel in the company of error and who have fel­
lowship with ignorance." In the Gnostic cosmogonies Sophia is intimately
linked with Zoe the celestial counterpart of Eve. In the Hypostasis of the
Archons and On the Origin of the World, Zoe is usually the daughter of
Sophia, but in some passages of the latter we find Sophia called Sophia
Zoe. (Robinson 1977:158, 172). See G .W. MacRae, "The Jewish Back­
ground of the Gnostic Sophia Myth," in Essays on the Coptic Gnostic Li­
brary (Leiden, 1970) :93.
draw down destruction. Cf. Isa 5:18, LXX.
by your own actions. The notion that man is responsible for his evil ac­
tions in spite of the fact that everything takes place in accordance with Di­
vine Providence was widespread in ancient literature. Thus Ben Sira
emphatically states: "Say not: 'From God is my transgression,' for that
which He hateth made He not (15:11)." We find virtually the same words
in an Egyptian text: "Beware lest thou say: Every man is according to his
own character; ignorant and learned are all alike; Fate and upbringing are
graven on the character in the writing of God himself." (A. Gardiner,
Hieratic Papyri in the British Musem, 3d ser. [London, 1935]:43).
Similarly, we read in the Egyptian Coffin Texts: "I did not command
[men] that they do evil, (but) it was their hearts which violated what I
had said." (ANET.S). 3. Crenshaw has pointed out that the simple prohi­
bition formula 'al-tom'ar can be traced back as far as the Egyptian In-
1:1-15
EXHORTATION
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107
struction of Ani and continues in use as late as the Instructions of
Onchsheshonqy ("The Problem of Theodicy in Sirach: On Human Bond­
age," JBL 94:1 [1975]:48-49). The negative formula 'Do not' is already
found in the Sumerian Instructions of Suruppak. Cf. I Enoch 103:9;
104:7; H Mace 7:16,19. For a detailed discussion of the problem of
freedom and determinism, see Introduction VII.8, and also NOTE on 1:16
below. Cf. I Enoch 98:4: "Sin has not been sent upon the earth, /
But man of himself has created it"; Ps Sol 3:5: "The righteous stumbleth
and holdeth the Lord righteous"; Philo Det. 122: "For Moses does not
say, as some impious people do, that God is the author of ills. Nay, he
says that 'our own hands' cause them, figuratively describing in this
way our own undertakings, and the voluntary movement of our minds
to what is wrong."
13. God did not make death. A bold statement which, without further
interpretation, sounds like an echo of Zoroastrian teaching, although the
author certainly did not mean to go that far. (For other Zoroastrian
echoes in the book, see NOTES on 2:24; 7:22; 15:19.) Cf. Ezek 33:11:
"As I live, saith the Lord God, I have no pleasure in the death of the
wicked, but that the wicked turn from his way and live"; I Enoch 69:11:
"Man was created exactly like the angels to the intent that he should con­
tinue righteous and pure, and death which destroys everything could not
have taken hold of him"; II Bar 17:3; 19:8; 23:4; IV Ezra 8:60: "For
the Most High willed not that men should come to destruction; but they
have themselves defiled the name of him who made them, and have
proved themselves ungrateful to him who prepared life for them." In the
light of the author of Wisd's Platonist view of the relationship of body and
soul revealed in 9:15, it is likely that he is here referring to spiritual rather
than to physical death. The rabbis, too, refer to God's original intention
that man should not be subject to death, but, unlike our author, it is physi­
cal death which they have in mind. See Pes.R., Piska 48 (Shor o Keseb)
Braude: 813: "The words 'that which hath been is now' (Ecc 3:15)
allude to the fact that when the Holy One, blessed be He, created Adam,
He created him with the intention of having him live and endure for ever
like the ministering angels, for 'the Lord God said: Behold, the man is be­
come as one of us' (Gen 3:22). . . . Indeed, R. Judah, the son of R.
Simon, carried the explication of this verse still further to an idea difficult
to grasp, for he takes the verse to be saying, 'The man is become as the
One of us'—that is, become like the Unique One of the world, who lives
and endures for ever and ever. . . . But God's intentions for Adam came
to nought when Adam did not abide by the command given him, and
forthwith mortality was decreed for him." Cf. also The Teaching of Silvanus 91: "For death did not exist, nor will it exist at the end" (Robinson
1977:350; ShR 32.1: "Said the Holy One blessed be He: T had taken
108
THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON
you for divine beings' (Ps 82:6), but you followed in Adam's footsteps,
•indeed you shall die as men d o ' " ; Wayyik.R. 18.3; 27.4; BR 9.5, ThAlb:70. See Urbach 1969:371-380. That God is altogether good and
cannot be the direct cause of evil was a cardinal doctrine of Plato (Rep.
379B; Tim. 69C), the Stoics (SVF 2.1168-1186), and Philo (Mut 30;
Conf. 179). The rabbis held a similar view. Cf. Sifra, Behukkdtai 4: '"It
has been of your own doing' (Mai 1:9); evil never proceeds from me, and
so it is written, Tt is not at the word of the Most High, that weal and woe
befall' [following the reading of the Gaon] (Lament 3:38)"; Lament.R.
on 3:38: "R. Eleazar expounded the verse I t is not at the word of the
Most High that weal and woe befall* thus: From the moment that the Holy
One, blessed be He, said: *See, I set before you this day life and prosper­
ity, death and adversity' (Deut 30:15), good has not gone forth to him
who does evil nor evil to him who does good, but only good to the doer of
good and evil to the doer of evil, as it is written, 'the Lord reward the evil­
doer according to his wickedness' (I Sam 3:79)"; Test. Orpheus (Aristobulus' version), line 9: "He from His store of goods never prescribes
evil for men" (FPG 1:65).
destruction. "Apdleia is common in the LXX sense of 'perishing,' 'de­
struction.' The concepts thanatos, hades, and apdleia are all used together
for it, being often personified as man's worst enemy (Job 26:6; 28:22;
Prov 15:11). In the Synoptics, and especially in Paul and John, apdleia is
used for eternal destruction (Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; Philip 1:28; I Tim
6:9; John 17:12. It is also a favorite word in II Peter ( 2 : 1 , 3, 3:7, 16).
What is meant here is not a simple extinction of existence, but an ever­
lasting state of torment and death" (TDNT 1. 396-397). R. J. Taylor
thinks that apdleia here bears its technical New Testament meaning, and
S. Rosik suggests that its usage here marks the beginning of a process of
development from the meaning of earthly destruction to that beyond phys­
ical death.
14. All that has come into existence, geneseis refers to all things created
or generated; cf. Plato Phaedrus 245E: "Thus that which moves itself
must be the beginning of motion. And this can be neither destroyed nor
generated, otherwise all the heavens and all creation (pdsan te genesin)
must fall in ruin and stop."
preserves its being. For soterioi, cf. Ps-Aristotle De Mundo: "For God
is indeed the preserver (sdtir) of all things" (397b 20); Philo Mos. 1.96:
"the same elements which He shaped for their preservation (soterios) to
create the universe (epi genesei ton holon) He turned into instruments for
the perdition (apdleiah) of the impious whenever He would"; Prov. 2.63
(106): soterias de pothos. The principle of self-preservation was a car­
dinal doctrine of Stoicism; cf. D.L. 7.85: "The prime impulse of an
animal is towards self-preservation, because Nature makes it well-
1:1-15
EXHORTATION
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109
disposed to itself (oikeiauses hauto) from the outset, as Chiysippus
says in the first book of his work On Ends. . . . And Nature, they
say, made no difference originally between plants and animals, for she
regulates the life of plants too, in their case without impulse and sensa­
tion, just as also certain processes go on of a vegetative kind in us." Cf.
Philo Aet. 35ff: "Nature in each case strives to maintain and conserve
(diaterein kai diasdzein) the thing of which it is the nature and if it were
possible to render it immortal. Tree nature acts so in trees, animal nature
in each kind of animal, but the nature of any particular part if necessarily
too feeble to carry it into a perpetual existence. For privation or scorching
or chilling or the vast multitude of other circumstances which ordinarily
affect it descend to shake it violently and loosen and finally break the bond
which holds it together, though if no such external force were lying ready
to attack it, so far as itself was concerned, it would preserve all things
small or great proof against age. The nature of the world then must neces­
sarily desire the conservation of the All. For it is not inferior to the nature
of particular parts that it should take to its heels and leave its post and try
to manufacture sickness rather than health, destruction rather than com­
plete preservation (sdterias pantelous). . . . But if this is true the world
will not be susceptible to destruction. Why so? Because the nature which
holds it together (he synechousa physis) fortified by its great fund of
strength is invincible and prevails over everything which could injure i t "
Elsewhere (Op. 44), Philo argues that nothing in the world is really per­
ishable, inasmuch as the species to which every individual thing belongs is
eternal: 'Tor God willed that nature should run a course that brings it
back to its starting-point, endowing the species with immortality, and mak­
ing them sharers of eternal existence (aidiotitos)." In explaining the per­
petuity of the species Philo employs the Stoic term 'seminal essences':
spermatikai ousiai. Cf. QG 2.12: "in order that the divine purpose which
was formed at the creation of the world might forever remain inextin­
guishable by that saving of the genus.") (The precise meaning of this
phrase seems to have eluded most previous translators. RSV: "and the
generative forces of the world are wholesome"; NEB: "The creative forces
of the world make for life"; JB: "the world's created things have health in
them.")
no deadly poison. This almost sounds like an anti-Gnostic polemic. We
read, for example, in a Nag Hammadi tractate on the Soul (the so-called
Authoritative Teaching): "The adversary who spies on us lies in wait for
us like a fisherman. . . . For he casts many foods before our eyes, which
are the things of this world. He wishes to make us desire one of them and
to taste only a small thing, so that he may seize us with his hidden poison
and bring us out of freedom and take us into glory." (See G. W. MacRae,
"A Nag Hammadi Tractate on the Soul," in Ex Orbe Rettgionum [Leiden,
110
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
1972]: 1. 471-479. MacRae is uncertain, however, whether this tractate
should properly be called Gnostic.) Similarly, in his attack on the material
creation, Ahriman fills it with deadly poison: "And upon the earth he let
loose reptiles in corporeal form . . . reptiles biting and poisonous—ser­
pent and scorpion, venomous lizard, tortoise and frog, so that not so much
as a needle's point on [the whole] earth remained free from creeping
things. . . . And upon the plants he brought so much poison that in a mo­
ment they dried up." (Greater Bundahishn 42.14-43.8; see Zaehner
1961:262.)
Death's rulership. This phrase is laden with mythical connotations. The
Ugaritic Baal texts provide a graphic description of the underground realm
of Death: "Descend to the House of the Corruption of the earth, And be
numbered with those who go down into the earth. Then, indeed, shall ye
set face towards his city Ruin. Dilapidation is the throne on which he sits,
most ruthless of the gods; Come not near to Mot the son of El, Lest he
make you like a sheep in his mouth, And ye be carried off in his jaws"
(Gray 1965:55-56). Cf. the destruction of Death as an eschatological
enemy in Isa 25:7 and Rev 30:14. (For a similar notion in Zoroastrianism and in Qumran, see Winston 1966:206-207.) See also N. J.
Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death and the Nether World (Rome,
1969): 125. For basileion in the sense of 'kingdom,' cf. I Kings 14:8,
LXX, A. In Polybius 3.15.3 it means 'seat of empire,' 'capital.'
15. Goodrick writes: "The A.V. [KJV] places this sentence in a paren­
thesis, and indeed it seems to break the thread of the argument. If, how­
ever, we accept the supplementary line given in the Sixtine Vulgate and
the Complutensian—'But injustice is the very attainment of death'—we
have a connection with what follows and what precedes. Against the
genuineness of this addition, which is accepted by Fritzche and Grimm
[Reuss, Zenner, Siegfried, and Comely], it may be urged that it occurs
in no Greek MSS. at all, and according to Deane is found in very few
Latin ones of weight." (It is rejected by Bauermeister, Reusch, Gutberlet,
Deane, Feldmann, Gregg, Heinisch, and Fichtner.) Cf. Ps-Aristeas 212:
"Injustice is the deprivation of life."
n. SPEECH OF THE WICKED WHO HAVE COVENANTED
WITH DEATH
(1:16-2:24)
1
2
6
i But godless men have summoned Death through word and
deed;
thinking him a friend they pined for him,
and made a pact with him,
for they are worthy to be members of his party.
i For they said to themselves, reasoning in their faulted way:
our life is short and full of trouble;
there is no remedy at man's end,
and no one has been known to have returned from the grave.
By mere chance did we come to be,
and thereafter we shall be as though we had never been,
for the breath in our nostrils is but a puff of smoke;
our reason is a mere spark within our throbbing heart,
3 and when that is extinguished, our body will turn to ashes,
and our life breath will be scattered like thin air.
4 Our name will be forgotten with the passage of time,
and none will recall our deeds;
our life will be gone like the traces of a cloud
and dispersed as mist,
pursued by the sun's rays
and overborne by its heat.
5 For our time is the passing of a shadow,
and there is no reversal of our end;
it has been sealed, and none overturns it.
6 Come then, let us enjoy the good things at hand,
and make use of creation with youthful zest.
7 Let us take ourfillof costly wine and perfumes,
and let no spring blossom pass us by.
8 Let us crown ourselves with rosebuds before they wither.
2
112
THE WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ II
9 Let no meadow fail to share in our revelry,
let us everywhere leave tokens of our merriment,
for this is our portion and our birthright
10 Let us tyrannize the poor honest man,
let us not spare the widow,
nor reverence the elder's hair long grey.
11 Let brute force be the standard of our right,
for weakness is proved ineffectual.
12 Let us entrap the just man, for his presence is inconvenient
to us,
and he opposes our actions;
he reproaches us for our lawlessness,
and charges us with falseness to our training.
13 He professes a knowledge of God, and styles himself child of
the Lord.
1 He is a living refutation of our designs.
His very sight is oppressive to us,
15 for his life-style is odd,
and his ways are weird.
16 He regarded us as counterfeits,
and avoids us like filth;
he pronounces thefinallot of the just happy,
and boasts that God is his father.
17 Let us see if his statements are true,
and make trial of what will happen to him in the end;
18 for if the just man is God's son, he will assist him
and rescue him from the clutches of his opponents.
19 Let us afflict him with outrage and torment him,
so that we may gauge the measure of his reasonableness
and assay his forbearance of evil.
20 Let us condemn him to a shameful death,
for on bis own showing he will receive deliverance.
21 So they argued and were misled;
blinded by their malice
22 they were ignorant of God's mysteries;
they entertained no hope that holiness would have its reward,
and passed up the prize of unblemished souls.
23 But God created man for immortality,
and made him an image of his own proper being;
4
1:16-2:24
S P E E C H OF THE WICKED
113
24 it was through the devil's envy that Death entered into the
cosmic order,
and they who are his own experience him.
NOTES
1:16. summoned . . . pined . . . made, prosekalesanto . . , etakesan
. . . ethento. Gnomic Aorists. tekomcd in its metaphorical sense of waste
or pine away is a poetic word (cf. Homer Odyssey 5.396; Euripides
Medea 159; Theocritus 1.66, 82, 88, 91). For the notion of pining for
Death, cf. Apoc. Abraham 23: "They who will to do evil . . . over them I
gave him [Azazel] power, and to be beloved of them"; 13: "Those who
follow thee [Azazel] and love what thou wiliest." For the personification
of Hades, cf. IV Ezra 8:53; Rev 6:8; 20:14. The rabbis saw Satan, man's
evil inclination, and the angel of death as identical (BT Baba Batra 162).
made a pact. Cf. Isa 28:15: "We have made a covenant with Death,
concluded a pact with Sheol"; Philo Her. 45: "The life that looks to crea­
tion has never risen at all nor sought to rise, but makes its lair in the
recesses of Hades and rejoices in a form of living, which is not worth the
pains"; Somn. 1.151: "the depths of Hades are the abode allotted to the
bad, who from first to last have made dying their occupation . . ."; Deus
56: "But those who have made a compact and a truce with the body
. . ."; LA 2.18: "So from the vices is he called unjust and foolish and un­
manly, whensoever he has invited (proskalesetai) to himself and given a
hearty welcome to the corresponding dispositions"; Mig. 16: "But some
make a truce with the body and maintain it till their death, and are buried
in it as in a coffin or shell or whatever else you like to call it."
worthy to be members of his party. For meris in sense of 'party,' 'fac­
tion,' cf. Plato Laws 692B; Demosthenes 18.64; Plutarch Moralia 203B.
The idea of being worthy either of wisdom or of death recurs in our book
more than once. Wisdom goes about seeking them that are worthy of her
(6:16). Grace and mercy are to God's chosen (eklektois, 3:9; cf. I Enoch
5:7). In contrast to the wicked, the righteous were found by God to be
worthy of himself ( 3 : 5 ) ; cf. 11:25: "or how could that which was un­
designated by you have been preserved?"; Eccles 6:10 "Whatever happens
it was designated (nigra') long ago and it was known that it would hap­
pen"; IV Ezra 10:57: "Thou art blessed above many, and art named be­
fore the Most High as but few"; Mek. Pisha, on Exod 13:2: "There were
three whose names were given to them (niqri'ii) by The Holy One,
blessed be He. . . . We find that the names of the righteous and their
deeds are revealed before God even before they are bora . . ."; Rom
114
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
8:28-30: "And those whom He predestined he also called"; CD 2.11:
"And in all of them He raised for Himself 'men called by name*"; BR 3.8.
For the problem of freedom and determinism, see Introduction, VII.8,
where it is shown that a concept of relative freedom does not necessarily
contradict the notion of predestinarianism. For meris, cf. 2:24; II Mace
1:26; Ps Sol 5:6: "For man and his portion (meris) lie before thee in the
balance; he cannot add to, so as to enlarge, what has been prescribed by
thee"; Apoc. Abraham 22, where the wicked are AzazePs portion assigned
to him from the beginning; II Bar 42:7: "For corruption shall take those
that belong to it, and life those that belong to it." The word goral plays a
similar role in the Qumran scrolls; cf., for example, 1QS 4.24; 11.7-8;
3.24; IQH 3.22-23; 11.11-12; 1QM 1.1; 13.12.
2:1-20. The arguments of the wicked may be briefly summarized.
Death, they claim, is final and our destiny unalterable. Life is a mere
chance event; it is short and troublesome and will soon be forgotten. The
unavoidable conclusion is self-evident: Let us enjoy while we can, for this
is clearly our allotted portion. Moreover, since experience shows that
might is right, it would be inexpedient to avoid the exploitation of helpless
weaklings. Indeed, we must further take the initiative and exterminate men
of integrity who espouse ideal principles of justice. It is only proper that
these blind fanatics be put to the final test along with their fatuous philoso­
phy of life. It should be clear at once that the wicked described here do
not represent any particular philosophical group or political faction. The
wicked of all ages have cynically culled whatever has suited them from the
philosophical and scientific literature of their respective periods to bolster
their frankly aggressive and opportunistic designs. Although the Epicurean
emphasis on the finality of death, the denial of Divine Providence, and the
legitimacy of pleasure have to some extent been harnessed by the godless
crew described in this chapter to further their own ends, only a grossly dis­
torted understanding of Epicureanism could conceivably reconcile that
philosophy with the latter's crude and unprincipled brand of hedonism.
(Completely unconvincing is Dupont-Sommer's attempt to identify the
wicked of this chapter with the Epicureans [1935:90-109]; cf. Weisengoff
1949:40-65.) The Cyrenaic philosophy would undoubtedly come much
closer to the views of the wicked, but that school of thought (which
flourished in the second half of the fourth and the first quarter of the third
centuries BCE) had already disintegrated before the advance of the more
successful Epicureans and could hardly have been the model used by
them. The commentary will attempt to distinguish the various components
utilized in the speech of the wicked and the popular origin of much of it.
2:1. The author prefers to let the unjust aggressors speak for themselves
in the manner of the Hellenistic diatribe, which often makes use of an
imaginary adversary. (See Bultmann 1910 and 1976 and the literature
1:16-2:24
S P E E C H OF THE
WICKED
115
there cited.) The speech of the sinners in I Enoch 102:6-11 is somewhat
similar to that of the wicked in our passage. See Larcher 1969:106-112;
Nickelsburg, Jr. 1972: 128-129; Motzo 1924:53-55. The pessimism ex­
pressed in the speech of the wicked is a feature frequently apparent in the
popular thought and poetry of Hellenistic and Imperial times (see Nock
1966:xxxiii; Cumont 1949:131).
to themselves. This must be the meaning of en heautois in view of 2:6, 9
(Fichtner).
short and full of trouble. Cf. Gen 47:7; Job 14:1-2: "Man that is born
of woman is of few days, and full of trouble. He comes forth like a flower,
and withers; he flees also as a shadow, and continues not"; Job 10:20;
Eccles 2:22-23; Lucretius 3.914-915: "Brief is this enjoyment for us puny
men: soon it will be past, nor ever thereafter will it be ours to call it
back"; Catullus 5.4-6: "for us, when the short light has once set, remains
to be slept the sleep of one unbroken night"; Syrian inscription: "nothing
remains any longer; the sum of things is life, death, and toil." "There is
the mosaic representing a skeleton, with the motto Gndthi Sauton, in the
Museo dei Termi in Rome. Cf. [Menander] Frag. 538: 'When thou
wouldst know thyself and who thou art, look on the gravestones as thou
journeyest by. There are the bones and unsubstantial dust of men who
once were kings . . . Hades is the common lot of mortals all. Look thou
on these and know thyself the man thou art.* Other commonplaces are the
Syrian favourite oudeis athanatos, which means, 'no one is not subject to
death,' and is not a denial of life hereafter, as also, hosa gennatai teleitai,
'All things that are born die,' and eis auto egenr&thes, 'Thou wast born to
have this end'" (Nock 1966:xxxii-xxxiv). There is also the famous
maxim repeated so often on epitaphs that it is sometimes expressed only
by initials: "I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care" (H. Dessau, / « scriptiones Selectae Latinae [1892-1916], 8162). Cf. also Amphis
(fourth century BCE, in his comedy Government by Women): "Drink!
Play! Life is mortal, short (oligos) is our time on earth. Death is deathless
once one is dead" (Athenaeus 336C); M. Aurel. 4.2: "Fail not to note
how short-lived are all mortal things, and how paltry—yesterday a little
mucus, tomorrow a mummy or burnt ash [tephra. Cf. Wisd 2:3]." There
is a long poem in a Roman inscription directed against the old-style eschatology of the underworld: "There is no boat in Hades, no ferry man
Charon, no Aeacus keeper of the keys, nor any dog called Cerberus. All of
us who have died and gone below are bones and ashes (ostea, tephra
gegonamen): There is nothing else." See R. Lattimore, Themes in Greek
and Latin Epitaphs (reprint Urbana, 1962) :75.
returned. Cf. Job 7:9-10. For analyein in this sense, cf. 5:12; I Esd
3:3; Tobit 2:9 (B); HI Mace 5:21; H Mace 15:28; Luke 12:36. It could
also mean 'redeem.' Cf. the Egyptian Song of the Harper: "There is none
116
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
who comes back from (over) there, / That he may tell their state, / That
he may tell their needs, / That he may still our hearts, / Until we (too)
may travel to the place where they have gone" (ANETA67).
2. By mere chance. The adverb autoschedids ('offhand,' 'rough and
ready') is first attested here. Cf. Philo Somn. 2.50; Pausanius 6.24.3.
Chance played a crucial role in the Epicurean cosmology. Cf. Lucretius
2.1-58: "And the seeds of things themselves of their own accord, jostling
from time to time by chance, were driven together in many ways, rashly,
idly, and in vain, at last those united, which, suddenly cast together, might
become ever and anon the beginnings of great things, of earth and sea and
sky, and the race of living creatures"; Plutarch Moralia 964C: "an atom
swerves to the very smallest extent in order that the heavenly bodies, living
things, and chance may come into existence and that what is in our power
may not perish." (See C. Bailey's commentary [1947] on Lucretius, vol.
2, pp. 964-965.) Moreover, the formation of the Whirl or Vortex, the sec­
ond stage in the process of world production according to the Atomic
theory of Leucippus and Democritus, could be described in Aristotelian
terms as taking place by chance (apo tautomatou: Artistotle Physica B4,
196a24). Democritus would have said that it took place by necessity (kaf
anangken: D.L. 9.45). Chance as a cause of physical events in Atomism
is mentioned only by commentators and critics. Cf. Cicero Tusc. 1.22:
"[Democritus] makes the soul consist of minute smooth round bodies
brought together in some sort of accidental collision." See W. K. C.
Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy (Cambridge, 1965): 2. 414-419.
In Ecclesiastes, the term miqreh, 'chance,' is used seven times, and refers
to the fixed and unalterable 'destiny of death' which hangs over every man
and meets him at the appointed time without reference to his conduct
(2:14,15; 3:19; 9:2/) (Hengel 1.119).
as though we had never been. Cf. Obad 16, LXX: kai esontai kathos
ouch hyparchontes; Job 10:19; Sir 44:9 (kai egenonto hos ou gegonotes);
I Enoch 102:11: "Nevertheless they perished and became as though they
had not been (egenonto hos ouk ontes)."
2-3. smoke . . . scattered like thin air. Cf. Iliad 23.100: "but the spirit
like a vapor (kapnos) was gone beneath the earth, gibbering faintly";
Plato Phaedo 70A: "and when the soul leaves the body and departs from
it, straightway it flies away and is no longer anywhere, scattering like a
breath or smoke (kapnos) ; Lucretius 3.233: "for it is a certain thin
breath that deserts the dying"; 3.455: "And so it is natural that all the na­
ture of the mind should also be dissolved, even as is smoke, into the high
breezes of the air"; Seneca Troades 393ff; Sext Math. 9.72: "and are not,
as Epicurus said, 'dispersed like smoke (kapnou diken) when released
from their bodies'"; Cicero Tusc. 1.11.24: "if the soul is breath it will
perhaps l?e dispersed in space; if fire it will be quenched."
99
1:16-2:24
SPEECH
OF THE
WICKED
117
2. a mere spark. The Stoics conceived of the hegemonikon or ruling part
of the soul as a fiery intelligent breath (pneuma noeron enthermon: SVF
2.779, 773; 1.135-136; 3.49) that has its seat in the heart. Cf. Philo
Cher. 30: "reason with its fierce and burning heat (enthermon kai
pyrdae)." For the view of the soul as consisting of the purest type of fire
which rises until it finds its natural place in the sphere of the fixed
stars, see Cicero Tusc. 1.43 (also attested for Heraclides of Pontus by
Tertullian De Anima 9 ) . Cf. Seneca De Otio 5.5: "or whether that
theory is true which strives especially to prove that man is part of the di­
vine spirit, that some part, sparks, as it were, of the stars fell down to
earth and lingered here in a place that is not their own." Macrobius says
that Heraclitus described the soul as a "spark of the substance of the
stars" (DK, A. 15. Macrobius' report, however, is unreliable). In the
Chaldean Oracles (Frag. 44, Des Places), the human soul is composed of
a spark of the cosmic soul (psychaion spinthera), mingled with portions
of the 'Paternal Intellect,' and of 'Will.' The spark gives it immortal life.
The Gnostics liked to speak of the divine sparks of light in favored men:
Irenaeus 1.24.1; Epiphanius Haereses 23.2.2; 23.1.9; 37.4; 39.2; Excerpta
ex Theodoto 1:3; 3:1; Hippolytus Refutatio omnium Haeresium 6.17.7;
Paraphrase of Shem: 46.12$. See W. Bousset, Kyrios Christos (trans. J. B.
Steely, New York, 1970) :259, n.53.
heart. In the ancient world the party favoring the brain as the organ of
ultimate control was a minority. It included Alcmaeon, the author of The
Sacred Disease, Plato, and Straton. Empedocles, Democritus, Aristotle,
Diocles, Praxagoras, most of the Stoics [some Stoics located the hegemon­
ikon in the brain: SVF 2.910; 3.33], and the Epicureans, all hold that
'thought,' or 'mind' has its seat in the heart (or in the chest). The matter
should have been settled by the dissections of Herophilus (third century
BCE) which clearly showed that the nerves originated in the brain. But
though his discovery was confirmed by Erasistratus (who lived in Alex­
andria together with and after Herophilus), Chrysippus would not give up
the heart as the central organ and fell back on the authority of Praxagoras
(second half of the fourth century BCE). See F. Solmsen, "Greek Philoso­
phy and the Discovery of the Nerves," Kleine Schriften (Hildesheim,
1968) 1. 536-582, esp. 577 and 580.
3. extinguished. Cf. Philo Somn. 1.31: "When we die is it [the hegemdn
nous] quenched (sbennytai) and does it share the decay of our bodies?";
Plutarch Moralia 987D: "until it [the spirit of many beasts] is quenched
(engkatasbesthe) altogether like a fire and perishes"; M. Aurel. 7.32: "Of
Death: Either dispersion (skedasmos) of atoms; or, if a single whole, ei­
ther extinction (sbesis) or a change of state (metastasis)"; 12.5 (to panteles apesbekenai); 8.25 (e sbesthenai to pneumation); 11.3; Philo Abr.
258; Her. 276.
118
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
4. forgotten. Cf. Eccles 2:16; 9:5; M. Aurel. 4.6: "Within a very short
time both thou and he will be dead, and a little later not even your names
will be left behind you"; 2.17: "All the life of man's body is a stream that
flows, all the life of his mind, dream, and delirium; his existence a warfare
and a sojourn in a strange land; his after-fame, oblivion."
traces of a cloud. Cf. Hosea 13:3; Job 7:9.
dispersed. Cf. Plato Phaedo 77D: "You have the childish fear that when
the soul goes out from the body, the wind will really blow it away and
scatter it (diaskedannysin); M. Aurel. 6.4, 24; 10.7.
5. reversal. The noun anapodismos is first attested here. Cf. Vettius
Valens 226.1.
6. let us enjoy. We have here an ancient and very popular motif. Cf. Isa
22:13: "Eat and drink, for tomorrow we die"; cf. I Cor 15:32; Eccles 9:7;
11:9. Our theme appears on what may well be the earliest known Greek
inscription in Jerusalem, the graffito from the tomb of Jason dating from
the time of Alexander Janneus: euphrainesthe hoi zontes to de loipon . . .
pein homa phagein (P.Benoit, 'Atiqot [1964]:39; IE J17 [1967]: 112-113;
B. Lifshitz, RB 73 [1966]:248-255); Hengel 1974: 1. 60. Euripides
Alcestis 782ff: "All men have to pay the debt of death, and there is not a
mortal who knows whether he is going to be alive on the morrow . . .
cheer up, drink, reckon the days yours as you live them; the rest belongs
to fortune"; "Remembering that the same end awaits all mortals, enjoy life
as long as you live. This teaching I give, Euodus, to all mortals: do not
grudge yourself any good thing. Why do you struggle? Enjoy yourself and
so delight in life. For know this well: once you have descended to the
drink of Lethe, you will see no more of those things that are above, once
this soul has flown out of this body" (Peek 1960: nos. 371 and 465).
Horace Odes 1.11.8: carpe diem; 1.9.13-16: "Cease to ask what the mor­
row will bring forth, and set down as gain each day that fortune grants!
Nor in thy youth neglect sweet love nor dances, whilst life is still in its
bloom and crabbed age is far away!"; Petronius Satryicon 34: [after a
slave brought in a silver skeleton and put it on the table, Trimalchio said]
"Alas for us poor mortals, all that poor man is is nothing. So we shall all
be, after the world below takes us away. Let us live then while it goes well
with us" (cf. Herodotus 2.78, where this custom is attributed to the
Egyptians): Philo Det. 33ff; Seneca Ep. 123.10; Egyptian Song of the
Harper: "Follow thy desire, as long as thou shalt live. Put myrrh upon
thy head and clothing of fine linen upon thee, . . . Fulfill thy needs upon
earth, after the command of thy heart, Until there come for thee that day
of mourning. . . . [Refrain:] Make holiday, and weary not therein!
Behold, it is not given to a man to take his property with him. Behold,
there is not one who departs who comes back again!" (ANET.467).
the good things at hand. ton onton agathon may denote either those
ready to hand or 'that really exist,' are not clouds or shadows or imaginary
u
1:16-2:24
SPEECH
OF THE
WICKED
119
delights like those of virtue, but tangible sources of enjoyment" (Goodrick
following Grimm). Cf. Philo Conf. 182; Xenophon Mem. 2.1.28.
with youthful zest. Cf. Eccles 11:9. Grimm, with the support of some
manuscripts, would read hos en neoteti.
7. costly wine and perfumes. Cf. Aelianus Varia Historia 12.31 (where
we are told that the ancients were wild about a mixture of wine and per­
fume called my nine).
8. crown ourselves with rosebuds. A Greek touch. Cf. Judith 15:13;
Lucretius 3.912-915: "This, too, men often do, when they are lying at the
board, and hold their cups in their hands, and shade their brows with gar­
lands: they say from the heart, 'Brief is this enjoyment for us puny men:
soon it will be past, nor ever thereafter will it be ours to call it back";
Horace Odes 1.36.15; 2.3.13: "Hither bid slaves bring wines and per­
fumes and the too brief blossoms of the lovely rose, while fortune and
youth allow, and the dark threads of the Sisters Three"; Anacreontea 32:
"Why at my grave your unguents pour? Why vain anoilment give? While
yet I live, embalm my forehead o'er. Bring roses, and some maiden fair;
for ere to join I go, the rout below, I fain would banish care"; Robert Herrick: "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, / Old Time is still a-flying, / And
this same flower that smiles today, / Tomorrow will be dying."
9. revelry. Cf. n Mace 9:7; i n Mace 2:3.
portion. Cf. Isa 57:6: ekeine sou he meris, houtos sou ho kleros ("that
is thy portion, this is thy lot"); Jer 13:25, LXX; Eccles 2:10; 3:22; 9:9.
10. tyrannize. For katadynasteuo, cf. 15:14; 17:2; Ezek 18:12, LXX;
Sir 48:12; Ps-Aristeas 24, 146-148; Acts 10:38. The verb is practically a
koine word, first appearing in Xenophon Symposium 5.8; cf. Strabo 270.
grey. Cf. II Mace 6:23
11. brute force. Cf. Plato Gorgias 483D#.
12. entrap the just man, for his presence is inconvenient. Virtually a
quotation from the LXX version of Isa 3:10, where the Hebrew is quite
different. It is quoted by many of the Church Fathers, following its citation
in Barnabas 6:7, as referring to Christ; cf. Justin Martyr Dial. 17;
Eusebius PE 13.13; Clem. Alex. Strom. 5.14 (where Plato Rep. 361E is
also quoted: "the just man will have to endure the lash, the rock, chains,
the branding-iron in his eyes, and finally, after every extremity of suffer­
ing, he will be crucified"); Augustine Civ.Dei 17.20.1: "In one of these
books that is called the Wisdom of Solomon Christ's passion is most
clearly prophesied. For surely it is his wicked slayers who are recorded as
saying: 'Let us set an ambush for the righteous man. . . . ' " The seven­
teenth-century commentator C. & Lapide saw in the "shameful death" of v.
20 a direct allusion to the cross, and in the word achrestos ('ineffectual')
of v. 11 an insulting play on the name Christos.
13. child of the Lord. The author's treatment of the suffering and vindi-
120
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
cation of the child of God is a homily based chiefly on the fourth Servant
Song in Isa 52:12 with some help from earlier and later passages in that
book. Although the meaning 'child' for pais is here fixed by v. 16d and
18a, this may be due to our author's misunderstanding of the LXX's os­
cillation between pais and doulos. In Isa 49:1-6, doulos is used twice and
pais only once, while in Isa 52:13; 53:1, pais only is used. See Suggs
1957:26-33; cf. J. Jeremias, "Amnos tou Theou/pais Theou," ZNW 34
(1935): 188/; id. in TDNT 5. 684; Philonenko 1958:81-88. Philonenko's
arguments that our author is referring to the Teacher of Righteousness
from Qumran are inconclusive. In Joseph and A sen, Joseph is designated
"son of God" (6:6; 13:10, Philonenko). Cf. Philo Conf. 145-148; Sobr.
56; QG 1.92; Somn. 1.173. See L. K. K. Dey, The Intermediary World
and Patterns of Perfection in Philo and Hebrews (Missoula: Scholars
Press 1975) :40-42.
14. oppressive to us. Cf. Isa 53:2; Philo Prob. 28: "It is this which
Antisthenes had in view when he said that a virtuous man is heavy to
carry"; John 3:20: "For every one who does evil hates the light."
15. is odd (anomoios Wis allois). By the rhetorical figure comparatio
compendiaria ('short comparison') for anomois to ton a//<?n='unlike
other men's'; cf. 7:3; Iliad 17.51; Rev 13:11 (Grimm).
16. avoids us. Cf. Philo Mut. 38: "though actually existing he [Enoch]
was hidden from us and shunned our company."
final lot. Cf. Sir 1:13; 7:36; 51:14.
father. Cf. Isa 63:16; 64:7; Sir 23:1,4.
17. in the end (en ekbasei autou). ekbasis in the sense of 'end of a per­
son's life' is first found here. Cf. P. Fay. 91.21 (first century CE); Heb
13:7. Similarly, when Joseph's brothers plot his death, they say, "let us
kill him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams' (Gen 37:20)
(Nickelsburg 1972:49).
18. he will assist him. Cf. Isa 4 2 : 1 : antilimpsomai autou; Matt 27:43.
Both Matthew and our own text are reminiscent of Ps 22:9. For further
discussion, see K. Stendahl, The School of St. Matthew (Philadelphia,
1968): 140-141. For antilempsetai, ('assist') cf. Isa 59:16, LXX.
19. afflict. For etazo in this sense, cf. Gen 12:17, LXX.
forbearance of evil (aneksikakia). First attested in Wisd; cf. Plutarch
Moralia 90E; Lucian De Parasito 53; Heliodorus 10.12; Epictetus Enchi­
ridion 10. For the just man's reasonableness and forbearance, cf. Isa
53.7
20. a shameful death. The dative aschemoni thanato is late Greek (clas­
sical form could be either katadikazein tina thanatou or k. thanaton
tinos). Diodorus 1.77; 13.101; Aelianus Varia Historia 12.49; Matt 20:18
(Grimm).
22. God's mysteries. Doctrine concerning the afterlife is referred to as a
mystery in I Enoch 103:2: "I know a mystery and have read the heavenly
1:16-2:24
SPEECH
OF THE
WICKED
121
tablets, and have seen the holy books, and have found written therein and
inscribed regarding them: That all goodness and joy and glory are
prepared for them, and written down for the spirits who have died in
righteousness"; 104:12; 61:5. See R. Brown, "The Semitic Background of
the New Testament Mysterion," Biblica 39 (1958) 426-448; 40 (1959)
70-87; cf. I Cor 15:51: "Listen, I will unfold a mystery: we shall not all
die"; 4:1-5.
23. immortality, aphtharsia is an Epicurean term. Cf. Epicurus Epistulae 1.77; 3.123; Philodemus Peri Theon 3.8. It is quite frequent in
Philo: Op. 153; Sacr. 5; Agr. 100; Ebr. 140; Abr. 55: epei syngenes men
aidiotetos aphtharsia ("since imperishableness is akin to eternality"); QG
3.11. See also IV Mace 9:22; II Cor 15:53.
his own proper being. Some codices read aidiotetos, which would make
the two lines parallel. Cf. Philo Op. 44.
24. devil's envy. "In Ps 108:6, LXX, diabolos is the 'accuser'; in Esther
7:4; 8:1, LXX, Haman is called diabolos in the sense of 'opponent' or
'enemy.' In I Mace 1:36, the akra is called a diabolos in the sense of 'ob­
stacle.' The LXX also used diabolos for Hebrew satan, in the sense of 'the
one who separates,' 'the enemy,' 'the calumniator,' 'the seducer.' Since this
is an innovation in the LXX, we can only deduce the meaning from the
rendering and from the context. The latter seldom suggests 'calumniator,'
but rather 'accuser,' or 'adversary.' This is so in I Chron 21:1 and Job 1
and 2, unless we prefer 'seducer'" (Foerster, in TDNT 2. 72). For the
devil's envy, see II Enoch 31:3-6; Vita Adae 12-17 (12:l:"With a heavy
sigh, the devil spoke: 'O Adam! all my hostility, envy, and sorrow is for
thee, since it is for thee that I have been expelled from my glory"); m
Baruch 4:8; Tosef. Sotah 4:17; BT Sotah 9b; BR 18.6; BT Sanh. 59b;
ARN 1; Jos. Ant. 1.1.4. (For envy attributed to God, see Apoc. Moses
18:4; Hypostasis of the Archons 138, 6-10; On the Origin of the World
119 and Testimony of Truth, [Robinson 1977:174 and 412]: PRE 13.
For the counterargument that God was not jealous, see Theophilus Ad.
Autolycum 2.25; Irenaeus Adv. Haer. 5.24.20; Ps-Clement 17.16). Bois
(1890) and Gregg (1909) thought this verse referred to Cain. "The mur­
der of Abel by Cain," wrote Gregg, "was unquestionably prompted by
jealousy. . . . Moreover, in 10:1-4, the author makes the sin of Adam of
small importance, while Cain is the first 'unrighteous man,' the ancestor
and symbol of all who afterwards deserted wisdom." If the allusion of our
verse is to Genesis 3[4E], as is most likely, it is one of the earliest extant
Jewish texts to equate the serpent with the devil.
A closely analogous attempt to attribute death to the devil's envy is to
be found in Theophilus Ad Autolycum 2.29: "When Satan saw that Adam
and his wife not only were alive but had produced offspring, he was over­
come by envy (phhond pheromenos) because he was not strong enough to
put them to death; and because he saw Abel pleasing God, he worked
122
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
upon his brother called Cain and made him kill his brother Abel. And so
the beginning of death came into this world, to reach the whole race of
men to this very day." Similarly, according to the Hypostasis of the
Archons, Ialdabaoth envies the high station of his son Sabaoth, who had
been endowed with a psychic nature capable of elevation. His envy takes
on an existence of its own, and in its turn gives rise to Death (144, 3-14
[Ballard: 39 and 112]. (In Irenaeus Adv. Haer. 1.30.9, envy and death
are linked together as the legacy of Cain's murder of Abel). See W. C. van
Unnik 1972:120-32; De aphthonia van God in de oudchristelijke literatur (Amsterdam, London, 1973).
Death entered into the cosmic order. Except for Wisd and II and IV
Maccabees, kosmos is used in the LXX only in the original meaning of
'ornament,' 'arrangement,' or 'drawing up of an army.' See Freudenthal
1890:217. The notion that death came into the world through the devil's
envy seems to be an echo of Zoroastrian teaching, although, as noted
above (on 1:13), the author of Wisd, unlike the Iranian sources, is un­
doubtedly referring to spiritual rather than physical death. According to
Zarathustra, the original static world was perfect, and alteration came into
it only through the malicious assault of the Hostile Spirit. "Once death and
destruction had been brought into the world, immortality ceased for getig
[i.e. material] creatures, and was replaced by the inevitable processes of
birth and death. In this state of things devout sacrifice has a spenta
('bounteous,' 'beneficent') function, furthering the struggle of the good
creation—a function which will continue till the last sacrifice takes place at
the end of limited time, and immortality becomes again the lot of all God's
creatures" (Boyce:231). Moreover, the attack of Ahriman is motivated
by envy: "The Destructive Spirit, ever slow to know, was unaware of the
existence of Ohrmazd. Then he rose up from the depths and went to the
border from whence the lights are seen. When he saw the light of Ohr­
mazd intangible, he rushed forward. Because his will is to smite and his
substance is envy (ariSk-gdhrih), he made haste to destroy it" (Greater
Bundahishn 1.7, translation in Zaehner 1972:313). Cf. Yasna 9.5:
"Under the rule of brave Yima, there was neither heat nor cold, neither
old age nor death, nor envy created by the daevas"; YaSt 15.16; transla­
tion in F. Wolff, Avesta (Strassburg, 1910):31, 269). Nor was it diflBcult
for the author of Wisd to identify the serpent of Genesis with Ahriman,
since in his attack on the material world we are informed that "he rushed
upon it in envious desire. . . . Like a serpent he darted forward, trampled
on as much of the sky as was beneath [sic] the earth, and rended it" (GB
41.10-42.6. See Zaehner 1961:262). For the knowledge of Zoroastrianism in Alexandria, see Pliny the Elder NH 30.2.4; D.L. 1.8; BidezCumont 1938: 1. 85-88; Hengel 1974: 1. 230. It may also be noted that
in the Apoc. Abraham 23, the serpent is identified as the instrument of
1:16-2:24
SPEECH
OF THE
WICKED
123
Azazel. In Apoc. Moses 16, he is the devil's vessel and in III Bar 9:7
Sammael took the serpent as a garment. (According to Vita Adae 33 and
II Enoch 31, it was the devil who led Eve astray.)
experience him. A. M. Dubarle proposed the following translation:
"and they who belong to his [the devil's] party put the world to the test."
The notion of perverse spirits who seek to mislead man was current in
books like I Enoch, Jubilees, TestXII, and the writings of Qumran. See
Dubarle 1964:187-195; cf. S. Lyonnet 1958:27-36.
Problems of Reward and Retribution (III-V)
HI. SUFFERINGS OF THE IMMORTAL JUST
ONLY A TRIAL
(3:1-12)
3
i But the souls of the just are in God's hand,
and torment shall in no way touch them.
2 In the eyes of the foolish they seemed to be dead;
their end was reckoned as suffering
3 and their journey hence utter ruin.
But they are at peace.
4 For even if in the sight of men they shall have been punished,
their hope is full of immortality;
5 and after a brief chastisement, they will be treated with great
kindness,
for God has tried them
and found them worthy to be his.
6 As gold in a blast furnace he tested them,
and as a whole burnt offering he accepted them.
7 In the moment of God's gracious dispensation they will blaze
forth,
and like sparks in the stubble they willflyin all directions.
8 They will judge nations and hold sway over peoples,
and the Lord shall be their sovereign for all eternity.
9 Those who have put their trust in him shall attain true
understanding,
and the faithful shall abide with him in love;
for grace and compassion are for his holy ones,
and a gracious visitation for his chosen.
10 But the godless will receive punishment tailored to their
scheming,
they who were careless of justice and rebelled against
the Lord.
3:1-12
SUFFERINGS
OF T H E I M M O R T A L
JUST
125
11 Wretched indeed is he who sets at naught the discipline of
wisdom;
empty are such men's hopes, their efforts unavailing,
their deeds futile;
12 their wives are frantic,
their children worthless,
their lineage under a curse.
NOTES
3:1-12. The author assures his readers that the physical death of the
just is in reality only the beginning of a better existence, inasmuch as their
souls would enjoy a blissful immortality after a brief period of chas­
tisement during which they were tested and their sacrificial death accepted.
Screened by the divine power, they will subsequently exercise judgment
and sovereign rule over the nations. The author is deliberately vague, how­
ever, as to the precise timing and location of these post-mortem events.
Some have suggested that, with the author of I Enoch (22), he envisaged
the temporary abode of all souls in Sheol until the Final Judgment (cf. IV
Ezra 7 ) , but others consider it more likely that the judgment takes place
immediately after death. See Grelot
1961:165-178;
Delcor
1955:614-630; Larcher 1969:301-327; Nickelsburg 1972:88-89,
144-180; J. J. Collins, "Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of
Death," CBQ 36 (1974) :21-43. See Introduction, VII.2.
3:1. in God's hand. Cf. I Enoch 102-105 (103:4: "And the spirit of
you who have died in righteousness shall live and rejoice, and their spirits
shall not perish"); Sifre Num. 139: "When a man dies, his soul is placed
in the treasury, for it is written, 'yet the soul of my lord shall be bound in
the bundle of life' (I Sam 25:29). I might conclude that this includes
both the righteous and the wicked; the text reads: 'and the souls of thine
enemies, them shall he sling out, as from the hollow of a sling.'" (Cf.
Koheleth R. on Eccles 3:21; BT Shab. 152b: "The souls of the righteous
are preserved under the throne of glory"; Philo Abr. 258: "[wisdom
taught Abraham] that death is not the extinction of the soul but its separa­
tion and detachment from the body and its return to the place whence it
came; and it came, as was shown in the story of creation, from God"; QG
1.86: "the end of worthy and holy men is not death but translation. . . .
[Enoch] is said to have moved from a sensible and visible place to an
incorporeal and intelligible form"; Jos. 264; Det. 49; Spec. 1.345. Jose-
126
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
phus presents us with a radically dualistic anthropology very similar to
that of Philo: "All of us, it is true, have mortal bodies, composed of per­
ishable matter, but the soul lives forever, immortal; it is a portion of the
Deity housed in our bodies!' (J.W. 3.8.5); cf. the words placed by
Josephus in the mouth of the Zealot leader Eleazar at Masada: "Life, not
death, is man's misfortune. For it is death which gives liberty to the soul
and permits it to depart to its own pure abode, there to be free from all ca­
lamity, but so long as it is imprisoned in a mortal body and tainted with all
its miseries, it is, in sober truth, dead, for association with what is mortal
ill befits that which is divine" (J.W. 7.8.7). In the extrabiblical apocalyp­
tic literature, the dead are no longer described as 'shades' but as 'souls' or
'spirits' and survive as individual conscious beings who may either enjoy a
blissful existence as a reward for their righteousness or receive punishment
for their wickedness. We find a similar distinction in Homer's view of the
soul of the dead as a mere shadow or 'idol' (eidolon) without conscious
life, and the Orphic-Pythagorean view of the soul as something separable
from the body, which must be kept pure and immaculate to enable it to re­
turn to its divine home after death. Pindar, however, still employs the term
eidolon for the new Orphic view of the soul as an entity of divine origin,
which has the power of foreseeing the future (Frag. 131). The Orphic
reversal of the order of existence is perhaps best expressed in the
Euripidean fragment quoted by Plato: "Who knoweth if to live is to be
dead, and to be dead, to live?" (Gorgias 492E). See W. Jaeger, "The
Greek Ideas of Immortality," HTR 52 (1959):135-147.
2. In the eyes of the foolish. The author of I Enoch puts these words
into the mouth of the sinners: "As we die, so die the righteous, and what
benefit do they reap for their deeds? Behold, even as we, so do they die in
grief and darkness, and what have they more than we?" (102:6-7).
3. journey. For poreia, cf. Eccles 12:5, LXX; Luke 22:22; Plato
Phaedo 107D; 115A: ten eis Hadou poreian.
utter ruin. For syntrimma, cf. Isa 22:4; 59:7, LXX; Sir 40:9; I Mace
2:7.
at peace. Cf. Isa 57:2; 32:17, LXX; ParJer. 5:32: "Ibless you, God of
heaven and earth, the Rest (he anapausis; cf. Wisd 4:7) of the souls of
the righteous in every place"; BR 9.5, Th-Alb:7: "Why was death decreed
for the righteous? Since as long as they are alive, they are at war with their
evil impulse, but when they die, they are given respite, and this is the
meaning of the verse, 'and there the weary are at rest' (Job 3:19)." "The
usual custom in Palestine when mentioning a departed righteous person
was to say (PT Erubin 3, end, 21C; Pesahim 4.1, 30d) noah nefesh,
'whose soul is at rest,' as is clearly stated by Resh Lakish: 'Some are men­
tioned and blessed (with the word noah), others are mentioned and
cursed* (Wayyik.R. 32.6). . . . The expression noafy nefesh is indeed
3:1-12
SUFFERINGS
OF THE I M M O R T A L
JUST
127
found on the Palestine tombstones of the first centuries C E . " (Lieberman
1942:70). See also A. Parrot, Le 'Refrigerium' dans Vau deld (Paris,
1937); Lieberman 1974:32-33.
4. immortality. .Although the rabbis never speak of the 'immortality' of
the soul, they quote Aquila's translation to Ps 48:15 "Al mut-athanasia,"
which they refer, however, to the future world 'in which there is no death'
(PT Meg. 3.4, 73b; Wayyik.R. 11.9; cf. BT Avoda Zara 35b). (See Urbach 1969:208); cf. IV Mace 18:23 (psychos hagnas kai athanatous
apeilephotes para tou theou); 16:13.
5. after a brief chastisement. Cf. Isa 54:7-8: "For a little while I for­
sook you, but with vast love I will bring you back. In slight anger, for a
moment, I hid my face from you; but with kindness everlasting I will take
you back in love—said the Lord your Redeemer"; 57:17, LXX: brachy ti
elypesa auton; Test.Joseph 2:6 (en brachei aphistamenos). Under the im­
pact of the Antiochean persecution, the author of II Maccabees provides
his readers with a more elaborate explanation in order to justify the great
calamities which had come upon them: "Now, I appeal to those who hap­
pen upon this book, not to be cast down by these misfortunes, but rather
to consider that these were retributions not intended to destroy, but rather
only to discipline our people. As a matter of fact, it is a mark of favor not
to leave impious ones alone for any length of time, but to inflict immediate
punishment on them. When it comes to other nations the Lord shows his
forbearance, and delays punishing them until they have reached the
fullness of their iniquity, but for us he had determined differently, in order
that he may not be compelled to punish us later when our sins have
reached finality. For this reason he never withdraws his mercy from us"
(6:12); cf. 7:33: bracheos eporgistai; 7:36; TestBenjamin 5:5; I Peter
1:6; 5:10. Our author similarly writes at 12:22 below: "We, then, are
thus chastened, but our enemies you scourge ten thousandfold"; cf.
16:3,5,11. Cf. also Philo LA 2.33-34: "But God will not let the offspring
of 'the seeing' Israel be in such wise changed as to receive his death blow
by the change, but will force him to rise and emerge as though from deep
water and recover"; Assumption of Moses 12:11-12: "but those who sin
. . . shall be punished with many torments by the nations. But wholly to
root out and destroy them is not permitted." Jos. Ant. 4.6.6: "Yet misfor­
tunes may well befall them of little moment and for a little while, whereby
they will appear to be abased, though only thereafter to flourish once more
to the terror of those who inflicted these injuries upon them"; Ant. 3.15.1;
Ps Sol 13:4-10.
has tried them. Cf. Exod 16:4; Deut 8:16; Ps 26:2; Prov 3:11; Sir
2:1-5; I Enoch 108:9: "And the Lord tried them and their spirits were
found pure"; Ps Sol 10:1-2; II Enoch 49:2. For suffering as discipline,
see the Elihu speeches in Job 32-37.
128
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
6. As gold in a blast furnace. Cf. Zech 13:9; Mai 3:3; Ps 66:10; Prov
17:3; Sir 2:5; 1QH 5.15-15; Dan 11:35; 12:10; Philo Sacr. 80: "Again,
let the fresh ripeness of the soul be 'roasted,' that is tested by the might of
reason, as gold is tested by the furnace"; Seneca De Providentia 5:10:
"Fire tests gold, misfortune brave men"; 16.1.6: "God does not make a
spoiled pet of a good man; he tests him, hardens him, and fits him for his
own service"; 4.7: "God hardens, reviews, and disciplines those whom he
approves, whom he loves. Those, however, whom he seems to favor . . .
he is really keeping soft against ills to come"; 3.3; Menander Frag. 691,
Kock. choneuterion ("smelting furnace") is found only in the LXX (I
Kings 8:51 and elsewhere) and Patristic literature. (For edokimasen, cf.
Ps 65:10, LXX; Sir 2:5; and for prosedeksato, cf. Amos 5:22, LXX.)
7. God's gracious dispensation, episkopis. episkopg, 'visitation,' trans­
lates Hebrew pekudah, which can be used both in a bad sense and in a
good sense, i.e. a visitation bringing either punishment or pardon. Cf. Jer
10:15, LXX; Isa 10:3; 29:6, LXX; Isa 23:17, LXX; Zech 10:3, LXX;
1QS 3.18; 4.18,26; CD 7.21. See Beyer, TDNT 2. 602; Volz:164-165.
blaze forth . . . like sparks in the stubble. For the imagery, cf. Zech
12:6; Exod 9:23, LXX; Isa 1:3; Joel 2:5; Obad 18; Nahum 2:4: hos astrapai diatrechousai; Mai 4 : 1 ; I Enoch 48:9 Philo Mig. 123: "For a
smoldering spark (spinther), even the very smallest, when it is blown up
and made to blaze, lights a great pile; and so the least particle of
virtue, when, warmed into life by bright hopes, it has shone out (analampse). . . ." The notion of the future star-like brilliance of the right­
eous was quite common in Jewish apocalyptic. See Dan 12:3; I Enoch
104:2: "but now ye shall shine as the lights of heaven, ye shall shine and
ye shall be seen"; 38:4; 39:76; IV Ezra 7:97: "how their force is destined
to shine as the sun, and how they are destined to be made like the light of
the stars, henceforth incorruptible"; II Bar 51:10; IV Mace 17:5: "not so
majestic stands the moon in heaven, with its stars, as you stand; lighting
the way to piety for your seven star-like sons; honored by God, and with
them fixed in heaven"; II Enoch 66:7; cf. Matt 13:43; Sifre Deut. 10,
Finkelstein:18 (the faces of the righteous in the future will be like the
sun, moon, and stars). For astral immortality, see Hengel 1974: 1. 197,
(Dupont-Sommer [1949] has sought to correct kalame to galaksie, but on
insufficient grounds; cf. Larcher 1969:319, n.2.)
8. will judge nations. We similarly read in Dan 7:22: "and judgment
was given for the saints of the Most High; and the time came, and the
saints possessed the kingdom." Cf. 1 QpHab 5.4: "God will execute the
judgment of the nations by the hand of his elect"; Matt 19:28; I Cor 6:2;
Rev 20:4. We find a similar tableau in a late midrash: "In the future age,
the Holy One, blessed be He, will be seated, while the angels will place
crowns upon the exalted ones of Israel, and they will be seated, and the
3:1-12
SUFFERINGS
OF THE I M M O R T A L
JUST
129
Holy One, blessed be He, will sit among them as Court President and they
will judge the nations of the world . . ." (Tank. Buber, Kedoshim 1; cf.
ShR5.ll).
sovereign for all eternity. Cf. Ps 10:16.
9. shall attain true understanding. Cf. Dan 11:33, LXX; synesousin;
12:3: hoi synientes; 12:10: "but they that are wise shall understand."
for grace and compassion are for his holy ones. Cf. I Enoch 5:7: kai
tois eklektois phos kai charis kai eirene.
10. punishment, epitimia in the sense of punishment is first found here.
Cf. OGIS 669.43 (Egypt, first century CE): P. Lond. 77.53; Jos. AgAp.
2.199; II Cor 2:6 (also found in Patristic literature).
tailored to their scheming. Foreshadowing of the principle of talion
which assumes such a dominant role in part C of the book.
11. Alternation of singular and plural is not uncommon in wisdom liter­
ature; 1 la should be read as a parenthesis (Fichtner 1938).
sets at naught. Cf. Prov 1:7, LXX.
empty. . . hopes. Cf. Job 7:6, LXX; Sir 31.1.
12. their children worthless. Cf. Ezek 16:44: "As the mother, so her
daughter"; Sir 41:5: "What a loathsome brood are the children of sin­
ners; IV Ezra 9:17: "As is the ground so the sowings."
IV. STERILITY OF THE VIRTUOUS WILL ULTIMATELY
BE CONVERTED TO FRUITFULNESS
(3:13-4:6)
3
13
Blessed indeed is the barren woman who is unstained,
who has not gone to bed in sin,
she shall be fruitful at the great assize of souls.
1 And the eunuch who has not acted unlawfully
or meditated wickedness against the Lord
will receive the exquisite gift of grace in return for his
steadfastness
and a portion in the temple of the Lord to delight his heart
the more.
15 For the fruit of honest toil is glorious,
and the root of wisdom is unf ailing.
16 But the children of adulterers will not reach maturity,
and the seed of unlawful union will be destroyed.
17 For even if they attain length of life, they will be of no
account,
and in the end their old age will be without honor.
18 And if their end come swiftly, they will be without hope
or consolation on the day of decision.
19 For hard is the end of an unjust generation.
i It is better to be childless, provided one is virtuous,
for in virtue's remembrance there is immortality,
since it wins recognition both from God and from men.
Men imitate it when it is present,
and when it is gone they yearn for it;
and through all time, crowned with the victory wreath, it
proceeds triumphally,
a winner in the contest for prizes undefiled.
3 But the swarming multitude of the wicked will be of no
profit;
4
4
2
3:13-4:6
STERILITY
OF THE
VIRTUOUS
131
sprung from bastard shoots they will not strike deep root
nor secure a firm footing.
4 For even if their branches blossom for a season,
standing unstably they shall reel in the wind
5 and be uprooted by powerful gusts. Their shoots will be
snapped off before reaching full growth,
and their fruit will be useless, unripe for eating,
and fit for nothing.
6 For children who are products of illicit sex
are witnesses against their parents' vice on their day of
scrutiny.
NOTES
3 : 1 3 - 4 : 6 . A person's status and stature in the Middle East were deeply
affected by the number of his progeny. Sexual sin, whether intentioned or
inadvertent, was believed to result in sterility. When Rachel finally gave
birth, she greatly rejoiced because "God has taken away my disgrace"
(Gen 30:23; cf. Luke 1:25). The author of I Enoch is quite explicit on
this point: "And barrenness has not been given to the woman, but on ac­
count of the deeds of her own hands she dies without children" (98:5).
Similarly, according to the midrash, during the period of Sarah's sterility,
Hagar told visiting women that Sarah was only seemingly righteous, for
otherwise she would not have been barren all those years (BR 45.4, ThAlb:451; cf. BR 54.22, Th-Alb:577). Our author, however, emphatically
denies any necessary connection between sin and sterility.
3:13. barren, steira is the recurring LXX rendering of Hebrew 'akarah.
bed. koite, used of sexual connection, is frequent in the LXX, where it
renders Hebrew miSkav. Cf. Heb 13:4 (he koite amiantos).
fruitful. "The gist of the passage is that sterility, if pure, is redeemed by
a spiritual fertility" (Gregg). Cf. Philo Deus 13-15: "We might well ex­
pect, then, that the barren woman, not meaning the childless, but the firm
or solid [a play on words: steiran-sterran], who still abounds in power,
who with endurance and courage perseveres to the finish in the contest,
where the prize is the acquisition of the Best, should bring forth the
Monad which is of equal value with the Seven; for her nature is that of a
happy and goodly motherhood. And when she says that she who has had
many children languishes, her words are as clear as they are true. For
when the soul that is one departs from the one and is in travail with many
132
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ IV
. . . she is pregnant with the lusts of the belly and those which have their
seat below it."
14. the eunuch. The reference is clearly to Isa 56:3-5, where the
prophet refers to those Jewish youth who were castrated at the hands of
the Babylonian tyranny, and had consequently despaired of any share in
Israel's future redemption (Deut 23:1-2). Isaiah encouraged them with
the divine assurance: "I will give them in My House and within My walls,
a monument and a name better than sons or daughters." According to BT
Sanh. 93b, the captivity of Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah is the
fulfillment of Isa 39:7 [=11 Kings 20:18], and Rab takes the word
'eunuchs' in that verse literally. (The Talmud also identifies the "eunuchs
who observe my Sabbaths" in Isa 56:4 with Daniel and his three associ­
ates.) Cf. Jerome's Commentary on Daniel 1:3 [PL 25:496]; Origen's
Commentary on Matthew 15:5 [PG 13:1263-1265]; PT Shab. 6.9, 8d
(where we are told that Daniel and his associates were eunuchs but were
healed by passage through the fiery furnace). It should be noted that
whereas Isa 56:3 refers to the Eunuch's observance of the Sabbath, our
verse speaks only vaguely about his refraining from anomema.
in the temple of the Lord. Probably, in heaven, though it may refer to
the future temple; cf. Pss 11:4; 18:7; I Bar 2:16; Rev 7:15. Excluded
from the earthly sanctuary, he shall have a place in the heavenly one.
to delight . . . the more, thumares is a Homeric word (Iliad 9.336;
Odyssey 23.232); also in later prose (Lucian Amores 43). Cf. Philo Abr.
245; Cont. 66.
15. A man's true glory and fame consists not so much in his numerous
physical offspring as in the fruit of his virtue and wisdom. Cf. BR 30.6,
Th-Alb:271: " 'This is the line of Noah, Noah was a righteous man' (Gen
6:9), it is this which Scripture says, 'The fruit of the righteous is a tree of
life' (Prov 11:30). What are the fruits of the righteous? Life, command­
ments, and good deeds." (Margoliouth quotes the more elaborate version
of Tank. Buber, on Gen 6:9): "At the time a man departs childless from
this world he is grieved and cries. God says to him: Why are you crying
that you haven't raised fruit in the world, when you have fruit more beau­
tiful than children? . . .") Cf. Philo Abr. 3 1 : "a sage has no house or
kinsfolk or country save virtues and virtuous actions; 'for these,' he says,
'are the generations of Noah'"; Deus 117-18.
root of wisdom. I.e. the root which consists in wisdom. For the appositive genitive, see BDF 167.
16. will not reach maturity. Cf. Sir 23:25: "Her children shall not
spread out their roots, and her branches shall bear no fruit"; I Enoch
10:9: "Proceed against the bastards . . . and against the children of forni­
cation . . . for length of days shall they not have"; BT Yeb. 78b: "So also
did R. Huna state: A bastard's stock does not survive. . . . Those who
3:13-4:6
S T E R I L I T Y OF THE V I R T U O U S
133
are known survive; those who are not known [sc. as bastards] do not sur­
vive; and those who are partly known and partly unknown survive for
three generations but no longer. A certain man once lived in the neigh­
borhood of R. Ami, and the latter made a public announcement that he
was a bastard. As the other was bewailing the action, the Master said to
him: I have given you life." See Ta-Shema.
17. of no account. Cf. Sir 16:1-3: "Desire not a multitude of unprofita­
ble sons, and delight not in corrupt children. . . . Trust not those in their
life, nor rely on their end; for better is one than a thousand, and to die
childless than to have a presumptuous posterity."
in the end. For ep eschaton, cf. Prov 25:8, LXX.
18. decision. For diagnosis in this sense, cf. Demosthenes 18.7; Jos.
J.W. 2.2.2; Acts 25:21; IG 14. 1072: epi diagnoseon tou Sebastou.
4:1. This verse takes up again the theme of 3:13.
better to be childless, provided one is virtuous. A characteristically Pla­
tonic note is sounded here. It is the life of the soul that is paramount, so
that physical childlessness is of little moment, provided the soul is produc­
tive. Cf. Symp. 208E: "'They are in love with what is immortal. Now
those who are teeming in body betake them rather to women, and are
amorous on this wise: by getting children they acquire an immortality, a
memorial (athanasian kai mnemen), and a state of bliss, which in their
imagining they "for all succeeding time procure." But pregnancy of soul—
for there are persons,' she declared, 'who in their souls still more than in
their bodies conceive those things which are proper for soul to conceive
and bring forth; and what are those things? Wisdom and virtue in gen­
eral. . . . Every one would choose to have got children such as these
rather than the human sort.'" See S. Lange:293-306.
in virtue's remembrance there is immortality. Cf. Ps 112:6; Prov 10:7;
Sir 44:8-15; Xenophon Mem. 2.1.33: "When comes the appointed end,
[the virtuous] lie not forgotten and dishonored, but live on, sung and re­
membered for all time"; Diodorus 1.2.4. Except for Wisd and II, III, and
IV Maccabees, arete is never found in the LXX in its ethical meaning. See
Freudenthal 1890:215-216.
both from God and from men. Cf. Xenophon Mem. 2.1.32: "I [Virtue]
am first in honor among the gods and among men that are akin to me."
2. through all time. Cf. IV Mace 17:18. "Whereas Greek in general dis­
tinguishes between chronos and aion, using the former for time in itself,
and the latter for the relative time allotted to a being, Plato distinguishes
between aion as timeless, ideal eternity, and chronos as the time which is
created with the world as a moving image of eternity (Tim. 37D)."
(TDNT 1. 1870; and cf. NOTE on 13:9 below.)
crowned with the victory wreath. Cf. 5:16 below; Prov 4:9; Ps-Aristeas
134
THE WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ IV
280; Test.Levi 8:2,10; TesLBenj 4 : 1 ; II Mace 6:7; IV Mace 17:15; Sir
1:11; 6:31; 15:6; Judith 15:13; Philo Abr. 35; Praem. 13; BT Ber.
17a; 1QS 4.7-8; 1QH 9.24; I Cor 9:25. For stephanephoreo, cf. Philo
Jos. 18, 138.
for prizes undefiled. "amianton athlon may either mean 'of unstained
prizes,' or 'of unstained struggles.' With the first translation the meaning is
'perfect rewards, unstained by unfairness of winning or savage passions on
the part of the competitors,' as in earthly contests. The second, which
Grimm adopts, is explained as 'the struggles of the virtuous life, unstained
by selfishness or sin.' The latter is more in accordance with the philo­
sophic idea of life as a warfare, which is found in Plato Phaedo 114C;
Rep. 621C; and often in Epictetus (Enchiridion 29.2; Discourses 1.18.21;
3.10.8; cf. Philo Mig. 26; LA 3.14), and is elaborated in IV Mace 17:16"
(Goodrick [1913]; cf. Heinisch). "The Hellenistic origin of the picture of
Virtue's Agon and victory is not only supported by the similar image in IV
Mace 17:11-16, but also by the phrase ton amianton athlon. It would
seem highly probable that one should see in this phrase the traditional
contrast between the sage's contest for virtue and the 'unholy' athletic con­
tests as we have observed it in the diatribe and in Philo (Agr. 113, 119;
Mut. 106; Abr. 48), a contrast which is then transferred to the prizes in
both contests" Pfitzner:55; cf. 33-37 and 38-48). On athletic imagery in
Christian texts, see also R. Merkelbach, ZPE 18 (1975): 108-131.
4. standing unstably. For episphalos bebekota, cf. Archilochus frag.
114.4, West.
5. unripe, aoros may be an intentional play on the well-known designa­
tion for those who die prematurely (the aoroi). Cf. NOTE on 14:15.
6. witnesses. We find a similar notion in Wayyik.R. 23.12, Margaliot:545: "'The eye also of the adulterer waiteth for the twilight,' R.
Shimeon b. Lakish said: so that you may not say that whoever commits
adultery with his body is called an adulterer, but he who commits adul­
tery with his eyes is [also] called an adulterer, for it is written 'the eye also
of the adulterer waiteth for the twilight,' and this adulterer sits in wait
watching for the twilight or evening to come, 'in the twilight, in the eve­
ning of the day' (Prov 7:9), but he is unaware that He who dwells in the
secret place of the universe, the Holy One blessed be He, moulds his [the
foetus'] facial lineaments (charakterion) in his image in order to
publicize him." Cf. Tanh. Buber, Naso 6; Sir 23:18; Gospel of Philip 78:
"The children a woman bears resemble the man who loves her. If her hus­
band loves her, then they resemble her husband. If it is an adulterer, then
they resemble the adulterer. Frequently, if a woman sleeps with her hus­
band out of necessity, while her heart is with the adulterer with whom she
usually has intercourse, the child she will bear is born resembling the adul-
3:13-4:6
STERILITY
OF
THE
VIRTUOUS
135
terer. Now you who live together with the Son of God, love not the
world, but love the Lord, in order that those you will bring forth may not
resemble the world, but may resemble the Lord" (Robinson 1977:147).
The same idea appears in Greek and Latin literature: Hesiod Op. 182,
235; Ps-Phocylides 178 (FPG:154); Aeschines Against Ctesiphon
3.111; AP 6.353; Menander Rhet., pp. 404, 407, Spengel; Chariton 2.11.2;
Theocritus 17.44; Horace Carmina 4.5.23; Terence Hautontimorumenos
1018; Catullus 61.221; Martial 6.27.39; cf. Diels, Dox. 423, 17-21.
V. EARLY DEATH A TOKEN OF GOD'S SOLICITOUS
CARE
(4:7-20)
4
7
But therighteousman, though he die an untimely death, will
be at rest.
8 For it is not length of life that makes for an honorable old
age,
nor is it measured by numbers of years;
9 but rather is it wisdom which constitutes a man's silvery
brow,
and a spotless life the true ripeness of age.
10 Being well-pleasing to God he was dearly loved,
and while yet living among sinful men he was translated.
11 He was snatched away lest evil alter his intelligence,
or wile deceive his mind.
12 For the witchery of evil dims excellence,
and the giddy distraction of desire perverts the guileless
mind.
13 Perfected in a short span, he completed a full measure of
time.
1 For his soul was pleasing to the Lord,
therefore he urged it forth out of the midst of wickedness.
The masses see this and do not understand
nor do they take such a happening to heart;
1 [that grace and compassion are for his chosen,
and a gracious visitation for his holy ones]
16 —but the just man dead shall condemn the godless who are
alive,
and swiftly perfected youth the old age of the unrighteous
rich in years—
17 for they will see the wise man's end
and will not understand what the Lord purposed for him
and to what end he took him into safe keeping.
4
5
4:7-20
EARLY
DEATH
A
TOKEN
137
1 8
They will see and account it as nought,
but it is they whom the Lord will laugh to scorn.
19 They shall thereafter become an ignominious carcass,
an object of outrage among the dead forever;
for he will smash them speechless headlong,
rocking them out of their foundations,
and they shall be made an utter desert,
and shall be in anguish
and their memory shall perish.
20 In the reckoning of their sins they will come cringing,
and their lawless acts will convict them to their face.
NOTES
4:7-20. The problem of premature death was a disturbing one for any
theodicy, and our author takes great pains to account for it. He employs a
popular philosophical conceit that a man's true age is not measured
chronologically but by maturity of intellect and character, and he further
resorts to a Jewish exegetical tradition that Enoch had been removed by
God early to forestall the imminent perversion of his moral character, in
order to extract from it a general principle of Divine Providence (paral­
leled in Hellenistic literature) which would justify the early death of the
righteous.
4:7. an untimely death, phthanein with the infinitive instead of the parti­
ciple is rare in Classical Greek, but more frequent in later writers
(Kuhner-Gerth 484.32).
will be at rest. The wicked, on the other hand, "shall have no rest" (ouk
estin hymin anapausai: I Enoch 99:14); cf. Test. Abraham B 9:8; Philo
Fug. 174; NOTES on 3:3 and
8:16.
8. not length of life. We have here a very widespread literary theme. Cf.
Menander Frag. 553, Korte: "Not from white heads has wisdom always
sprung; Nature gives it to some men while they're young" (J. M. Ed­
monds, The Fragments of Attic Comedy, 3 vols. [Leiden, 1957], III.
B:810); Cicero Tusc. 5.5; 1.45: "No one has lived too short a life who
has discharged the perfect work of perfect virtue" (see A. Michel, Rhetorique et Philosophic chez Ciceron [Paris, 1960]:671); Seneca Ep. 78.28
(quoting Posidonius) 93.2: "We should strive, not to live long, but to live
rightly. . . . A life is really long if it is a full life, but fullness is not at-
138
THE WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ V
tained until the soul has rendered to itself its proper Good"; Plutarch
Moralia H I D ; Virgil Aen. 9.311. Philo is especially fond of this notion.
In his description of the Therapeutae he writes: "After the prayers the
seniors recline according to the order of their admission, since by senior
they do not understand the aged and grey headed who are regarded as still
mere children if they have only in late years come to love this rule of life,
but those who from their earliest years have grown to manhood and spent
their prime in pursuing the contemplative branch of life" (Cont. 67); "for
the true elder is shown as such not by his length of days but by a laudable
and perfect life. Those who have passed a long span of years in the exist­
ence of the body without goodness or beauty of life must be called longlived children who have never been schooled in the learning worthy of
grey hairs" (Abr. 271); Fug. 146; Her. 49, 290; Deus 120; Sobr. Iff;
Legat. 1.142; Plant. 168; Praem. 112; QE 2.20. "In the first century CE"
writes Curtius, "we find the frequent rhetorical exaggeration—the boy to
be praised had the maturity of an old man (Silius Italicus Punica 8.64;
Pliny the Younger Epistulae 5.16.2; Apuleius Florida 9.38; AP 7.603).
Gregory the Great began his life of St. Benedict with the words: 'He was
a man of venerable life . . . even from his boyhood he had the under­
standing of an old man.' This becomes a hagiographic clich6, whose
influence continues into the thirteenth century. The reverse formula also
appears. The desert father Macarius (d. 391) was called 'child-old man'
(paidariogeron) even as a youth (PG, LXVIII, 1069A). There is also an
ancient Indian parallel. According to Manu (2.150#) the young Brahmin
Kawi instructed his paternal uncles in sacred learning, addressing them as
'sons.' Angered, they complained to the gods, who gave the following an­
swer: 'The lad addressed you rightly, for the unknowing is a child . . . not
because he is white-headed is a man old; he who has read the scripture,
even though he be young, him the gods account old.' We further find that
in various religions saviors are characterized by the combination of child­
hood and age. The name Lao-tzu can be translated as 'old child.' Among
the Etruscan gods we find Tages, 'the miraculous boy with grey hair and
the intelligence of old age, who was ploughed up out of the ground by a
plowman at Tarquinii [Cicero De Diviniatione 2.50; Ovid Metamorphoses
15.553]. From the nature worship of the preJslamic Arabs the fabulous
Chydhyr passed into Islam. 'Chydhyr is represented as a youth of bloom­
ing and imperishable beauty who combines the ornament of old age, a
white beard, with his other charms'" (E. R. Curtius, European Literature
and the Latin Middle Ages [New York, 1953]:98-101). We similarly find
in BT Kid. 32b: "R. Jose the Galilean said, zaken or elder means only he
who has acquired wisdom." See also II Bar 17:1.
9. spotless, akelidotos is first attested here and 7:26 below (Prov 25:18,
LXX should read akidotos). Cf. Philo Virt. 222 (akeliddton diaphylaks-
4:7-20
EARLY
DEATH
A
TOKEN
139
asa ton heautes bion), 205; Spec. 1.150,167; Cher. 95; Sacr. 139; Det.
171; Ecphantus, Thesleff:80, line 17; ApocAbraham 17 (where 'spotless*
is one of God's attributes).
10. Being well-pleasing to God. The reference is clearly to Enoch
(Gregg and Heinisch say it refers to the just man of v. 7, though using
language reminiscent of Enoch). Cf. Gen 5:24, LXX: euerestesen Enoch
to theo kai ouk heurisketo, hoti metetheken auton ho theos. These words
are virtually repeated in the Greek version of Sir 44:16 (euerestesen
Kyrid kai metetethe). Cf. Heb 11:5. "We have here the first example of
the curious avoidance of proper names which marks the author of Wis­
dom. According to one view it was unnecessary to name them because the
book was addressed to Jewish apostates or waverers. A precisely opposite
explanation, that the heathen princes to whom the book is addressed
would not care to know the names of Hebrew saints, is suggested by
Grimm. Margoliouth's idea that the writer avoided proper names because
he did not wish to spoil the appearance of his Greek, is peculiar"
(Goodrick). Yet another explanation is that Wisdom's omission of the
proper names of Israel's heroes is in keeping with the style of the protreptic discourse, which deals with persons as types (Reese 1970:119; cf. Bois
1890:215). For the author of Wisdom, however, the biblical personalities
are historical figures and not mere types as they are for Philo. Riddling
speech (griphodes), however, was a characteristic of some of the more
erudite literary productions of Hellenistic Alexandria, and this may well
account for what seems to a modern reader as an exceedingly bizarre idio­
syncrasy on the part of our author. A good example of this style of writing
is Lycophron's Alexandra (a collateral name for Cassandra), "which must
be classified as a tragedy because of its iambic meter but is, in fact, a sin­
gle messenger's speech reporting to Priam Cassandra's predictions on the
day that Paris set out for the rape of Helen. Every line of the poem is an
enigma. Persons, gods, places, are almost never called by their names but
referred to by the most remote and abstruse allusions; if the allusion
strikes the reader as recognizable he is surely wrong, for some more
remote and more paradoxical reference is intended. To modern readers
the work, happily unique in its kind, appears to be the chef d'oeuvre of an
erudite madman; b u t . . . such madness may have had an appreciative au­
dience in Alexandria" (M. Hadas, A History of Greek Literature [New
York, 1950]: 192-193). But while Lycophron's Alexandra represents an
extreme case of the riddling style, the author of Wisd did not intend his
allusions to cause any serious puzzlement but rather to provide the
reader familiar with the Bible the enjoyment of virtually immediate recog­
nition of the biblical figures described but unnamed. Georgi has suggested
that the author's object in omitting proper names is to emphasize that
concrete historical reality is only an appearance and that true existence is
140
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ V
on a higher level (1964:272). Along similar lines, J. Collins has observed
that "Wisd is not interested in the historical differences between these
figures but only in the repeated manifestations of a universal type, 'the
righteous man'" (JAAR, 1 Supp. [March 1977]: B:14). It may also be
noted that in the so-called Testament of Orpheus both Abraham and
Moses are alluded to without their names being mentioned (27-32, 41-42
[FPG 166]).
11. He was snatched away. The verb harpzaein served, on the one hand,
as one of the oldest Greek terms for 'translation,* and, on the other hand,
was frequently used in epitaphs for being snatched away by an early death
(Peek 1960 nos. 149,3; 157,2; 268,1; 269,1; 276,8; etc.; see Schmitt
1976:188). Philo understood Gen 5:24 to mean that Enoch "journeyed
as an emigrant from the mortal life to the immortal" (Mut. 38; QG 1.85).
lest evil alter his intelligence. Cf. Isa 57:1-2. The motive here given
for the removal of Enoch is different from that assumed either in the
Greek ("an example of repentence to all generations") or in the Hebrew
version ("a sign of instruction to future generations") of Sir 44:16, but
agrees with that given in BR 25.1, Th-Alb. 238: "R. Aibo said, Enoch
was a hypocrite, at times he was righteous, at other times wicked; said the
Holy One blessed be He, while he is yet righteous, I shall remove him."
(Cf. KoheLR. 7.32; WayyiLR. 32.4. The rabbis applied a similar mode of
reasoning to the law of the rebellious son and that concerning a thief who
is caught in the act of breaking in. "Should he [the rebellious son] die be­
cause he consumed his father's money? Rather is he condemned because
of what his end will be; it is better that he die innocent and not guilty."
Sifre Deut. 218, Finkelstein: 251. Cf. M. Sanh. 8.5; BT Sanh. 72a.) See
also Philo Mig. 26: "Even him [Jacob] he forbids to keep up his wrestlings
to the end, lest one day by perpetually meeting them, he should contract
from them a pernicious taint." Seneca the Younger similarly writes: "Do
you complain, Marcia, that your son did not live as long as he might have
lived? For how do you know whether it was advisable for him to live
longer? . . . Human affairs are unstable and fleeting, and no part of our
life is so frail and perishable as that which gives most pleasure, and there­
fore at the height of good fortune we ought to pray for death. . . . And
your son who was so handsome. . . . What assurance have you that he
could have escaped the many diseases there are, and so have preserved
the unimpaired beauty of his person down to old age? And think of the
thousand taints of the soul! For even noble natures do not support con­
tinuously into old age the expectations they had stirred in their youth, but
are often turned aside; they either fall into dissipation, which coming late
is for that reason the more disgraceful, and begins to tarnish the brilliance
of their first years. . . . If you will consider all these possibilities, you will
learn that those who are treated most kindly by Nature are those whom
4:7-20
EARLY
DEATH
A
141
TOKEN
she removes early to a place of safety [cf. v. 17 below: esphdlisato], be­
cause life had in store some such penalty as this" (De Consolatione ad
Marciam 22). So, too, Plutarch Consolatio ad Apollonium 117D: "For
who knows but that God, having a fatherly care for the human race, and
foreseeing future events, early removes some persons from life untimely
(aorous)T (cf. Peek 1960, no. 314,9/; and Ps-Plato, Axiochus 367C).
See also Grelot 1958:5-26,181-210.
12. giddy distraction, rhembasmos is found only here, but appears again
in Patristic Greek (rhembazo, intensive of rhembo, occurs only in Patristic
Greek). It may have been a Stoic coinage, although it is not attested in
any of our fragments. Zeno, for example, had defined pathos as a ptoia or
violent fluttering of the mind (SVF 1.206), and Marcus Aurelius writes:
kai pausai rhembomenos (Meditations 2.7: "cease being carried aside
hither and thither.") Cf. 4.22: me aporrembesthcd.) The same expression
is found in Sib Or Frags. 1:26: pausasthe mataioi rhembomenoi skotie:
"cease vain mortals roaming in darkness"). Cf. Seneca De Vita Beata 28:
"Are not your minds even now whirled and spun about as if some hur­
ricane had seized them?"; De Tranquillitate Animi 2.8: "and then creeps
in the agitation of a mind (animi iactatio) which can find no issue."
Spinoza had adopted the term animi fluctuatio, after the Latin translation
of Descartes's Les Passions de VAme 2.59; 3.170.
perverts. In his characteristic manner, Goodrick comments as follows:
"metalleuei is an obvious blunder for metallassei. It means 'digs for
metals' and is repeated in its false sense in 16:25. . . . The rendering of
metalleuein:metapherein, in Suidas, seems to be taken from these two
passages of Wisdom. The anxiety of commentators to defend the qualifica­
tions of Pseudo-Solomon as a Greek scholar is proved by Gregg's sugges­
tion [so, too, Heinisch] that 'papyri yet to be discovered may prove this to
have been a popular Alexandrian use.'" Reese, however, has pointed out
that "by the time Wisdom was composed, the papyri show that the classi­
cal verb metallasso had become the technical term in Egypt for 'die.' An­
other word for 'change,' metalloioo, appears in the lexica, but it is late and
rare [though it occurs in Ps-Aristeas 17; Philo Post. 83,98. Skehan
(1971:251) believes that metalleuo in Wisd is due to a scribal error which
confused this verb with metalloioo. Fichtner (1938) assumed that the au­
thor of Wisd confused the two verbs]. The plausible explanation for the
Sage's choice of the word metalleuo . . . is that it was then in current use
in the general sense of undergoing a change, the conception that he wishes
to convey in both passages. A confirmation of the extension of meaning is
that the verb means 'undermine' in Josephus, AJ [Ant.] 17.10.3"
(1970:29). More important, however, in my opinion is the fact that in
Philo Gig. 65 most of the manuscripts read either metalleusantes or metalleuontes (Wendland's emendation is: metalloiosantes) which would in9
142
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ V
dicate that metalleud did come to have the meaning of 'change' and was
either so used by Philo himself, or was readily substituted for an original
metalloidsantes by scribes who were familiar with such a usage. In Patris­
tic Greek we again find metalleud in the sense of metailasso
(Lampe:853).
13, Perfected in a short span. Seneca writes in a similar vein: "What­
ever has reached perfection, is near its end. Ideal Virtue hurries away and
is snatched from our eyes, and the fruits that ripen in their first days do
not wait long for their last. The brighter a fire glows, the more quickly it
dies. . . . So with men—the brighter their spirits, the briefer their day"
(De Consolatione ad Marciam 23.3-5).
he completed a full measure of time. For eplerosen, cf. Plato Laws
866A; Sir 26:2; IV Mace 12:14; Jos. Ant. 4.4.6. Precisely the same idea is
found in Philo, who undoubtedly got it from the Middle Stoa, since it also
occurs in the writings of Seneca. Commenting on Exod 23:26 (ton arithmon ton hemeron sou anapleroso: "The number of thy days I will fill"),
Philo writes: "That it is most excellent and fine that the lives of his
worshippers should be reckoned not by months nor by numbers but by
days. For they are really of equal value with eternity when taken into ac­
count and number." Cf. Praem. 112: "Therefore he held that the wise
man's single day rightly spent is worth a whole lifetime"; Seneca Ep.
78.28: "One day in the life of the educated lasts longer than the longest
lifetime of the uneducated"; 92.25: "in the slightest possible moment of
time virtue completes an eternity of good"; 93.7; Cicero Tusc. 1.109: "No
one has lived too short a life who has discharged the perfect work of per­
fect virtue." On the qualitative sense of time, cf. Ps 84:11: "Better one
day in your courts than a thousand [anywhere else]" (quoted by Philo
Her. 290).
14. he urged it forth. "Grimm adopts the translation 'his soul hastened
away' [so, too, Fichtner], which he endeavors to bring in harmony with
line one thus, 'his early removal was in accordance with the wish of his
soul, which joyfully hastened to obey God's call'—an obviously tame ex­
planation. There is no difficulty in using speudo transitively of things, but
no example of its use with a person as object seems to exist elsewhere.
Nonnius, quoted by Grimm, would read espasen, 'snatched away.' Sieg­
fried thinks the construction imitated from that of the Hebrew maker with
the accusative as in Gen 18:6, I Kings 22:9" (Goodrick). In support of
Grimm's translation, we may quote from the following epitaph of the third
century C E : "for it [the immortal soul of young Calocaerous] hastened
along the divine way [speuden hodon theieri], left the cares of bitter life
to go aloft in purity" (Peek 1960: no. 296, line 3; cited by Schmitt
1976:190). See also Lattimore 36, 50 (speusas es athanatous).
take . . . to heart. The Greek corresponds to Hebrew sim 'al leb. Cf. Isa
57:1.
4:7-20
EARLY
DEATH
A
TOKEN
143
15. This verse is bracketed by Ziegler; it is virtually identical with 3:9b.
16. "The anacoluthon is obvious. The best explanation would be to
regard v. 16 as an interpolation (possibly of the author's own), and gar at
the beginning of v. 17 as added by the interpolator or an editor. This view
is adopted by Gutberlet and practically by Deane" (Goodrick).
18. will laugh to scorn. Cf. Prov 1:26; Ps 2:4; I Enoch 94:10: "and
your Creator will rejoice at your destruction"; Sifre, Korah 117: "there is
joy before God when those who anger him are rooted out of the earth";
Mid.Teh. 2.6; Tank. Buber, Noah 28; Naso 9; BT Aboda Zara 3b. (See
Marmorstein 1950:29.)
19. ignominious carcass. Cf. Isa 14:19; 66:24; Job 18.
20. will convict them to their face. The words are rerniniscent of the
Zoroastrian notion that after death the wicked will meet his own evil
thoughts and deeds in the form of a hideous wench who will rebuke him
and detail his hideous deeds to his face (Mendk i Khrat 2.73-122; Zaehner 1961:304). Cf. Jer 2:19: "Thy own wickedness shall correct thee,
and thy backslidings shall reprove thee."
VL VINDICATION OF THE JUST AND FINAL
JUDGMENT
(5:1-23)
5
i Then the just man will take his stand with poised
confidence
to outface his oppressors
and those who made light of his sufferings.
2 At the sight of him they will be shaken with fearful terror,
and will be astounded at the unexpectedness of his
deliverance.
3 Remorseful, each will say to the other
groaning and gasping for breath:
4 "This was the man whom we once held in derision
and for a byword of reproach, fools that we were;
his life we accounted madness,
and his end without honor.
5 How was he reckoned among the sons of God,
and how is his portion among the holy ones?
6 We strayed, it seems, from the path of truth,
and were not illumined by the light of justice,
and the sun never rose for us.
7 We were entangled in the prickles of lawlessness and
destruction,
and made our way through trackless wastes,
but the Lord's highway we ignored.
8 What good was our arrogance,
and what did wealth and false posturing bring us?
9 All those things have gone by like a shadow,
like a messengerflittingpast.
10 Like a ship cutting through the swelling surge,
of whose passage not a trace is to be found,
nor the track of her keel among the waves;
11 or as when a birdfliesthrough the air,
5:1-23
VINDICATION
2
1
1 3
14
15
6
1
17
i
g
19
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
OF THE
JUST
145
there is no token of her flight,
but the insubstantial breeze, lashed by the stroke of her
pinions
and cleft by the force of her onrush,
was traversed by the whirring of her wings,
and thereafter no sign was found of her assault;
or as when an arrow is shot at a mark,
the air is parted and instantly closes up again,
so that none discerns its passage.
So we too were dead as we were born,
and had no token of virtue to show,
but in our wickedness were utterly consumed."
For the hope of the godless is like down flying on the wind,
and like thin frost swept before a howling gale,
and like smoke which the wind scattered,
and like the memory of a guest for a day it passed through.
But the just live forever; their reward is in the Lord,
and the Most High has them in his care.
Therefore they will obtain majestic royalty
and a resplendent diadem from the hand of the Lord,
for he will shelter them with his right hand
and with his arm he will shield them.
He will take his indignation as full armor
and make creation a weapon for the repulse of his foes.
He will don justice as his coat of mail,
and put on undissembled judgment as his helmet;
he will take holiness for his indomitable shield
and sharpen his relentless anger into a sword,
and the cosmos will join him in all-out war against the
madmen.
Shafts of lightning will proceed on target;
as if from a well-rounded bow, from the clouds, they shall
leap upon the mark,
and from a catapult a fury of hail will cut loose.
The waters of the sea shall rage against them,
and torrential streams wash over them relentlessly;
a powerful blast will rise against them,
and scatter them like chaff before a whirlwind.
So lawlessness will lay waste the entire earth,
and criminal action will overturn the thrones of dynasts.
146
THE W I S D O M OF S O L O M O N
§ VI
NOTES
5:1-23. The whole chapter is colored by Isaianic language and imagery
(Isa 52:13#; 59:16-17). The wicked will be astounded at the unexpected
deliverance of the just man. In the agony of their remorse they will vividly
perceive the fundamental error of their way of life, and the utter tran­
siency of all that they had once prized. (The speech of the wicked in
w . 4-13 is the counterpart to their former speech in 2:1-20). Finally, in
an apocalyptic vision the author envisages the future royal spendor of the
just and the simultaneous annihilation of the wicked through the smashing
attack of the cosmic elements led by the Divine Warrior (cf. 16:17). For
a form-critical analysis of the author's use of the "story of the Right­
eous Man" and the "Isaianic Exaltation Tradition," see Nickelsburg
1972:48-66.
5:1. the just man will take his stand. Cf. Isa 52:13#.
with poised confidence. For parresia, cf. Prov 13:5, LXX; Test.Reuben
4:2; Jos. Ant. 9.10.4; II Cor 7:4. Parresia, 'outspokenness,' and anaideia,
'shamelessness,' were the twin qualities which made Cynicism famous
(D.L. 6.69; Lucian Demonax 3; Philo Her. 27).
made light of. atheteo is very frequent in the LXX for a variety of He­
brew words. For the meaning "set at nought," cf. Polybius 8.36.5; I Kings
2:17, LXX. Here it refers to the habitual contempt of the wicked for the
painful life of the righteous.
2. At the sight of him. Cf. Isa 49:7: "Kings shall see and stand up."
The author of I Enoch made a similar use of Isaiah's "servant" passages in
describing the Son of Man: "And there shall stand up in that day all the
kings and the mighty, and the exalted and those who hold the earth, and
they shall see and recognize how he sits on the throne of his glory . . .
and they shall be terrified . . . and pain shall seize them" (62:3); cf.
27:3: "In the last days there shall be upon them the spectacle of righteous
judgment in the presence of the righteous forever"; 97:3-6; 108:15; IV
Ezra 7:36; II Bar 30:4-5; 51:5; PRK 28; Datastan i Denik 19 A (where
the sinner in hell can see the heavenly throne of Ahura Mazda and the
bliss of the righteous).
astounded. For ekstesontai, cf. Judith 11:16; Ruth 3:8, LXX; Isa 13:8,
LXX
unexpectedness of his deliverance. Cf. Ill Mace 6:33.
3. Remorseful. Cf. IV Ezra 7:81-87; I Enoch 63:1-11.
gasping for breath, stenochdria is fairly frequent in the LXX, and for
5:1-23
VINDICATION
OF T H E
JUST
147
the verb stenochdred, cf. Isa 28:20; IV Mace 11:11: to pneuma stenochdroumenos.
4. for a byword of reproach. Cf. Jer 24:9, LXX; Tobit 3.4. With
w . 4-5, cf. Barnabas 7:9; Mark 15:39; Matt 27:54. See A. Jaubert,
"Echo du Livre de la Sagesse en Barnate 7,9," RSR 60 (1972) 193-198.
5. among the sons of God . . . among the holy ones? We have here a
conception similar to that found in Daniel, I Enoch, and the Qumran
scrolls. The just, it is believed, can be elevated to the heavenly sphere to
join the angelic host (Dan 12:2-3; I Enoch 104:2, 6; Similitudes of
Enoch 39:5; 1QH 3:19-23; II Bar51:5-13). See Larcher 1969:320-321;
H.-W. Kuhn, Enderwartung und gegenwartiges Heil (Gottingen, 1966):
44-78; Nickelsburg 1972:152-156; Collins 1977a:210-211, 177.
6. We strayed. Cf. Isa 53:6, LXX; Plato Politicus 263A.
it seems. The particle ara expresses the surprise attendant upon dis­
illusionment. See J. D. Denniston, The Greek Particles (Oxford, 1954):
35.
the light of justice. Cf. Mai 4:2, LXX: helios dikaiosynes; Aristobulus:
"And He gave us for rest the seventh day, which in reality (physikos)
could be called the prime source of light, in which all things are compre­
hended. The latter could also be transferred metaphorically to wisdom,
for all light comes from her" (FPG:224).
7. entangled in the prickles of lawlessness. For a discussion of the read­
ing eneplechthemen tribolois which is adopted by Ziegler (and was already
suggested by Bretschneider), see Ziegler's edition of the text, p. 32. Cf.
skoliais hodois poreuomenos emplakesetai; II Tim 2:4; Sib Or Frag. 1:24;
Philo LA 3.253; Somn. 2.161.
trackless wastes. Cf. Jer 12:10, LXX; Ps 63:1, LXX; Aeschylus
Prometheus Bound 2 (abaton eis eremian) ; Philo Mos. 1.172.
9. flitting past. For paratrechousa. Cf. Philo Deus 177: alia skia tis 8
aura prin hypostenai paratrechousa.
10. Like a ship. Cf. Prov 30:18-19.
the track of her keel, atrapon tropios. Play on words. In the Hymn to
Isis from Andros, we read of Isis keeping the swift keel straight (153:
thoan tropin ithyneskon).
11. through the air. Cf. Virgil Georgics 1.406-409: "Wherever she
flees, cleaving the light air with her wings, lo! savage and ruthless, with
loud whirr Nisus follows through the sky."
assault, epibasis in sense of "attack" first attested here. Cf. Lucian
Quomodo Historia Conscribenda sit 49; Philo Mos. 1.202; Aet. 147. In
Herodotus 6.61, it means "a handle against," "a means of attacking one."
12. closes up again, anelythe means literally "dissolved" or "resolved."
Bissell translates: "is at once resolved into itself again." Deane takes it in
the sense of "returns."
148
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ VI
13. were dead as we were born. Cf. Sir 44:9.
14. The author employs in what follows four similes to illustrate his
point. Cf. 7:25, where he employs live metaphors in his description of the
origin of wisdom.
like down. Cf. Pss 1:4; 35:5, LXX: Isa 17:13, LXX; Hosea 13:3.
thin frost. Cf. 16:29. Other manuscripts have achne, "foam," or
arachne, "spider's web" (Gregg cites in connection with the latter Job
8:13-14, LXX).
a guest for a day. Cf. Jer 14.8. For monoemeros, cf. Batrachomyomachia 303 (where it means "finished in a day"); Paris Magical Codex
1. 2442 (where it means "on the selfsame day"). For the comparison
of life with the stay at a hospice, cf. Cicero De Senectute 84; Seneca Ep.
102.24; 120.14; Wayyik.R. 34.3, Margaliot: 777 (where Hillel compares
the soul to a humiliated guest [ksenos] in the house or body); Gnostic
Hymn of the Pearl 23 in Acta Thomae 109, p. 220, 19/, Bonnet: "Since I
was one and all alone, I was a stranger to my fellow-dwellers in the inn."
This recalls the following passage from Mani's Gospel: "The truth I
have shown to my fellow-travelers" (Mani Codex 67.2). See A. Henrichs,
HSCP11 (1973) 38.
15. the fust live forever. Cf. Philo Jos. 264: "In my judgment, no good
man is dead, but will live forever (ton aei chronon), proof against old age,
with a soul immortal in its nature no longer fettered by the restraints of
the body."
16. majestic royalty. For basileion in the sense of "tiara," "diadem," cf.
II Kings 1:10, LXX; II Chron 23:11, LXX. basileion tes euprepeias and
diadema tou kallous are probably parallel and modeled on Isa 62:3: "You
shall be a glorious crown ('ftteret tip'eret) in the hands of the Lord, and a
royal diadem (seriip [following the Qere] melukd) in the palm of your
God."
diadem, diadema is a band or fillet, especially the band round the tiara
worn by the Persian king (Xenophon Cyropaedia 8.3.13; Plutarch Moralia 488D; Esther 8:15, LXX; I Mace 13:32; Jos. J.W. 1.33.9). It was
taken over from Persia by Alexander and his successors as a symbol of
royalty. See Hans-Werner Ritter, Diadem u. Konigsherrschaft (Munich
and Berlin, 1965). Cf. 1QS 4.7-8: "and eternal joy in life within and a
crown of glory and a garment of majesty in unending light"; 1QH 9.24;
BT Ber. 17a; see S. Kraus, "The Jewish Rite of Covering the Head,"
HUCA 19 (1945-46) 126.
he will shelter them with his right hand. Cf. 19:8; Isa 51:16, LXX; IV
Mace 17:19 (quoting Deut 33:3, LXX).
will shield them, hyperaspizo is very frequent in the LXX.
17. The following verses are modeled on Isa 59:17, where God is
represented as a warrior arming himself with his own attributes (right-
5:1-23
VINDICATION
OF
THE
JUST
149
eousness, salvation, vengeance, and zeal) for the chastisement of the
wicked and the deliverance of the godly. (For the theme of the Divine
Warrior, see Frank M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic [Cam­
bridge, Mass., 1973]:91-194; P. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Early
Israel (Cambridge, 1973). Cf. Eph 6:14-17; I Thess 5:8; Rom 13:12; II
Cor 6:7. We find similar imagery in Test.Levi 8:2, where Levi is told
in a vision to "put on the robe of the priesthood, and the crown of
righteousness, and the garment of truth, and the breastplate of under­
standing, and the plate of faith, and the turban of the head, and the ephod
of prophecy." The same type of imagery appears again even more elabo­
rately in the Pahlavi work Menok i Xrat, 43: "To confound Ahriman . . .
is possible if they make the spirit of wisdom a shield for the back, and
wear on the body the spirit of contentment like a coat of mail and valor,
and the spirit of thankfulness like a club, and the spirit of devotedness like
a bow, and the spirit of liberality like an arrow, and the spirit of modera­
tion like a javelin, and the spirit of perseverance as a gauntlet." Cf. Philo
Abr. 243: "When reason puts on its panoply (panteuchian) of the vir­
tues."
make creation a weapon. Cf. Judg 5:20 (the fighting of the stars here
rests on the mythological identification of the stars with divine beings, the
heavenly host); Sir 39:28-31; I Enoch 41:8; 100:10-13 ("And He will
summon to testify against you every cloud and mist and dew and rain; for
they shall all be withheld because of you from descending upon you, and
they shall be mindful of your sins"); Philo Mos. 1.96: "The chastisement
was different from the usual kind, for the elements of the universe—earth,
fire, air, water—carried out the assault. God's judgment was that the mate­
rials which had served to produce the world should serve also to destroy
the land of the impious; and to show the mightiness of the sovereignty
which He holds, what He shaped in his saving goodness to create the uni­
verse He turned into instruments for the perdition of the impious wherever
He would"; Mos. 2.53ff; Jos. Ant. 2.13.4: "for to them that rouse the di­
vine ire dread calamities arise from all around them: to them neither earth
nor air is friendly, to them no progeny is born after nature's laws, but all
things are hostile and at enmity"; Clementine Homilies 11.10: "Against
you who dishonor the Maker of all, the whole creation is hostile"; Recog­
nitions of Clement 5.27: "for the creature hastens to take vengeance on
the wicked." Cf. Empedocles DK, B.115: "For the mighty air chases them
[divine spirits who sinfully stained themselves with bloodshed] into the
Sea, and the Sea spews them forth on to the dry land; and the Earth drives
them towards the rays of the blazing Sun; and the Sun hurls them into the
eddies of the Aether"; Virgil Aeneid 6.740; Cicero Tusc. 1.42; Seneca
Consolatio ad Helviam 20.2; Plutarch De Facie in Orbe Lunae 943C; CH
Asclepius 28. See Cumont 1949:208#—hoplopoieo ("make or use as a
150
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ VI
weapon") is found only here. (The substantive hoplopoietike occurs in
Patristic Greek.)
18. will don . . . put on. endysetai . . . perithesetai. Cf. Sir 6:31;
Herodotus 3.98.
undissembled judgment. "Krisin anypokriton presents the same kind of
verbal oxymoron as II Cor 7:10: metanoia ametameletos" (Gregg).
anypokritos is first found here (and in 18:15). It occurs only once
in Philo QG 3.29: to tou ethous anypokriton, "a sincere nature" (Greek
fragment from Procopius); cf. Rom 12:9; I Cor 6:6; James 3:17;
Iamblichus De Vita Pythagorica 69.
19. indomitable, akatamacheton is first attested in Wisd. Cf. LXX, Symmachus, Song of Songs 8:6; Ezek 28:7; 30:11; M. Aurel. 8.48; PsCallisthenes 2.11.
20. relentless, apotomos in its metaphorical meaning only poetical in
Classical period (Euripides Alcestis 118, 981; Sophocles Oedipus the
King 877). Used five times by our author (here; 6:5; 11:10; 12:9;
18:15). Cf. Diodorus 2.57.5; Longinus 27; Philo Sacr. 32.
sword, rhomphaia is very frequent in the LXX.
madmen, paraphronas is a poetic word (Sophocles Electra 473;
Bacchylides 10.103) used by Plato (Laws 649D), and later by Plutarch
(De Pompeio 72). It is also found in LXX, Symmachus, I Samuel 21:15
for Hebrew mintage a.
21. Shafts of lightning. For bolides astrapon, cf. Zech 9:14, LXX. For
the figure, see II Sam 22:15; Hab 3:11; II Esd 16:13.
from the clouds. The preposition apo is omitted before nephdn. This is a
well-known Greek idiom. See L. Edmonds, HSCP 80 (1976) 42-43, with
examples and bibliography (cf. Smyth: 1673).
leap. For halountai, cf. Iliad 4.125.
22. catapult, petrobolos is distinguished from katapeltes in Polybius
8.7.2, but in Diodorus 18.51 we find catapults both for bolts and for
stones.
torrential streams . . . relentlessly, potamoi . . . apotomos. Play on
words.
wash over them. For synklysousin, cf. Isa 43:2, LXX; Song of Songs
8:7, LXX.
23. scatter them like chaff. Cf. Isa 41:16.
criminal action, kakopragia in this sense is first attested here. Cf. Jos.
Ant. 2.4.4. For the plural, "misdeeds," see Isocrates 15.300. The word is
very frequent in Philo in the sense of "misfortune," but never in the sense
of "ill-doing."
9
VH. EXHORTATION TO WISDOM WHICH IS EASILY
FOUND AND BRINGS D MORTALITY
AND SOVEREIGNTY
(6:1-21)
6
i Hear then, you kings, and understand;
take note, lords of the far corners of the earth.
2 Give ear, you who hold sway over peoples,
whose pride is in nation masses.
3 It was the Lord who gave you dominion;
your sovereignty is from the Most High.
He will scrutinize your actions and search out your plans.
4 Though vicars of his kingdom, your judgment was not
straight;
you did not maintain the law
nor live according to God's will.
5 Horribly and swiftly will he descend upon you,
for relentless judgment overtakes the high and the mighty.
6 The small man may be mercifully pardoned,
but the mighty will be mightily tried.
7 For the master of all will not shrink from a countenance
or have regard for greatness.
Small and great he himself made,
and all alike are under his providence,
but over the powerful a vigorous inquiry impends.
9 To you, then, O despots, are my words directed,
that you may learn wisdom and not go astray.
1° Those who have kept the holy ordinances in holiness, shall
be made holy,
and those that have been taught them willfindtheir defense.
11 Set vour heart, then, uoon my words,
long for them and you will be instructed.
12 Bright and unfading is Wisdom,
easily beheld by those who love her,
and found by those who seek her.
8
152
§ vn
13 She isfirstto make herself known to those who desire her;
14 he who anticipates the dawn on her behalf will not grow
weary,
for he willfindher seated before his door.
15 To set one's mind on her is perfect wisdom,
and he that is vigilant for her sake will soon be free of care.
16 For she herself seeks out those who are worthy of her;
with gracious good will she appears to them on their path,
and in every thought comes to meet them.
17 The true beginning of Wisdom is the desire to learn,
and a concern for learning is love for her;
18 love for her means the keeping of her laws;
attention to the law is a surety of immortality;
19 and immortality makes one near to God.
Thus the desire for Wisdom leads to sovereignty.
21 If, then, you take delight in your thrones and scepters, you
rulers of nations,
honor Wisdom so that you may reign forever.
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
2 0
NOTES
6:1. Hear . . . take note. . . . Give ear. Cf. ANETA\A\ 421; Isa 1:10;
P s 4 9 : 2 ; Prov 5 : 1 ; 22:17.
far corners of the earth. The reference is very likely to the spreading
power of Rome. For perata ges, cf. Iliad 8.478; Odyssey 4.563; Thucydides 1.69; I Sam 2:10; Pss 2:8; 22:28 (Hebrew: 'afse 'eretz); cf. Philo
Legat. 144: "The great regions which divide the habitable world, Europe
and Asia, were contending with each other for sovereign power, with the
nations of both brought up from the uttermost parts of the earth waging
grievous war all over sea and land."
2. Give ear. endtizesthai is very frequent in the LXX. Cf. Ps 2:10.
3. who gave you dominion. That kings rule and are deposed at God's
pleasure was accepted biblical doctrine. See I Chron 29:11-12; Dan 2:21;
John 19:11; Rom 13:1; I Cor 61:1; Sir 10:4,8; Ps-Aristeas 219, 224:
"It is God who apportions fame and great wealth to all kings, and no one
is king by his own power . . . it is a gift of God"; IV Mace 12:11. In Prov
8:15, Wisdom claims this power for herself. Cf. Jos. J.W. 2.8.7 (where it
is given as an Essene belief; also in Ant. 15.10.5). The word kratesis is
6:1-21
E X H O R T A T I O N TO W I S D O M
153
found in M. A.Z. 1.3 (Tosef. 1.4). "The Talmuds explain the word to
mean: 'The day on which Rome seized an empire,' or more explicitly, 'in
the days of Queen Cleopatra,' namely the day on which the Romans
conquered Egypt in the time of Cleopatra. Now, the papyri frequently re­
cord the dating tes kaisaros krateseos. Wilcken proved that kratesis here
refers to the date of the capture of Alexandria by Augustus. He quoted the
decree of the Roman Senate establishing this day (the first of August, 30
BCE) as a festival and as the beginning of an era (Dio Cassius 51.99.6)"
(Lieberman 1942:9-10). Very likely the reference here is to this event.
See also Scarpat 1967:174-175.
4. the law. Grimm correctly noted that nomos here refers not to the Mo­
saic Law, but to natural principles of justice, a knowledge of which could
be expected even of pagan rulers. On the other hand, a number of Jewish
Hellenistic writers viewed the Torah itself as an expression of natural law
(Ps-Aristeas 161; IV Mace 1:16-17 and 5:25; Philo Op. 3, 143; Mos.
2.52; Abr. 16, 60, etc.). See my article, "Philo's Ethical Theory" in
ANRW.
5. Horribly. The adverb phriktos is found only here. Cf. Philodemus On
the Gods 1.17, where the gods are described as phreiktous.
the high and the mighty. For en tois hyperechousin, cf. Herodotus 7.10;
Horace Odes 2.10.9; Luke 12:48; BR 32.3 (God only tests the right­
eous).
6. mercifully pardoned. It is difficult to construe the genitive eleous,
since the genitive with syngnostos is usually that of the thing in respect of
which pardon is given. Cf. Philo Jos. 53; Philostratus Vita Sophistarum
1.8.490.
7. the master of all. Cf. 8:3; Job 5:8, LXX; Sir 3:1.
Small and great. Cf. Job 34:19; 31:13-15; Deut 1:17, LXX; Prov
14:31; 17:5; Instruction of Amen-em-Opet, chap. 25 (ANET:424)\
I
Sam 2:7; Ps 75:8.
10. in holiness, shall be made holy. Cf. Philo Mut. 208: hosios hermeneuein ta hosia.
12. Bright. Cf. Ps 19:9. lampros is an adjective frequently used by Philo
to characterize wisdom or virtue. Cf. LA 3.171 (of the Divine Logos):
Op. 30 (of the intelligible); LA 3.35 (of the nous in us); LA 1.18 (of
virtue); Plant. 40 (of wisdom).
unfading, amarantos is first attested in inscriptions and papyri of the
second century BCE in connection with immortality (CIG 2942C, 4
[Tralles]; IPE 2.286). Here it points to the immortality of Wisdom.
Cf. I Peter 1:4; 5:4.
13. first to make herself known. For phthanein with infinitive, see NOTE
on 4:7. Cf. Sir 15:2; 51:26; Philo Congr. 123: "Often knowledge rids
herself of grudging pride, runs out to meet the gifted disciples, and draws
154
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ VII
them into her company"; Fug. 141: "but the seeking of God . . . gladdens
us the moment we begin our search, and never turns out fruitless, since by
reason of His gracious nature He comes to meet us with His pure and vir­
gin graces, and shows himself to those who yearn to see Him"; Ebr. 145.
14. anticipates the dawn, orthrizo found only in LXX (where it is very
frequent) and NT (Attic uses orthreud). Cf. TestJoseph 3:6.
will not grow weary. Cf. 16:20; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 391al3: "So
the soul, by means of philosophy, taking the mind as its guide, has crossed
the frontier, and made the journey [to the heavenly region] out of its own
land by a path that does not tire the traveler (akopiaton tina hodori)."
Similarly, according to Philo, the Royal Road of Wisdom leading to God
causes no flagging or fainting (Deus 160; cf. Post. 31), and Leah [in
Philonic allegory, Leah represents Virtue] means rejected and weary
(kopiosa), because we all turn away from virtue and think her wearisome
(Mut. 254; Mig. 145; Cher. 41).
before his door. Cf. Prov 8:34.
15. perfect wisdom. For Plato phronesis was both a theoretical (Phaedo
79D 6-7) and a practical virtue (Symp. 209A 5-7), whereas Aristotle,
who allotted theoretical knowledge to sophia, eventually confined phron­
esis to the practical sphere (EN 1140b20). Our author clearly follows the
Platonic tradition. Cf. 8:21; 7:7; 8:7.
vigilant. For this figurative use of agrupneo, cf. Prov 8:34, LXX; II Esd
8:59; Ps 101:7, LXX; Sir 36:16a. Aratus' Phaenomena are described as
Aretou symbolon agrypnies in Callimachus Epigrammata 27 .4, Pfeiffer.
free of care. Cf. Aristobulus: "Those who follow wisdom will be con­
tinuously undisturbed (atarachoi) throughout their lives" (FPG: 224, line
17).
16. worthy of her. See NOTE on 1:16.
17. The author here (vv. 17-20) employs a six-part chain syllogism, a
well-known rhetorical device known as sorites (alternatively: klimaks or
epoikodomesis; see Longinus 39.3; 23.1). The latter was "a set of state­
ments which proceed, step by step, through the force of logic or reliance
upon a succession of indisputable facts, to a climactic conclusion, each
statement picking up the last key word (or key phrase) of the preceding
one" (H. A. Fischel, "The Uses of Sorites in the Tannaitic Period,"
HUCA 44 [1973] 119-151). Fischel distinguishes the following types:
the Transmissional Sorite (Iliad 2.102#; M. Aboth 1.1; Sextus Pomponius, in Digesta 1.2.35-53; D.L. 9.116; Joel 1:3); the Catastrophic
Sorite (Virgil Eel. 2.63; Athenaeus 2.36c-d; Aphorisms of Hippocrates
7.87; BT Baba Batra 10a; Kohel. R. 7.2; Hosea 2:23); the Ethical and
Ethico-Metaphysical Sorite (Seneca Ep. 85.2; 11; Cicero Legibus 1.7.23;
M. Aurel. 12.30; Epictetus Meditations 1.14.10; Xenophon Mem. 4.3; M.
Sotah 9.15; Midrash Tannaim on Deut 23:15; SHSR 1.1.9; BT A.Z.
6:1-21
EXHORTATION
TO
WISDOM
155
20b; ARN, B, chap. 33: Schechter 1936:72; Rom 5:3; Wisd 6:17; Con­
fucius, The Great Learning (a second century BCE compilation) (James
Legge, The Chinese Classics [Shanghai, 1935 ]:355-59); Works of Mencius, chap. 12; Analects of Confucius, Lun Yu (Legge, 13.5-7, pp. 263/);
the Circular Sorite (Augustine Confessiones 7.10; Auctor ad Herennium
4.25.34; D.L. 1.27-33; M. Aboth 3.21 [in manuscript version of Genizah
fragments of the Antonia collection in Leningrad]); the Defensive Sorite
(Demosthenes 18.179; Rom 10:14; 8:29); the Numerical Sorite (BR 8.2>*
Rutilius Namatianus 1.13). One of the sources of the Greco-Roman sorite
were the famous logical fallacies of some of the philosophical schools ex­
pressed in soritic form (Cicero Fin. 4.50; Academicae Quaestiones
2.49; ND 3.43-52; De Divinatione 2.11; Seneca Ep. 83.9; 49.8; Beneficiis 5.9; Gellius 1.3-5; 18.9; D.L. 1.108; 7.187). Further examples of
sorites not mentioned by Fischel are the following: M. Aurel. 4.4. (cf.
Cicero Legibus 1.23); Philo Prob. 59: "He who always acts sensibly, al­
ways acts well: he who always acts well, always acts rightly: he who al­
ways acts rightly, also acts impeccably, blamelessly, faultlessly, ir­
reproachably, harmlessly, and, therefore, will have the power to do
anything, and to live as he wishes, and he who has this power must be
free. But the good man always acts sensibly, and, therefore, he alone is
free." In Indian literature we may refer to the Samyutta-nekaya (in A
Source Book in Indian Philosophy, eds. S. Rhadakrishnan and C. A.
Moore [Princeton, 1957]:278), and the Maitri Upanishad (in Hindu
Scriptures, ed. R. C. Zaehner [London, 1966]: 225: "By ascetic practice
Goodness, By Goodness mind is won, By mind the Self, which gotten, no
more return [to earth]"). A good Chinese analogue is chap. 16 of Tao Te
Ching: "Reality is all-embracing. To be all-embracing is to be selfless. To
be selfless is to be all-pervading. To be all-prevading is to be transcendent.
To be transcendent is to attain Tao. To attain Tao is to be everlasting"
(Chang Chung-Yuan, Tao [Harper paperback, 1975]:47). There is a
somewhat similar passage in the Egyptian Instructions of Onchsheshonqy:
"Do not insult a nobleman, for when insult occurs fighting follows. When
fighting occurs killing follows, and killing does not happen without God
knowing, for nothing happens except what God ordains" (22.21-25; in S.
R. K. Glanville, Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the British Museum, vol.
2 [London, 1955]).
18. keeping of her laws. For teresis nomon, cf. Sir 35(32):23; 2:15;
John 14:15.
surety. The term bebaiosis is very frequent in Philo in the sense of
"confirmation" or "firm foundation," but can also mean more specifically
"legal warranty" (Aeschines Against Ctesiphon 3.249; P.Tebt. 311.27
[second century CE]).
19. makes one near to God. The same idea is expressed by Philo Fug.
3
156
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ vn
58: "This is a most noble definition of deathless life, to be possessed by a
love of God and a friendship for God with which flesh and body have no
concern."
20. leads to sovereignty. This marks the conclusion of the sorites. The
desire for wisdom has been shown to make one near to God, and it is this
divine intimacy which is the true source of all sovereignty, both spiritual
and earthly. (For the well-known Stoic paradox that the wise are the only
real kings, see SVF 3.617#; Philo Agr. 4 1 ; Sobr. 57; Post. 138; Prob. pas­
sim.) Cf. Test.Levi 13:9. The author thus turns in the next verse to his
royal audience and draws the obvious conclusion that if they wish to retain
their earthly sovereignty, they had better pursue wisdom. It should further
be noted that the author has carefully contrived not to repeat any of the
key words in his soritic succession of clauses, but to employ synonymy in­
stead. Thus epithymia is replaced by phrontis, Uresis by prosoche, bebaiosis aptharsias by the simple aptharsia, and engus einai theou by basileia.
Moreover, the six-part sorites constitutes seven concepts, a number un­
doubtedly deliberate (Grimm). (Cf. 17:17-18, where the author employs
a succession of seven figures.)
21. Gregg writes: "Solomon argues: you love your external kingship
with its symbols of authority: honor wisdom, then, and you shall enter
upon a higher kingship." (So, too, Heinisch and Fichtner.)
reign forever. "Either the ordinary Oriental exaggeration as seen in the
salutation, 'O king, live forever!' I Kings 1:31; Neh 2:3; Dan 2:4; or it
may allude to the immortality supposed to attend on just deeds and merci­
ful actions" (Goodrick).
B. THE NATURE AND POWER OF WISDOM
AND SOLOMON'S QUEST FOR HER
(6:22-10:21)
VIII. The nature of Wisdom and her mysteries will be revealed (6:22-25)
Solomon's
Speech
(IX-XI)
IX. Solomon is only a mortal (7:1-6)
X. Solomon prefers Wisdom above all else (7:7-14)
XI. God is sole source of all-encompassing Wisdom (7:15-22a)
XII. Nature of Wisdom: her twenty-one attributes (7:22b-24)
XIII. Fivefold metaphor describing Wisdom's essence and her unique
efficacy (7:25-8:1)
XIV. Solomon sought to make Wisdom his bride (8:2-16)
XV. Wisdom a sheer gift of God's Grace (8:17-21)
XVI. Without Wisdom no human enterprise can succeed (9:1-6)
XVII. Without Wisdom Solomon could not reign (9:7-12)
XVIIL Divine Wisdom brought men salvation (9:13-18)
An Ode to Wisdom's Saving Power in History
XIX. From Adam to Moses (10:1-14)
XX. The Exodus (10:15-21)
(XIX-XX)
Vm. T H E N A T U R E O F WISDOM A N D H E R
MYSTERIES W I L L B E R E V E A L E D
(6:22-25)
6
2 2
2
What Wisdom is, and how she came into being, I will relate;
I will conceal no mysteries from you,
but will track her from her first beginnings
and bring the knowledge of her into the open;
in no way will I bypass the truth.
3 Nor will I have fellowship with pining envy,
for the latter has nothing in common with Wisdom.
A multitude of wise men is the salvation of the world,
and a wise king is the stability of his people.
Be instructed then by my words, and you will be profited.
2 4
2 5
NOTES
6:22. What Wisdom is. A description of Wisdom is given in 7:22-27.
/ will conceal no mysteries. Cf. 7:21; Sir 4:18; 14:20; I Enoch 37:3-4:
"It were better to declare (them only) to the men of old time, but even
from those that come after we will not withhold the beginning of wisdom.
Till the present day such wisdom has never been given by the Lord of
Spirits . . . by whom the lot of eternal life has been given to me" (cf.
103:2; 104:12; 51:3: "And the Elect One shall in those days sit on My
throne, and his mouth shall pour forth all the secrets of wisdom and coun­
sel"). Ben Sira (44:16, in manuscript B of the Cairo Genizah) designated
Enoch as "sign of knowledge for all generations" (cf. Jub 4:24; 4:17). A
favorite Qumran expression is "to give knowledge in the marvelous mys­
teries of God" (1QH 4:27; 7:27; 11:9). Cf. also the Isis Aretalogy from
Kyme 38: "No one is glorified without knowledge (gnomes) of Isis."
Contrast Job 28:12-14,21-23, and the common apocalyptic command
to seal the book (e.g. Dan 12:4).
the knowledge of her. For gnosis, cf. 1:7; 2:13; 7:17; 10:10; 14:22.
160
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ VIII
23. pining envy. Plato had already banished envy from the region above
the heaven where souls behold the absolute "Forms" (Phaedrus 247A:
"for jealousy [phthonos] is excluded from the celestial band"; Tim. 29E:
"The [Demiurge] was good, and in him that is good no envy ariseth ever
concerning anything; and being devoid of envy He desired that all should
be, so far as possible, like unto Himself"). Cf. Aristotle Metaphysica
1.983a: "But it is impossible for the Deity to be jealous (phthonerori)";
Philo Congr. 13.122-123; Spec. 1.320-321 (where Philo attacks the
pagan mysteries for their secretiveness); 2.249; 4.75; Post. 150-151;
Prob. 13-14: "But since we have it on the sacred authority of Plato that
envy has no place in the divine choir, and wisdom is most divine and most
free-handed, she never closes her school of thought but always opens her
doors to those who thirst for the sweet water of discourse, and pouring on
them an unstinted stream of undiluted doctrine, persuades them to be
drunken with the drunkenness which is soberness itself. Then when like in­
itiates in the mysteries they have taken their fill of the revelations, they
reproach themselves greatly for their former neglect." (In this passage we
have the two chief motifs of w . 22-23: the designation of wisdom's teach­
ing as mysteries, and the banishment of envy; QG 4.103; 107: "the good
is far removed from envy and grudgingness, for without storing up and
keeping them for itself, it gives up the various kinds of knowledge and
hides nothing as some Sophists do"; CH 4.3. For the personification of
envy, see Ovid Metamorphoses, 2.770-780 [intabescitque videndo: "and
with the sight she pines away."])
24. stability. For eustatheia, cf. II Mace 14:6; III Mace 3:26; 6:28;
OGIS 669,4 (edict of Tiberius Julius Alexander, 68 CE: ten Aigypton en
eustatheia diagousah). The ideal of eustatheia or inner calm and stability
is a central theme running through Philo's writings (Post. 23, 27; Cher.
19; Somn. 1.158; 2.219; Virt. 32; Legat. 113; Conf. 130-132; Fug. 174;
Abr. 27; Ebr. 100, 76; Sacr. 8; Flac. 135). Cf. NOTE on 8:16. For the
earliest application of the term eustathes to the human soul, see Democritus
DK, B.191; cf. Epicurus Frag. 11, Bailey; Epictetus Discourses 1.29; SVF
3.280, 264; Musonius Rufus Frag. 38; Ps-Aristeas 261.
salvation of the world. The notion of the wise man as the foundation
(Prov 10:25) and salvation of the world is a widespread motif both in
Philo and in rabbinic literature. Philo Mig. Ill: "For in truth the right­
eous man is the foundation on which mankind rests" (at 124, he is de­
scribed as "a central pillar [stylon] in a house"; cf. BT Ber. 28b; Gal
2 : 9 ) ; Sacr. Ill: "Every wise man is a ransom for the fool, whose exist­
ence could not endure for an hour, did not the wise provide for his pres­
ervation by compassion and forethought"; QG 2.11: "In the first place, it
is clear evidence that because of one righteous and worthy man, many
men are saved (sozontai) through their relation to him"; QE 1.11; Spec.
6:22-25
THE
NATURE
OF
WISDOM
161
2.47. For the rabbinic sources, see Tosef. Sotah 10.1 ("When the right­
eous come into the world, good comes into the world, and trouble is re­
moved from the world . . . " ) ; BT Sank. 113b; Suk. 45b ("Hezekiah fur­
ther stated in the name of R. Jeremiah who said it in the name of
R. Simeon b. Yohai, I am able to exempt the whole world from judgment
from the day that I was born until now, and were Eliezer, my son, to be
with me [we could exempt it] from the day of the creation of the world to
the present time, and were Jotham the son of Uzziah with us [we could ex­
empt it] from the creation of the world to its final end"), Sanh. 97b; gulin
92a; BR 49.18; BT Ber. 17b; Ta'an. 24b; 14a.
Solomon's Speech (DC-XI)
IX. SOLOMON IS ONLY A M O R T A L
(7:1-6)
7
i I too, indeed, am a mortal like all the rest,
descended from the first-molded man, earthborn,
and in my mother's womb I was sculpted into flesh
2 during a ten-month's space, curdled in blood
by virile seed and the pleasure that is joined with sleep.
3 When I was born I breathed the common air
and fell upon the earth that suffers the same from all,
howling out my first cry the same as all;
I was swaddled and reared with care.
5 No king has begun life otherwise;
6 for all have one entry into life and a like departure.
4
NOTES
7:1. a mortal like all the rest. The human side of royalty was often em­
phasized in kingship tracts, sometimes in close relationship with its divine
aspect. Cf. Ps-Aristeas 262-263: "How may one avoid yielding to arro­
gance? . . . By preserving equality and reminding himself at each turn that
he is a man as well as a leader of men"; 282: "What man is worthy of ad­
miration? . . . He that is furnished with renown and wealth and power,
and yet is in spirit on an equality with all men (ison pasin onta)"; 257.
According to Ecphantus, in the terrestrial part of the universe, "man is the
best endowed by nature, but among men the king is the most divine, hav­
ing more of the better elements in our common nature; for while in body
he is like the rest of us, being made of the same substance, he has none the
less been created by the best of Artificers, who shaped him with Himself as
the model" (On Kingship, in E. Barker, From Alexander to Constantine
7:1-6
SOLOMON
IS O N L Y
A
MORTAL
163
[Oxford, 1959]:367). Philo had similarly written: "In his material sub­
stance (ousia), the king is just the same as any man, but in the authority
of his rank he is like the God of all. For there is nothing upon earth more
exalted than he. Since he is a mortal, he must not vaunt himself; since he
is a god he must not give way to anger. For if he is honored as being an
image of God, yet he is at the same time fashioned from the dust of the
earth, from which he should learn simplicity to all" (Frags., Mangey,
2:673; translation in Goodenough, 1967:99). When Hispania ulterior
(Further Spain, i.e. the part beyond the Ebro) made an offer of a temple
to Tiberius, he declined it, and, according to Tacitus (Annates 4.38),
asserted: "I call you to witness, conscript fathers, and I desire poster­
ity to remember that I am but a mortal, discharging the duties of a
man. . . ." cf. Introduction DC.
first-molded, protoplastos is first attested here (and 10:1). Cf. Philo QE
2.46: "differing from the earthborn first moulded man (protoplastou)";
Test. Abraham A, 11: ho protoplastos Adam; Sib Or 3:25: ton proton
plasthenta: 1:285; III Bar 4:9; Test. Solomon D 1:2.
earthborn. gegenous refers to Adam as "formed from the earth" (Gen
2:7; cf. Sir 17:1; I Cor 15:47), and is found frequently in Philo (Op. 82,
136; LA 1.79; Abr. 12, 56; Virt. 199, 203). Cf. Plato Politicus 269B.
womb, koilia is frequent in the LXX for Hebrew refyem.
2. during a ten-month's space. The compound dekameniaios is first
attested here, and is also found in the Isis Aretalogy (the only full version
of which was discovered in Kyme in 1925 and is dated to the first or sec­
ond century CE): "I have ordained for woman to bring forth the tenmonth foetus into the light (dekameniaion brephos eis phos eksenengkein) (M18[K]. The Ios inscription reads: dekamenon. See A.
Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East [New York and London,
n.d.]:140; D. Muller, Agypten und die griechischen Isis-Aretalogien [Ber­
lin, 1961]:45-46). Cf. Plutarch Numa 12.2. Grimm suggested that lunar
months of twenty-eight days are meant. According to Roman law (XII
Tables 4.4), ten lunar months made up the full period of gestation. We
read in Atra-Hasis 1.280#: "[At the] destined [moment] the tenth month
was summoned. / The tenth month arrived / And the elapse of the period
opened the womb" (Lambert and Millard: 63). The Hittite code (1.17)
also contemplates a pregnancy of ten months (ANET:\9Q. Cf. E. Neufeld, The Hitite Laws [London, 1951]:137-138). Cf. Aristotle Historia
Animalium 1A\ Pliny the Elder NH 7.5; Herodotus 6.63-69; Machon,
in Athenaeus 8.349E; Menander Frag. 343, Korte; Plautus Cistellaria 163;
Terence Adelphoe 475; Virgil Eel. 4.61; Ovid Fasti 1.33; Seneca Ep.
102.23; Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae 3.16; D.L. 8.29; Hippolytus De
Septimestri 4 and 7; IV Mace 16:7; Tertullian De Anima 37. In text no.
300Z.2 from the Esna Temple, the Egyptian god Chnum declares: "For
164
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ DC
a period of ten months, I have prepared nourishment for you; thereafter
you joyfully come to earth." See S. Sauneron, "Les dix mois precedant
la naissance," BIFAO 58 (1959) 33ff; J. Bergman, "Decern Illis Diebus,"
in Ex Orbe Religionum, Studia Geo Widengren Oblata (Leiden, 1972)
1. 340. The rabbis considered the ordinary duration of pregnancy to
consist of nine solar months, i.e. 271-273 (BT Nid. 38a) or 274 days
(PT Nid. 1.3, 49b), although an exceptional twelve-month pregnancy is
also recognized (BT Yeb. 80b).
curdled in blood. Cf. I Enoch 15:4: "You have defiled yourselves with
the blood of women, and have begotten (children) with the blood of
flesh." We have here a commonplace of Greek science. Aristotle concludes
in chapters 19 and 20 of the first book of his Generation of Animals that
the female does not produce any semen, as earlier philosophers had held,
but that the menstrual blood is the material from which the seminal fluid,
in giving to it a form, will cause the complete embryo to be produced. This
was not a new idea, but had already been suggested by the author of
the Hippocratic Peri Gones, where in section 14 it is stated that the em­
bryo is nourished by maternal blood, which flows to the foetus and there
coagulates (pignymenou), forming the embryonic flesh. (What was quite
new here was the idea that the semen supplied or determined nothing but
the form; cf. Philo Op. 132.) Aristotle further notes that "The action of
the semen of the male in 'setting' the female's secretion in the uterus is
similar to that of rennet upon milk" (Gen. /4n.739b21). In India, too, the
Susruta-Samhita (dating from the first two or three centuries CE) says that
the embryo is formed of a mixture of semen and blood. The blood in ques­
tion is specifically referred to as menstrual (artava) both by SuSruta and
Caraka. Moreover, the Aristotelian comparison of the formation of the
embryo with the clotting of milk into cheese also occurs in Indian embry­
ology. The Susruta-Samhita says that as the semen and blood undergo
chemical changes through heat, seven different layers of skin (kala) are
formed, like the creamy layers formed in milk. Cf. Job 10:10: "Hast thou
not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese?" BT Nid. 31a. See
Joseph Needham, A History of Embryology (2d ed., New York,
1959):25-69; E. Lesky, "Die Zeugungs- und Vererbungslehre der Antike
und ihr Nachwirken," Abhandl. Mainz, Geistes- und sozialwiss. Klasse 19
(1950) 1361/. There is an echo of the cheese analogy in the recently dis­
covered Mani Codex, where Mani speaks of the human body as originally
created in loathsomeness and procreated in a process comparable to
cheese-making (etyrothe) (Cologne Mani Codex 85, 6-12. See A.
Henrichs, "Mani and the Babylonian Baptists," HSCP 77 [1973] 58). For
pageis, cf. Job 10:10, LXX, A (epeksas); D.L. 8.29: proton pagen en
hemerais tessarakonta; Philo Op. 124.
pleasure. The mention of pleasure, according to Fichtner, simply con­
stitutes part of the author's scientific description. Cf. Artistotle Generation
9
7:1-6
SOLOMON
IS O N L Y
A
MORTAL
165
of Animals 728al0: "The pleasure which accompanies copulation is due
to the fact that not only semen but also pneuma is emitted"; Philo LA
2.17: "apart from pleasure nothing in mortal kind comes into existence";
Abr. 100: "Now in a marriage where the union is brought about by
pleasure, the partnership is between body and body, but in the marriage
made by wisdom it is between thoughts which seek purification and perfect
virtues"; Op. 161. In the Hermetic writings, on the other hand, sexual
pleasure appears to have a deeper mystical significance: "Take it then to
heart as a truth more sure and evident than any other, that God, the
master of all of nature, has devised and bestowed upon all beings this mys­
tery of eternal reproduction, with all the affection, all the joy and gladness,
all the yearning and the heavenly love inherent in it" (CH, Asclepius 21,
10-14). The secret of embryogony is awesomely wondrous for the Psalm­
ist (139:13-16), and the author of II Maccabees is similarly impressed
(7:22-23; cf. BT Nid. 31a). Though no less awed by the divine creativity,
our own author is characteristically unable to resist the urge to supply
some of the physiological details of the formation of the embryo in accord
with the latest findings of the science of his day. This is especially under­
standable when we recall that "the medical achievement of Alexandria, es­
pecially in the third century B C E , reached a level never achieved before, or
indeed again until the seventeenth century" (Fraser 1972] 1. 341).
3. / breathed the common air. Cf. Menander Frag. 740, Korte (espasas
ton aera ton koinon); Philemon Frag. 119 (Edmonds III A.69); Egyptian
Coffin Texts, B3C, 570 (dating to Middle Kingdom, 2000 B C E ) : "I [the
creator-God] made the four winds that every man might breathe thereof
like his fellow in his time" (ANET:7); Antiphon, DK, B.44, Frag. B, col.
2, line 27: "We all breathe into the air through mouth and nostrils";
Eccles 3:19. Cf. R. Kassel, Vntersuchungen zur griechischen u. romischen
Konsolationsliteratur, Zetemata 18 (1958): 64.
that suffers the same from all. I.e. mother earth which all both use and
misuse. Cf. M. Aurel. 5.4: "and falling upon that earth from which my fa­
ther drew his vital seed, my mother her blood, my nurse her milk: from
which for so many years I am fed and watered day by day; which bears
my footsteps and my misusing it for so many purposes"; II Bar 13:11:
"But now, ye peoples and nations, ye are guilty because ye have always
trodden down the earth (katapatesantes ten gen) and used the creation
unrighteously" (FPG 119); Atra-Hasis, Tablet II, col. 1: "Twelve hun­
dred years had not yet passed / When the land extended and the peoples
multiplied. / The land was bellowing like a bull" (Lambert and Millard:
73); Yasht 13.9: "the broad, Ahura-created Earth . . . which carries all
material being" (see H. Lommel, Die Religion Zarathustras [rep. Hildesheim, New York, 1971] 259-260); Stasinos Cypria, Frag. 3: "There was
a time when the countless tribes of men, though wide-dispersed, oppressed
the surface of the deep-bosomed earth" (trans, in LCL Hesiod, Homeric
166
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ DC
Hymns and Homerica); Virgil Eel. 4.40-41: [in the new Golden Age]
"the earth shall not feel (patietur) the harrow, nor the vine the pruninghook; the sturdy plowman, too, shall now loose his oxen from the yoke."
(Heinisch: "that suffers the same from all," i.e. earth upon which all fall
at birth. Cf. Iliad 19.110. Grimm: the earth that all men tread.)
my first cry. A literary commonplace. Cf. Empedocles DK, B.118: "I
wept and wailed when I saw the unfamiliar land [at birth]"; Ps-Plato Axiochus 366D; Lucretius 5.222-227: "Then again, the child, like a sailor
tossed ashore from the cruel wars, lies naked on the ground, dumb, lack­
ing all help for life, when first nature has cast him forth by travail from his
mother's womb into the coasts of light, and he fills the place with woeful
wailing, as is but right for one for whom it remains in life to pass through
so much trouble." Seneca De Consolatione ad Polybium 4.3: "Do you not
see what sort of life Nature has promised us—she who decreed that the
first act of man at birth should be to weep?" For the Epicurean explana­
tion, see SexLMath. 11.96: "When it is born and is not as yet a slave to
opinions, it cries and screams as soon as it is smitten by the air's unwonted
chill"; Philo Op. 161. Shakespeare King Lear iv vi 187-188: "When we
are born, we cry that we are come / To this great stage of fools."
5. begun life. For geneseos archen, cf. Philo Op. 67: to sperma ton zoon
geneseos archen einai symbebeke.
6. one entry . . . and a like departure. Cf. Sir 4 0 : 1 : "A heavy yoke is
upon the sons of man, from the day that they go out of their mother's
womb, till the day that they return to the mother of all things . . . from
him that sitteth on a throne of glory, unto him that is humbled in earth
and ashes"; Horace Odes 1.4.13: "Pale Death with foot impartial knocks
at the poor man's cottage and at princes' palaces"; Theodoret Oratio 9: ou
monon de ten eis ton bion eisodon mian, alia kai ten eksodon isen
echomen (undoubtedly quoting from this verse).
X. SOLOMON PREFERS WISDOM ABOVE ALL ELSE
(7:7-14)
7
7
Therefore I prayed, and understanding was granted me;
I called for help, and a spirit of wisdom came to me.
8 I preferred her above scepter and throne,
and held riches as nought by comparison.
9 I reckoned no priceless gem her equal,
since all gold in her sight is but a pinch of sand,
and before her silver is accounted as clay.
1° I loved her above health and shapeliness,
and preferred her to the light of day;
for her radiance never sets.
11 But all good things came to me with her together,
and wealth past counting in her hands;
1 and I rejoiced in all since Wisdom leads them forth,
yet I was unaware that it was she who bore these things.
13 Guilelessly did I learn, and unstintingly do I share;
I do not hide her riches.
1 She is an inexhaustible treasure for mankind,
and those who acquire it attain friendship with God,
commended by the gift derived from her instruction.
2
4
NOTES
7:7-14. Solomon preferred Wisdom above all external goods, but sub­
sequently discovered that the latter were ultimately attained along with
her. There appears to be a faint echo here of the well-known philosophical
debate between the Peripatetics and the Stoics as to the relative impor­
tance of external goods (such as health, beauty, honor, and wealth, all of
which are explicitly mentioned by our author in w. 8 and 10) for the
168
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ X
happy life. The Stoics had placed special stress on the notion that virtue is
self-sufficient for happiness (autarkes pros eudaimoniah) and the only
good properly speaking (monon to kalon agathon) (SVF 1.187; 3.29-45,
49-67; D.L. 7.101). The Peripatetic view of the triple good (Aristotle EN
1098b) is explicitly attacked by Philo. Joseph's coat of many colors, he
says, indicates this tangled position. Joseph is "one who moulds his
theories with an eye to statecraft rather than to truth. This appears in his
treatment of the three kinds of good things, those pertaining to the outside
world, to the body, and to the soul. . . . He argues that each of the three
classes mentioned has the character of a part or element and that it is only
when they are all taken together in the aggregate that they produce happi­
ness. In order, then, that he may be taught better ideas than these, he is
sent to men who hold that nothing is a good thing but what has true
beauty, and that this is a property belonging to the soul as soul" (Det.
6-9; cf. Post. 95, 133; Spec. 2.48, 73; Deus 150-151; Ebr. 75; Virt. 5-6;
Sobr. 67-68; QG 4.167). In Her. 285-286, however, Philo seems to fol­
low the compromise adopted by Antiochus of Ascalon, who distinguished
the vita beata, which depends only on virtue, from the vita beatissima,
which requires also the possibility of using external goods (Cicero
Academica Posteriora 1.22; 2.22; 1.134). When will a man, asks Philo,
have attained to a life of true bliss and happiness? "When there is welfare
outside us, welfare in the body, welfare in the soul, the first bringing ease
of circumstance and good repute, the second health and strength, the third
delight in virtues." (See my "Philo's Ethical Theory" in ANRW, and
Dillon 1977:146-148.) The author of Wisdom seems to reflect to some
extent Philo's position in its more moderate mood. One should seek Wis­
dom for her own sake, but all other goods, we are assured, will later fol­
low in any case. (Cf. Philo Praem. 104: "For those who possess stored up
in Heaven the true wealth whose adornment is wisdom and godliness have
also wealth of earthly riches in abundance. For under the providence and
good care of God their storehouses are ever filled, because the impulses of
their minds and the undertakings of their hands are never hindered in car­
rying out successfully the purposes which they ever zealously pursue."
Similarly, at 119 it is said that God promises that those who cultivate vir­
tue will receive as well the gift of complete freedom from disease.)
7:7. Therefore I prayed. The author is undoubtedly referring to
Solomon's vision (I Kings 3:6-15) and prayer (I Kings 8:12-53). For
phronesis and sophia, see NOTE on 6:15. Cf. Sir 51:13-14.
/ called for help, epikaleo (both active and middle) means to summon
or invoke a god; in the middle it often means to call in as helper or ally.
For the verb without object expressed, see Acts 7:59.
8. riches. Cf. I Kings 3:11; Job 28:15$; Prov 3:14$; 8:10$; 16:16; Ps
119:72; 1QH 15.22.
7:7-14
SOLOMON
PREFERS
WISDOM
169
by comparison, en synkrisei used in this way is first attested here. Cf.
Philo Aet. 46; Flac. 187, 162; Spec. 2.42; Mos. 2.198; Babrius 101.8.
pros synkrisin in IG 5.268.53 (Mantinaea, first century BCE); frequent in
late prose.
9. priceless, atimeton in this sense is first attested here. Cf. Ill Mace
3:23; PT Peah 1.1,15d: "Artaban sent to R. Judah the Holy a priceless
(atimeton) precious stone and requested that he send him something corre­
spondingly precious in return. He sent him a mezuzah. He said to him: I
sent you something priceless and you sent me something worth one coin
(pholleron. Latin follis). He answered: Both your possessions and mine
cannot equal it. Moreover, you sent me something which I must guard,
whereas I have sent you something which when you die will guard you, as
it is written, 'when thou walkest, it shall lead thee"' (Prov 6:22); Test.
Levi 13:7; BR 35, end. (Shakespeare, Richard III I iv 27: "inestimable
stones, unvalued jewels.") Cf. Isis Aretalogy from Kyme, 26: "I make the
just man stronger than gold and silver."
10. never sets, akoimetos is literally 'unsleeping,' and Philo frequently
speaks of the unsleeping eyes (akoimetois ommasi) of the mind; Mut. 5,
40; Spec. 1.49; 4.201 ("the unsleeping eyes of justice, the assessor of God"
[cf. Wisd 9:4; 6:14]); Jos. 146-147: "Heaven is an eternal day," for it
is "kept in unsleeping (akoimeto) wakefulness by active forces which do
not err or stumble"; Mos. 1.185, 289. Cf. Epictetus 1.14.12: "He [Zeus]
has stationed by each man's side as guardian his particular genius
(daimona) . . . and that too a guardian who never sleeps (akoimeton)
and is not to be beguiled."
11. came to me. Though willing to forgo external goods, they came to
me unasked along with wisdom. Cf. I Kings 3:13: "I give you also what
you have not asked, both riches and honor"; II Chron 1:12; Prov 3:16:
"Length of days is in her right hand; in her left hand riches and honor";
8:18; Matt 6:33. According to the rabbis, Solomon chose wisdom, know­
ing that wisdom once in his possession, all else would come of itself. R.
Simeon b. Halafta utilizes the following parable. The matter is similar, he
says, to the king's counsellor, who when asked to request what he desired
most, reflected as follows: "If I request silver and gold, he will bestow
them; precious stones and diamonds, he will bestow them; I will ask for
his daughter's hand and all will be included" (SHSR 1.1.9; Pes. R.
14,59a).
12. / was unaware. The imperfect egnooun indicates that it was his con­
tinuing belief that external goods were simply unnecessary for the happy
life, until he learned to his delight that Wisdom ultimately brings them
along in her wake.
who bore, genetin, feminine of genetes, is first attested here. Cf. Agla'ias
10. The author is fond of describing Wisdom by means of female substan-
170
THE WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§ X
tives (7:21: technitis; 8:4: mystis, hairetis). The method of forming femi­
nine substantives from their masculine counterpart was a practice popular
with late Hellenistic writers (e.g. ekdotis from ekdotes; kynegetis from
kynegetes; syngenis from syngenes; etc.). See L. R. Palmer, A Grammar
of the Post-Ptolemaic Papyri (London, 1946) 1. 92. (Reese 1970:7.) Cf.
Philo Ebr. 30: "The architect who made this universe was at the same
time the father of what was thus born, whilst its mother was the knowledge
possessed by its Maker." Wolfson suggests that the term leads them'
(hegeitai) and 'mother of them' (genetin) "undoubtedly reflects the dou­
ble meaning of the three Hebrew consonants aleph, mem, nun which in
Philo are given the meaning of nurse ('dmen) and 'mother' ('iman (1948:
1. 269). Cf., however, V. Nikiprowetzky, Le Commentaire de VEcriture
chez Philon d'Alexandrie (Leiden, 1977) 72-73.
13. Guilelessly. For adolos, cf. Philo Ebr. 49: "For these [the whole
range of the school culture] ever secure the favors of wisdom to those who
woo her in guilelessness (adolos) and sincerity"; Virt. 62: "and those who
love her [Wisdom] with a love that is guileless and pure and genuine."
unstintingly. See NOTE on 6:23. For aphthonos metadidomi, cf. the
stele from about 200 BCE recording the decree conferring citizenship of
Samia upon an otherwise unknown philosopher, Epicrates of Heraclea, be­
cause he "communicated without stint" (metadidous aphthonos) M. N.
Tod, "Sidelights on Greek Philosophers," JHS 77 [1957] 135;
Reese 1970:18); Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 391al7: pasin aphthonos metadounai bouletheisa (the divine soul wished to impart to all unsparingly);
Philemon Frag. 154, Edmonds IIIA; Plato Symp. 210A: " 'However I will
speak of them.' [the rites and revelations], she said, 'and will not stint my
best endeavors' (prothumias ouden apoleipso)"; Sir 20:30-31: "Hidden
wisdom and concealed treasure, what profit is there in either? Better is the
man that hideth his folly than a man that hideth his wisdom" (cf. T. H.
Gaster, "Samaritan Proverbs," in Studies . . . A. A. Neuman [Leiden,
1962]:235, proverb 49). Philo Her. 213; LA 3.164; Somn. 2.282.
Reese has pointed out that adverbs of manner are a characteristic feature
of late Hellenistic prose, replacing the adjectival construction of earlier
Greek. Wisd has twenty-one of these adverbs of manner, extending
throughout the work, from autoschedios in 2:2 to apechthos in 19:5
(1970:18).
14. inexhaustible, aneklipes is found only here, although it occurs again
in Patristic Greek (Clement Strom. 5.4). The more usual form is
anellipes, which is found fairly often in Philo, or anekleiptos (Luke
12:33). Cf. Post. 136: "from the wisdom of God, that never failing spring
(tes anellipous peges)"; Congr. 4; Spec. 1.285; Plant. 91; Praem. 102;
Mos. 1.189; Spec. 4.144; Aet. 75; Plutarch Moralia 495C; SIG 799.17;
Sext. Math. 8.439.
7:7-14
SOLOMON
PREFERS
WISDOM
171
acquire it. Many commentators prefer the well-attested reading chresamenoi, reasoning that since chresthai with the accusative is rare (found
only in later Greek), it was readily changed by some scribes into
ktesamenoi (Grimm, Heinisch, Fichtner) In Greek philosophy, ktesis and
chresis aretes are sometimes contrasted. Cf. Aristotle EN 1098b32. Ac­
cording to Eudorus of Alexandria, the aim of life is "to live in accordance
with Virtue, and that in turn means both the acquiring (ktesis) and the
exercising (chresis) of perfect virtue" (see Dillon: 123).
XI. GOD IS SOLE SOURCE OF ALL-ENCOMPASSING
WISDOM
(7:15-22a)
5
1 God grant that I speak in accord with his wish,
and conceive thoughts worthy of his gifts,
for he himself is both the guide of Wisdom
and corrector of the wise.
16 Both we and our words are in his hands,
as well as all understanding and craftsmanship.
17 For it was he who gave me unerring knowledge of existent
being,
to know the structure of the universe and the operation of
the elements;
the beginning, and end, and middle of times,
the changes of the solstices and the vicissitudes of the
seasons.;
19 the cycles of years and the positions of the stars;
the natures of living creatures and the tempers of beasts;
the violent force of spirits and the reasonings of men;
the species of plants, and the virtues of roots.
21 I learned both what is hidden and what is manifest,
22a for Wisdom, the artificer of all, taught me.
1 8
2 0
NOTES
7:15-22a. Divine Wisdom is identified in this passage in the most ex­
plicit terms with the full range of human science and philosophy (i.e.
ontology, cosmology, physics, astronomy, biology, botany, esoteric knowl­
edge). Cf. Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 436-506, on which see M. Grif­
fith, The Authenticity of the Prometheus Bound (Cambridge, 1977):
7:15-22a
GOD IS S O L E S O U R C E O F
WISDOM
173
217-220. Our passage is largely inspired by the teleological argument apo
ton ergon (God's opera as a manifestation of his existence and wise re­
gime) as we find it in Plato, Aristotle, the Stoa, Philo, and Christian writ­
ers. See A. Henrichs, HSCP 79 (1975): 105-106. For the debate over the
relative value of the "encyclical" studies, see T. Conley, General Education
in Philo of Alexandria, Colloquy 15 of the Center for Hermeneutical Stud­
ies, ed. W. Wuellner, Berkeley, 1975; Duesberg and Fransen:781#.
7:15. in accord with his wish, kata gnomen, sc. autou.
guide. Isis is similarly praised as hodegos (P. Oxy. xi 1380, 122).
corrector. For diorthotes, cf. Diodorus 15.6.1 (ton poiematon . . •
diorthotas); Plutarch Solon 16.3 (tes politeias diorthoten); Epictetus
3.7.1.
16. in his hands. The same sentiment is expressed in the Qumran scrolls:
"It is thou who hast created breath for the tongue and thou knowest its
words; Thou didst establish the fruit of the Hps before ever they were.
Thou dost set words to measure and the flow of breath from the lips to
meter. Thou bringest forth sounds according to their mysteries . . ." (1QH
1.28). Philo similarly writes: "All are God's possessions and not yours,
your reflections, your knowledge of every kind, your arts, your conclu­
sions, your reasonings on particular questions, your sense-perceptions, in
fact the activities of your soul, whether carried on through the senses or
without them" (Cher. 71).
craftsmanship, ergateia is a rare word found only here and in BGU
1159.9 (1 BCE), but occurs later in Patristic Greek.
17. structure of the universe. For the expression systasin kosmou see
Plato Timaem 32C; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 396b23; Philo Aet. 25; CH
23.52.
the operation of the elements. The words energeia and stoicheia are part
of the Greek philosophical vocabulary. Dynamis and energeia are Aris­
totelian technical terms (Metaphysica 1046a26; Physica 206a24; etc.),
used also by Philo (Her. 110: energeias te kai dynameis auton; LA 2.24,
36-7, 40; Cher. 62, 70; e t c ) ; energeia occurs eight times in Ps-Aristeas
(at 266 in reference to God). Cf. 13:4 below; II Mace 3:29; III Mace
4:21; 5:12; Eph 1:19, Stoicheia was first used by Plato to designate the
elements (still called by Empedocles, DK, B.6, rhidzomata or 'roots'):
Theaetetus 201E; Politicus 278D; Tim. 48B. Cf. 19:18 below; IV Mace
12:13; Philo Cher. 127; Cont. 3-4; Aet. 29; II Peter 3:10.
18. the beginning, and end, and middle of times. A common collocution
in Classical and Hellenistic literature. According to the Orphic theogony,
Zeus, having created all things anew, becomes "beginning, middle, and
end of all" (O. Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta [Berlin, 1922] 21, 168).
The same Orphic verse is quoted in the fourth century BCE Derveni papy-
174
THE
WISDOM
OF S O L O M O N
§
XI
rus, which proves that it is pre-Hellenistic. See R. Merkelbach, ZPE 1
(1967) 23; W. Burkert, Antike und Abendland 14 (1968) 93-114, esp.
p. 96, n.6. We find the same expression in the Jewish-Orphic poem (FPG
166); Plato Parmenides 145A; Philebus 31A; Laws 715E (probably quot­
ing an Orphic poem); Aristotle De Caelo 268a, 11 (according to the
Pythagoreans the world is summed up in the number three, "for end, mid­
dle, and beginning give the number of the whole, and their number is the
triad"); Cicero Tusc. 1.64; Philo Her. 126; QG 4.8; 3.3; 1.91; Jos. Ag.Ap.
2.190; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 401b25; Plutarch Moralia 5C; Sallustius 6
(a triad of gods is necessary for the four cosmic operations, since each
has a beginning, a middle, and an end). On the base of a statue of Aidn
erected during the time of Augustus at Eleusis, the inscription describes
him as having neither beginning, middle, nor end (Dittenberger, SIG,
1125). According to Ezekiel the Tragedian, Moses' father-in-law inter­
prets Moses' view in his dream of the entire earth, what was below it, and
what was above the heavens, as signifying that he would know the present,
the past, and the future (FPG: 210, 24-26) (cf. Iliad 1.70). Similarly, in
the Pahlavi writings it is often said of Ohrmazd that he "is, was, and will
be," ke hast, but ut bavet. A similar formula is employed in the Atharvashira Upanishad. See G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irons (Stuttgart,
1965):287-288, 306. According to Berrosus, Uta-napiStim was in­
structed to write "beginnings, middles, and ends" on tablets and to bury
them in Sippar, where they were found after the flood. (See Lambert
1960:93.) In the Palestinian Talmud (Sanh. 1.1) it is reported in the name
of R. Reuben that the seal of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Emet
(truth), which is then explained by R. Bon as a notarikon (acrostic) for
Elohim melek tamid, i.e. that he is the living God and eternal King. Resh
Lakish, however, interprets it as follows: Alef is at the head of the alpha­
bet, mem in the middle [not precisely so], and taw at its end, i.e. "I the
Lord am the first" (Isa 41:4), since I have not received sovereignty from
another, "and beside me there is no God" (44:6), since I have no partner,
"and with the last I am the same" (41:4), since I shall not bestow it on
another. Reinach made the interesting suggestion that the three letters of
Emet are really a transcription of the initials of the Greek words arche,
meson, telos (in his notes to Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.190) (cited by Thackeray in
his LCL translation, p. 369, note c ) .
the changes of the solstices, and the vicissitudes of the seasons. For
tropon allagas, cf. Job 38:33, LXX. Philo makes frequent use of the
collocution tropai kai metabolai for the changes and variations that take
place in heaven and earth, tropai being especially common in connection
with atmospheric changes and the seasons. The terms kairos and eniautos
are also included in a number of these passages. (Cf. Gen 1:14, LXX;
Philo LA 1.8; Cher. 88; Det. 87; Ebr. 9 1 ; Her. 149, 247; Congr. 104;
7:15-22a
GOD I S S O L E S O U R C E O F W I S D O M
175
Mos. 1.200; 2.18, 124-125; Spec. 4.235: "The fourfold partition of the
year into what we call the annual seasons involves changes and alterna­
tions in the air and in these changes and alternations [tropais kai metabolais] it shows a marvelous order in disorder. For as it is divided by
an equal number of months into winter, spring, summer and autumn, three
for each season, it carries the year to its fulfillment and the year, as the
name eniautos indicates [cf. Plato Cratylus 410D], contains as it runs to
its completion everything in itself, which it would not have been able to do
if it had not accepted the law of the annual seasons"; 1QS 10.6-7.)
19. the cycles of years. Cf. Philo Somn. 1.20: "that it [the air] under­
goes all kinds of change (tropas kai metabolas pantoias); that it is the
source of winter and summer, and of the autumn and spring seasons, that
is, of the constituent parts that fix the limits of the year's cycle (eniautou
kyklos)."
the positions of the stars. Cf. Jub 2:8: kai tas ton astron theseis kai ta
stoicheia (FPG: 71); I Enoch 2 and 72-82; LAB 18.5: "God raised
Abraham above the firmament and showed him all the orderings of the
stars (omnium astrorum dispositiones)"; Cicero ND 2.153: "We alone of
living creatures know the risings and settings, and the courses of the stars,
the human race has set limits to the day, the month, and the year, and has
learnt the eclipses of the sun and moon, and foretold for all future time
their occurrence, their extent, and their dates. And contemplating the heav­
enly bodies the mind arrives at a knowledge of the gods" [cf. 13:5 below
and NOTE]: Philo Congr. 133: "the host of the stars, performing their
courses in ranks of ordered harmony"; 1QH 1.12: "the stars to their
paths."
20. the natures of living creatures. Cf. I Kings 4:33: "[Solomon] spoke
also of beasts, and of birds, and of reptiles, and of fish."
the violent force of spirits, pneumaton bias may mean either the violent
force of winds or of spirits. For the former translation, cf. Philo Op. 58
(nenemias kai bias pneumaton); Quran 21:81: "and to Solomon we sub­
jected the wind, strongly blowing." The structure of the verse, however,
would seem to require the latter translation (zoa-theria; phyta-rhizai;
pneumata-anthrdpoi: first the general, then the particular) (Grimm). A
passage in 1QH, 1.9-11, may help to bridge the two translations:
"Thou hast created all the spirits [and hast established a statute] and
law for all their works . . . the mighty winds (ruhot'oz) according to
their laws before they became angels [of holiness] and eternal spirits in
their dominions." Cf. Jub 2:2: "the angels of the spirit of the winds"
(angeloi pneumaton pneonton, FPG: 71); "[and the angels] of all the
spirits of his creatures (panton ton pneumaton ton ktismaton autou)
which are in the heavens and on the earth" (FPG: 12); I Enoch
60:12-22; 4l:3ff; 18:1-5; 76:1-14; 15:4: kai pneumata zonta aionia
176
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§
XI
(FPG: 29); Ps 104:4; Sir 39:28: "There are spirits (pneumata) that
are created for vengeance. . . . Fire and hail, and famine, and death. . .";
lQap Gen 20:20: "for a spirit (mho") smote all of them."
the species of plants. For diaphoras phyton, cf. Philo Somn. 1.203: kai
phyton diaphoras.
the virtues of roots. Cf. I Kings 4:33. Contrast I Enoch 8:3 where such
knowledge is part of the forbidden information revealed to man by rebel
angels. See Hengel 1. 243. According to Josephus (J.W. 2.8.6), the Essenes "made investigations into medicinal roots and the properties of
stones." Josephus also provides us with a detailed account of Solomon's
magical knowledge: "There was no form of nature with which he was not
acquainted or which he passed over without examining, but he studied
them all philosophically and revealed the most complete knowledge of the
art used against demons for the benefit and healing of men. He also com­
posed incantations by which illnesses are relieved, and left behind forms of
exorcisms with which those possessed by demons drive them out, never to
return." He goes on to say that this kind of cure is still a living tradition
and he describes how one Eleazer exorcised a demon by putting "to the
nose of the possessed man a ring which had under its seal one of the roots
prescribed by Solomon, and then, as the man smelled it, drew out the
demon through his nostrils" (Ant. 8.2.5). Verses 17-20 may perhaps
imply the notion of universal sympathy, a concept which was very potent
in the Hellenistic age. "The one who through his insight and divinely
granted revelation," writes J. M. Hull, "perceives the nature of the mystic
bonds which tie everything from the lofty stars down to the earthbound
roots in one throbbing unity, he is at once saint, seer, philosopher and
magus" (Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition [Naperville, 111.,
1974] 34). (See D.L. 7.140; see also S. Giverson, "Solomon und die
Damonen," Essays on the Nag Hammadi Texts in honor of A. Bohlig, ed.
M. Krause [Leiden, 1972] 16-25; D. Duling, "Solomon, Exorcism, and
the son of David," HTR 68 [1975].)
22a. The artificer. For the feminine form technitis, cf. NOTE on V. 12
above, technitis appears first in inscriptions from Delphi dating from the
second century BCE (Delphi 3.230; 3.54). Cf. Prov 8:30, LXX: emen
par auto harmozousa, which Wolfson (1948:1.267) translates "I was with
Him as one working as a joiner," and which, according to him, shows that
the underlying Hebrew reading for the LXX was 'aman ("artisan") (cf.
BR 1.1). We may also compare, in this connection, the Stoic definition of
Nature as "an artistically working fire (pyr technikon) going on its way to
create" (D.L. 7.156); cf. Cicero ND 2.58: "The nature of the world itself
. . . is styled by Zeno not merely 'craftsmanlike' but actually 'a craftsman'
(artifex)" (see A. S. Pease's commentary [1955] ad l o c ) ; CH 23.64: ton
sympanton kosmopoietes kai technitis. Commenting on Prov 8:22, Philo
7:15-22a
GOD IS S O L E
SOURCE
OF
WISDOM
177
(using the terminology of Plato's Timaeus 49A-50D) describes Wisdom
as mother and nurse (tithene) of the All (Ebr. 31). At 9:1-2 we are told
more explicitly that it was by means of sophia that God created all things.
For Wisdom as tutor, cf. 1QH 1:22: "These things I know by the
wisdom which comes from thee, for now thou hast unstopped my ears to
marvelous mysteries"; Isis Aretalogy, Cyrene 12: ha kai brotois edeiksa.
A striking parallel to w . 17-21 may be found in Ps-Plato Axiochus 370B:
"Surely mortal nature would never rise to such a height of noble daring as
to scorn the violence of wild beasts (therion bias) far surpassing man in
strength, to traverse oceans, to build cities, to found commonwealths, to
gaze up to heaven and discern the revolutions of the stars (periphoras
astron), the course of the sun and moon, their risings and settings, their
eclipses and their swift [periodic] return, the equinoxes and the two sol­
stices (tropas dittos), the wintry skies of the Pleiades (Pleiadon cheimonas), the summer winds and rainy downpours, and violent onrush of
hurricanes, to chart for eternity the vicissitudes of the cosmos—were there
not really some divine breath (theion pneuma) in man's soul, whereby it
obtained knowledge and intelligence of matters so great? Hence, my dear
Axiochus, you will suffer a change not into death but immortality
(athanasian)" (tr. by E. H. Blakeney [London, 1937]). Cf. also Philo
Det. 87-88; Seneca Consolat. ad Helviam 20.2.
XH. N A T U R E O F WISDOM: H E R TWENTY-ONE
ATTRIBUTES
(7:22b-24)
7
22b For in her is a spirit intelligent and holy,
unique of its kind yet manifold, subtle,
agile, lucid, unsullied,
clear, inviolable, loving goodness, keen,
unhindered, beneficent, humane,
steadfast, unfailing, untouched by care,
all-powerful, all-surveying,
and pervading all spirits,
intelligent, pure, and most subtle.
24 For Wisdom is more mobile than any motion,
she pervades and permeates all things by reason of her
pureness.
2 3
NOTES
7:22b-24. Wisdom is here described in a series of twenty-one (7x3)
epithets, borrowed largely from Greek philosophy. In the representation of
the initiation into immortality delivered in the so-called Mithras Liturgy,
part of the great Paris Magical Codex (presumably compiled in the
early fourth century CE), Aidn is similarly invoked with twenty-one epi­
thets, which consistendy refer to him as god of light and fire (see A. Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie [Leipzig and Berlin, 1923] 8-10). Similarly, the
Ahuna Vairya (known in later times simply as the Ahunvar), "the most
sacred and probably the most ancient of the Zoroastrian formulas of de­
votion," in its twenty-one words, contained in germ the whole revelation of
the Good Religion and the twenty-one Nasks of which it was made up
(Greater Bundahishn 1.15; 'Ulema i Islam 46 [21 Nasks divided into 3
groups of 7 each]). See Zaehner 1961:261; 1972:314,415; E. Beneveniste,
"La prtere Ahuna Vairya," / / / 1 (1957) 77-85; W. Hinz, "Zum Ahuna-
7:22b-24
NATURE
OF
WISDOM
179
Vairya Gebet," / / / 4 (1960) 154-159; Boyce:260-261. "Held to have
existed before the Creation, this prayer is conceived as a hypostasis, a
veritable Logos-Sophia" (H. Corbin, "Cyclical Time in Mazdaism and
Ismailism," Man and Time [Bollingen Series XXX.3, New York, 1957]
122, n.16. Ohrmazd is manifested through the act of creation, and his
Wisdom through the den [Religion] and the Ahunvar prayer which is its
quintessence [Denkart, ed. Madon, 133.3. See Zaehner 1972:107, 133.
The Stoic philosopher Cleanthes heaps up twenty-six divine attributes
(SVF 1.557), and in the Apocalypse of Abraham (17) we find in the
celestial song of Abraham a rather long series of attributes attached to the
deity. Philo similarly assigns 147 epithets to the pleasure-lover (Sacr.
32). Moreover, in Indian literature, 'Perfect Wisdom' (Prajnaparamita)
is praised by a litany enumerating her thirty-two attributes. (See Conze
1968:208.) We find a somewhat similar motif in rabbinic literature,
where we read in Sifre Deut. 306, Finkelstein: 341: " 'For the name of the
Lord I proclaim' (Deut 32:3). We find that Moses mentioned the name of
the Holy One blessed be He only after twenty-one words [counting from
the beginning of Moses' song which starts at Deut 32:1]. From whom did
he learn? from the ministering angels; for the latter mention the Holy
Name only after a threefold kadosh, as it is written, 'And one would call
to the other, "Holy, holy, holy! The Lord of Hosts!'" (Isa 6:3). [Israel,
on the other hand, mentions the name after two words. See BT Hulin 91b.]
Said Moses: 'It is enough for me to be less than in a one to seven relation­
ship with the ministering angels.'" [D. Hoffmann, quoted by Finkelstein in
his edition of the Sifre, explained: In regard to the words, Moses was in a
one to seven relationship with the angels, since they mention the name
after three words, and he after twenty-one words; whereas in regard to
the letters, he was in less than a one to seven relationship, since they
mention the name after twelve letters and he after eighty-five letters]
(Stein). Finally, in the highly syncretistic Isis cult, we find this goddess
bearing so many cult names that she is often called myrionymos (Plutarch
Is. et Os. 312E\ OGIS 695; PGM 57, 13). An Oxyrhynchus papyrus (no.
1380: early second century CE) gives us a long invocation of her, and it
is interesting to note that no distinction is made there between genuine
epithets (of which there are well over twenty, e.g. holy, mightiest, undefiled, trusty, bountiful, savior, initiate, intelligence, wisdom) and the
names of other deities identified with her. (See A. D. Nock, Conversion
[Oxford 1933] 150-151; Apuleius Metamorphoses 11.5.) Comparable is
the epithet polyonymos used of Isis in the post-Augustan Anubis-hymn
from Cius in Bithynia and P. Oxy. xi 1380, 97 and 101. This epithet is
used also of Demeter, with whom Isis was identified as early as the fifth
century BCE (Herodotus 2.59) and of Hades (Homerici Hymni 2.18;
Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 401a, 13). Cf. also myriomorphos (The Greek
180
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XII
Anthology, trans. W. R. Paton, 5 vols. [LCL] 16.264) and dea multinominis (Apuleius Metamorphoses 11.22). The Egyptian (s) rnw, "with
many names," is used of a number of gods—Amon, Re, Horus, Osiris,
and Hathor. Isis could well have borrowed the designation from Hathor,
but an instance applying it to Isis does not seem to occur. Similarly, the
epithet myriomorphos is paralleled by ($) hh prw, "with many forms." A
Nineteenth Dynasty tomb describes the sun-god as "with many forms and
with many names." Isis, again, is not the recipient of the designation. The
Greek epithet represents, then, a process assigned to the goddess by the
Greek interpretation and involving a detailed assimilation of the functions
of numerous other goddesses (J. W. Griffiths, Plutarch De Iside et Osiride
[Cardiff, 1970] 502-503). Another close parallel for the litany-like use
of divine epithets is the collection of Orphic Hymns, generally dated in
the second century CE. See W. Quandt, Orphic Hymns (Berlin, 1955).
Shorter but similar examples can be found among the oracles of Clarian
Apollo. See L. Robert, Comptes rendus de VAcad&mie des Inscriptions
(Paris, 1971; published January 1972) 597ft esp. pp. 602 and 611.
Philo applied the epithet polyonymos to wisdom: "By using many words
for it Moses has already made it manifest that the sublime and heavenly
wisdom is of many names; for he calls it 'beginning,' and 'image,' and
Vision of God.'" (LA 1.43; cf. Somn. 2.254 \polyonymon tou ontos
dynameon]; cf. Conf. 146.) It was also employed by the Stoic Cleanthes
for Logos-Zeus in the opening line of his famous hymn. Cf. also Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 401al2; D.L. 7.135, 147: "[The Deity] is called many
names according to its various powers"; CH 5.10; Irenaeus Adv. Haer.
1.23.1; Acta Petri et Pauli 35. See Festugfere 1953: 3. 161; G. Ludemann,
Vntersuchungen zur Simonianischen Gnosis (Gottingen, 1968) 51; Mack
(1973) 111, n.2. Grimm (citing Lipsius) notes that it may be this passage
in Wisdom that won for the book the title Panaretos Sophia, "the Wisdom
which comprises all virtues," given to it by Epiphanius (De Mensuris et
Ponderibus 4) and John of Damascus (De Fide Orthodoxa 4.17).
7:22b. a spirit intelligent. Posidonius called God pneuma noeron diekon
di' hapases ousias (Frags. 100-101, Kidd). Cf. CH 3.1.
holy. Isis is called holy (hageiah) in P. Oxy. xi 1380, 36.
unique of its kind. Demeter, Persephone, and Athene are each given the
epithet mounogenes in the Orphic Hymns (40; 29; 32). Cf. Parmenides,
DK, B.8.4; Plato Tim. 31B3: heis hode monogenes ouranos; John 1:14:
doksan hos monogenous para patros.
manifold, polymeres is first attested in Aristotle De Anima 411M1. The
noun polymeria is found in Philo Her. 236.
subtle. Anaxagoras (DK, B.12) and Diogenes of Apollonia (DK, A.20)
describe nous as leptotaton. The Stoics defined the soul as a soma lep-
7:22b-24
NATURE
OF
WISDOM
181
tomeres eks heautou kinoumenon ("a subtle self-moving body": SVF
2. 780, 785; 1.484). Cf. Timaeus Locrus De Natura mundi et animae
98d: eidos pyros eukinatotaton kai leptomerestaton; Philo Cher. 115; LA
3.170 (Logos described as leptos); Philodemus On Death 8.13, Kuiper:
leptomeres gar ousa kai teleos eukinetos he psyche.
agile. Democritus considered nous and fire as eukinetotaton, DK,
A.101. Cf. Plato Tim. 58E; 56A (the most mobile figure is assigned to
fire); Aristotle Categoriae 13a27; Magna Moralia 1199b32 (soul more
easily moved than body). Philodemus also applies eukinetos to the soul
(On Death 8.14). Cicero ND 2.11.30: "That glowing heat of the world is
far purer and more brilliant and far more mobile."
lucid, tranon is very frequently used in Philo of clear impressions (Op.
71, etc.). Isis has allotted to men "to know these things clearly" (tranos)
(Isis Aretalogy, Cyrene 14) (Roussell: 150).
unsullied, amolyntos is first found here (frequent in Patristic Greek).
Cf. Musonius Rufus Frag. 18B; Epictetus 4.11.8 (of the soul).
loving goodness. Cf. Aristotle Magna Moralia 1212M9; Philo Mos. 2.9.
It is also used as an honorary epithet in inscriptions of religious associa­
tions: / G 2 . 1326.8.
keen. Cf. Philo Her. 140: "Thus God sharpened the edge of his allincising Logos and divided universal being"; 130. Cf. NOTE on 18:15.
23. unhindered. Cf. Philo Praem. 119. Very frequent in Epictetus
(1.4.18; 2.19.32; 4.1.69, 73, 100). The adverb akolytos appears in Plato
Cratylus 415D (of the unimpeded flow of the good soul); in Philo (Deus
160; Sobr. 40; Fug. 191; Spec. 1.113); Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 401M0
(cf. Heimarmene moving without hindrance); and in Chrysippus SVF 2.
937.
beneficent, humane. Cf. 1.6; 12:19. Chrysippus refers to the gods as
benefactors (euergetikoi) and lovers of the human race (philanthropoi:
SVF 2. 1115). In Ps-Aristeas, the king is described as benefactor of his
subjects (190, 205, 249). He feels affection (philanthropia) for his people
(257, 208, 290). Cf. Plato Laws 713D; Symp. 189D; Aristotle Rhetorica
1388M2; EN 1171M6; Ps-Plato Definitions 412E; Diodorus 19.86; Epic­
tetus 4.8.32; 4.10.12; SVF 3. 292; Plutarch Moralia 824D; III Mace 3.15;
II Mace 4:11; Joseph and Asenath 12:16, Battifol. Philo encapsuled the
Stoic concept of active beneficence developed by Panaetius (Cicero Off.
1.20) in the word philanthropia (Virt. 51-174). For Plutarch's elaborate
ues of the concept of philanthrdpia, see Hirzel 1912:23-32. See also Festugiere 1950:2. 301-309; S. Tromp de Ruiter, "De Vocis quae est PhilanthrSpia Significatione atque Usu," Mnemosyne 59 (1931) 271-305; Spicq
1958:169-191; R. Le Deaut, "Philanthropia dans la literature grecque
jusqu'au Nouveau Testament," in Melanges Eugene Tisserant 1 (1964)
255-294; B. Snell, The Discovery of the Mind (Cambridge, Mass., 1953)
2
182
THE
WISDOM
OF
§ xn
SOLOMON
246-263; H. Martin, "The Concept of Philanthropia in Plutarch's Lives,"
AJP 82 (1961) 164-175; Bell 1948:31-37; A. Nissen, Gott und der
Ndchste im antiken Judentum (Tubingen, 1974) 466-470, 485-502; and
Introduction.
steadfast. Cf. Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 400b30: "God is a stronger and
more stable (bebaioteros) law than those inscribed on tablets"; Philo
Somn. 2.223: "But indeed so vast in its excess is the stability (tou
bebaiou) of the Deity that He imparts to chosen natures a share of his
steadfastness to be their richest possession."
unfailing. Philo is fond of joining the words bebaios and asphales or
asphaleia. Cf. Conf. 106; Cher. 103; Spec. 3.130; Somn. 1.158: "the sure
God (asphales theos) is the support and stay, the firmness and stability
(bebaiotes) of all things."
all-powerful, pantodynamos is found only here (and in 11:17; 18:5),
but is frequent in Patristic Greek. Cf. Plotinus 5,9.9,11 (pandynamou);
n Mace 11:13 (tou dynamenou theou); Elias [sixth-century CE Neoplatonist philosopher] In Porphyrii Isagogen commentaria 17.18. Cf. Aelius
Aristides, Orationes 2: "From what has been said, one would not go
wrong in calling her [Athena] the Power of God" (Bevan: 160).
all-surveying, panepiskopos is first attested here. Cf. AP 7.245; MAMA
1. 171 (Laodicea Combusta); Sib Or 1:152; 2:177 (found in Patristic
Greek).
intelligent, pure, and most subtle. Le. it pervades even the subtlest
spirits.
24. more mobile. For the neuter kinetikoteron, cf. 17:10; Artistotle EN
1099a24: ariston ara . . . he eudaimonia; Plato Protagoras 328C; Rep.
366A; Meno 70A. For the swiftness of mind, see D.L. 1.35: tachiston
nous; Plato Cratylus 412B-D; Cicero ND 2.42: "But the stars occupy the
region of aether, and as this has a very rarefied substance and is always in
lively motion, it follows that the animal bora in this region has the keenest
senses and the swiftest power of movement"; Philo Cher. 28: "For ex­
ceeding swift (oksykinetotaton) and of burning heat is Logos and chiefly
so the Logos of the [Great] Cause, for it alone preceded and outran all
things . . .": Mut. 179: "He [Homer Odyssey 7.36] is showing the swift­
ness of the mind's intensity. . . . For the mind moves at the same moment
to many things material and immaterial with indescribable rapidity."
she pervades and permeates all things. The phraseology is Stoic. Cf.
SVF 2. 416: to diekon dia panton pneuma; 2. 1021; 2. 1033: to di' holon
kechdrekos pneuma; Dox. 306.8; D.L. 7.139. For the principle of "body
going through body" (soma dia somatos chdrein) see Sambursky
1959:1-48; R. B. Todd, Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic Physics
(Leiden, 1976) 29-88.
pureness. Cf. D.L. 7.139: "According to Chrysippus, the hegemonikon
9
7:22b-24
N A T U R E OF
WISDOM
183
is the purer part of the aether." In Strom. 5.89.2-4, Clement asserts that
the Stoic doctrine of pneuma was based on a misunderstanding of this pas­
sage in Wisdom. Cf. Isis Aretalogy, P. Oxy. xi 1380, 175: kai hapanta
diakathaireis.
XIII. F I V E F O L D M E T A P H O R DESCRIBING WISDOM'S
ESSENCE A N D HER UNIQUE EFFICACY
(7:25-8:1)
7
25 s h e is an exhalation from the power of God,
a pure effluence from the glory of the Almighty;
therefore nothing tainted insinuates itself into her.
26 She is an effulgence of everlasting light,
an unblemished mirror of the active power of God,
and an image of his goodness.
27 Though but one she can do everything,
and abiding in herself she renews all things;
generation by generation she enters into holy souls
and renders them friends of God and prophets,
28 for nothing is pleasing to God but the man who lives with
Wisdom.
She is fairer than the sun
and surpasses every constellation;
compared to the light of day she is found more radiant;
for day is superseded by night,
but over Wisdom no evil can prevail.
1 She stretches in might from pole to pole
and effectively orders all things.
2 9
3 0
8
NOTES
7 : 2 5 - 8 : 1 . Employing a fivefold succession of metaphors [exhalation,
effluence, effulgence, mirror, image], the author states quite emphatically
that Wisdom is an emanation from God's power, glory, light, or goodness.
This is very bold language indeed for someone who is writing within the
biblical tradition. Even the more philosophically ambitious Philo backs off
from such explicit terms as aporroia, aporroe, or apaugasma for his de-
7:25-8:1
FIVEFOLD
METAPHOR
185
scription of the origin of the Divine Logos. He readily applies such terms
to the effluences of the Logos, but when it comes to the Logos itself, he
prefers to employ verbs which clearly imply that it is a divine emanation
without actually so designating it. (See NOTE on "effluence" below.) Fur­
thermore, in describing Wisdom's unique capacity for a cosmic efficacy
which is self-abiding, our author foreshadows the Neoplatonic doctrine
that within the so-called process of emanation, in giving rise to the effect,
the cause remains undiminished and unaltered (Plotinus 3.8.10; 4.8.6;
5.1.3 and 6; 5.2.1; Proclus Elements 26-27; CH 12.1). The Platonic text
on which Plotinus (5.4.2) and Proclus (Platonic Theology 5.18.283) base
this is Tim. 42E, but, as Dodds (1963:214) has pointed out, "it seems to
be a product of the Middle Stoa, and to have originated in the attempt to
give God a real place in the Stoic system over against the cosmos" (cf.
Philo, Det. 90; Gig. 27; Conf. 136; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 397b20-25;
398M4-25; M. Aurel. 8.57; Numenius, ap. Eusebius Praeparatio Evangelica 11.18; $H$R on Song of Songs 3:10; Augustine Confessions 9.5.1;
BT Sanh. 39a; BR 68.9; Tanhi. Buber, Beha'alot. 29a).
7:25. exhalation, atmis is properly "moist vapor," "steam." The author
may have had in mind Exod 19:18 as quoted by Philo (Her. 251: hosei
atmis kaminou) and Lev 16:13, LXX. Cf. also Sir 24:3. (Goodrick notes
that the Armenian version, as quoted by Margoliouth, and the Ethiopic
must have read aktis.) For tes tou theou dynameos, cf. Philo LA 2.86.
effluence. The term aporroia was already employed by Empedocles (DK,
B.89). Cf. Aristotle De Sensu 438a4; Epicurus Epistulae 1.46; Philo Spec.
1.27, 40. Our passage, however, is the earliest attestation of its explicit ap­
plication to the Logos or Sophia as an emanation from God. Even in Plo­
tinus, aporroia is used only for the effluences from Nous or the stars upon
man and what is below him (2.3.11.9; 3.4.3.26). He does, however, use
the term aporroe for the effluences from the One (6.7.22.8); cf. Plato
Phaedrus 25IB. The earliest attested use of aporroia for effluences from
God (apart from our text) is in Marcus Aurelius (2.4; cf. 12.2, 26). It is
very likely, however, that the notion of an outflow from God was already
used by adherents of the Middle Stoa (perhaps by Posidonius), since
Cicero writes: "And if mankind possesses intelligence, faith, virtue and
concord, whence can these things have flowed down (defluere) upon the
earth if not from the powers above?" (ND 2.79). It also appeared in
Neopythagorean writings. See Sext. Adversus Physicos 2.281: "But some
assert that the body is constructed from one point; for this point when it
has flowed (rhyen) produces the line, and the line when it has flowed
makes the plane, and this when it has moved towards depth generates the
body which has three dimensions." Cf. Hermippus 1.18.135, KrollViereck: ho theos, aph hou kathaper ek peges errye ta panta; Hippolytus
4.43.4; CH 4.10. There is also a dim suggestion in Nicomachus of
186
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xm
Gerasa of the process of Procession from and Return to the One which is
characteristic of Plotinus' philosophy. See Dillon 1977:355-356. Al­
though Philo does not employ the term aporroia for the divine effluence he
does use the verbs ombreo and plemmyro (Somn. 2.221: "Whence
showers forth [ombrese] the birth of all that is, whence streams [eplemmyre] the tide of Wisdom"); cf. Fug. 198. Moreover, Philo employs
the verbs aporreo and rheo for the effluences of the Logos. Det. 83: "To
the faculty which streams forth (aporryeisd) from the fountain of reason
breath has been assigned" [The fountain here is apparently the Archetypal
Logos, of which, Philo has just informed us (Det. 82), God is the foun­
tain]; Fug. 137; Deus 176; Sacr. 82; Op. 144; Det. 117. In LA 1.63,
Philo implies that generic virtue flows (he actually says: lambanei tas
archas, 'takes its start') from the wisdom of God [Eden], and refers to the
four particular virtues as aporroiai from the largest river, generic virtue.
At Spec. 1.40, the simile employed would seem to imply that the Logos is
an emanation from God: "For the very seeking, even without finding, is
felicity in itself, just as no one blames the eyes of the body because when
unable to see the sun itself they see the emanation (aporroia) of its rays
as it reaches the earth." (aporroia is also found in Ezek 1:14, LXX,
Aquila; I Kings 14:27, LXX, Symmachus.) For the image of overflow,
cf. Zech 12:10; Isa 11:9; Joel 3 : 1 ; Sir 1:9; I Enoch 49:1. For the use
of this image in Egyptian literature, see Plutarch Is. et Os. 366a; Songs
of Isis and Nephthys 9.26 (JEA 22 [1936] 127): "The Nile is the efflux
of Osiris' body"; CH 23 (Kore Kosmou), 62; Odes Solomon 6.7. (See
R. Reitzenstein, Poimandres [Leipzig, 1904] 16, n.4, and Mack 1973:70.)
pure. For eilikrines. Cf. Plato Symp. 21 IE; Phaedo 81BC; Posidonius F
17, Kidd; Philo Op. 8 (the active Cause is the perfectly pure [heilikrinestatos] and unsullied Mind of the universe); Op. 31 (no object of sense is
heilikrines).
glory. Cf. Philo Spec. 1.45: "but I [Moses] beseech thee that I may at
least see the glory that surrounds thee, and by thy glory I understand the
powers that keep guard around thee" [powers here refer to the ideal
'Forms' within the Divine Logos].
the Almighty, pantokrator is very frequent in the LXX for Hebrew
$eba'6t and Sadday.
nothing tainted. For memiammenon, cf. Plato Phaedo 8IB: "if when it
departs from the body the soul is defiled (memiasmene) and impure";
Philo, Fug. 50: "wisdom has obtained a nature free from every defiling
touch (apsaustou kai amiantou physeos)." Isis is amiantos (P. Oxy. XL
1380, 109).
insinuates itself. For parempiptei, cf. Plutarch Is. et Os. 59 (Mack).
26. effulgence, apaugasma is first attested here. Cf. Heliodorus 5.27;
7:25-8:1
FIVEFOLD
187
METAPHOR
Philo Op. 146: "Every man, in respect of his mind, is allied to the divine
Reason, having come into being as a copy or fragment or ray
(apaugasma) of that blessed nature"; Plant. 50; Spec. 4.123; Test.
Abraham A 16. (Again, it should be noted that Philo applies the term
apaugasma only to the human mind, never to the Logos.) In the Isis
Aretalogy from Kyme we read: "I am in the rays (augais) of the sun."
Heb 1:3 refers to Christ as the apaugasma of God's glory. Cf. apaugasmos
in Plutarch Moralia 83D; 934D; and kataugasma in PGM 4.1130.
everlasting light. Fragment 3 (34) of the Sibylline Oracles speaks of
God as "deathless endless light (aphthiton aenaon phos)." Light for Plotinus is the incorporeal energeia of the luminous body [the sun], closely
parallel to life, the energeia of the soul (2.1.7.26; 4.5.6 and 7, 1.6.3.18).
Plato had already suggested that the heavenly fire was of special purity
(Philebus 19B#). Philo, too, sometimes speaks of an incorporeal light
(Praem. 37; Somn. 1.113).
umblemished mirror. The mirror metaphor also occurs in Philo QG 1.57
(though in a slightly altered context): "For in a certain sense the wisdom
of the world was a mirror of the powers of God, in accordance with which
it became perfect and this universe is governed and managed"; cf. Decal.
105: "for in it [the Seven], as in a mirror, the mind has a vision of God as
acting and creating the world and controlling all that is"; Mig. 190 (for
esoptron, cf. Sir 12:11; Philo, Mig. 98; and for akelidoton, cf. Cicero ND
2.31, and see NOTE on 4:9). Cf. also I Cor 13:12. Mani's celestial Twin
(also an emanation) is termed ekeino to eueidestaton kai megiston katoptron in the Mani Codex (17.13$). See ZPE 19 (1975) 18-19, and 79.
image. A Platonic metaphor. Cf. Tim. 29B: "it is wholly necessary that
this Cosmos should be a Copy (eikona) of something"; Philo Op. 25:
"Now if the part is an image of an image (eikon eikonos), it is manifest
that the whole is so too"; Fug. 101 (the Divine Logos is himself the Image
of God); Con/. 146.
27. Though but one. Ct. Isis Aretalogy, Cyrene 6.
she can do everything. Cf. Isis Aretalogy, Cyrene 15: "nothing happens
without me."
abiding in herself. Anaxagoras' Nous similarly remains unmixed and
motionless while moving all things (Aristotle Physica 256b25; DK, B.12:
monos autos ep eoytou estin). So, too, Xenophanes (DK, B 26: "And he
[God] always remains in the same place [en tauto mimnei] not mov­
ing at all, nor is it fitting for him to change his position at different times."
Cf. Plato Tim. 42E: "So He, then, having given all these commands, was
abiding in His own proper and wonted state (emenen en to heautou kata
tropon ethei)"; Plotinus 3.2.1.45; cf. Philo Her. 156; the Eleusis inscrip­
tion under the statue of Aion: Aion ho autos en tois autois aiei physei
y
9
188
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ Xffl
theia menon; CH 11.4: diamenousa te tautoteti; Proclus Elements 26:
menon auto eph' heautou.
she enters into, metabainein is the technical Pythagorean expression for
the process of transmigration (Dox. 590, 12). A similar notion is found in
the Ps-Clementine Homilies 3.20, where Christ is depicted as having
changed his forms and his names from the beginning of the world, thus
reappearing again and again until coming upon his own times (cf. Recog­
nitions 2.22). The same conception may be seen in the Manichaean doc­
trine of the cyclic incarnation of the True Prophet. "The Apostle of Light,
the god-sent messenger to the world and the herald of the redemption of
mankind, made his appearance in the Patriarchs of the Hebrew Bible, in
the religious leaders of the East, in Jesus and Paul, in Marcion and Bardaisan, and finally in Mani" (Keph. 12.9 ff; Horn. 68, 15ff); see A.
Henrichs, "Mani and the Babylonian Baptists," HSCP 77 (1973) 25. (It
should be noted that the recently discovered Mani Codex published by
Henrichs and Koenen names the founder of the sect against which Mani
rebelled as Alchasaios, and we are informed by Hippolytus Refutatio om­
nium Haeresium 10.25, that the Elchasaites affirmed that "Jesus was con­
tinually being transfused into bodies and was manifested in many different
bodies at different times.") Cf. H. J. Schoeps, Theologie und Geschichte
des Judenchristentums (Tubingen, 1949) 102-10. So, too, the Sufi mystic
Jili (second half of fourteenth century) holds that in every age the Perfect
Men are an outward manifestation of the essence of Muhammad, which
has the power of assuming whatever form it will. In the sixtieth chapter of
the Insdnu'l-kdmil he depicts Muhammad as the absolutely perfect man,
the first-created of God and the archetype of all other created beings. (See
R. A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism [Cambridge, 1921] 87.)
For Hallevi's similar concept of the amr ilahi, divine thing, see the excel­
lent analysis by H. Davidson, "The Active Intellect in the Cuzari and
Hallevi's Theory of Causality," REJ 131 (1972): 381-396. (The amr
ilahi is "on the lookout for those who are worthy" of it.)
friends of God. The notion of friendship with God is an ancient and
widespread motif. Cf. Isa 41:8; n Chron 20:7; 22:7, Vulgate; Exod
32:11, LXX; Jub 30:20-21; Apoc. Abraham 9 and 10; Test. Abraham A
15, 16; James 2:23; Sib Or 2:245; Philo Sobr. 56 (quotes Gen 18:17
with the addition of the words "my friend"; LXX has "my servant"; Mos.
1.156 ["the prophet is called the friend of God"]; Her. 21; Prob. 44; Abr.
129; LA 3.204; Cont. 90; cf. John 15:14); Qur'an 4.124; Historia
Augusta, Claudius 2.4-5: "Moses, the friend of God (familiarem dei), as
he is called in the books of the Jews"; BT Menahot 53b; Tosef. Ber. 7.13
(the geonim, citing Mai 1:2, say the reference here is to Jacob); Sifre
Num. 115 and Deut. 352, Finkelstein: 409; Mek. on Exod 12:11 and
15:17; Lament R. Petih. 24; IV Ezra 3:14; Prayer of Azariah 12; Jub
t
7:25-8:1
FIVEFOLD
METAPHOR
189
19:9; Targ.Yerush. on Gen 18:17; ARN (Version B) 43. In the Ethiopic
Mota Muse, Moses bears the title of friend of God; Gedulat Mosheh 3b.
That the wise were friends of God was a commonplace of Greek literature.
Cf. Plato Laws 716C-D; Tim. 53D; Symp. 193B; Rep. 621C; Maximus
of Tyre 20.6; 14.6; Epictetus 2.17.29; 4.3.9; 3.22.95; 3.24.60; D.L.
6.37.72; Polybius 10.2.7; 21.23.9; Ps-Plutarch De Vita et Poesi Homeri
143; Philodemus On the Gods 3, Diels, 16,17; Macrobius Saturnalia
1.11.45; H. Usener (1887), Epicurea 386; Plotinus 2.9.9.73. Caracalla
was known as philosarapis (E. Breccia, Iscrizioni greche e latine (Cairo,
1911), no. 83). See Peterson 1923:161-202.
28. lives with. In view of chap. 8, the metaphor is probably that of mar­
riage. Cf. Herodotus 1.91 and 93; Euripides Medea 242.
29. fairer than the sun. According to Philo, the sun is only a copy or
image of Wisdom (Mig. 40). Similarly, in Rep. 7.517B Plato tells us that
the 'Form' of the Good is "the cause for all things of all that is right and
beautiful, giving birth in the visible world to light." According to Aris­
tobulus, too, "all light comes from wisdom" (FPG: 224, 10-11). In
LAB 12.1-3, we read that when Moses came down from the mountain, he
was covered with invisible light, and "the light of his face overcame the
brightness of the sun and moon."
more radiant. Cf. 6:12. Most manuscripts, however, read protera,
'foremost,' which Grimm preferred to what Thilo called the 'elegant' read­
ing.
30. prevail. For katischyei with genitive, cf. Jer 15:18, LXX; Matt
16:18; Aelianus De natura animalium 5.19. The same notion is found in
John 1:5. Philo points out that the divisions of time only exist from the
point of view of man on earth, whereas in the heavens there is one con­
tinuous 'Today' (Fug. 57; cf. LA 1.46; Seneca Ep. 102.28; Origen In
Johannem Commentarius 1.32 [PG 14.77]), where "all moves in most ra­
diant light" (Jos. 146). Cf. Evangelium Veritatis 32,26: "that you may
speak of the Day that is above, which has no night, and of the Light which
is not wont to set [cf. Wisd 7:10], for it is perfect." For a Hindu parallel,
cf. The Principal Upani§ads, trans. S. Rhadakhrishnan (London, 1953)
386: "Verily for him who knows this, this mystic doctrine of Brahma, the
sun neither rises nor sets. For him it is day forever." See J. Whittaker,
God Time Being (Oslo, 1971). Cf. I Enoch 65:9: "And they will live
eternally, and then too there will be amongst them neither labor, nor
sickness . . . nor night, nor darkness, but great light"; Sib Or 3:787. The
notion goes back to Isa 60:19-21.
8:1. Most commentators join this verse to chap. 7.
stretches . . . from pole to pole. According to the Stoic doctrine of
tonike kinesis, which is reproduced by Philo, there is a continuous out­
ward-inward pneumatic motion, either from the center of the cosmos to its
190
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xm
extreme boundaries, or from the center of any given entity to its surface
(Conf. 136; Plant. 9; Mig. 181; Deus 35-36; Mut. 28; Det. 90). SVF
2. 451-452, 551. The exact nature of this motion is by no means clear.
David E. Hahm believes that "the image of compressed air gives, on the
whole, the most satisfactory explanation of the pneumatic motion and its
effects. Such pressure has a local motion and the fact that it acts simulta­
neously in opposite directions could have given rise to the notion that it
comprises a simultaneous motion toward the center and toward the pe­
riphery" (The Origins of Stoic Cosmology [Columbus, Ohio, 1977] 167.
The Stoic concept of tones is first met with in the fragments of Cleanthes,
who said that it was a "stroke of fire" [plege pyros]: SVF 1. 563. For the
origin of the concept of tonos, see Hahm: 155) Philo consistently uses the
verb teind in this connection to indicate the tensional character of pneu­
matic motion. The pneuma must be everywhere continuously since nothing
can hold together without it. Cf. Plato Tim. 34B: "and in the midst
thereof [of the Cosmos] He set Soul, which He stretched (eteine)
throughout the whole of it." For the phrase apo peratos epi peras, cf.
Philo Mos. 1.112: apo peratdn epi perata; Mut. 22; Plant. 9; Mig. 181;
Conf. 136. That Wisdom penetrates the cosmos is already expressed in Sir
24:5-6; cf. John 1:10.
orders, dioikei is also found in 12:18, . 5 : 1 , and is a Platonic and Stoic
term. Cf. Plato Phaedrus 246C; Laws 896D; 905E; D.L. 7.133; SVF
1.87, 98; 2. 528, 416, 912-913, 1063 (Posidonius says that Zeus is socalled, as being the All-Regulator [ton panta dioikounta], but Crates says
he is the all-pervading one [ton eis panta diekonta]); Diodorus 1.11.5
(Osiris and Isis regulate [dioikein] the entire universe); Philo Op. 3;
Conf. 170; Mos. 2.133.
XIV. SOLOMON SOUGHT T O MAKE WISDOM HIS BRIDE
(8:2-16)
8
2
Her I loved and sought out from my youth,
and longed to make her my bride,
and I became a lover of her beauty.
3 She magnifies her noble birth by enjoying intimacy with God,
and the Master of All loved her.
4 For she is initiate in the knowledge of God,
and chooser of his works.
5 If riches be a possession to be desired in life,
what is richer than Wisdom, maker of all things?
6 If understanding is productive,
who more than she is the artificer of all that is?
And if one prizes justice,
the fruits of Wisdom's labor are virtues;
self-control and understanding are her teaching,
justice and courage,
and in the life of man nothing is more useful than these.
8 But if one also longs for wide experience,
she knows the past and infers the future;
she understands the intricacies of argument and the
resolutions of riddles,
she foreknows signs and wonders
and the outcome of critical seasons and times.
9 I determined, then, to take her to live with me,
knowing that she would be my counselor in prosperity,
and my comfort in anxiety and grief.
10 Through her I shall have repute among the masses
and honor among the elders, young though I am.
11 In judgment I shall be found acute,
and in the presence of rulers I will win admiration.
12 When I am silent they shall wait for me,
7
192
THE WISDOM
13
14
15
16
OF S O L O M O N
§ XIV
when I speak they will attend,
and when I hold forth at length
they will lay a hand upon their mouth.
Through her I shall have immortality,
and shall leave an enduring memorial to those who come
after me.
I shall govern peoples, and nations will be subject to me.
Dread despots will take fright when they hear of me,
in popular assembly I shall show myself noble, and in war
courageous.
When I come home I shall find rest in her;
for intercourse with her has no bitterness,
nor living with her pain,
but only cheer and joy.
NOTES
8:2. loved. Cf. Prov 7:4; Sir 15:2: "and as a youthful wife will she re­
ceive him"; Kohel.R. 9.9; Mid.Mishle on Prov 5:18. The Dead Sea
Psalms Scroll has provided us with a portion of the original poem at the
end of Sir (51:13$) in which form it constitutes a series of artful double
entendres each of which possesses an erotic as well as a moralistic sense.
Its erotic overtones are reminiscent of the imagery employed by our au­
thor:
I was a young man before I had erred
when I looked for her.
She came to me in her beauty
when finally I sought her out.
And she became for me a nurse;
to my teacher
I give my
I purposed to make
ardor.
sport:
I was zealous for pleasure,
without pause.
I
kindled
without
my desire for her
distraction
I bes'i-^ed my desire for her,
and on her heights I do not
waver.
8:2-16
SOLOMON
SOUGHT
WISDOM
AS B R I D E
193
I spread my hand(s) . . .
and perceive her unseen parts.
(Translation, verbatim, by J. A.
Sanders, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll
[Ithaca, 1967] 115.)
In the famous 'Choice of Heracles,' the Sophist Prodicus of Ceos personi­
fies virtue as a fair maiden of high bearing who invites him to choose her
(Xenophon Mem. 2.1.21-33; cf. Philo Sacr. 21$). See Heinisch
1908:32-35.
to make her my bride. The sexual imagery here is paralleled in a famed
allegory of Philo's that goes back to a Greek source. In On Mating with
the Preliminary Studies, Philo develops an allegory in which Abraham, the
soul, is married to Sarah, who stands for Wisdom. The union, however, is
unproductive, because the soul is not at first ripe for it, and Sarah is bar­
ren. She therefore sends the soul to mate with Hagar the Egyptian, who
stands for the preliminary training of the Encyclical or School studies. In
time, however, Sarah can bear a child to Abraham, and then Hagar and
Ishmael must be cast out. The allegory goes back to Bion of Borysthenes
(ca. 325-255 BCE), who is quoted by Plutarch (Moralia 7D) as saying
that those who, unable to win philosophy, wear themselves out
in preliminary learning are like the suitors of Penelope, who
when they could not win the mistress contented themselves with the maids.
(The same allegory is also ascribed to Ariston of Chios [SVF 1. 350] and
to others; cf. A. Henrichs, "Philosophy, the Handmaiden of Theology,"
GRBS 9 [1968] 437-450.) At Congr. 74, Philo speaks autobiographically
in terms very reminiscent of our author: "When first I was incited by the
goads of philosophy to desire her I consorted (homilesa) in early youth
with one of her handmaids, Grammar, and all that I begat by her, writing,
reading, and study of the writings of the poets, I dedicated to her mistress.
And again I kept company with another, namely Geometry, and was
charmed with her beauty. . . . Again my ardor moved me to keep com­
pany (synelthein) with a third." Cf. QG 3.21; Ebr. 49 (where philosophy
is called the elder sister); Cher. 49; Cont. 12; Abr. 100 ("in the marriage
made by wisdom, the partnership is between thoughts which seek purifica­
tion and perfect virtues"); Post. 79 (those held worthy of wisdom that
needs no other teaching, accept from God's hands Reason as their plighted
spouse); Plato Symp. 206CE; Theaetetus 151AB; Rep. 490AB; cf. G.
Scholem, Elements of the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism (Jerusalem,
1976):261 (Hebrew); Isis Aretalogy, P. Oxy. xi 1380, 30.
lover. For erastes, cf. Plato Meno 70B: erastas epi sophia; Phaedo 66E;
Phaedrus 228C; Rep. 490B.
3. noble birth. Cf. Prov 8:22; Philo Fug. 50: "and it is wisdom's name
194
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIV
that holy oracles proclaim by 'Bethuel,' a name meaning in our speech
'Daughter of God.'"
intimacy. Cf. Prov 8:30. For symbidsin, cf. Philo Cont. 68: eager to
have wisdom for their life mate (symbioun spoudasasai); Congr. 5; cf.
Ebr. 30: "With His knowledge God had union, not as men have it, and
begat created being." The multiplication of symbolic images which we find
here (Wisdom as Bride of Solomon, Daughter of God, Bride of God) is
also characteristic of Philo. Aelius Aristides, in his second oration
addressed to Athena (his name for personified Sophia), speaks of her as
begotten of God the Father in the beginning, "the Only One of the Only
One," and as "always cleaving to his side and sharing his life" (Bevan
1927:157).
4. Our author is saying in effect that Wisdom is essentially synonymous
with the Divine Mind, and thus represents the creative agent of the Deity.
The similarity of this conception with Philo's Logos doctrine is unmis­
takable.
initiate. Cf. P. Oxy. xi 1380, 111, where mystis is given as an epithet of
Isis; AP 9.229. The word occurs only once in Philo (Sacr. 60).
5. The four successive clauses beginning with ei are another example of
the author's striving for rhetorical effect.
6. artificer. See NOTE on 7:21. Cf. Cicero Fin. 1.42: "Wisdom is de­
sired [according to the Epicureans] because it is the artificer (artifex) that
procures and produces pleasure."
7. self-control and understanding . . . justice and courage. The division
of virtue into four classes goes back to Plato (Phaedo 69C; Rep. 427E#;
Laws 631C; cf. Aeschylus Seven Against Thebes 610; Xen. Mem. 3.9.1-5;
4.6.1-12; Isocrates De Pace 63; Demosthenes 18.215). Two of the car­
dinal virtues are dealt with by .Aristotle in EN 3, and the other two in EN
5 and 6, but he has no fourfold scheme as such. The Epicureans similarly
rejected the cardinal division, though they were at pains to show how all
four virtues minister to pleasure (Cicero Fin. 1.42-54). The Stoics, how­
ever, accepted it together with the Platonic notion that they implied one
another (antakolouthia) and Zeno expressed three of the cardinal virtues
in terms of the fourth, wisdom (SVF 3.255; 256-61). Philo, too, repeats
the fourfold division (LA 1.71-72), though he sometimes substitutes
eusebeia for phronesis (Spec. 4.147; Decal. 119). Like our author, he
derives them from the Wisdom or Logos of God (LA 1.63-65). (The ac­
tual phrase "the cardinal virtues" seems to derive from St. Ambrose In
Lucam 5.) Cf. also IV Mace 1:18; 5:23.
8. intricacies of argument. For strophas logon cf. Prov 1:3, LXX; Sir
39:2-3.
signs and wonders. Cf. Deut 29:3, LXX; Dan 6:27.
critical seasons and times. Cf. Dan 2:21, LXX.
8:2-16
S O L O M O N S O U G H T W I S D O M AS B R I D E
195
9. to live with me. For symbiosin, cf. Philo QG 3:29: "For there are
some who flee from virtue not because of hate, but because of reverential
awe, for they believe themselves to be unworthy to live with (symbioun)
their mistress."
comfort. The context requires that parainesis mean 'comfort,' but this
meaning is unattested elsewhere. It has been suggested that perhaps the
original reading was parainetis (cf. hairetis, genetis, technitis: see NOTE on
7:12), parallel to symboulos in the first half of the verse (Bauermeister
and Fichtner).
10. repute. Similarly, in the Isis Aretalogy from Kyme, 40, no one is
glorified without knowledge of Isis (outhes doksazetai aneu tes ernes
gnomes).
12. when I speak they will attend. Cf. Sir 15:5.
will lay a hand upon their mouth. Cf. Job 21:5; 29:7-11; 40:4; Sir
5:12; Prov 30:32. Cf. Aelius Aristides in his second oration: "And grant
me to be consummate in thought and speech. May whoever speaks in op­
position to me have reason to be sorry!" (Bevan 1927:161).
13. immortality. Cf. Philo Fug. 97: "The man who is capable of running
swiftly it bids stay not to draw breath but pass forward to the supreme Di­
vine Logos, who is the fountain of Wisdom, in order that he may draw
from the stream, and released from death, gain life eternal as his prize."
According to the Isis Aretalogy, P. Oxy. xi 1380, Isis was especially the
goddess of immortality (13), which she conferred upon her husband and
brother Osiris (242-243), and her son Horus (246-247).
an enduring memorial. Cf. Ps 112:6, LXX.
16. / shall find rest in her. The same idea is found in Sir 6:28: "In the
end you will find the rest (anapausin) she offers." Similarly, according to
Aristobulus, if we unremittingly follow Wisdom, we shall remain undis­
turbed (atarachoi) all through life (FPG: 224, line 15). The ideal of
inner calm is a central Philonic theme (cf. 6:24 above and NOTE). Cf.
Abr. 27: "That rest [anapausis: translation of Hebrew name Noah] is ap­
propriate also, since its opposite, unnatural movement [ten para physin
kinesin: the Stoic definition of pathos, SVF 3.462, 476], proves to be the
cause of turmoil and confusion and factions and wars. Such movement is
sought by the worthless, while a life which is calm, serene, tranquil and
peaceful to boot is the object of those who have valued nobility of con­
duct"; LA 3.77; Post. 23: "Proximity to a stable object produces a desire
to be like it and a longing for quiescence. Now that which is unwaveringly
stable is God, and that which is subject to movement is creation. He there­
fore that draws nigh to God longs for stability"; Plotinus 6.9.11; 6.9.8;
4.8.1; 4.8.5; Plato Rep. 532E; 490B: "but [the true lover of knowledge]
holds on his way with a passion that will not faint or fail until he has laid
hold upon the essential nature of each thing with that part of his soul
196
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIV
which can apprehend reality because of its affinity therewith; and when he
has by that means approached real being and entered into union with it,
the offspring of this marriage is intelligence and truth; so that at last, hav­
ing found knowledge and true life and nourishment, he is at rest from his
travail" (trans, by F. M. Cornford, New York, 1945). The Gnostics used
the term anapausis to designate the initial condition of the pleroma, and
also as an attribute of the Propator (in the Acts of Thomas it is also ap­
plied to Christ). It is seen as the fruit and goal of gnosis, and is only fully
attained after death. For full discussion with many examples, see P. Vielhauer, Aufsatze zum Neuen Testament (Miinchen, 1965) 215-234; O.
Hofius, Katapausis (Tubingen, 1970) 75-90.
bitterness. For pikria, cf. SVF 3.394 (pikriai as species of orge);
3.395.
intercourse. For synanastrophe, cf. Ill Mace 2:31,33; 3:5; Ps-Aristeas
169; Epicurus Sententiae Vaticanae 18; Philodemus On the Gods 3, Frag.
87,13; Jos. Ant. 18.6.9.
cheer and joy. For the Stoics, chara was one of the three eupatheiai or
rational emotions, and euphrosyne was one of the forms of chara and was
defined as "the joy which follows the actions of one who is self-controlled"
(SVF 3.431-432). Cf. Philo Her. 315: "It ends in the attainment of the
wisdom of God, that truly great river, brimming over with joy and
gladness (chords kai euphrosynes) and all other blessings"; Abr.
201-207; I Mace 5:54; Sir 6:28. In the Isis Aretalogy, P. Oxy. xi 1380,
19 and 31, euphrosyne is a title of Isis.
XV. WISDOM A SHEER G I F T O F GOD'S G R A C E
(8:17-21)
8
1 7
After thinking this over in my mind,
and pondering in my heart
that there is immortality in kinship with Wisdom,
18 and in her friendship sheer delight,
and in the labors of her hands unfailing wealth,
and in training in her society understanding,
and great renown in the sharing of her words,
I went about in search of how I might make her my own.
19 I was, indeed, a child well-endowed,
having had a noble soul fall to my lot;
or rather being noble I entered an undefiled body.
21 But knowing that I could not otherwise gain possession of
her, except God give her—
and to know the source of this grace was a mark of
understanding—
I petitioned the Lord and supplicated him,
and with all my heart I said:
2 0
NOTES
8:17. kinship. The theme of man's kinship (syngeneia) with God occurs
in Plato and is a characteristic teaching of the Stoa. Plato writes in Tim.
90A: "We declare that God has given to each of us, as his daemon, that
kind of soul which is housed in the top of our body and which raises us—
seeing that we are not an earthly but a heavenly plant—up from earth to­
wards our kindred (ksynegeneian) in the heaven." Cf. Tim. 90C; Posidonius F 187, 6, Kidd: "[The cause of pathe is] not following the daimon
within us which is akin (syngenei) and of like nature with the one that or-
198
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XV
ders the whole universe"; Sext. Math. 7.93. Philo takes up the theme with
equal vigor: "But it is the lot of man, as we see, to occupy the place of
highest excellence among living creatures because his stock is near akin to
God, sprung from the same source in virtue of his participation in reason
which gives him immortality, mortal though he seems to be" (Spec. 4.14);
Op. 145-146: "Now what is this kinship (syngeneia)7 Every man, in re­
spect of his mind, is allied to the Divine Reason, having come into being
as a copy or fragment or ray of that blessed nature"; QG 2.60; Decal. 41
(cf. Wisd 2:23). Diogenes of Apollonia had already taught that "the air
within us has perception because it is a small part (morion) of the God"
(DK, A.19). Cf. Plotinus 6.9.8.29; cf. E. des Places, Syngeneia (Paris,
1964).
18. training, syngymnasia is a rare word. The passive form of the verb
syngymnazo (syngegymnasmenos) was frequently used by the Stoics in
their definitions of techne (SVF 1.73; 2.93ff; Philo Congr. 141; cf. Dox.
387; SVF 3.214; 1.129; D X . 7.169). For the Agon motif in Wisdom, see
NOTES on 4:1 and 10:12. The Cynics argued for the priority of askesis
psychike over askesis somatike, claiming that they were the true athletes in
their struggles for virtue (D.L. 6.70; Dio Chrysostom Orationes 28.535;
Lucian Anacharsis 2 1 ; Demetrius De Elocutione 260). Cf. Antisthenes,
Frag. 64, Caizzi (text preserved on an ostracon in Cologne and edited by
A. Henrichs in ZPE 1 [1967] 45-53).
19. This verse is as clear a statement of the concept of preexistent souls
as one could wish, and there is no need to explain it away as many com­
mentators have done. (For a good summary of their views, see Larcher
1969:270-279). Cf. II Enoch 2 3 : 4 - 5 : "for all souls are prepared to eter­
nity, before the formation of the world"; II Bar 23:5. On the other hand,
the more elaborate Greek doctrine of metempsychosis does not appear to
be a part of our author's thinking (nor was it a part of rabbinic thinking).
For Philo's doctrine of preexistence, cf. Somn. 1.135#; Plant. 12; Gig. 6;
Her. 240. For the Essene belief in the preexistence of the soul, see Jos.
J.W. 2.8.11 (Josephus' account, however, is suspected of adaptation to
Greek ideas), and for a similar rabbinic view, which appears, however,
only in the Amoraic period, cf. BT Hag. 12b; A.Z. 5a; Yeb. 62a; Nid.
13b; BR 8.7, Th-Alb:61; Tanh. Nisavim 3; Pekude 3. See Freudenthal
1975-79: 1. 72; Lieberman 1974:241, n.41; Urbach 1969:209 (but his
arguments with regard to Wisd are unconvincing). For a full discussion,
see Introduction, VII. 1.
well-endowed. For eyphyeis, cf. Plato Rep. 409E: eyphyeis ta somata
kai tas psychos. The noun eyphyia, however, is an Aristotelian term (EN
1114M2). Both forms are very frequent in Philo: "God drops from above
the ethereal wisdom upon minds which are by nature apt (eyphyesi)"
(Fug. 138); LA 3.96; Sacr. 7; Congr. 71, 122; Mut. 212; Gig. 2; Cher.
8:17-21
WISDOM
GIFT OF GOD'S
GRACE
199
101 (eyphyia brings quickness of apprehension, perseverance, and mem­
ory. Without eyphyia and didaskalia as foundations, the mind cannot be
brought to its fullness): Her. 2 1 2 (eyphyia and aphyia contrasted).
Moses, too, according to Philo, had a euphyes psyche, and from birth "an
appearance of more than ordinary goodliness" (Mos. 1 . 9 , 1 5 , 1 8 ) . In
apocryphal and Gnostic literature, the heavenly redeemer (Christ; the im­
mortal parts of one's soul; invariably some sort of preexistent divine
hypostasis) is often described as a handsome boy: ( 1 ) In the Mani
Codex, the celestial Twin is called "that most beautiful and great mirror"
( 1 7 . 1 3 ; cf. NOTE on 7 : 2 6 ) ; ( 2 ) Acta Pauli, ed. C. Schmidt, p. 3 : eueides
pais; ( 3 ) Acta Andreae et Matthiae 1 8 , p. 8 7 . 1 1 , Bonnet: paidion horaiotaton eueides; ( 4 ) The epiphany of Christ as puerulus speciosus (Evodius
De Fide 3 8 ) . See E. Peterson, Fruhkirchen, Judentum und Gnosis ( 1 9 5 9 )
191$.
2 0 . or rather. The expression mallon de is often used, as here, to correct
and state with greater precision what was first stated more loosely. Cf.
Philo Jos. 1 1 9 : "or rather (mallon d'), if the truth be said . . ."; Legat.
2 2 ; Gal 4 : 9 .
being noble I entered an undefiled body. For soma amianton, cf. Philo
Spec. 1 . 2 5 0 : "He [one who has taken the Nazirite Vow] must keep his
body pure and undefiled (amianton)"; Hennas Similitudes 5 . 7 . 1 . amiantos
is a title of Isis, P. Oxy. xi 1 3 8 0 , 1 0 9 . Gregg ( 1 9 0 9 ) correctly remarks:
"He finds himself unable to apply to the body a more generous epithet
than undefiled, owing to his tendency as an Alexandrian towards du­
alism." Cf. 9 : 1 5 . The notion of God's adapting the body to the soul is
found in TestNaphtali 2 : 2 : "For as the potter knoweth the vessel how
much it is to contain, and bringeth clay accordingly, so also doth the Lord
make the body after the likeness of the spirit (pros homoiosin tou
pneumatos), and according to the capacity of the body doth he implant the
spirit. And the one does not fall short of the other by a third part of a
hair; for by weight and measure and rule was all the creation made."
2 1 . gain possession of. "The omission of a genitive after engkrates is un­
usual, but is perfectly paralleled by Sir 6 : 2 7 " (Goodrick [ 1 9 1 3 ] ) .
engkrates was taken by Augustine (as also by Grimm) to mean 'continent'
or 'self-controlled,' but the context clearly precludes such an inter­
pretation. (For St. Augustine's mistranslation, cf. H. Wolfson 1 9 5 1 : 1 6 7 . )
X V I . W I T H O U T WISDOM N O HUMAN ENTERPRISE
CAN SUCCEED
(9:1-6)
9
1 God of my fathers and Lord of mercy,
who by your Word made all things,
2 and through your Wisdom framed man
to be master of the creatures who have their being through
you,
3 and to administer the world in holiness and righteousness
and pass judgment with an upright heart,
4 give me Wisdom, your throne-companion,
and do not reject me from among your children.
5 For I am your servant, the son of your maidservant,
a feeble and ephemeral man,
short of understanding justice and law;
6 for let a man be ever so perfect in the eyes of man,
he will be of no account in the absence of your Wisdom.
NOTES
9:1-18. The chapter consists of three strophes (9:1-6, 7-12, 13-18)
chiastically arranged. The author presents his own version of Solomon's
prayer. Cf. I Kings 3:6-9; H Chron 1:8-10. Verses 4, 10, and 17 contain
the central theme, the petition for Divine Wisdom, which is thus found
both at the center of the chapter and toward either end. A similar pattern
may be seen in chap. 1, where we find dikaiosynZ in w . 1 and 15, and
adika/dike in v. 8. There are parallelisms between the first strophe
(9:1-6) and the second strophe (9:7-12) which are chiastically arranged.
(The creative work of God and Wisdom—man's vocation : : the king's
vocation—creative work of God and Wisdom. The parallelisms are also
verbal: poiesas-epoies—euthytes-euthes.) Moreover, the last verse of the
second strophe (9:12) speaks of the future realization of the king's voca-
9:1-6
WITHOUT
WISDOM
NO M A N
SUCCEEDS
201
tion, whereas the last verse of the third strophe (9:18) speaks of the past
realization of man's vocation. Both verses contain three stichs beginning
with kai. There are also major and minor 'inclusions.' The major one is:
te sophia . . . anthropon (9:2) and anthrdpoi. . . te sophia (9:18). The
minor ones are: sophia . . . anthropon (9:2) and anthropon sophias
(9:6); laou (9:7) and laon (9:12); anthropos (9:13) and anthrdpoi
(9:18). For a detailed structural analysis which demonstrates the great
skill with which the author has composed Solomon's prayer, see Gilbert
1970:301-331.
9:1. God of my fathers. Cf. I Chron 28:9, 29:18.
by your Word. Cf. Ps 33:6; Sib Or 3:20: "Who by his word (logo)
created all"; Jub 12:4; II Bar 21:4; 14:17; II Enoch 25:3: "all creation
which I had thought to create"; 30:8: "On the sixth day I commanded my
Wisdom to create man"; Test. Abraham A 9:6: "all the creations which
you established through one word" (cf. M. Aboth 5.1); IV Ezra 6:38;
Hebll:3.
2. through your Wisdom. God's creative wisdom is an emphatic theme
in the Qumran scrolls. Cf. 1QH 1.14: "Thou hast fashioned [all] their
[inhabi]tants according to thy wisdom"; 1.20: "In the wisdom of thy
knowledge thou didst establish their destiny before ever they were";
II Enoch (A)30:8: "On the sixth day I commanded my wisdom to
create man from seven consistencies"; On the Origin of the World
(CGII), 113:12-114:15.
framed. For kataskeuasas, cf. IV Mace 2:21.
to be master. Cf. 10:2; Gen 1:26,28; Sir 17:2-4; Ps 8:6-8; 1QS 3.18:
"He has created man to govern the world"; II Bar 14:18: "And thou didst
say that thou wouldst make for thy world man as the administrator of thy
works, that it might be known that he was by no means made on account
of the world, but the world on account of him"; Sib Or Frag. 3:13: "He
has constituted man as the divinely appointed ruler of all"; II Enoch (A)
58:3: "And the Lord appointed him ruler over all, and subjected to him
all things under his hands, and made them dumb and made them dull (lit.
deaf) that they be commanded of man, and be in subjection and obedi­
ence to him"; A30:12: "and I appointed him as ruler to rule on earth and
to have my wisdom, and there was none like him of earth of all my exist­
ing creatures"; IV Ezra 8:44: "But the son of man who has been
fashioned with thine own hands, and is made like thine own image, for
whose sake thou hast fashioned all things"; IV Ezra 6:54; Philo QG 1.94;
Mos. 2.65; Op. 88, 84 (where heavenly beings are exempted from man's
dominion as "having obtained a portion more divine"). See David Jobling,
" 'And Have Dominion . . .'," JSJ 8:1 (1977) 50-82.
3. administer, diepo is "to manage or conduct, especially as deputy or
202
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XVI
substitute": P. Tebt. 5 2 2 and P. Lond. 3 . 9 0 8 . 1 9 (both papyri second cen­
tury CE). Cf. Philo Mos. 2 . 1 8 7 ; Flac. 1 0 5 .
pass judgment. For krisin krine, cf. Demosthenes 2 1 . 6 4 : hot ekrineto
• • . krisin thanatou.
4 . throne-companion. Cf. I Enoch 8 4 : 3 ; On the Origin of the World
(CGII), 1 0 6 : 1 1 - 1 8 ; Pindar Olympia 8 . 2 2 , where Themis is designated as
the paredros of Zeus; Euripides Medea 8 4 3 ; Sophocles Oedipus Coloneus 1 3 8 2 ; 1 2 6 7 ; Aelius Aristides Orationes 2: "Since Zeus could not
have distributed all the things of the world, had he not caused Athena to
sit beside him, his assessor and counsellor" (Bevan 1 9 2 7 : 1 5 8 ) ; Orphic
Hymns 6 2 . Although in reality only an aspect of the Logos, there are pas­
sages in Philo (an author who loves to multiply images) where justice as
assessor (paredros), surveyor, and ruler of all things, seems to acquire an
independent existence (Mut. 1 9 4 ; Jos. 4 8 ; Mos. 2 . 5 3 ; Decal. 177; Spec.
4 . 2 0 1 . Cf. also the Isis Aretalogy from Kyme, 4 3 : "I attend [paredreud]
the Sun in his course"; Andros, 1 3 9 ; Prov 8 : 3 0 ) . (Kyme, the port.
Andros, the island in the Aegean.) thronon is the plural of majesty. (See
also NOTE on 1 : 8 . )
5 . servant. Borrowed from Ps 1 1 6 : 1 6 ; 8 6 : 1 6 .
a feeble and ephemeral man. Cf. I Chron 2 9 : 1 5 . Philo similarly writes:
"Yet this our piece of moulded clay, tempered with blood for water, has
imperative need of God's help . . . since our race cannot of itself stand
firmly established for a single day" (Her. 5 8 ) .
6. in the absence of your Wisdom. Philo never tires of insisting that
without God's bounteous help, man could accomplish nothing, and that he
who ascribes anything to his own powers is a godless villain. Cf. Post.
1 3 6 : "For whence is it likely that a mind thirsty for sound sense should be
filled save from the wisdom of God. . . . For the teaching of virtue awaits
those who come down from empty self-conceit."
XVII. WITHOUT WISDOM SOLOMON COULD NOT REIGN
(9:7-12)
9
7
You chose me above all as king of your people
and judge of your sons and daughters;
8 you commanded me to build a temple on your holy
mountain,
and an altar in the city of your abode,
a copy of the sacred tabernacle which you prepared from the
very first.
9 And with you is Wisdom who knows your works
and was present when you created the world,
and knows what is pleasing in your eyes
and what is right according to your ordinances.
10 Send her forth from the holy heavens
and dispatch her from your majestic throne,
so that she may labor at my side
and I may learn your pleasure.
11 For she knows and understands all things,
and will guide me prudently in my actions,
and guard me in her magnificence.
12 So shall my works be acceptable,
and I shall judge your people justly,
and be worthy of my father's throne.
NOTES
9:7. your sons and daughters. Cf. Isa 43:6.
8. your holy mountain. I.e. Mount Moriah, which according to rabbinic
tradition (accepted by the Church) is identical with the place where
Abraham was commanded to sacrifice Isaac (II Chron 3:1; I Chron
21:15; BR 55.7; PT Ber. 4.5; BT Ber. 62b. Cf. Jos. Ant. 1.3.2).
a copy of the sacred tabernacle, mimgma is a vox Platonica and is
meant to emphasize by contrast the greater reality of the archetype. See,
for example, Politicus 300E; Tim. 48E; 50C; Laws 668B: cf. Heb 8:2:
204
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xvn
"The true tent which is set up not by man but by the Lord." According to
the rabbis there was both a heavenly and an earthly Holy of Holies (PT
Ber. 4.5; BT Hag. 12b; cf. BR 1.4; 69.7, Th-Alb:6, 796-797; Num.R.
12.12 [cf. I Chron 28:12]; Mek. Shirta on Exod 15:17: "'The Exact Lo­
cation of Thy Abode,' (that is,) directly facing Thine abode. This is one
of the scriptural statements to the effect that the terrestrial Throne [ap­
parently, the ark] faces over against the celestial Throne [by reading the
consonants mkwn (vocalized makori) as mekuwwan]." See Goldin
1971:234-235; cf. also Prov 8:27, LXX; II Enoch 25:4; Sifre Deut. 37,
Finkelstein: 70 [the sanctuary is one of several things created before the
world came into existence]; Mid.Teh. 30.1). In Tanfi. Buber, Naso 19, we
are told that God indicated to Moses that it was not for want of a dwelling
place that he commanded the building of a temple, since even before the
creation of the world there already existed a supernal temple, as it is writ­
ten: "Thou throne of glory, on high from the beginning, place of our sanc­
tuary (Jer 17:12)." "But on account of my love for you," God continues,
"I shall abandon the heavenly temple and shall descend to dwell among
you." See also BT Menahot 29a, where R. Jose says that an ark, table,
and candelabrum of fire came down from heaven to serve as a model for
Moses, and Sanh. 94b, where Sennacherib is said to have threatened first
to destroy God's earthly abode, then his heavenly one. (Cf. Pesafum 54a;
Nedarim 39b; Pesik.R. 98ab.) See A. Aptowitzer, "The Heavenly Temple
According to the Aggada" (Hebrew), Tarbiz 2 (1931) 137-153,
257-287; I. Seeligman, "Jerusalem in Jewish-Hellenistic Thought" (He­
brew), in Yehuda we-Yerushalayim (Jerusalem, 1957) 198-208. The
same notion is found in the Dead Sea scrolls (J. Strugnell, "The Angelic
Liturgy at Qumran," VT Suppl. 7 (1960) 318-345), and is also wide­
spread in the pseudepigrapha: I Enoch 14:16-20; 26; 90:28-29; Test.
Levi 3:4-6; 5:1-2; n Bar 4:2-6; cf. also Heb 8:5. Philo naturally
interpreted the tradition in the light of his own Platonic theory of
'Forms': "He [Moses] saw with the soul's eye the immaterial forms
of the material objects about to be made . . . so the shape of the
model was stamped upon the mind of the prophet, a secretly painted
or moulded prototype, produced by immaterial and invisible forms"
(Mos. 2.14-16; cf. QE 2.90). Elsewhere he tells us that the tabernacle
is a copy of wisdom or divine virtue: "When God willed to send down
the image of divine excellence from heaven to earth in pity for our
race, that it should not lose its share in the better lot, he constructs
as a symbol of the truth the holy tabernacle and its contents to be a
representation and copy (apeikonisma kai mimema: a frequent collocution
in Philo) of wisdom" (Her. 112; cf. Det. 160-161; Congr. 116. There
may already be a reference to the heavenly temple in Sir 24:8-10: [Wis­
dom says] "The Creator caused my tabernacle to rest. . . . He created me
9:7-12
WITHOUT
WISDOM
SOLOMON
. • •
205
from the beginning before the world . . . in the holy tabernacle I served
before him and so I was established in Zion"). On the other hand, Philo
also made a distinction between the temple made by hands, and the
highest temple, namely, the whole universe, having the heaven for its sanc­
tuary, and the angels or pure intelligences for its priests (Spec. 1.66-67;
cf. Ps-Plato Epinomis 983E-984B, the earliest instance in Greek litera­
ture of the notion of the cosmos as a temple, Heb 8:2; 9:11). (See also
NOTE on 18:24 below.) Finally, it ougjit to be noted that the notion of
heavenly archetypes of earthly things was well known in ancient Baby­
lonia. The earliest document concerned with the divine plan for a temple
is the inscription of Gudea, ensi ('governor') of the Sumerian city of
Lagash. (See CAH 1, part 2, p. 103.) In Gudea's dream there appeared a
hero who "held a slab of lapis lazuli in his hands, and set down thereon
the ground-plan of the House (to be built)." When Sennacherib was
founding Nineveh as the center of his kingdom, he spoke of it as "planned
from far away time in the writing of heaven." (See E. Burrows, "Some
Cosmological Patterns in Babylonian Religion," in The Labyrinth, ed.
S. H. Hooke [London, 1935] 45-70; M. Eliade, Cosmos and History
(New York, 1959) 6ff; H. W. F. Saggs, The Greatness that was Babylon
[London, 1962] 364ff; R. J. McKelvey, The New Temple [Oxford, 1969]
25-41.) A companion concept to the notion of the heavenly temple was
that of the heavenly Jerusalem. See McKelvey, and E. A. Urbach, "Lower
Jerusalem and Upper Jerusalem," in Jerusalem Throughout Its Genera­
tions (Jerusalem, 1969) (Hebrew).
9. present when you created the world. Aristobulus writes: "One of our
forefathers, Solomon, said more clearly and aptly that wisdom existed be­
fore heaven and earth" (FPG: 224, line 19). Similarly, Philo writes:
"Thus in the pages of one of the inspired company, wisdom is represented
as speaking of herself after this manner: 'God obtained me first of all his
works and founded me before the ages* (Prov 8:22)" (Ebr. 31; cf. Virt.
62).
in your eyes. A Hebraism corresponding to endpion sou in Isa 38:3;
Deut 12:8; 12:28, LXX.
right, euthes only in later LXX translators for euthy.
10. Send her forth. Cf. Pss 42:3; 144:7, LXX. A similar note is struck
in Cleanthes' famous Hymn to Zeus: "O Zeus, all-bountiful, whose daz­
zling lightning / Splits Thy black clouds, rescue mankind from wretched /
Ignorance, scatter darkness from their minds, / Give them that wisdom by
which Thou dost steer / All things in justice" (translation of F. H. Sandbach, The Stoics, [Cambridge, 1975]: 111).
majestic throne. Cf. Jer 17:12, LXX.
11. magnificence. Cf. Isa 58:8; Sir 6:31. Goodrick translates: "with her
good repute."
X V I H . D I V I N E WISDOM BROUGHT M E N SALVATION
(9:13-18)
9
1 3
14
15
16
17
is
For what man can comprehend the plan of God,
or who can grasp what the Lord wills?
The reasonings of mortals are wretched,
and our devices precarious;
for a perishable body weighs down the soul,
and this tent of clay encumbers a mind full of cares.
We barely make inferences concerning what is on earth,
and laboriously discover what is at hand;
who, then, has tracked out what is in the heavens?
Who was privy to your design, unless you gave him Wisdom,
and sent your holy spirit from on high?
Thus it was that the paths of earthlings were set aright,
and men were taught what pleases you,
and were saved by Wisdom.
NOTES
9:13. what man can comprehend. The same idea is found in Isa
40:13-14; 55:8. Cf. Prov 30:2-4; Sir 1:1-10; 18:1-7; 24:28-29; I Bar
3:29-37; Sib Or Frag. 3:15; I Enoch 93:11-14 [a sapiential poem,
constructed in the form of rhetorical questions, concerning the transcend­
ence of God]: "For who is there of all the children of men that is able to
hear the voice of the Holy One without being troubled? And who can
think his thoughts? And who is there that can behold all the works of
heaven? And how should there be one who could behold the heaven, and
who is there that could understand the things of heaven . . ."; II Bar
14:8-9; IV Ezra chap. 4. A similar note had already been sounded in the
Babylonian poem Ludlul Bel Nemeqi 36-38: "Who knows the will of the
gods in heaven? Who understands the plans of the underworld gods?
Where have mortals learnt the way of a god?" (Lambert 1960:41). Cf.
9:13-18
DIVINE
WISDOM
BROUGHT
SALVATION
207
Saggilkmam-ubbib The Babylonian Theodicy: XXIV 256-257: "The di­
vine mind, like the center of the heavens, is remote; knowledge of it is dif­
ficult; the masses do not know it" (Lambert:87; ANET Supp., p. 604).
For further discussion, see Introduction: Gilbert 1971:145-166; M. E.
Stone, "Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature," In Magnalia Dei, ed. F. M. Cross (New York, 1976) :414-452.
15. The adverse influence of body on soul is advanced with the greatest
fervor in Plato's Phaedo. At 66B, Plato says that "so long as we have the
body, and the soul is contaminated by such an evil, we shall never attain
completely what we desire, that is, the truth. For the body keeps us con­
stantly busy by reason of its need for sustenance." The image of the body
weighing down the soul recurs persistently in the writings of the Platonists
and Roman Stoics, and although the later Platonic dialogues, particularly
the Republic, modify this doctrine considerably, there are nevertheless
passages where the human body continues to be regarded as something
which hampers the soul's activity. In Rep. 611C the soul is described as
marred (lelobemenon) by association with the body, and at Tim. 43BC
we are given a picture of the soul in infancy assailed by physical motions
which pass into it through the body and violently upset its various circuits.
weighs down the soul. A widespread Platonic motif. Cf. Phaedo 81C:
"And such a soul is weighed down (barynetai) by this and is dragged
back into the sensible world." According to the Pythagorean Ecphantus,
man on earth is "an exiled creature weighed down by a large portion of
earth (polla ta ga barynomenon)" (Thesleff:79). This image is fairly
common in Philo: "But those which bear the burden of the flesh,
oppressed by the grievous load (barynomenai kai piezomenai), cannot
look up to the heavens as they revolve, but with necks bowed downwards
are constrained to stand rooted to the ground like four-footed beasts" (Gig.
31; cf. LA 3.152; Det. 16). Cf. CH, Asclepius 9.17 (mole corporis resederunt); Plotinus 6.9.8.16; Plutarch Is. et Os. 353A: "but they want
their bodies to be compact and light around their souls and not to oppress
(piezein) or weigh down (katathlibein) the divine part with a mortal ele­
ment which is strong and heavy"; Seneca Ep. 65.16: "For this body of
ours is a weight upon the soul and its penance (pondus ac poena est); as
the load presses down, the soul is crushed and is in bondage, unless philos­
ophy has come to its assistance;" Jos. J.W. 7.8.7: "But it is not until, freed
from the weight (barous) that drags it down to earth and clings about it,
the soul is restored to its proper sphere."
tent of clay. For skenos, cf. Democritus DK, B.187; Hippocrates
Peri Kardies (On the Heart) 7; Ps-Plato Axiochus 366A; Timaeus
Locrus 104d; Par.Jer. 6:6; II Cor 5:1,4; Job 4:19. It is very frequent
in the Neopythagorean writings (see Thesleff 1965:43,21; 49,9; 70,9;
80,2; 124,18; 143,19; 145,2; etc.).
208
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xvin
encumbers, britho is another vox Platonica. Cf. Phaedrus 247B: "the
horse of evil nature weighs down (brithei) their chariots, pulling heavily
toward the earth any charioteer who has not trained him well"; Phaedo
81C: "we must believe that the corporeal is burdensome (embrithes) and
heavy and earthly and visible"; Philo Spec. 4.114: "For the natural gravi­
tation of the body pulls down with it those of little mind (brithousa tous
oligophronas); Plant. 25; Her. 295. At Phaedo 66B, Socrates eloquently
describes the contaminating influence of body over mind: "So long as we
have the body and the soul is contaminated by such an evil, we shall never
attain completely what we desire, that is, the truth. For the body keeps us
constantly busy by reason of its need of sustenance. . . . And the body
fills us with passions and desires and fears. . . . Because of all these things
we have no leisure for philosophy. But the worst of all is that if we do get
a bit of leisure and turn to philosophy, the body is constantly breaking in
upon our studies and disturbing us with noise and confusion, so that it
prevents our beholding the truth, and in fact we perceive that, if we are
ever to know anything absolutely, we must be free from the body and must
behold the actual realities with the eye of the soul alone."
16. We have here a widespread conceit. Cf. IV Ezra 4 : 1 1 : "What be­
longs to thee . . . thou art incapable of understanding: how then should
thy vessel be able to comprehend the way of the Most High?" (cf. 4:21);
Test. Job 8:19-23: "If thou hast not understood even the exits of the
body, how canst thou understand the celestial circuits?"; Judith 8:14; PsCallisthenes Life of Alexander 1.14; Philo Somn. 1.23, 54: "And why,
treading as you do on earth, do you leap over the clouds? And why do
you say that you are able to lay hold of what is in the upper air, when
you are rooted to the ground?"; BT Sanh. 39a: "You know not what is
in your mouth, and yet wouldst thou know what is in heaven." Cf. also
John 3:12: "If you disbelieve me when I talk to you about things on
earth, how are you to believe if I should talk about the things of heaven?";
n Enoch 40:2-3. Gregg (1909) notes: "For ta en chersin, K reads posin,
'at his feet,' which causes a singular resemblance between this passage
and D.L. 1.8.34: 'If Thales cannot see the things at his feet, does he
expect to learn the things in the heavens?'" Cf. also D.L. 6.28: "And he
[Diogenes] would wonder . , . that the mathematicians should gaze at the
sun and the moon, but overlook matters close at hand (ta d'en posi)."
See also Isa 55:9; Job 38:31; Prov 30:4; Philo Conf. 3 (ton en chersi kai
para podas). For eksichniazo (—eksichneud), which occurs only in LXX
(and later in Patristic Greek), cf. Sir 1:3; 18:4,6; 24:28.
18. the paths of earthlings were set aright. Cf. Prov 4:26. This verse
marks the culmination of the author's emphatic teaching in this chapter
concerning man's complete dependence on God's gift of his spirit of Wis­
dom for the achievement of a righteous existence. The same idea is
9:13-18
DIVINE
WISDOM
BROUGHT
SALVATION
209
eloquently expressed in 1QH 4.31 in almost the same words: "Right­
eousness, I know, is not of man, nor is perfection of way of the son of
man: to the Most High God belong all righteous deeds. The way of man is
not established (Id' tikkori) except by the spirit which God created for
him to make perfect a way for the children of men." See D. Flusser, "The
Dualism of Flesh and Spirit in the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Hebrew), Tarbiz 27
(1958): 158-165. The word esothesan which occurs here for the first
time in this work, announces the theme for the rest of the book. It will
occur again in 10:4; 14:4,5; 16:7,11; 18:5.
An Ode to Wisdom's Saving Power in History
(XDC-XX)
XIX. FROM ADAM TO MOSES
(10:1-14)
10
1 It was Wisdom who closely guarded
thefirst-fashionedfather of the world, created alone;
she extricated him from his own blunder,
2 and gave him the power to master all things.
3 A wicked man, however, who shunned her in his anger,
perished through afitof fratricidal rage.
4 When the earth wasfloodedon his account, Wisdom once
again came to the rescue, piloting the righteous man
on a plain wooden hulk.
5 It was she who when the nations in their single-minded
wickedness were put to confusion,
recognized the righteous man and kept him blameless
before God,
and steeled him against pity for his child.
6 It was she who rescued a righteous man when the ungodly
were perishing,
and he escaped thefirethat descended on the Five Cities.
7 which were turned into a smoking waste
as a testimony of their wickedness;
with plants that bear fruit before they ripen,
and a pillar of salt standing there as a memorial of an
unbelieving soul.
8 For having passed Wisdom by,
they were not only distracted from a knowledge of the
good,
but also left behind for the world a monument of their folly,
so that they were unable to go undetected in their failure.
9 But Wisdom rescued her servants from troubles.
10 It was she who guided a righteous man, fugitive from his
brother's wrath, on the straight path;
10:1-14
FROM
ADAM
TO M O S E S
211
she showed him the kingdom of God
and gave him knowledge of holy things;
she prospered him in his toils
and multiplied the fruits of his labors.
11 When men in their greed tried to get the better of him, she
stood by him and made him rich.
12 She sedulously guarded him from his enemies,
and secured him from ambush;
she gave him victory in a hard contest,
that he might know that godliness is more potent than all
else.
13 It was she who would not abandon a righteous man sold
into slavery,
but rescued him from sin;
14 she descended into the dungeon with him,
and when he was in chains she did not leave him,
until she brought him imperial sovereignty
and authority over his masters;
she gave the lie to those who found fault with him
and she bestowed on him everlasting honor.
NOTES
10:1-21. Wisdom's saving and punishing power is here illustrated by
the enumeration of seven righteous heroes and their wicked counterparts,
although the contrast is not consistently carried out. We have Adam-Cain;
Noah-generation of the Flood; Abraham-the nations confounded in their
wickedness; Lot-Sodomites; Jacob-Esau; Joseph-his critics; Israel under
Moses-the Egyptian oppressors under Pharaoh. Of the seven, only Adam
is not called dikaios. "The idea of Wisdom's repeated efforts among men
through her envoys," writes M. J. Suggs, "is elaborated in Wisd 10-11
into a new interpretation of Heilsgeschichte, in which Israel's history is
seen as determined by Sophia's providential guidance of the people
through chosen vessels in each generation" (1970:21). "The old Heilsge­
schichte with its idea of miraculous divine eruption in history is rein­
terpreted. What is now described is the providential ordering of Israel's
history through Sophia's generation-by-generation election of holy ser­
vants" (pp. 40-41). Cf. Collins: "The events in question are not ascribed
212
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIX
to the direct intervention of God but to the constant activity of wisdom in
the world. Revelation does not take place by theophanies, but by the con­
stant mediation of wisdom" (1977:127). For a similar list of seven
paradigmatic righteous men, cf. Ps-Clementine Homilies 18.14 which
alludes to the "seven pillars of the world who were able to please the most
just God" (cf. BT Hag. 12b). In the preceding chapter (18.13) six of
them are enumerated: Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
In 17.4 the list is completed with the addition of Moses. (In Ps-Clemen­
tine Recognitions 3.61, some of these are included in an elaborate group­
ing of ten pairs of evil and good men.) The author of Wisd had already
singled out Enoch in 4:10, and so here substitutes Lot for the latter, and
instead of Isaac he prefers Joseph as affording an opportunity for a more
elaborate description. (For a different list of seven righteous men, cf. BT
Suk. 52b.) The author has constructed his Ode by the use of anaphora, in­
troducing Wisdom with the emphatic pronoun haute which marks off six
sections each of which contains the word dikaios once. The word sophia
occurs at the end of the first (v. 4 ) , third (twice: w . 8 and 9 ) , and sixth
(v. 21) sections. There are also two inclusions: diephylaksen/ephylaksen
( w . 1 and 5 ) , and errysato ( w . 6 and 9) (Reese 1965:392). In Heb 11
we have a long list of exemplary heroes of faith, with which we may com­
pare the much shorter list in IV Mace 16:20-21 (cf. also I Mace
2:49-64). An encomiastic review of Israel's heroes on a much broader
scale had already been provided in Ben Sira 44-50. See W. Staerk, "Die
sieben Saulen der Welt und des Hauses der Weisheit," ZNW 35 (1936)
232-261; R. Neudecker, "Die alttestamentliche Heilsgeschichte in lehrhaft-paranetischen Darstellung. Eine Studie zu Sap 10 und Hebr 11"
(Diss, masch., Innsbruck, 1971); Von Armin Schmitt, "Struktur, Herkunft und Bedeutung der Beispielreihe in Weish 10," BZ 21 (1977) 1-22
cites Greek models for this use of exempla or paradeigmata, e.g. Iliad
5.381-402; Isocrates Antidosis 231-235; Lycurgus Against Leocrates).
Cf. Philo Virt. 198-205; Praem. 67 ff (and Colson's note to 78). See
also H. Thyen, Der Stil der judisch-hellenistischen Homilie (Gottingen
1955): 111-116; T. R. Lee, "Studies in the Form of Sirach 44-50"
(Dissertation, Graduate Theological Union 1979). Lee has pointed out
that the repeated use of the pronominal suffix 1 in CD 2 : 1 7 - 3 : 1 2 is
similar to the recurrent use of pistei, by faith, in Heb 11 and the recurrent
haute in Wisd 10.
10:1. It was Wisdom. The emphatic pronoun haute is used for Wisdom
throughout the chapter. Cf. Acts 7:35-38, where each sentence begins
with the emphatic touton or houtos. Norden has pointed out that this is
one form of the encomium to the gods in Greek literature
(1913:163-165, 223-224). Similar repetition of the personal pronoun is
a feature of Hellenistic aretalogies or hymns of praise discovered in Egypt
10:1-14
FROM
ADAM
TO
MOSES
213
(see A. J. Festugfere, "Le Style de la 'Kore Kosmou,'" Vivre et Penser 2
[1942] 50-53; CH 23 [Kore Kosmou] 65-68, eleven houtoi follow
each other). See also Y. Grandjean, Une nouvelle Aretalogie d'lsis &
Maronee (Leiden, 1975) 17-18, where we find haute three times in suc­
cession, after which the invocations continue in the second person.
See Aristides Encomium on Zeus 43.29/; Philo Legat. 144#; PGM 5.135.
first-fashioned. See NOTE on 7:1.
father of the world. I.e. Adam. For Wisd's omission of the proper
names of Israel's heroes, see NOTE on 4:10.
monon ktisthenta. Either "created alone" or "the alone created." For
the latter, cf. Philo Op. 140: "Such was the first man created, as I think in
body and soul, surpassing all the men that now are, and all that have been
before us. For our beginning is from men, whereas God created him, and
the more eminent the maker is, so much the better is the work . . . The
man first fashioned (protos diaplastheis) was clearly the bloom of our en­
tire race." For the former translation we may quote M. Sank. 4.5: "There­
fore was a single man only [first] created to teach thee that if anyone
destroy a single soul . . . Scripture charges him as though he had de­
stroyed a whole world, and whoever rescues a single soul . . . Scripture
credits him as though he had saved a whole world. And a single man only
was first created for the sake of peace in the human race, that no man
might say to his fellow, 'My ancestor was greater than thy ancestor.'"
Targ.Yerush. on Gen 3:22: "Man, whom I created alone in the world,
just as I am alone in the heavens . . ."; BR 21.5 (Th-Alb:200): '"Now
that the man has become like one of us' (Gen 3:22), R. Judah b. Simon
said, 'like the "Only One" of the world.'" (Cf. Philo Decal. 37; Denkart
268.3-8 (see Zaehner 1972:453#); Quran 4 : 1 .
from his own blunder. The threat to Adam's existence was not that of
an external menace, but was rather a product of his own blundering, and
the only antidote for it was the directive power of Wisdom; cf. Apocryphon of John (CG II) 20 (Plate [8]) 17-28. We read of Adam's repent­
ance in Vita Adae; BT Erubin 18b; BR 20.11; 24.6; Irenaeus Adv. Haer.
3.23; Tertullian De Paenitentia 12.
3. A wicked man. I.e. Cain.
a fit of fratricidal rage. I.e. by murdering his brother in a fit of rage, he
thereby destroyed himself. The phrase, as Bauermeister long ago noted,
has an Aeschylean ring. Philo thrice applies the adjective adelphoktonos to
Cain (Cher. 52; Fug. 60; Praem. 68; cf. Jos. Ant. 1.2.2). Philo explains
Cain's punishment as follows: "Cain has been done away with by him­
self. . . . For the soul that has extirpated from itself the principle of the
love of virtue and the love of God, has died to the love of virtue" (Det.
47). Ginzberg has suggested that Philo seems to be explaining allegorically
a legend according to which Cain never died (1954:5. 147). For rabbinic
214
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIX
legends concerning Cain's death, see Tanfy. Bereshit 11. (According to Jub
4:31, Cain was killed by a stone when his house caved in on him.)
4. on his account Cain, as the first murderer, serves as a paradigm of
human wickedness, so that the cause of the Flood can be ascribed to him.
Cf. PRE 22: "From Cain arose and were descended all the generations of
the wicked, who rebel (cf. Ezek 20:38) and sin, who rebelled against their
Rock, and they said, "We do not need the drops of thy rain (perhaps an
allusion to the flood which came as a punishment for their sins), neither to
walk in thy ways, as it is said, 'Yet they said unto God, Depart from us*
(Job 21:14)" (Stein).
piloting. The verb kybernad was employed by the Stoics to describe the
guiding power of Logos (SVF 3.390; M. Aurel. 7.64; cf. Dox. 335, line
15). In this they were following the presocratics (Anaximander DK,
A. 15; Diogenes of Apollonia, DK, B.5) and Plato Critias 109C; Euthydemus 291D; Rep. 590D; Phaedrus 247C; Laws 963A (noun kybernetikon); Theages 123D. Philo is particularly fond of the collocution
kybernan kai heniochein both in reference to the guidance of human
reason (Op. 88, 119; LA 3.80; Det. 53) and of divine providence (Ebr.
199; Mut. 16; Abr. 84; Jos. 149; Decal. 155; Praem. 34). According to
BR 34.8 (Th-Alb:323), the sun, moon, and stars did not function during
the period of the Flood, thus implying that Noah's ark was piloted by God.
kybernetis is a title of Isis (P. Oxy. xi 1380,69). Cf. also Pseudo-Phocylides 131 (FPG: 153): agrous kai polios sophie kai nea kyberna: "Wisdom
directs the course of lands and cities and ships."
the righteous man. I.e. Noah, the first man in the Bible to be called
$addiq. Cf. Philo Congr. 90.
on a plain wooden hulk. Wisdom's power is such that she could pilot
Noah to safety though limited in means to his crudely built wooden hulk.
Cf. Philo Mos. 1.112, where it is pointed out that God's power is so great
that he can provide the slightest (eutelesi) and the smallest with irre­
sistible and invincible powers and through them wreak vengeance on the
evildoers.
5. single-minded. Cf. Gen 11:1: "All the earth had the same language
and the same words." Ps-Jonathan and Targ. Yerush. translate the latter
phrase "of one mind."
put to confusion. Cf. Gen 11:7,9, LXX.
the righteous man. Here, Abraham. According to BR 38.6 (ThAlb:354), Abraham was a contemporary of the generation of the Tower
of Babel and was harshly described by them as a barren jennet unable to
give birth. (In Seder Olam R. 1 we read that Abraham was forty-eight
years old at the time of the confounding of the nations.) Cf. LAB 6.
blameless. Cf. Gen 17:1, LXX.
against pity for his child. Cf. IV Mace 14:20: "But sympathy for her
10:1-14
FROM
ADAM
TO
MOSES
215
offspring did not move the mother of the youths, whose soul was like
Abraham's." Cf. 15:28-29, where the martyr mother is addressed as
"victor in the contest of the heart" (tou dia splangchnon agdnos athlophore).
6. that descended, katabasion. Found only here (though it appears again
in Patristic Greek).
the Five Cities. The five cities of the plain are Sodom, Gomorrah,
Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar (Gen 10:19; 14:2). The last was actually
spared for the sake of Lot. An earlier tradition, however, apparently spoke
of the destruction of all five (cf. BR 51.4, Th-Alb:536; and Ency.Bib.
5:1001). "In one of the famous Ebla tablets, the full list of the five cities
is given, the same names in the same order as in Gen 14. This is the first
non-biblical confirmation of the Cities of the Plain, and the date of the
tablets must be somewhere around 2500 BCE give or take a century. The
tablet in question is a trading document, and naturally attests the existence
of the cities at that time. But there is now significant evidence that the pe­
riod is not far from the time of Gen 14, and that we must look for the set­
ting of the story in Gen 14 in the same pre-Sargonic period of history,
namely the third millennium" (David N. Freedman, private com­
munication). For Philo, the five cities represent the five senses (Abr.
147).
7. turned into a smoking waste as a testimony of their wickedness. The
literal translation is: "of which, yet as a testimony of its wickedness, a
smoking waste has come into being." Philo similarly writes: "And to this
day it goes on burning, for the fire of the thunderbolt is never quenched
but either continues its ravages or else smoulders. And the clearest proof is
what is still visible, for a monument (mnemeion) of the disastrous event
remains in the smoke which rises ceaselessly and the brimstone which the
miners obtain." Cf. Mos. 2.56: "and to the present day the memorials to
the awful disaster are shown in Syria, ruins and cinders and brimstone and
smoke, and the dusky flame still arises (eti anadidomene) as though fire
were smouldering within"; Jos. J.W. 4.8.4: "and in fact vestiges of the di­
vine fire and faint traces of five cities are still visible." An analogous phe­
nomenon may be seen in the Greek mystery cult of Dionysus. The
demolished home of Semele, the ruins of which the Euripidean Dionysus
still sees smoking on his return to his native city of Thebes, was still being
shown to marveling foreigners in the late centuries of antiquity (Euripides
Bacchae 6-11; Pausanius 9.12.3; Aristides 1:72, Keil).
plants that bear fruit before they ripen. (Literally, "plants that bear
fruit before their seasons are complete.") There was apparently an early
tradition that the fruit of Sodom had become accursed, although there is
only a vague allusion to it in Scripture (Deut 32:32, "Ah! The vine for
them is from Sodom, From the vineyards of Gomorrah; The grapes for
216
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIX
them are poison, A bitter growth their clusters. Their wine is the venom
of asps, The pitiless poison of vipers." See Ency.Bib. 5:1001). Josephus
writes: "Still, too, may one see ashes reproduced in the fruits, which from
their outward appearance would be thought edible, but on being plucked
with the hand dissolve into smoke and ashes" J.W. 4.8.4). Similarly,
Tacitus: "In fact, all the plants there, whether wild or cultivated, turn
black, become sterile, and seem to wither into dust, either in leaf or in
flower, or after they have reached their usual mature form. Now, for
my part, although I shall grant that famous cities were once destroyed by
fire from heaven, I still think that it is the exhalations from the lake that
infect the ground and poison the atmosphere about this district, and
that this is the reason that crops and fruits decay, since both soil and cli­
mate are deleterious" (Historiae 5.7). In the twelfth century, the
French chronicler Fulcher of Chartres could still make a similar report in
his Historia Hierosolymitana (2.4, Migne), one of the most trust­
worthy sources for the history of the First Crusade. He speaks of
apples within which he found upon breaking their rind something like
black powder which gave off an empty smoke. C. Geikie writes: "The
'osher' of the Arab is the true apple of Sodom. Its fruit is like a large
smooth apple or orange. . . . When ripe it is yellow and looks fair and
attractive, and is soft to the touch, but if pressed, it bursts with a crack,
and only the broken shell and a row of small seeds in a half-open pod,
with a few dry filaments, remain in the hand" (The Holy Land and the
Bible [New York, 1888] 2.117. Quoted by H. St. J. Thackeray in his
Loeb translation of Josephus, 3. 144, note a ) . Cf. also BR 51.4 (Th-Alb:
536): "Until this day [says R. Joshua b. Levi], if one gathers rainwater
from the atmosphere of Sodom and introduces it into another garden-bed,
it will not produce growth."
a pillar of salt. Cf. Gen 19:26. Josephus writes: "I have seen this pillar
of salt (stelen halon) which remains to this day" (Ant. 1.11.4). The
rabbis even prescribed a blessing to be recited upon seeing Lot's wife (BT
Ber. 54a). "Jebel Usdum ('Mount of Sodom'), a mountain about five
miles long and over seven hundred feet high, largely a mass of crystalline
salt, is situated along the south end of the west side of the Dead Sea. The
erosion of this salt mountain over the centuries has caused pinnacles to
stand out, which ancient and modern writers have likened to Lot's wife"
(J. P. Harland, IDB 4. 396). We read in PRE 25: "And she stands even
now. All day the oxen lick it and it decreases up to her feet, and in the
morning (the pillar of salt) grows afresh." Cf. Irenaeus Adv. Haer.
4.31.3; Clement of Rome Epistle to the Corinthians, chap. 11. The famous
Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela (in Navarre) also tells us in his Sefer
ha-Massa'ot (Book of Travels) (second half of twelfth century) that he
had seen the salt pillar.
10:1-14
FROM
ADAM
TO
MOSES
217
an unbelieving soul. Our author sees the cause of her punishment in her
lack of belief in God, i.e. he has made Lot's wife a symbol of the untrusting soul. St. Augustine's interpretation is as follows: By being turned into
salt she "provided a solemn and sacred warning that no man who has set
his foot on the path of salvation ought to yearn again for what he has left
behind" (Civ.Dei 10.8). According to BR 51.5 (Th-Alb:536; cf. 50.4,
Th-Alb:521), she was so punished, because upon being asked by her hus­
band to serve their guests with salt, she responded: "Do you wish to intro­
duce this evil custom (synetheia) here too?" In the addition found in the
printed texts of BR, it is said that it was because she went to her neighbors
on the night the angels had arrived, asking for salt for her guests with the
sole intention of alerting her fellow townsmen concerning her visitors. (Cf.
Ps-Jonathan on Gen 19:26.) It is interesting to note that, according to
Philo, if we gave Lot's wife her right name, we might call her 'custom'
(synetheia), for "her nature is hostile to truth, and if we take her with us,
she lags behind and gazes round at the old familiar objects and remains
among them like a lifeless monument" (Ebr. 164; cf. Somn. 1.247-248).
8. for the world. For bios in this sense, cf. Sext. Math. 11.49;
Pyrrhoneae Hypotyposes 1.211 (LSJ: 316, bios: m): TV Mace 17:14.
Other translations are: "for human life," or "by their life."
10. a righteous man. Here, Jacob.
fugitive from his brother's wrath. See Gen 27:41-45.
the kingdom of God . . . knowledge of holy things. See Gen 28:10#.
There seems to be more implied here than what is found in the Genesis
passage. According to Test.Levi 9:3, Jacob saw a vision concerning Levi,
that he should be a priest unto God, and he rose up early in the morning
and paid tithes of all to the Lord through him. (Cf. Jub 32:1, where it is
Levi who has the vision). Moreover, at 5:1-2, Levi is privileged with a vi­
sion of the heavenly temple and told that he has received the blessings of
the priesthood. Burrows conjectured that our author may be alluding to
Jacob's vision of the heavenly temple (this is exactly the sense of ta hagia
in Heb 9:12) and of the heavenly Jerusalem which will one day descend
to earth when the kingdom of God is established. For the heavenly temple,
cf. NOTE on 9:8. (See Burrows 1939:405-407.) There appears to be a
pervasive influence of the Test.Levi on Wisd. Cf. Wisd 5:17-19 and
TestLevi 8:2; Wisd 2:22; 6:22 and Test.Levi 1:10; Wisd 18:4 and
TestLevi 14:4 (cf. 18:9); Wisd 2:13,16; 18:13; 14:3 and Test.Levi
17:2; Wisd 5:16 and Test.Levi 8:10; Wisd 8:21; 1:1 and Test.Levi 13:1;
Wisd 16:5 and TestLevi 6:11; Wisd 1:12-16; 3:24 and TestLevi 19:1-3.
Philo, as is his wont, allegorizes Jacob's dream (Somn. 1.146).
11. greed. See Gen 31:38#.
12. ambush. Cf. Gen 34:30; 31:24; Jub 37-38.
a hard contest. Undoubtedly a reference to his struggle with the angel
218
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XIX
(Gen 32:24#). The words ischyros and dynatdtera appear to echo Gen
32:29b, LXX, and Hosea 12:5, LXX. Jacob also appears in the writings
of Philo as the athlete of God par excellence, and the Agon as it appears
in Philo is essentially an Agon of piety (eusebeia) or godliness (Spec.
2.183; Mos. 1.307; 2.136; Virt. 45; Spec. 1.57) (Pfitzner:56). For
brabeuo, cf. Jos. Ant. 14.9.5: ei kai polemon rhopas brabeuei to theion;
Philo Mos. 1.16 (brabeuontos kai epineuontos theou).
that he might know. The story of the struggle with the angel is given a
symbolic meaning.
13. a righteous man. Here, Joseph.
sold into slavery. See Gen 37:37#.
14. dungeon. Cf. Gen 40:15, LXX, where lakkos stands for the dun(amemptos) in v. 5 above (Stein).
X X . T H E EXODUS
(10:15-21)
10
1 5
It was she who rescued a holy people and blameless race
from a nation of oppressors;
16 she entered the soul of the servant of the Lord,
and with signs and wonders withstood dread kings.
17 She rewarded the labors of holy men,
she guided them on a wondrous journey,
and became a covering for them by day
and a blaze of stars by night.
18 She led them across the Red Sea,
and guided them through deep waters;
19 but their enemies she overwhelmed,
then spat them out of the boundless deep.
The righteous therefore spoiled the godless,
and hymned your holy name, O Lord,
and praised with one accord your champion might;
21 for Wisdom opened the mouth of the dumb,
and rendered the tongues of infants articulate.
2 0
NOTES
10:15. blameless race. The seed of Abraham, called blameless
(amemptos) in v. 5 above (Stein).
16. she entered the soul of the servant of the Lord. Cf. Isa 63:11. Much
of the saving activity here ascribed to Wisdom had been assigned directly
to God in Isa 63:11-14.
the servant of the Lord. Le. Moses.
kings. Perhaps the allusive plural (Smyth 1107; BDF 141; cf. Matt
2:20; Aeschylus Choephori 52; Eumenides 100), by which one person is
alluded to in the plural number. The reference is to Pharaoh.
17. She rewarded the labors of holy men. The reference is probably to
220
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XX
the objects of silver and gold which the Israelites "borrowed" from the
Egyptians before leaving Egypt (Exod 11:2; 12:35-36). Cf. Ps 105:37;
Jub 48:18: "And on the fourteenth we bound him [Mastema] that he
might not accuse the children of Israel on the day when they asked the
Egyptians for vessels of silver, and vessels of gold . . . in order to despoil
the Egyptians in return for the bondage in which they had forced them to
serve." Ezekiel the Tragedian similarly wrote that God promises to dispose
the Egyptians favorably toward the Israelites when they are ready to leave,
so that they will receive gold, silver, and garments, in order that they may
be rewarded for the work which they had done (hin' hdn epraksan
misthon apodosi brotois) (FPG: 213, line 5ff). Moreover, the reason
given by Artapanos for the Egyptians' pursuit of the Israelites was their
desire to retrieve the property borrowed from them (FPG: 195, line 4 ) . A
similar explanation was given by the Augustan historian Pompeius Trogus
in his Historiae Philippicae (see Justinus' Latin epitome 36.2.13), except
that for ordinary vessels he substituted holy vessels (sacra Aegyptiarum)
which the Israelites allegedly stole and the Egyptians sought to retrieve by
force of arms but were unsuccessful. (See also BT Sanh. 91a for the story
of the lawsuit before Alexander the Great.) Among Marcion's many
calumnies against the Demiurge was the charge that he induced his people
to spoil the Egyptians (see A. von Harnack, Marcion [rep. Darmstadt,
1960] 280). These citations all clearly imply that the Israelite borrowing
of gold and silver vessels from the Egyptians had been a special target of
the polemical and anti-Semitic literature of the Greco-Roman age and that
Jewish writers found it necessary to provide some sort of apologetic de­
fense. The matter is clinched, however, by the considerably more explicit
defense made by Philo: "For they took out with them much spoil. . . .
And they did this not in avarice, or, as their accusers might say, in covetousness of what belonged to others. No, indeed. In the first place, they
were but receiving a bare wage for all their time of service; secondly, they
were retaliating, not on an equal but on a lesser scale, for their enslave­
ment. For what resemblance is there between forfeiture of money and
deprivation of liberty, for which men of sense are willing to sacrifice not
only their substance but their life? In either case, their action was
right. . . . For the Egyptians began the wrongdoing by reducing guests
and suppliants to slavery like captives [cf. Wisd 19:14], as I said before"
(Mos. 1.140-142).
a covering, skepe is very frequent in LXX, Psalms (e.g. 16:8; 35:7;
90:1; 104:39). Cf. Sir 31:16; Exod 13:21/. Drummond writes: "Al­
though it did not suit the author's plan to enter, like Philo, into a detailed
exegesis, it is evident that the pillar of cloud and of fire is allegorised into
wisdom" 1969: 1. 185). Cf. Philo Her. 203: "For the further pursuit of
the sober and God-beloved race by the passion-loving and godless was
10:15-21
THE
EXODUS
221
forbidden by that cloud, which was a weapon of shelter and salvation
(skepasterion kai soterion) to its friends. . . . For in minds of rich soil
that cloud sends in gentle showers the drops of wisdom, whose very nature
exempts it from all harm"; Sir 24:3-4: "I [Wisdom] came forth from the
mouth of the Most High, / And as a mist I covered the earth. / In the
high places did I fix my abode, / And my throne was in the pillar of
cloud." See also Philo Mos. 1.166: "Perhaps indeed there was enclosed
within the cloud one of the lieutenants of the great King, an unseen
angel, a forerunner on whom the eyes of the body were not permitted to
look."
19. then spat them out. For anabrasso, cf. Aristotle Meteorologicum
368b29; Apollonius Rhodius 2.566. Philo uses the similar verb apobrasso
in the same context: "That doom is evidenced by the corpses which are
floated to the top and strew the surface of the sea: last comes a mighty
rushing wave, which flings the corpses in heaps (soredon apebrasthesan)
upon the opposite shore, a sight inevitably to be seen by the saved, thus
permitted not only to escape their dangers, but also to behold their ene­
mies fallen under a chastisement which no words can express, through the
power of God and not of man" (Mos. 2.255). The rabbis similarly com­
ment on Exod 14:30: "And Israel saw the Egyptians dying upon the sea­
shore": "There were four reasons why the Egyptians had to be dying upon
the seashore in the sight of Israel: that the Israelites should not say: As we
came out of the sea on this side, so the Egyptians may have come out of
the sea on another side. That the Egyptians should not say: Just as we are
lost in the sea, so the Israelites also are lost in the sea. That the Israelites
might be enabled to take the spoil. . . . That the Israelites, setting their
eyes upon them, should recognize them and reprove them" (Mek. Beshallah, Lauterbach, 1:250). Cf. Mek. Shirta on Exod 15:2: "Thou stretchest
out thy right hand, the earth swallowed them": The sea would cast them
out to the land and the land would throw them back into the sea. The land
said: "Even when I received only the blood of Abel, who was but one in­
dividual, it was said of me: 'And now cursed art thou from the ground,
etc.' And now how can I receive the blood of all these troops? So that the
Holy One, blessed be He, had to swear to it: 'I shall not make you stand
trial'" (cf. Ps-Jonathan ad l o c ; PRE 42, end).
boundless, ek bathous abyssou. abyssos is either the adjective ('bot­
tomless'), as is always the case in Classical Greek, or the substan­
tive he abyssos as in the LXX (Fichtner prefers the former).
20. spoiled the godless, skyleuo is to strip or despoil a slain enemy, es­
pecially of his arms. Demetrius, the earliest known Greco-Jewish writer
(last quarter of third century BCE), had already attempted to find an an­
swer to the question that someone had raised (epizetein de tina) as to
how the Israelites, who had left Egypt unarmed (deduced from Exod
222
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XX
5:3, despite Exod 13:18, since Demetrius was apparently following the
LXX which translated wahamusim not as 'armed' but 'in the fifth genera­
tion,' in spite of Gen 15:16; cf. MRS on Exod 13:18: "Some left in the
fourth and some in the fifth generation"), somehow managed to obtain
arms. "It appears," he writes, "that those who had not been overwhelmed
in the sea [i.e. the Israelites], made use of the others' [i.e. the Egyptians']
arms" (FPG: 179; Jacoby FGH: 3C:670-671). Demetrius' surmise be­
comes historical fact for Josephus: "On the morrow, the arms of the
Egyptians having been carried up to the Hebrews' camp by the tide and
the force of the wind setting in that direction, Moses, surmising that this
too was due to the providence of God, to ensure that even in weapons
they should not be wanting, collected them and, having accoutred the He­
brews therein led them forward to Mount Sinai" (Ant. 2.16.6). (See
Freudenthal 1875-79:46.)
with one accord, homothymadon is very frequent in the LXX. Cf. II
Enoch 19:6; Ascension of Isaiah 7:15; 8:18; 9:28 (cf. Rom 15:6). In
the Test. Sol. 18:2 we read that the thirty-six kosmokratores answer
Solomon homothymadon mia phone, and in the description of the celestial
Kedushah (Isa 6:3) preserved in the Hekhaloth texts we read that the
Holy Living Creatures sing songs and hymns "with one voice, with one ut­
terance, with one mind, and with one melody." Similarly in one of the
oldest hymns introducing the main mystery of the Mass, all kinds of an­
gels, cherubim and serafim praise God's gjory, quia non cessant clamare
cotidie, una voce dicentes: Sanctus Sanctus Sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth" (see Scholem:29-30); cf. also Hypostasis of the Archons (CG
II), 145.17-21. This conceit may perhaps be traced to an Iranian source.
The Bounteous Immortals (AmeSa Spentas) are seven beings who are "of
one mind, of one voice, of one act; whose mind is one, whose voice is
one, whose act is one, whose father and ruler is one, the Creator, Ahura
Mazda" (Yasht. 19.16-18; cf. Zatspram 35.1 [see Zaehner 1972:455]).
champion might. For hypermachon cf. 16:17; II Mace 8:36; 14:34; Sib
Or 3:708-709: the Immortal One himself will be their champion (hypermachos) and the hand of the Holy One.
21. opened the mouth of the dumb. Cf. Exod 4:10; Philo Mut. 56.
tongues of infants. The author is alluding to an early Jewish tradition
that even the infants sang God's praises. Cf. Tosef.Sotah 6.4: "R. Jose the
Galilean says, when the Israelites came up out of the sea, and saw that
their enemies were dead corpses lying upon the seashore, they recited a
song of praise. When the babe lying on its mother's lap and the suckling at
his mother's breast saw the divine presence, the former raised his neck,
and the latter let go of his mother's breasts, and they all responded with a
song of praise, saying, 'This is my God, and I will glorify him.' R. Meir
said, even foetuses in their mothers' wombs sang a song of praise, for it is
10:15-21
THE
EXODUS
223
said, 'In assemblies bless God, the Lord, O you who are from the fountain
of Israel' (Ps 68:27)"; Mek. Shirta 1, Lauterbach, 2:11 (where Ps 8:3 is
quoted by R. Jose); PT Sotah 5.4,20a; BT Sotah 30b; Targ.Yerush. to
Exod 15:2: "From their mothers' breasts even the children have given
signs with their fingers to their fathers, and said, This is our God, who
nourished us with honey from the rock, and with oil from the stone of
clay, at the time when our mothers went forth upon the face of the field to
give us birth, and leave us there and He sent an angel who washed us and
enwrapped us, and now we will praise Him"; ShR 23.9; Mid.Teh. 8.5,
Buber 39a (cf. also Luke 1:41; Augustine Civ.Dei 3.31. See Grelot
1961b:49-60); E. Levine, "Neofiti 1: A Study of Exodus 15," Biblica 54
(1973) 307.
articulate. For tranas, cf. Isa 35:6, LXX.
C. DIVINE WISDOM OR JUSTICE IN THE EXODUS (11-19)
XXI. First Antithesis: Nile water changed to blood, but Israelites ob­
tained water from the desert rock (11:1-14)
Excursus I: Nature and Purpose of Divine Mercy (XXII-XXIV)
XXII. God's Mercy toward the Egyptians and its causes (His Might the
source of His Merciful Love) (11:15-12:2)
XXIII. God's Mercy toward the Canaanites and its causes (12:3-18)
XXIV. God's Mercy a model lesson for Israel (12:19-22)
XXV. Return to theme of measure for measure and transition to
second Excursus (12:23-27)
Excursus II: On Idolatry (XXVI-XXXI)
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
Mindless nature worship (13:1-9)
Wretched wooden-image making (13:10-14:11)
Origin and evil consequences of idolatry (14:12-31)
Israel's immunity from idolatry (15:1-6)
Malicious manufacture of clay figurines (15:7-13)
Folly of Egyptian idolatry (15:14-19)
XXXII.
Second Antithesis: Egyptians hunger through animal plague,
but Israel enjoys exotic quail food (16:1—4)
Third Antithesis: Egyptians slain by locusts and flies, but Israel
survives a serpent attack through the bronze serpent, symbol of
salvation (16:5-14)
Fourth Antithesis: Egyptians plagued by thunderstorms but Israel
fed by a rain of manna (16:15-29)
Fifth Antithesis: Egyptians terrified by darkness, but Israel
illuminated with bright light and guided through desert by a
pillar of fire (17:1-18:4)
Sixth Antithesis: Egyptian firstborn destroyed, but Israel pro­
tected and glorified (18:5-25)
Seventh Antithesis: Egyptians drowned in the sea, but Israel
passes safely through (19:1-9)
Retrospective review of God's wonders through which Nature
was refashioned for Israel (19:10-12)
Egypt more blameworthy than Sodom (19:13-17)
Transposition of the elements (11:18-21)
Concluding doxology (19:22)
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XXI. FIRST ANTITHESIS: N I L E W A T E R C H A N G E D
T O BLOOD, BUT ISRAELITES OBTAINED
WATERS F R O M T H E DESERT R O C K
(11:1-14)
11
i Their works prospered at the hand of a holy prophet.
They traveled through an uninhabited solitude,
and pitched tents in untrodden wastes;
3 they stood their ground against their enemies, and beat off
hostile foes.
They thirsted and called upon you,
and water was given them out of a flinty rock,
and quenching of their thirst out of hard stone.
5 For by those very things through which their enemies were
punished, they in their want were benefited:
In place of the perennial source of streaming water,
turbid with gore
7 as a reproach for their edict for the slaying of infants,
you gave the Israelites abundant water when all hope was
gone,
demonstrating by the thirst they had then endured
how you punished their antagonists.
9 For when they were put to the test, though disciplined
compassionately,
they understood how the godless, brought to trial in anger,
were tormented.
i° Your own people you made trial of like a reproving father,
but those others you scrutinized like a stern king passing
sentence.
u Both at home and abroad, they were equally devastated:
12 for a twofold pain overtook them,
and a groaning over memories of things bygone.
1 When they learned that through their own punishments
the others were being benefited, they took note of the Lord.
2
4
6
8
3
226
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXI
14 The castaway whom formerly during the exposure of
infants they had scornfully disowned,
they came in the event to admire,
having thirsted in a manner unlike the righteous.
NOTES
11:1-14. Introductory narrative, in which we are told of the successful
advance of the Israelites through the desert.
11:1. Their works prospered, eusdoo is frequent in the LXX as a transi­
tive verb. Cf. Gen 24:40; Sir 15:10. It is also used intransitively in Isa
54:17; Jer 12:1; and II Chron 18:14, LXX; and in Theophrastus De
Causis Plantarum 5.6.7. Grimm (followed by Fichtner) connects this
verse with the end of chap. 10, taking euodoo transitively and making
Wisdom its subject, but Reese has argued (1965:392) that this is con­
trary to the structure of the poem. After introducing Wisdom six times
with the emphatic haute, our author would hardly abandon this rhetorical
device at the climax. Reese, therefore, retains the verse with Ziegler at the
beginning of chap. 11, and translates it as follows: "Their works suc­
ceeded at the holy prophet's hand." (He also notes that the word play
euoddsen/diddeusan links 11:1-2.) Wright (1967c: 176), on the other
hand, considers Reese's translation unlikely. "The holy prophet," he
writes, "is clearly Moses and he appears precisely in the role of instru­
ment in 10:16#. In chaps. 11-19 God acts directly and Moses appears
only secondarily (11:14 and 18:5). So 11:1 would provide a discordant
introduction to 11-19 but goes quite naturally with what precedes as a
summary: 'She made their affairs prosper through the holy prophet.' If
the word play euoddsen/diodeusan links 11:1-2 it is as a mot crochet."
Wright's objection, however, does not seem to me to carry much weight.
It would be well in keeping with the style and thought of the author of
Wisd to move almost imperceptibly from the attribution of certain histori­
cal events to the instrumentality of Wisdom (or the prophet she inspires)
to their attribution directly to God, since with him, as with Philo, Wisdom
is in reality the Divine Mind, and therefore virtually synonymous with
the Deity. Philo's discourse about nature, similarly, at times passes over
almost unconsciously into speech about God, a usage almost equivalent to
Spinoza's famous locution: Deus sive Natura (Sacr. 9iff; Mig. 128; Goodenough 1969:51). As to Reese's main point, however, it can be argued
that if the verse is only a summarizing conclusion one should not in that
case expect the emphatic haute. Yet this verse does seem either unnec-
11:1-14
FIRST
ANTITHESIS
227
essary or out of place at the end of chap. 10, and I therefore prefer Reese's
rendition.
at the hand of. A common Hebraism. Cf. Neh 9:14; Ps 76:20.
a holy prophet. I.e. Moses. Cf. Hosea 12:14.
2. tents. See Lev 23:43.
3. enemies. I.e. the Amalekites (Exod 17:8-16), Arad, Sihon, and Og
(Num 21), and the Midianites (Num 31:1-12).
4. They thirsted and called upon you. An idealized picture suggested by
Ps 107:6. Compare the positive tradition of the wilderness which appears
especially in such passages as Deut 32:10$; Hosea 2:16; 11:1$; 13:4$;
Jer 2:1$. B. S. Childs feels that just as Ezekiel used his great freedom in
intensifying the negative side of the murmuring tradition, other prophets,
such as Hosea and Jeremiah, isolated the positive elements which had
always been there for a particular purpose (1974:263).
a flinty rock, akrotomos is the LXX rendering of Hebrew halamis in
Deut 8:15; Job 28:9; Ps 114:8; cf. Philo Mos. 1.210.
quenching of their thirst. Cf. IV Mace 3:10: iasasthai ten dipsan; Philo
Mos. 1.211: akos dipsous; Post. 138; Somn. 2.60.
5. In an elaborate synkrisis or 'comparison,' the author employs seven
antitheses (the first one here, the other six in 1 6 : 1 - 1 9 : 2 2 ) to illustrate
his chosen theme: that Egypt was punished measure for measure, whereas
Israel was benefited by those very things whereby Egypt was punished
(see Focke 1913:12-15; and for the use of synkrisis in Greek literature,
his "Synkrisis," 1923:327-368; Stein, 1934:558-574; Heinemann
1948:241-251; Darke ha-Agadah [Jerusalem, 1970] 44-55). Definitions
of this rhetorical term may be found in the Progymnasmata of Aelius
Theon, Hermogenes, Aphthonius, Joannes Sardianus, and Nicolaus. The
synkrisis is essentially a comparative arrangement of either good or bad
persons or things, through which one tries to show that the objects of com­
parison are either equal, better, or worse. According to Focke, in all
synkriseis, the weaker side comes first, the winning side last, as also in
Wisd. Cf. Isa 65:13, where the order is the reverse. Fichtner has pointed
out that already in the biblical account, the contrast between the fate of
the Egyptians and the Israelites is clearly spelled out in five of the ten
plagues (Exod 8:16$; 9:4$; 9:26$; 10:23; 12:7$; cf. Philo Mos. 1.143;
"And the strangest thing of all was that the same elements in the same
place and at the same time brought destruction to one people and safety to
the other." Wisd's comparisons, however, are not at all uniform, and some
of them are obviously quite forced. Although there is apparently no rab­
binic equivalent to Wisd's particular form of synkrisis, it should be noted
that the rabbis had elaborate ten-part 'comparisons' contrasting God and
man. In Mek. Shirta 8 we have a section with the formula "the rule with
flesh and flood. . . . But He Who spoke and the World Came to Be." Ten
228
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ XXI
such statements are made. (Cf. the series of seven contrasts between God
and the idols in MRS on Exod 15:11.) Similarly, in Wayyik.R. 18.5, we
have a series of ten antitheses between God and man. As Stein has already
pointed out, the last of these antitheses is somewhat reminiscent of Wisd's
form of synkrisis: "The Holy One blessed be He heals by the same means
whereby He smites."
6. perennial source of streaming water. I.e. the Nile. According to Philo,
"the river changed to blood, but not for the Hebrews; for when they
wished to draw from it, it turned into good drinking water" (Mos. 1.144;
cf. Jos. Ant. 2.14.1; ShR 9.11; Midrash Hagadol 7.24).
turbid with gore, haimati lythrodei is pleonastic, since lythrodes means
'defiled with gore', lythrodes is first attested here. Cf. AP 9.258 (Antiphanes Megalopolitanus, first century C E ) .
1. as a reproach. We find the same notion in Mishnat R. Eliezer 19,
Enelau:344, where it is stated that God plagued the waters of the Nile be­
cause the Egyptians had cast the children of the Israelites into the Nile. In
Ps-Jonathan on Exod 2:23 it is stated that Pharaoh was stricken with lep­
rosy and commanded that the firstborn of the Hebrews be slain so that he
could bathe in their blood. Cf. ShR 1.41 (where there is the further elabo­
ration that Pharaoh's leprosy could not be cured unless 150 Israelite chil­
dren were slaughtered every morning and 150 every evening so that he
could bathe in their blood).
edict for the slaying of infants, nepioktonos is found only here (it oc­
curs again once in Patristic Greek). Cf. the similar formation metroktonos (Aeschylus Agamemnon 1281; Euripides Orestes 1649; Plato
Laws 869B). For diatagma, cf. Ezra 7:11, LXX (for Aramaic/Persian
nishtiwan); Esther 3B:4, LXX (Hanhart); Philodemus Rhetorica 2.2895;
Diodorus 18.64; Philo (who uses it very frequently): Sacr. 88; Post. 95;
etc. According to Bickerman diatagma never occurs in Ptolemaic docu­
ments (1976:258, n.41). Cf. Pelletier:280# (in the Roman period, the
imperial decrees are called diatagmata).
8. demonstrating by the thirst they had then endured. The author here
enunciates a principle which recurs at 16:4 (cf. 18:20), to the effect that
it was pedagogically necessary that the Israelites should have a taste of
their enemies' punishments. There is no analogue to this in our extant ver­
sions of the rabbinic writings, but R. Hayyim Yoseph David Azulai
(known by his acronym Hida, 1724-1806) writes in his book Pene David
54a: "The rabbis of blessed memory said that all the plagues were visited
upon Israel for a little while (bereg'a katan; cf. Isa 54:7) but they were
immediately delivered, and this was necessary in order for them to realize
the power of the plagues" (cited by M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah,
10/11:286, with the admission that the source of these words was un­
known to him). Kasher further cites R. Yom Tov b. Abraham Ishbili
11:1-14
FIRST
A N T I T H E S I S
229
(known by his acronym Ritba, 1 2 5 0 - 1 3 3 0 ) , Menahem b. Solomon Meiri
( 1 2 4 9 - 1 3 1 6 ) , and Maimonides as stating in the name of the rabbis that
the plague of lice also afflicted the Israelites although it did not pain them
(Kasher, 9 / 1 0 : 6 6 , 1 2 9 ) . Ibn Ezra on Exod 7 : 2 4 , similarly takes the
absence of an explicit notice that the Israelites were exempt from the first
three plagues to mean that they affected the Egyptians and Israelites alike,
but did little harm. According to Philo, on the other hand, none of the
plagues touched the Hebrews (Mos. 1 . 1 4 3 ) . Cf. NOTE on 1 1 : 6 .
9 . put to the test . . . disciplined compassionately. Cf. Deut 8 : 2 - 5 ;
Mek. Bahodesh 1 0 ; Philo Spec. 4 . 1 8 0 : "The orphan-like desolate state of
his people is always an object of pity and compassion to the Ruler of the
Universe whose portion it is." See also NOTE on 3 : 5 .
1 0 . like a reproving father. Cf Deut 8 : 5 ; Jos. Ant. 3 . 1 5 . 1 ; Ps Sol 1 3 : 9 .
11. at home and abroad. At home, in Egypt, they were afflicted with
the plagues, and abroad, in pursuit of the Israelites, they were over­
whelmed in the sea. Cf. Mek. Beshallah on Exod 1 4 : 2 5 : "R. Jose says
How can you prove that those Egyptians who had remained in Egypt were
smitten with the same plague with which those who were at the sea were
smitten, and that the one group even saw the other suffering? It is in this
sense that it is said, 'So that the Egyptians said: "Let us flee from the face
of Israel, for the Lord fighteth for them in Egypt."'"
12. a twofold pain. They were pained both at their own calamity, and
the fact that it brought deliverance to the Israelites. For diple type, cf.
Philo Mos. 1 . 1 3 7 : diploun penthos.
14. having thirsted in a manner unlike the righteous. An understated
way of describing the much severer form of thirst suffered by the Egyp­
tians. Note the parallel with the belated appreciation of the rigjiteous man
in chap. 5 .
Excursus I: Nature and Purpose of Divine Mercy
(XXII-XXIV)
XXII. GOD'S MERCY TOWARD THE EGYPTIANS AND
ITS CAUSES (HIS MIGHT THE SOURCE OF HIS
MERCIFUL LOVE)
(11:15-12:2)
11
15 In repayment for their wicked and witless reasoning,
by which they were misled into worshiping brute reptiles
and worthless beasts,
you sent against them a swarm of creatures devoid of
reasoning;
16 that they might know that by those things through which a
man sins, through them he is punished.
17 For your all-powerful hand
which created the world out of formless matter
did not lack the means to send upon them an army of bears
or brazen lions
18 or unknown monsters newly created,filledwith fury,
either snorting out blasts offierybreath,
or scattering thunderous fumes,
orflashingfearful sparks from their eyes,
19 who could utterly annihilate them not only by the harm
they might inflict,
but could destroy them by their terrifying appearance
alone.
20 Even without these they might have been laid low by a
single breath,
pursued by justice
and scattered by the breath of your power,
but you ordered all things by measure and number and
weight.
21 To exert supreme force is at all times your option,
and who could resist the might of your arm?
11:15-12:2
GOD'S
M E R C Y
TOWARD
E G Y P T I A N S
231
22 For
and
23 But
and
24
25
26
12
i
2
in your sight the entire cosmos is as a turn of the scale,
as a dewdrop in the dawn alighting on the earth.
you have compassion over all, because you can do all,
you overlook the sins of men with a view to their
repentance.
For you love all that exists,
and loathe nothing which you have created;
for if you had hated anything you would never have
fashioned it.
How could anything have endured, had it not been your
will,
or that which was undesignated by you have been
preserved?
But you spare all because they are yours, O Sovereign
Lord, lover of all that lives;
for your imperishable spirit is in them all.
For this reason you correct those that err little by little,
and jogging their memories by means of the very things
in which they go wrong you admonish them,
so that they may be released from their vicious ways and
put their trust in you, O Lord.
NOTES
11:15-12:2. The Egyptians could have been smashed with one fell
blow, had the Deity so wished. God, however, never acts arbitraily, but al­
ways according to the laws of his own being. His omnipotence guarantees
the unbiased character of his all-embracing love. The act of creation is it­
self a manifestation of this love, and precludes the possibility of divine
hatred toward any of his creatures. The deity therefore compassionately
overlooks the sins of men with a constant view to their repentance, and his
punishments are at first only pedagogic.
11:15. brute reptiles and worthless beasts. The collocution herpeta kai
knodala is found in Ps-Aristeas 138: "What need even to speak of other
infatuated (polymataidn) people, Egyptians and their like, who have put
their reliance in wild beasts and most creeping creatures and animals (herpeton . . . kai knodaion) and worship these, and to these offer sacrifice,
whether alive or dead?" Cf. Ps-Aristeas 169; Sib Or Frag. 3:22-28, 30.
232
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxn
On Egyptian animal worship, see Philo Decal. 76-80: "Strangers on their
first arrival in Egypt before the vanity of the land has gained a lodgement
in their minds are like to die with laughing at it, while anyone who knows
the flavor of right instruction, horrified at this veneration of things so
much the reverse of venerable, pities those who render it and regards them
with good reason as more miserable than the creatures they honor, as men
with souls transformed into the nature of those creatures, so that as they
pass before him, they seem beasts in human shape." Cf. Herodotus
2.65-74; Cicero Tusc. 5.78; ND 1.43: "the insane mythology of Egypt";
3.39; Strabo 17.1.38-40, 47; Juvenal 15.1-15; Plutarch Is. et Os. 380AB;
Eusebius PE 3.2.3; Aristides Apologia 12. Both Cicero and Juvenal ex­
hibit a mocking attitude toward Egyptian animal worship. Octavian, when
asked if he would like to visit the Apis bull, remarked: "My custom is to
worship gods, not cattle" (Dio Cassius 51.16.5).
creatures devoid of reasoning, alogon zoon is a technical expression in
Greek philosophy for brute animals, and is very frequent in Philo (see
Leisegang, Index, s.v. alogos [vols. 7:1 and 7:2 in the Cohn-Wendland
edition of Philo's works constitute Leisegang's Index]); cf. IV Mace 14:14,
18; Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.213. The Stoics made a sharp distinction between nonrational animals and men (SVF 2.725-726) (also simply aloga, "brutes":
Democritus DK, B.164; Plato Protagoras 321C).
16. We have in this verse an explicit statement of the principle of talion,
which forms such a central thread of the author's elaborate synkrisis. Ac­
cording to G. R. Driver and J. C. Miles, "talion was a fundamental princi­
ple of early law and was only gradually replaced by a system of fixed
composition" (The Babylonian Laws [Oxford, 1960] 1. 408). "It has been
pointed out, however," writes R. Yaron, "that the Code of Urnammu, pre­
ceding the Laws of Eshnunna and the Code of Hammurabi by centuries, is
based on a system of fixed penalties, in silver. It is even possible that talion
may have been introduced by Hammurabi himself. To the present-day ob­
server talion appears as 'primitive, archaic, barbaric' One may readily ac­
cept all these attributes as perfectly correct, but they should not be allowed
to distort the true perspective. Talion is not primary, original: on the con­
trary, it cannot be disputed that within the sources at present available
pecuniary penalties constitute the earlier system" (The Laws of Eshnunna
[Jerusalem, 1969] 174-175). Cf. the interesting remarks of Thucydides
3.45.3; A. S. Diamond, "An Eye for an Eye," Iraq 19 (1957) 151-155;
The Evolution of Law and Order (London, 1951) 288-300; L J. Finkelstein, "Ammisaduqa's Edict and the Babylonian Law Codes," ICS 15
(1961): 98; B. S. Jackson, Theft in Early Jewish Law (Oxford, 1972)
153. See also The Instruction for King Merikare: "A blow is to be repaid
with its own like. That is the application of all that has been done"
(ANETAll).
The law of retaliation occurs three times in the Penta-
11:15-12:2
GOD'S
M E R C Y
TOWARD
E G Y P T I A N S
233
teuch (Exod 21:23#; Lev 24:18#; Deut 19:21), and appears frequently
in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Cf. Jub 4:31-32; 48:14; II Mace
4:38; 13:8; 5:10; 15:32#; Test.Gad 5:10; LAB 44:10; 43:5; 45:3; Matt
7:2. The rabbis were equally fond of elaborating this principle. Cf. M.So­
tah 1.7-9: "With the kind of measure that a man measures they shall mete
[out] to him: she [the faithless wife] adorned herself for transgression,
the Almighty reduced her to shame; she exposed herself for transgression,
the Almighty laid her bare; with her thigh did she first begin transgression,
and then with the belly, therefore shall the thigh be stricken first and after­
ward the belly. . . . Samson went after his eyes, therefore the Philistines
gouged out his eyes. . . . Absalom glorified in his hair, hence he was sus­
pended by his hair; and because he copulated with the ten concubines of
his father, therefore they thrust ten javelins into him . . . and since he
stole three hearts—the heart of his father and the heart of the court and
the heart of Israel, therefore three darts were thrust into him"; Tosef.
Sotah, where two full chapters (3-4) laboriously elaborate our theme; BT
Sotah 11a; BR 9.11; Mek. Shirta 4 (where we get five consecutive exam­
ples of our principle, with two more in chs. 5-6); LamentR., Petih. 2 1 ;
PT Hag. 2.2, 77d. Lieberman has shown that section 39 of the Apocalypse
of Paul is dependent on rabbinic material (1974:35). See also Philo Spec.
3.181-183; Flac. 170-175, 189; Mos. 2.202; QG 1.77; Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.143;
Ant. 11.6.11; J.W. 1.36; 2.18.1; (cf. I. Heinemann, Philons griechische
und judische Bildung [Breslau, 1932] 349-383).
17. formless matter. For amorphou hyles, see Aristotle Physica
191a,10: he hyle kai to amorphon; Plato Timaeus 50D; Posidonius: ten
ton holon ousian kai hylen apoion kai amorphon einai (F 92, Kidd; Philo
Spec. 1.328-329). For a detailed analysis, see Introduction and Winston
1971.
bears or brazen lions. Philo raises exactly the same question as the au­
thor of Wisd and his first answer is similar to that given here in v. 23:
"Someone perhaps may ask why he punished the land through such petty
and insignificant creatures, and refrained from using bears and lions and
panthers and other kinds of savage beasts. . . . First, God wished to ad­
monish the inhabitants of the land rather than to destroy them. . . . And
after this the inquirer shall be taught a further lesson. . . . When men
make war, they look round to find the most powerful auxiliaries to fight
beside them . . . but God, the highest and greatest power, needs no one.
But if, at any time, he wills to use any as instruments for his vengeance, he
does not choose the strongest and the greatest . . . but provides the
slightest and the smallest with irresistible and invincible powers. So it was
in this case. For what is slighter than a gnat? Yet so great was its power
that all Egypt lost heart, and was forced to cry aloud: 'This is the finger of
234
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxn
God'; for as for his hand not all the habitable world from end to end could
stand against it" (Mos. 1.109-112).
18. snorting out blasts. Cf. the description of Leviathan in Job
41:10-13: "His sneezings flash forth l i g h t . . . out of his mouth go burn­
ing torches, and sparks of fire leap forth. Out of his nostrils goeth smoke,
as out of a seething pot and burning rushes."
19. who could utterly annihilate them. Cf. Exod 9:15: "I could have
stretched forth My hand and stricken you and your people with pestilence,
and you would have been effaced from the earth." synektripsai is found
only here.
20. by a single breath. Cf. Job 4:9; Ps 18:16; Isa 11:4.
justice. Cf. IV Mace 4:13.
by measure and number and weight. God's actions are never arbitrary
or random, but always follow the mathematical laws by which he governs
the entire cosmos. Disproportionate punishments such as those described
in w . 17-19 are therefore inevitably ruled out. Cf. Job 28:25; Isa 40:12;
IV Ezra 4:36-37: "For he has weighed the age in the balance, and with
measure has measured the times, and by number has numbered the sea­
sons." Philo, who had a very strong affinity for the Neopythagorean tradi­
tion, placed special emphasis on this notion. Somn. 2.193: "But Moses
held that God . . . is the measure and weighing scale and numbering of all
things (stathmen kai metron kai arithmon ton holon)"; Prov., ap. Euse­
bius PE 7.21.336b[626]: "For it would be monstrous to suppose that
while particular craftsmen when framing something, especially anything
costly, estimate (stathmesasthai) what material is just sufficient, He who
invented numbers, measures (arithmous kai metro) and equality in them
had no thought for what was adequate"; Her. 152: "As for proportional
equality, we find it practically in everything great or small, throughout the
whole world"; Her. 156: "They judge that the master art of God by which
He wrought all things is one that admits of no heightening or lowering of
intensity (oute epitasin oute anesin; cf. Wisd 16:24) but always remains
the same and that through its transcendent excellence it has wrought in
perfection each thing that is, every number and every form that tends to
perfectness being used to the full by the Maker"; Her. 143: "God alone is
exact in judgment and alone is able to 'divide in the middle' things mate­
rial and immaterial, in such a way that no section is greater or less than
another by even an infinitesimal difference." Cf. also Test.Naphtali 2:3:
"for by weight and measure and rule (stathmo kai gar metro kai kanoni)
was all the creation made"; I Enoch 43:2; Ps Sol 5:6; Sophocles Frag.
432; Gorgias Palamedes, DK, B.lla,30; Plato Rep. 602D; Laws 575B:
"the equality determined by measure, weight, and number (ten metro isen
kai stathmo kai arithmo); Philebus 55E; Euthyphro 7BC; Xenophon
99
11:15-12:2
GOD'S
M E R C Y
TOWARD
E G Y P T I A N S
235
Mem. 1.1.9; Qaudianus Mamertus De Statu Animae 2.3. See Genzmer,
1952:469-494. (Wisd 11:20 is quoted by Augustine Civ.Dei 11.30.)
22. a turn of the scale. Cf. Isa 40:15, where the Hebrew Sahaq
mffznayim ('dust on a balance*) is translated in the LXX by rhope zugou.
as a dewdrop in the dawn. Cf. Hosea 6:4; 13:3.
23. you have compassion over all, because you can do all. Cf. 12:16
below; Pss 62:12-13; 145:9; Sir 18:11-13; Ps-Aristeas 192: "God does
not smite them according to their shortcomings or according to the great­
ness of his strength, but he uses forbearance"; 211: "God, to whom noth­
ing is needful, is also gentle"; III Mace 6:2; Philo Spec. 1.308: "Yet vast
as are His excellences and powers, He takes pity and compassion on those
most helplessly in need."
repentance. Cf. Ezek. 33:11; 18:32; Ps-Aristeas 188; PT Mak. 2.6, 3 Id;
BT Yoma 86b; Rom 2:4-5. Although Philo awards it only the second
prize and recognizes the bitterness attached to it (QE 1.15), he never­
theless (unlike the Stoics) places repentance among the virtues and con­
siders it the mark of a man of wisdom (Virt. 177; Abr. 26; Somn. 1.91;
Spec. 1.103; QG 2.13).
24. you love all that exists. Cf. Ps 145:8-9; Philo Cher. 99; Spec. 3.36;
Op. 21; Plato Tim. 29E.
and loathe nothing. We read similarly in Sir 15:11: "Say not, 'From
God is my transgression,' for that which He hateth made He not." Con­
trast 1QS 3.25: "He created the spirits of light and darkness, and upon
them he founded every work and every action. . . . The one God loves for
all eternity, and delights in all its doings forever; the other—its assembly
he loathes, and all its ways he hates forever."
25. How could anything have endured. A sentiment much emphasized
in the Qumran hymns: "and nothing exists except by Thy will . . . what
strength shall I have unless Thou keep me upright?" (1QH 1.10 and 6 ) .
Philo similarly writes: "and that nothing whose being He had willed would
ever be brought to nought" (Mos. 2.61).
undesignated. Cf. Isa 41:4; 48:13; Eccles 6:10; CD 2:11; IV Ezra
10:57; Rom 8:28; 4:17.
26. yours. Cf. Ezek 18:4.
lover of all that lives, philopsychos in Classical Greek means 'loving
one's life,' with the collateral sense of 'cowardly' (Euripides Hecuba 348).
The favorable sense of the word is only found again in Patristic Greek.
Cf., however, Xenophon Mem. 1.4.7: "The handiwork of a wise and lov­
ing (philozoou) creator." One of the recurring prayers in the Jewish High
Holy Day liturgy expresses this sentiment well: "Remember us unto life, O
King who desires life, and inscribe us in the book of life."
12:1. is in them all. The universal nature of God's compassion is also
emphasized by Ben Sira: "The mercy of man is (exercised upon) his own
236
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXII
kin, But the mercy of God is (extended) to all flesh, Reproving, and chas­
tening, and teaching, And bringing them back as a shepherd his flock"
(18:13). The rabbis, too, speak of God's compassion for the Egyptians:
"The ministering angels wanted to chant their hymns, but the Holy One
blessed be He said, T h e work of my hands is being drowned in the sea,
and shall you chant hymns?'" (BT Meg. 10b). Cf. PRK., Suppl. 2.8,
Braude-Kapstein: "Why does Scripture give no command to rejoice during
Passover? Because the Egyptians died during Passover. Therefore, though
we read the entire Hallel on each of the seven days of Sukkot [an entirely
joyful feast], on Passover we read the entire Hallel only on the first day
and on the night preceding it, because of what is said in the verse which
Samuel loved to quote, 'Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth' (Prov
24:17)" (cf. M. Aboth 4.19). See J. Heinemann, Aggadah and Its Devel­
opment (Hebrew) (Jerusalem, 1974): 175-178.
in them all. Cf. Sib Or Frag. 1.5: "the Creator who has planted his sweet
spirit in all and made him a guide to all mortals."
2. trust in you. pisteuein with prepositions is not Classical, but found in
the LXX and New Testament
XXm. GOD'S M E R C Y T O W A R D T H E CANAANITES
A N D ITS CAUSES
(12:3-18)
4
12
3 The ancient inhabitants, too, of your holy land, who were
hateful to you for their loathsome practices, acts of sorcery and licen­
tious mystery rites; ruthless slayers of their children, and entraildevouring banqueters of human flesh, initiates from the midst of a
Dionysian blood revel, 6 and parents, murderers of helpless souls, it
was your will to destroy at the hand of our forefathers, 7 so that the
land which is of all lands most precious in your eyes might receive a
worthy migration of God's children. 8 Yet these too you spared as
being men, and sent wasps as the advance guard of your army to ex­
terminate them gradually. 9 It was not through inability to subject the
godless to the righteous in pitched battle, or with cruel beasts or a re­
lentless word to wipe them out at once, lObut judging them gradually
you gave them space for repentance, not unaware that their seed was
evil, and their viciousness innate, and that their mode of thought
would in no way vary to the end of time, n f o r their race was ac­
cursed from the very first. Nor was it out of wariness of anyone that
you granted them amnesty for those things in which they sinned;
for who shall say to you, "What have you done?" or who shall take
issue with your decision? Who shall bring a charge against you for
having destroyed nations of your own making? Who shall come as an
avenger of the unrighteous to plead their cause before you? * F o r
neither is there any God beside you who cares for all to induce you to
demonstrate that your verdict was not unjust, 14 nor is there king or
ruler who shall be able to defy you in regard to those whom you have
punished. 15 But being just you manage all things justly, counting it
out of keeping with your power to condemn one who is not deserving
of punishment. 16 For your might is the source of justice, and it is
your mastery over all which causes you to spare all. ^ Y o u exhibit
your power when there is disbelief in the perfection of your might,
5
1 2
3
238
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxni
and the insolence of those well aware of it you put to confusion.
18 But while disposing of might, you judge in fairness, and govern us
with great forbearance, for the power is yours whenever you will.
NOTES
12:3-18. There is a clear intent in this section to justify the Israelite
conquest of Canaan. In Jewish-Hellenistic apologetics, this issue occupied
no small place as may easily be inferred from the author of Jubilees' bra­
zen rewriting of Genesis in order to prove that the land of Canaan was
from the beginning allotted to Shem and illegally seized by Canaan (Jub.
8:8-11; 9:14-15; 10:29-34; cf. BR 56.14, Th-Alb:608; Mid.Teh. 76.3,
where Melchizedek is identified with Shem, thereby indicating that Pales­
tine is his heritage), and Philo's openly apologetic account of the conquest
of Canaan. The latter sheepishly suggests that perhaps the Israelites "were
unwarlike and feeble, quite few in numbers and destitute of warlike equip­
ment, but won the respect of their opponents who voluntarily surrendered
their land to them" (Hypothetica 356). (See the excellent discussion in
Johanan Levy, Studies in Jewish Hellenism [Hebrew] [Jerusalem, 1960]
60-78.)
12:3. holy land. For this designation, cf. Zech 2:16; II Mace 1:7; Test.
Job 33:5; Ps-Philo LAB 19:10; Sib Or 3:267; II Bar 63:10; 84:8; Philo
Her. 293. According to S. Zeitlin, the term 'the Holy Land' was "used
only by Jews who lived outside Judaea. Neither in Josephus nor in 'tannaitic' literature do we find it applied to Judaea" (see the note to II Mace
1:7 in his edition of The Second Book of Maccabees [New York, 1954]).
4. acts of sorcery. Cf. I Enoch 7:1, where it is said that the angels
taught their human wives pharmakeias kai epaoidas kai rhizotomias.
licentious mystery rites, anosios in the LXX translates Hebrew zimmdh.
There is considerable evidence that some of the mystery cults, especially
that of Dionysus, involved sexual licentiousness. Livy, for example, tells us
regarding the Bacchanalia: "When wine had influenced their minds, and
night and the mingling of males with females, youth with age, had de­
stroyed every sentiment of modesty, all varieties of corruption first began
to be practised, since each one had at hand the pleasure answering to that
to which his nature was more inclined" (History of Rome 39.8-18). We
find that the LXX had already used mystery terminology in translating
various biblical verses dealing with unchastity connected with idolatry
(Num. 25:3: kai etelesthe Israel to Beelphegor, i.e. they were consecrated
12:3-18
GOD'S
M E R C Y
TOWARD
C A N A A N I T E S
239
or initiated into the mysteries of Baal Peor; 25:5; Deut 23:17; Philo
clearly understood these words as referring to initiation into the mysteries
(Spec. 1.319-320); cf. Amos 7:9: aphanisthesontai bomoi tou geldtos kai
hai teletai tou Israel eremosthesontai. Gelds or deus Risus was associated
with Dionysus: Philostratus Imagines 1.2; Plutarch Lycurgus 25.2. See
Gutmanl963 1. 144-145).
5. ruthless slayers of their children. The sacrifices to Moloch described
in the Bible (Lev 18:21; 20:2-5; Deut 12:31; 18:10; Jer 32:35; II Kings
23:10; Ezek 16:21; 20:31; 23:37; Ps 106:37-38) are certainly identical
with the 'molk' sacrifices in North Africa, and they are, in Israel, some­
thing borrowed from the Phoenicians. Both archaeology and written texts
indicate that the sacrifices of children were a current practice in the cult of
Baal Hammon in North Africa and that they were kept up for a very long
time (Quintus Curtius Rufus 4.3.23; Plutarch Moralia 552A, 171C, 175A;
Diodorus 13.86.3; 20.14.4-6; Tertullian Apologeticus 9.2-4). These
Punic sacrifices (also offered in the Punic dependencies of the Mediter­
ranean, where excavations have revealed urns at Nora in Sardinia and at
Motya in Sicily) were a heritage of the Phoenician country of origin
(Porphyry De Abstinentia 2.56; Eusebius PE 4.6.16). (See R. de Vaux,
Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice [Cardiff, 1964] 73-90; M. Weinfeld,
"The Worship of Molech and the Queen of Heaven and Its Background,"
UF 4 [1972] 133-154; and Morton Smith's rejoinder, "A Note on Burn­
ing Babies," JAOS 95:3 [1975] 477-479.) It should also be noted that
there is evidence of human sacrifice in Egypt during the Roman period, as
practiced, for example, by the Boukoloi, a robber band of the Nile Delta.
In Lollianos' romance Phoinikika recently recovered from papyrus finds
(Cologne Papyrus inv.3328), we have a gruesome description of the ritual
murder of a child by a robber band, during which they remove the heart,
roast it in the fire, and then after seasoning it, have the initiates consume it
and take an oath while still holding a part of it in their hands. Moreover,
the mystery meal in the cult of Dionysus-Zagreus apparently consisted of a
dramatic representation of the consumption of this god's flesh and the
drinking of his blood by the initiates. This would readily explain our au­
thor's allusion to the Dionysian revel band. See Albert Henrichs. Die
Phoinikika des Lollianos (Bonn 1972) 28-79; J. G. Griffiths, "Human
Sacrifices in Egypt: The Classical Evidence," Annales du Service des
Antiquith de VEgypte 48 (1948) 409#.
entrail-devouring. splangchnophagon an Aeschylean-type compound
(for others cf. 10:3; 14:23), is first attested here. It occurs again only in
Ps-Plutarch Fluviis 5.3. Cf. Aeschylus Agamemnon 1221; Plato Rep.
565D; Diodorus 22.5; Dio Cassius 27.30.3; 71.4.1.
banqueters of human flesh. "Since phoneas is supported by mystas and
authentas goneis, it is better not to emend it to phonos, and to understand
t
t
240
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXIII
thoinan to signify by metonomy 'banqueters'" (see Holmes APOT 1
554). If, however, thoinan as the metonymical equivalent of thoinatores is
unacceptable, we should then have to read phonos instead of the phoneas
of the manuscripts and translate as follows: "ruthless slayings of children,
and cannibal banquets of human flesh." The charge of cannibalism is an
exaggeration (cf., however, Ezek 16:20), and turns the tables on those
who (like Damocritus and Apion) had hurled this charge against the
Jews. Apion accused the Jews of annually immolating a Greek victim,
gustare ex eius visceribus, and swearing an oath of hostility to the Greeks
(Stern: 1976:531, 412. Flusser [cited below] points out the similarity
between Damocritus' account and the description of human sacrifice
known from the Dionysiac cult, in Porphyry De Abstinentia 2.55). Cf.
Tcherikover-Fuks 1957: 2. 437; Dio Cassius 68.32. See E. Bickermann,
"Ritualmord u. Eselkult," MGWJ 71, N.F.35 (1927) 171-187; F. J.
Dolger, "Sacramentum infanticidii," Antike und Christentum 4 (Minister,
1934): 188#. David Gill has suggested that the author of Wisd simply
got caught up in the similarities beween the Canaanites and the Greeks
and absentmindedly exaggerated them. Alternatively, his use of the
language of the tragedies may have been intentional, and he could be
saying in effect that what applies explicitly to the Canaanites also applies
by implication to the Greeks. His admonitions may indeed be directed
at Hellenized Jews who took part in pagan mystery cults. (Gill 1965:
383-388.) Cf. Ill Mace 2:30-33; Grimm ad loc; Cerfaux 29-88, esp.
pp. 51-53; Philo Spec. 1.319# (where he inveighs against the mysteries).
It should also be noted that the ancient Canaanite religions were appar­
ently still flourishing in Palestine in the first century C E . See D. Flusser,
"Paganism in Palestine," in The Jewish People in the First Century, eds.
S, Safrai and M. Stern (Philadelphia, 1976) 2. 1069-1079.
initiates from the midst of a Dionysian blood revel. With Reese
(1970:27), we divide 12:5c as follows: kai haimatos ek mesou mystas
thiasou. Cf. Sib Or 3:36: "O race that delights in blood."
6. murderers. Phrynichus explains authentes by autocheir phoneus, "one
who murders with his own hand." Cf. Aeschylus Eumenides 212; Aga­
memnon 1572. Authentes is found in Herodotus, Thucydides, Eurip­
ides, and Apollonius Rhodius. It appears again in late prose but with the
meaning 'perpetrator,' 'author' (Polybius 22.14.2; Diodorus 16.61) or
'master' (whence Turkish 'effendi') (P. Mag. Leid. W. 6.46: authenta
helie; Hermas Similitudes 9.5.6). This usage was condemned by the Atticist Phrynicus (96). A. Dihle has deduced from this that Wisdom was
written in the first century C E : "My point is that in this book the word
authentes is used in the meaning of 'murderer,' and this is the Attic mean­
ing of the word which no Hellenistic writer would have applied in the first
century B C E " (Colloquy 10 of the center for Hermeneutical Studies
12:3-18
GOD'S
M E R C Y
TOWARD
C A N A A N I T E S
241
[1974] 50). Cf. Sib Or 3:761-764: "Rear thine own offspring and slay it
not"; Philo Spec. 3.110; Virt. 131; Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.202; Hecataeus of Abdera, in Stern: 29,33.
7. most precious. For the prevalence of this conceit in ancient Jewish lit­
erature, see Ginzberg 5. 14$; W. D. Davies, The Gospel and the Land
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974) 15-74.
a worthy migration. The Canaanites had polluted the land (Lev
18:24-30) and were therefore spewed out of it, as being unworthy of
living in the land owned by Yahweh and in which he dwelt, apoikia is
here used in the sense of 'migration' rather than 'colony.' Cf. Philo Mig.
176;#er.98;etc.
8. wasps. Cf. Exod 23:28. Aelianus (De Natura Animalium 11.28) re­
ports that a swarm of wasps drove out the people of Phaselis (on the east
coast of Lycia).
9. at once. For hyph hen, cf. Sext. Math. 10.123-124.
10. judging them gradually. Cf. Exod 23:29; Judg 2:29.
you gave them space. A Hebraism. Cf. Sir 4:5. (Goodrick thinks that it
is a translation from the Latin, and cites Livy 24.26; 44.10: poenitentiae
relinquens locum.) Frequent in Hellenistic Greek (Heb 12:17; Rom
12:19; Eph 4:27); cf. IV Ezra 9:12, Philo Spec. 1.58: anachoresin eis
metanoian; LA 3.106: chronon eis metanoian; LA 105: "For it is God's
property to hold out good things and to be beforehand in bestowing them,
but to be slow to inflict evil things." A similar notion is found in Greek
religious thought. The statue of the Delian Apollo held the graces in his
right hand and bow and arrow in his left. This gave rise to an allegoricalethical interpretation, namely, that the god holds the bow in his left hand
"because he is slower to chastise if man repents" (Callimachus Frag.
114.8-11, Pfeiffer) (cf. Apollodorus' Peri Theon, FGH, 244 F 15; Philo
Legat. 95). See R. Pfeiffer, Ausgewahlte Schriften (Munchen, 1960):
55$.
their seed was evil. A similar notion is found in IV Ezra 4:30: "For a
grain of evil seed was sown in the heart of Adam from the beginning." In
our text, however, it is applied only to the Canaanites.
11. was accursed. The reference is obviously to the curse laid upon
Canaan (Gen 9:25-27), but there is no hint in the biblical text of a curse
which entails moral degeneracy. Cf. Wisd 3:12; Sir 33:12: "Some he
cursed (katerasato) and abased"; Jub 22:20-21: "Canaan erred, and all
his seed shall be destroyed from off the earth . . . and none springing
from him shall be saved on the day of judgment."
12. "What have you doner Cf. Job 9:12; Eccles 8:4; Sir 36:8; 1QS
11:18: "There is none beside Thee to dispute Thy counsel or to under­
stand all Thy holy design"; Dan 4:32; Rom 9:20.
take issue with your decision. For antistesetai, cf. Job 9:19: tis oun
242
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ xxra
krimati autou antistesetai; Job 41:2; Jer 27:44, LXX; Nah 1:6, LXX; Ps
75:8, LXX; Judith 16:14: kai ouk estin hos antistesetai te phone sou;
Wisd 11:21.
Who shall bring a charge against you . . . ? We find a similar mode of
argumentation in BR 1.2, Th-Alb:4, where it is stated in the name of R.
Levi (early fourth century C E ) that the reason for the inclusion of the
creation narrative in the Torah was to neutralize the Gentiles so that they
could not accuse Israel of piracy because of their possession of the land of
Canaan. Israel could thus counter that the Canaanites were themselves not
the original inhabitants of Palestine (Deut 2:23), and that the entire
world belonged to God who, when he so wished, gave the land to the
Canaanites and when he wished he took it away from them and gave it to
the Israelites. This is the significance of the verse, "He revealed to his
people his powerful works, in giving them the heritage of nations" (Ps
111:6), he revealed to them the 'beginning,' i.e. "In the beginning God
created."
14. defy you. antophthalmeo is not attested before Polybius 18.46.12.
15. you manage all things justly. It is quite clear that for Philo, too, the
formula "all things are possible to God" which recurs so frequently in his
writings, does not include what is not "what law and right demand" (kata
nomon kai dikin: Op. 46; Spec. 1.14; cf. Tanh. Buber, Wayyera 49a).
God as the wise 'manager' (dioiketes) of the orderly universe is a com­
mon theme in the Hellenistic literature on the ideal king. For diepeis, cf.
Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 399al8: diepontos theou.
out of keeping with your power. For allotrion tes ses dynameos, cf.
Philo Abr. 258: allotrion hegesamenos sophias ("holding [mourning] to
be out of keeping with wisdom"). The virtues mentioned in w . 15-19 and
their order are the same as found in Ps-Aristeas 206-208: dynamis,
epieikeia (v. 18), philanthrdpia (v. 19). Both are dependent on Ptolemaic
"kingship tracts." See Festugiere 2. 301-309; Reese 1970:75.
16. your mastery over all . . . causes you to spare all. Similarly, ac­
cording to R. Joshua b. Levi, God's omnipotence reaches its culmination
in the repression of his wrath and in his long suffering with the wicked
(BT Yoma 69b). So, too, we find in Ps-Aristeas 253-254, that when the
king asks how he might be beyond outbursts of wrath, he is admonished to
realize that he has power over all things, and that when all men were his
subjects, to what end should he fall into a rage? Furthermore, he must re­
alize that God governs the whole world with kindliness and without any
passion, and he should follow that example. Cf. Sir 16:11 (dynastes
eksilasmon, "he shows his power in forgiveness").
XXIV. GOD'S M E R C Y A M O D E L LESSON F O R ISRAEL
(12:19-22)
12
19 By such acts you taught your people that the righteous man
must be humane, and rendered your sons cheerful in that you grant
repentance for sins. For if your children's enemies who deserved to
die, you punished with such care and indulgence allowing them time
and space to work free from their wickedness, i h o w conscientiously
did you pass judgment on your sons, to whose fathers you gave sworn
covenants full of good promise! We, then, are thus chastened, but
our enemies you scourge ten thousandfold, so that, when sitting in
judgment, we may meditate on your goodness, but when judged our­
selves we may look for mercy.
2 0
2
2 2
NOTES
12:19-22. According to Stein (1936), the author is here addressing
himself to a question which would at this point inevitably arise in the
reader's mind. If God, as the author himself testifies, knew that the seed of
the Canaanites was evil and that "their mode of thought would in no way
vary to the end of time," and that the Egyptians would stubbornly resist a
change of heart (cf. 19:1-4), why did he go through the empty charade of
giving them space for repentance? The answer is that God wished to pro­
vide a model lesson for his beloved people in order to teach them that they
should practice humanity in their relations with others, and that repent­
ance is always available to the sinner. It would seem, however, that our
original aporia has by no means been resolved, for if the Canaanites were
in reality foredoomed, how would the empty gesture of the mere appear­
ance of a chance for a fundamental change in their case hold any persua­
siveness for Israel? The answer, I believe, lies in the author's conviction
(shared by many religious thinkers of the ancient Near East) that God has
bestowed on man the privilege (or burden) of moral choice, and only in
very rare instances does he ever interfere with this process. (The author
244
THE
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§ XXIV
indeed deliberately chooses to ignore an example of such interference in
the case of the Egyptians, namely, God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart.)
Thus even in the extreme case of the Canaanites, whose viciousness was
innate and whose doom was sealed in advance, God did not bypass their
capacity to make choices in spite of its futility. The Canaanite example
thus serves as a vivid illustration of the fact that no man is merely a me­
chanical link in the universal causal chain. The more recalcitrant problem
raised by God's ultimate determination of the way in which choice is exer­
cised is generally relegated to the realm of divine mystery which no human
mind can hope to penetrate, and usually remains dormant unless it is
blasted out of this protective shell by the force of catastrophic events. For
further discussion, see Introduction, VII.8.
12:20. care and indulgence, diesis literally means 'discharge,' 'letting
through,' and hence 'indulgence.' (According to LSJ SuppL, it means 'sift­
ing,' 'careful investigation.')
21. sworn covenants. See NOTE on 18:22.
22. ten thousandfold, myriotes is found only here. The usual form is
myrias. Vanhoye has made a strong case for reading metrioteti (originally
suggested by G. Kuhn in 1931) instead of myrioteti, which hardly fits the
context. We should thus render 22b as follows: "but our enemies you
scourge with measured deliberation"; cf. 11:20. See Vanhoye
1962:530-537. Vanhoye quotes J. Ziegler's response to his conjecture:
"Hatte ich sie [=die Ausfuhrungen] vor einem Jahr bereits erhalten, dann
hatte ich wohl Hire Konjektur als Textlesart aufgenommen."
XXV. RETURN T O T H E M E O F MEASURE F O R MEASURE
A N D TRANSITION T O SECOND EXCURSUS
(12:23-27)
12
23 It is for this reason, too, that those who in their wickedness
lived thoughtless lives you tormented with their own abominations.
24 For they strayed far beyond the ordinary paths of error, taking for
gods those which even among animals are the most despicable of
loathsome things, deluded like foolish infants. 25 Therefore as to
unreasoning children you sent your judgment as a mockery; 26 but
those who do not take warning from such derisive castigation will ex­
perience a judgment worthy of God. 27 For through those animal dei­
ties at whom they were indignant by reason of their own suffering,
punished by means of those very creatures whom they deemed gods,
they came to recognize the true God, perceiving him whom they had
formerly denied knowing. Thus did the utter limit of judgment de­
scend upon them.
NOTES
12:23. abominations, bdelygma is the LXX rendering of Hebrew gilItilim ('dung pellets'), Siqqfis ('detested thing'), to'ebd ('abomination').
24. like foolish infants. Cf. Philo Mos. 1.102; Decal. 69; Iliad 17.32;
Hesiod Op. 218. The adverbial accusative diken is not found elsewhere in
the LXX or Apocrypha. It is Classical and occurs also in late prose (PsAristotle De Mundo 395b22).
25. as a mockery. The mocking judgments were the earlier and lighter
plagues. Cf. Exod 10:2: "That you may recount in the hearing of your
sons and of your sons' sons how I made a mockery of the Egyptians"
(LXX: hosa empepaicha tois Aigyptiois).
27. at whom, eph hois. sc. zoois.
they came to recognize the true God, perceiving him whom they had
246
THE
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§ XXV
formerly denied knowing, eidenai . . . epegnosan. The verbs eidencd and
epegnosan are technical. The idiom eidenai theous is unattested before the
Hellenistic period. See A. Henrichs, "The Atheism of Prodicus," Cronache
Ercolanesi 6 (Naples, 1976) 18-19. On theon gigndskein, see E. Norden,
Agnostos Theos (Leipzig, Berlin, 1913) 87$. On the related term theous
enomisan (Wisd 13:2), see W. Fahr, Theous nomizein. Zum Problem des
Atheismus bei den Griechen (New York, 1969) (Spudasmata. Bd. 26).
the utter limit of judgment. I.e. death of the firstborn and the drowning
of the Egyptian host.
Exercursus II: On Idolatry
(XXVI-XXXI)
XXVI. MINDLESS N A T U R E WORSHIP
(13:1-9)
13
i Born to mindlessness were all those who were [inherently]
ignorant of God, and unable to perceive the Existent One from visible
goods, nor recognize the Artificer, though intent on his works. 2 But
either fire, or breath, or swift air, or starry heaven, or torrential water,
or the celestial lights, cosmic lords, they accounted gods. 3 If through
delight in the beauty of these things they took them to be gods, let
them know how much superior is the Master of these things, for it was
the primal author of beauty who created them. 4 if it was through
amazement at their dynamic operations, let them apprehend from
these how much more powerful is he who shaped them. For from
the greatness and beauty of created things, is their author correspond­
ingly perceived. Yet little blame attaches to these, for they too per­
haps err in spite of their search for God and their desire to find him.
7 For they are engaged in searching out his works, and are persuaded
by visual impressions, since what they see is beautiful. 8 Yet even they
are not to be excused, 9 for if they were so resourceful as to be able
to infer the 'Universe,' how is it they did not sooner discover the
master of these things?
5
6
NOTES
13-15. "From Herodotus onwards," writes Nock, "ancient historians
were fond of digressions and one type was the retrospect giving the ante­
cedents of the situation of the moment" (1972:860). Polybius defended
his regular use of digression as follows: "For hard workers find a sort of
rest in change of the subjects which absorb and interest them. And this, I
think, is why the most thoughtful of ancient writers were in the habit of
248
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXVI
giving their readers a rest in the way I say, some of them employing di­
gressions dealing with myth or story and others digressions on matters of
fact" (38.6.1).
13:1-9. The theme of Egyptian animal worship with which chap. 12 has
ended, now leads the author to a long excursus on idol worship. The
major components of his account are clearly discernible in the analogous
passages of Philo (Decal. 52ff; Spec. I.l3ff; Cont. 3$; Congr. 133), and
although it may be that both derive from a common Jewish-Hellenistic
apologetic tradition, it is equally likely that the one is direcdy dependent
on the other. (See Ricken 1968:54-86; cf. P. Wendland, Die Therapeuten
und die philonische Schrift vom beschaulichen Leben [Leipzig, 1896]
706-708; Geffcken, 1907). The striking similarities between them may be
briefly summarized. Both provide a sharp distinction between the worship
of the natural elements or the celestial bodies and that of manufactured
idols or animals [thus following a Stoic schema which distinguished three
forms of religious worship: the mythical or genos mythikon, the philosoph­
ical or genos physikon, and the legislative or genos nomikon: Augustine
Civ.Dei 6.10; SVF 2. 1009. Aristobulus also mentions this threefold
schema: FPG: 217, 20-25. See K. Praechter, Die Philosophic des Alterturns (Basel, Stuttgart, 1957) 477; Pepin: 276]}. The Stoic schema is an
expansion of Prodicus' twofold theory of the origins of cult: cf. A. Henrichs, HSCP 79 (1975): 109-113)], and indicate that the offense of the
former is less than that of the latter, although it is not to be excused
(Decal. 66; Wisd 13:6-10; cf. EpJer. 59-63). The nature worshipers
(from Philo Decal. 54, it is clear that it is the Stoics who are being re­
ferred to) are afflicted with a fundamental ignorance or error (Spec.
1.15; Decal. 52, 59, 69; Wisd 13:1; 15:14), and misled by the beauty and
dynamic operations of nature, they have failed to draw the proper analogy
which would have revealed to them the Charioteer or Prime Author of its
marvels (Decal. 60-61; Spec. 1.14-20; Wisd 13:3-5). The manufacturers
of idols, on the other hand, worship wood and stone but recently shape­
less, hewn away from their congenital structure by quarrymen and wood­
cutters, while pieces from the same original source have become urns and
footbasins and other less honorable vessels (Cont. 7; Wisd 15:7$;
13:11$). Moreover, sculptors and painters have idealized their subjects,
thereby beguiling the senses of the multitudes and deceiving them. The
utter absurdity of image worship is easily discerned from the fact that it
entails the worship of what is soulless or dead by those who are endowed
with soul, and the addressing of prayers to creations inferior to the crafts­
men who made them (Cont. 69; Wisd 15:17; 13:17-19; 14:18-20). It
should be noted that the author presents the three forms of false worship
in the form of a klimaks: the nature worshipers are described as mataioi or
13:1-9
MINDLESS
NATURE
WORSHIP
249
mindless (13:1), the idolaters as takuporoi or wretched (13:10), and the
Egyptian animal worshipers as aphronestatoi or most foolish of all
(15:14). Finally, there is a description of the vast damage or corruption
caused by idolatry and a depiction of the Egyptians as worshipers of ir­
rational animals who are most hateful or of the utmost savagery (Decal.
66; Wisd 14:12,21,27; Decal. 78; Wisd 15:18). It will be apparent from
the commentary that in this long excursus the author has followed cer­
tain well-known biblical patterns, but has freely made use of Hellenistic
and more especially Jewish-Hellenistic themes.
13:1. mindlessness. mataioi often characterizes the idols in the LXX,
translating Hebrew hebel: e.g. Jer 2:5; 8:19; 10:15; II Kings 17:15. Less
frequently it characterizes those who made them: e.g. Isa 44:9; Ps 62:10.
Cf. Ps-Aristeas 138, 134; Sib Or 3:29; III Mace 6:11; Rom 1:21. The ad­
jective denotes emptiness and nothingness. See Bauerfeind, TDNT 4.
525-528.
[inherently] ignorant. Cf. 12:10; Philo Decal. 59: adidakto te physei;
Jos. 81; Plato Sophista 267B (where gnosis is contrasted with agnosia).
Cf. also Job 35:16: mataios anoigei to stoma, en agnosia rhemata barynei;
I Cor 15:34.
the Existent One. ton onta is derived from Exod 3:14: ego eimi ho on.
Cf. Jer 1:6, 14:13, 39:17, LXX; Sib Or 1:137; Rev 1:4, 8; 4:8. See J.
Whittaker. "Moses Atticizing," Phoenix 21 (1967) 196-201. In contrast
to Philo who makes frequent use of both the personal ho on and the imper­
sonal to on, Wisd employs only the former (cf. Philo Mos. 1.75: La 2.1;
Post. 168, 28; Abr. 80. See Leisegang's Index in NOTE on 11:15, above).
from visible goods. Philo similarly writes: "They suppose that there is
no invisible and conceptual cause (aoraton kai noeton aition) outside
what the senses perceive" (Decal. 59-60). Cf. Rom 1:20: "Ever since the
creation of the world his invisible nature, namely, his eternal power and
deity, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made. So
they are without excuse (anapologetous)." (See v. 8 below.)
nor recognize. For ouk ischysan eidenai, cf. Philo Decal. 60: ischysan
theasasthai.
Artificer, technitis is applied to Wisdom in 8:6. The title 'craftsman' or
'artificer' is never used of God in the Hebrew Bible, although the image of
the divine potter is well known (and technites is used of a potter in C. C.
Edgar, Zenon Papyri, 4 vols. (1925-31) 500.2.3: third century B C E ) . On
the other hand, the Stoics had defined physis as "an artistically working
fire, going on its way to create" (pyr technikon hodd badizon eis genesin.
D.L. 7.156; cf. SVF 2. 411; 1.120), and Anaxagoras' nous is called tech­
nites (DK, A.46, line 6 ) . In Philo, technites is very frequently applied to
God (Deus 30; LA 3.99, 102; Op. 20, 135; Cher. 32, 128; Plant. 31; etc.;
cf. Heb 11:10). A very similar argument to that found in this verse may
250
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXVI
be found in Epictetus 1.6.7: "Assuredly from the very structure of all
made objects we are accustomed to prove that the work is certainly the
product of some artificer (technitou tinos) and has not been constructed
at random. Does, then, every such work reveal its artificer (ton techniteri),
but do visible objects (ta d'horata) and vision and light not reveal him?"
According to the Stoic view, the universe is God's fabrica, 'workshop'
(=zergasterion): Cicero ND 1.20.53.
2. For the worship of the elements, see Philo Decal. 52-53: "A great
delusion (pianos tis) has taken hold of the larger part of mankind in
regard to a fact which properly should be established beyond all ques­
tion in every mind. . . . For some have deified the four elements, earth
[for earth Wisd has substituted pneuma], water, air and fire, others
the sun, moon, planets and fixed stars, others again the heaven by itself,
others the whole world." (Cf. Cont. 3; Conf. 173; Plato Cratylus 397D:
"I think the earliest men in Greece believed only in those gods in whom
many foreigners believe today—sun, moon, earth, stars, and sky.")
swift, tachinon is poetic and late prose for tachys. Cf. Theocritus 2.7;
Callimachus Hymns 1.56; Cat.Cod.Astr. 1.137.
celestial lights, phosteras is late prose (SVF 2.1026), and is also found
in the LXX (Gen 1:14; I Esd 8:79; Sir 43:7). Cf. TestLevi 14:3; Philip
2:15.
cosmic lords, prytanis is often applied to the gods, but our author ap­
pears to be the first to apply it to the sun and moon. Philo implies the
same notion and also uses the verb prytaneuo in a similar context: "But
Moses held that the universe was created and is in a sense the greatest of
commonwealths, having magistrates (archontas) and subjects; for magis­
trates, all the heavenly bodies. . . . The said magistrates, however, in his
view have not unconditional powers, but are lieutenants of the one Father
of All, and it is by copying the example of his government exercised (prytaneuontos) according to law and justice over all created beings that they
acquit themselves aright" [the variant prytaneuontas is adopted by Heinemann, in which case it would refer to the sun and moon, but Colson
reminds us of Spec. 1.207, where prytaneuetai refers to God's governing]
(Spec. 1.13). We read in Plutarch Moralia 601A: "This [the boundless
aether] is the boundary of our native land, and here no one is either exile
or foreigner or alien; here are the same fire, water, and air, the same mag­
istrates (archontes) and procurators (dioiketai) and councillors (prytaneis)—Sun, Moon, and Morning Star." This citation from Plutarch, as
Gilbert has pointed out, makes it more than likely that prytaneis kosmou
in our verse is not to be taken in apposition with theous but rather with
phosteras ouranou (1973:17-20). Cf. Gen 1:16, LXX: eis archas tes
hemeras; Cicero Somnium Scripionus De Re Publica 6.17) (where the sun
is called the lord, chief, and ruler of the other lights).
13:1-9
M I N D L E S S
N A T U R E
W O R S H I P
251
3. The argument of w . 3-5 is compressed. The author appears to be
saying that from the beauty and power of the universe we could both read­
ily deduce the existence of the Designer and First Cause of all things, and
equally come to realize how vastly superior he is to all that he has
created.
primal author of beauty, genesiarches is first attested here. Used of the
sun by Julianus Laodicensis in Cat.Cod.Astr. 1.136.2 (and occurs again
in Patristic Greek). For kallous, cf. Sir 43:9: "The beauty (kallos) of the
heaven, the glory of the stars"; 43:11: "Look upon the rainbow, and
praise him that made it, very beautiful it is in the brightness thereof'; Plotinus 1.6.9.42: "but the Good is that which is beyond, the spring and ori­
gin of beauty." Philo Spec. 3.189: "The mind, drawn by its love of knowl­
edge and beauty and charmed by the marvellous spectacle, came to the
reasonable conclusion that all these were not brought together automat­
ically by unreasoning forces, but by the mind of God."
4. amazement. Philo uses virtually the same word (ekplagentes) in a
similar context: "Struck with admiration and astonishment (thaumasantes
kai kataplagentes) they arrived at a conception according with what they
beheld, that surely all these beauties (kaile) and this transcendent order
has not come into being automatically but by the handiwork of an archi­
tect and world maker" (Praem. 42). Cf. Diodorus 1.11.1: "Now the men
of Egypt, they say, when ages ago they came into existence, as they looked
up at the firmament and were struck with both awe and wonder (kataplagentas te kai thaumasontas) at the nature of the universe, conceived
that two gods were both eternal and first, namely, the sun and the moon."
(The ultimate source for the theory that religion is the result of anxiety
over celestial phenomena seems to have been Democritus. See A. Henrichs,
HSCP 79 [1975] 102-106.) Cicero ND 2.90: "So it would have been the
proper course for the philosophers, if it so happened that the first sight of
the world perplexed them (eos conturbaverat), afterwards when they had
seen its definite and regular motions, and all its phenomena controlled by
fixed system and unchanging uniformity, to infer the presence not merely
of an inhabitant of this celestial and divine abode, but also of a ruler and
governor, the architect as it were of this mighty and monumental struc­
ture."
dynamic operations. Cf. NOTE on 7:17; M. Aurel. 12.28: "So then from
the continual proofs of their power (tes dynameds auton) I am assured
that Gods also exist"; SVF 2.311: "So then the power (dynamis) which
moves matter and subjects it to ordered forms of generation and change is
eternal. Consequently this power will be God"; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo
398b21; SVF 2. 318, 848; CH 10.22; 1.14; II Mace 3:29.
5. greatness and beauty. Cf. SVF 2. 1009: "The world is beautiful. This
is evident from its shape, color, and magnitude (tou megethous), and the
252
THE
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SOLOMON
§ XXVI
diversity (poikilias) of the stars surrounding it"; Xenophon Cyropaedia
8.7'.22: "then at least fear the gods, eternal, all-seeing, omnipotent, who
keep this ordered universe together, unimpaired, ageless, unerring, inde­
scribable in its beauty and its grandeur (hypo kaious kai megethous adiegeton)"; Cicero ND 2.93: "This elaborate and beautiful world." Plotinus
5.1.4.1$: "Admiring the world of sense as we look out upon its vastness
and beauty (to megethos kai to kallos) and the order of its eternal march,
thinking of the gods within it, seen and hidden, and the celestial spirits and
all the life of animal and plant, let us mount to its archetype, to the yet
more authentic sphere"; Iamblichus De Vita Pythagorica 12.59. Cf. also
Ps-Aristeas 56.
author (genesiourgos). First attested here. Cf. CH 13.4; Julian Contra
Galilaeos 100c.
correspondingly. The adverb analogos is rare. Cf. Sext. Pyrrhoneae Hypotyposes 1.88; Alex.Aphr. In Metaphysica 156.5. Virtually the same
term, however, is employed by Philo in a somewhat similar context: "For
I am straightway compelled to think of the artificer of all this texture as
the inventor of the variegator's science (poikiltikes epistemis), and I do
homage to the inventor, I prize the invention, I am dumbfounded (katapeplegmai) at the result, and that though I am incapable of seeing even
the smallest part of it, but from the part brought within the range of my vi­
sion, if indeed it has been brought, I form in detail a conjecture about the
whole on the strength of what analogy leads me to expect (to holon eikazon anaiogias elpidi) (Somn. 1.204)." Moreover, at Decal. 60, in a con­
text more similar to that of Wisd here, Philo speaks of the soul as some­
thing from which one can by analogy (kata metabasin) form a concept of
God. It is more elaborately stated in Abr. 71$: "The great is often known
by its outlines as shown in the smaller, and by looking at them the observer
finds the scope of his vision infinitely enlarged. . . . For it cannot be that
while in yourself there is a mind appointed as your ruler . . . the world,
the fairest (kalliston), and greatest (megiston), and most perfect work of
a l l . . . is without a king who holds it together . . . that the king is invisi­
ble need not cause you wonder, for neither is the mind in yourself visible"
(cf. Xenophon Cyropaedia 8.7.17: "for not even in this life have you seen
my soul, but you have detected its existence by what it accomplished"; PsAristotle De Mundo 399M5). Although it is a feature of Plato's style to
confirm by analogies the conclusions arrived at through a process of dia­
lectic (e.g. Rep. 442E$; 433E; Philebus 55A; 64D$; Laws 903B; Gorgias
497D; Phaedo 78B$; Alcibiades I 116B: see P. Shorey, What Plato Said
[Chicago, 1933] 173, 528; P. Grenet, Les origines de I'analogie philosophique dans les dialogues de Platon [Paris, 1948]), it is only with
Epicurus that argument from analogy becomes a fundamental principle of
philosophical method. According to Sextus Empiricus (Math. 9.45), the
13:1-9
MINDLESS
NATURE
WORSHIP
253
Epicureans in general made use of analogy (metabasis or analogia: Epi­
curus Peri Physeds 26.30.2-3, Arrighetti; D.L. 10.32) to explain our
knowledge of the gods. We form an idea that God is immortal and im­
perishable and complete in happiness by drawing an analogy from man­
kind {kata ten apo ton anthropon metabasin). (See J. M. Rist, Epicurus
[Cambridge, 1972] 143.) For the Stoic use of analogy, see SVF 2.87, 269.
(They did not apply it, however, to knowledge of God.) The Middle
Platonist Albinus also speaks of knowledge of God kata analogian (Did.
10.5, Louis). See also H. Lyttkens, The Analogy Between God and the
World (Uppsala, 1953).
perceived (theoreitai). Cf. Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 399b22: "because
though he is invisible (atheoretos) to every mortal thing he is seen
through his deeds (ap' auton ton ergon theoreitai)." The author of Wisd
has here reproduced the teleological and cosmological arguments for the
existence of God which had already been elaborated by Plato, Aristotle,
and the Stoa. For the teleological argument, see Diogenes of Apollonia,
DK, B.3; Plato Laws 886A; Philebus 28E; Aristotle Frag. 12a, Ross;
Cicero ND 2.37-39, 15-19; Epictetus 1.6; Ps-Aristotle De Mundo
399b-400a; Xenophon Mem. 1.4.2-19; Seneca Beneficiis 4.6; Albinus
Did. c.10; Apuleius De Mundo 22, 24, 35; Galen, De Usu Partium 17.1;
1.8; CH 5.5-8, 11, 6-14. Philo similarly expounds the teleological proof
(LA 3.97-103; Praem. 41-42; Spec. 1.33$; 3.187-189; QG 2.34). For
the cosmological argument, see Plato Tim. 28AC; Laws 891-899; Aris­
totle Metaphysica 9.8.1049b24$; 12.7.1072b$; Philo Fug. 12; Post. 28,
167 ("from the powers that range the universe, and from the constant and
ceaseless motion of his ineffable works"); Mut. 54. See A. S. Pease, "Caeli
Enarrant," HTR 34:3 (1941) 163-200. Jubilees 12:17 implies that
Abraham arrived at the knowledge of the existence of God through celes­
tial observations. (It is not quite clear whether the "word which came into
his heart" is a divine revelation or the voice of his own reason.) Accord­
ing to Josephus (Ant. 1.7.1), he inferred it "from the changes to which
land and sea are subject, from the course of the sun and moon, and from
all the celestial phenomena; for, he argued, were these bodies endowed
with power, they would have provided for their own regularity (eutaksias), but, since they lacked this last, it was manifest that even those
services in which they cooperate for our greater benefit they render not in
virtue of their own authority, but through the might of their commanding
sovereign." Indeed, Hecataeus of Abdera, by attributing to Moses the
teaching that identified God with the Heaven that surrounds the earth (ton
periechonta ten gen ouranon) and rules the universe (Stern 1976:28),
thereby implied that Moses came to a knowledge of God's existence by
studying the heavens.
6. little blame. Philo makes the very same distinction: "But while all who
254
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ XXVI
give worship and service to sun and moon and the whole heaven and uni­
verse or their chief parts as gods most undoubtedly err by magnifying the
subject above the ruler, their offense is less than that of the others who
have given shape to stocks and stones and silver and gold" (Decal. 66).
The reluctance of our author to attach much blame to the natureworshipers, without, however, completely excusing them, since they ought
to have advanced further than they did, is somewhat reminiscent of Philo's
attitude toward the 'literalists' whom he would not censure (ouk an aitiasamenos) though he would exhort them not to remain at the 'literalist'
level but press on to allegorical interpretations (Conf. 190). Heinemann
(1968:148) traces the distinction made here back to Posidonius, but
though this may well be correct, the evidence for it is inconclusive.
search for God and their desire to find him. That which softens the au­
thor's censure of those who worship the natural elements as gods is their
genuine search for the deity (cf. Acts 17:26-27). A similar sentiment is
voiced by Philo in regard to the so-called 'Heaven-born,' who, unlike the
God-born, reach only to either of the two polar principles of the Divine
Logos but not to the one Logos itself. "God cannot suffer injury," writes
Philo, "and therefore he gladly invites all who set themselves to honor him
under any form whatsoever, and in his eyes none such deserves rejec­
tion. . . . For, however different are the characters which produce in
them the impulses to do my pleasure, no charge (ouk aitiateon) shall be
brought against them, since they have one aim and object to serve me"
(Abr. 124-30; Gig. 47-60; Deus 60-69; cf. the four different types of
devotees in the Bhagavad Gita 7.16-19). Similarly, we may recall the
beautiful verses of the Jewish philosopher and poet Ibn Gabirol (eleventh
century) in his famous poem The Royal Crown: "Thou art God, and all
creatures are thy servants and worshipers; and thy glory is undiminished
in spite of those who worship aught save thee—for the aim of all is to
reach unto thee. But they are as blind ones, their faces are set eagerly on
the King's Highway, but they have lost their way" (stanza 8). In Islam,
the Ikhwan As-Safa (tenth century) held that there was an element of
truth in every religion, and therefore believed that everyone should be left
free to embrace the religion he chooses (Rasa' il, 3:86-90; 4:54-65). This
trend of thought had already been a distinctive characteristic of the
Bhagavad Gita (between fifth and second centuries B C E ) . The Supreme
Being, according to the Hindu view, permits and takes benign delight in all
the different illusions that beset the beclouded mind of man: "Whatever
form [whatever God], a devotee with faith desires to honor, that very faith
do I confirm in him [making it] unswerving and secure. Firm-established
in that faith he seeks to reverence that [god] and thence he gains his
desires, though it is I who am the true dispenser" (7.21-22, trans.
Zaehner [Oxford, 1969]). Cf. the remark of Maximus of Tyre (second
century C E ) : "If a Greek is stirred to the remembrance of God by the art
13:1-9
MINDLESS
NATURE
WORSHIP
255
of Phidias, an Egyptian by paying worship to animals, another man by a
river, another by fire—I have no anger for their divergences; only let
them know, let them love, let them remember" (2:10; p. 29.9 Hobein).
7. persuaded by visual impressions. The nature-worshipers are overly
impressed by what is visible, whereas the ultimate reality is invisible. Plato
has given us a very vivid description of the so-called "Battle of Gods and
Giants": "One party is trying to drag everything down to earth out of
heaven and the unseen, literally grasping rocks and trees in their hands;
for they lay hold upon every stock and stone and strenuously affirm that
real existence belongs only to that which can be handled and offers resist­
ance to the touch. . . . Their adversaries are very wary in defending their
position somewhere in the heights of the unseen, maintaining with all their
force that true reality consists in certain intelligible and bodiless Forms. In
the clash of argument they shatter and pulverize those bodies which their
opponents wield, and what those others allege to be true reality they call,
not real being, but a sort of moving process of becoming" (Sophista
246AB. The materialists to whom Plato is referring are undoubtedly the
Atomists). Cf. Philo Abr. 69: "Thus they [the Chaldeans] glorified visible
existence (ten horaten ousian), leaving out of consideration the intelligible
and invisible"; Testament of Orpheus 4-5 (FPG: 164): "Let not the
[natural] appearances which formerly filled your mind deprive you of
dear life, but look unto the Divine Logos and wait upon Him." Our au­
thor, of course, may simply be referring to the invisible nature of the deity
which is thus missed. On the other hand, he has indeed vaguely alluded to
an ideal or intelligible reality. In 9:8 he hinted at a primordial form of the
holy tabernacle, and in 9:9 he referred to the preexistent Wisdom of God,
which presumably contained the paradigmatic forms of all things ("Wis­
dom who knows your works"). In the manner of Philo, and very likely
other Middle Platonists, he may have transferred the realm of Platonic
'Forms' to the Mind of God. There is frequent mention in II Enoch of the
creation of "visible things from invisible" (24:2; 30:10; 48:5; 51:5;
65:1,6), but the sources of that book appear to be primarily Iranian
rather than Greek (see Winston 1966:199). Cf. also Joseph and Asenath
12:2: "Lord God of the ages . . . who brought the invisible (ta aorata)
out into the light, who made all things and made manifest things that did
not appear (phanerosas ta aphane)"; Heb 11:3.
searching out (diereundsih). The active form of diereundsin appears
only once in Plato (Sophista 241B), where it means 'to track down.' In
its more general sense of 'search,' 'examine,' it appears only in late
prose (CH 8.25; Julian Orationes 7.222c). It is quite frequent in Philo
(Plant. 79: hoi ten ton onton physin diereunontes; Ebr. 165; Congr 63;
Mos. 1.10; Spec. 1.8, 283; 3.117; Virt. 27; Praem. 26: ten horaten hotan
hapasin physin diereunese . . . pros ten asomaton kai noeten euthys meteisin; e t c ) .
256
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXVI
8. to be excused. When used of persons syngnostos appears only in late
prose (Philostratus VS 1.8.3; Plutarch Coriolanus 36; Philo Jos. 53:
syngnostos . . . tes agon apaideusias). Lieberman has pointed out that the
rabbis were more lenient toward the worshipers of the astral bodies than
to those who adored other objects (1950:138, n.8).
9. to infer the 'Universe. I.e. after inferring the existence of a 'Uni­
verse,' they need only have gone one step further to infer the Creator of
this 'Universe.' (Cf. Smith 1949:287-290). Philo similarly writes: "For
they have learned to rise above the ninth, the seeming deity, the world of
sense, and to worship Him who is in very truth God, who stands above as
the tenth" (Congr. 103-105). At Praem. 43, Philo speaks of those who
apprehend God through his works as advancing from down to up by a sort
of heavenly ladder (cf. Plato Symp. 211C) and conjecturing (stochasamenoi ton demiourgoh) his existence through plausible inference. Even
more to the point is Philo's explanation as to why the heavenly bodies
were not created until the fourth day: "For being aware beforehand of the
ways of thinking that would mark the men of future ages, how they would
be intent on what looked probable and plausible (stochastca ton eikoton
kai pithanon), with much in it that could be supported by argument, but
would not aim at sheer truth; and how they would trust phenomena rather
than God, admiring sophistry more than wisdom; and how they would ob­
serve in time to come the circuits of sun and moon . . . and would sup­
pose that the regular movements of the heavenly bodies are the causes of
all things that year by year come forth. . . . That there might be none
who owing either to shameless audacity or to overwhelming ignorance
should venture to ascribe the first place to any created thing, 'let them,'
said He, 'Go back in thought to the original creation of the universe,
when, before sun or moon existed, the earth bore plants of all sorts' . . ."
(Op. 45). Cf. Op. 58: ta apobesomena stochazontai ("men conjecture fu­
ture issues"); Her. 224; Mos. 1.16; Sir 9:14. Augustine makes the same
point in regard to Varro: "When he says that only those who believe
God to be the soul which governs the world have discovered that he really
is, and when he thinks that worship is more devout without images, who
can fail to see how near he comes to the truth! If he had the strength to
resist so ancient an error, assuredly he would have held that one God
should be worshiped, by whom the world is governed, and worshiped
without an image. And being found so near the truth, he might perhaps
have yielded easily to correction in regard to the mutability of the soul, so
that he would perceive that the true God is rather an unchanging being,
who also created the soul itself" (Civ.Dei 4.31).
9
For aidn as 'world,' cf. Hippocrates Epistulae 17.34; Aelius Aristides
20.13K=21, 434D; Maximus of Tyre 115e; Exod 15:18, LXX. The word
recurs at 14:16 and 18:4 below. "The sense of aidn as 'time or course of
13:1-9
M I N D L E S S
N A T U R E
W O R S H I P
257
the world' can easily pass over into that of the 'world' itself. Cf. Mark
4:19; I Cor 1:30; 2:6; 3:19. The equation of aion and kosmos, also found
in the Hellenistic mysteries (Ditt Syll* 1125, 8 ) , is to be explained in the
New Testament by Jewish linguistic usage. Only at a later stage did He­
brew develop the concept of the universe, and for it, in addition to the
paraphrase 'heaven and earth,' it fashioned the terms hakkol and 'oldm. In
IV Ezra the spatial significance is just as definite as the temporal, as in
expressions like habitantes saeculum (3:9), or qui in saeculo seminati
sunt (8:41). Both meanings are also found in the Greek version of Syriac
Baruch (II Baruch). In the rabbinic writings there is only sparse attesta­
tion for '61am or 'alma' in the sense of the spatial world prior to the first
century CE, but there are several examples later. The plural aiones shares
the change of meaning. Hence the aiones of Heb 1:2 and 11:3 are to be
understood spatially as 'worlds' or 'spheres'" (TDNT 1. 203-204. The
author of this article, Sasse, however, takes Wisd 13:9 to mean "to search
out the course of the world"; 14:6: "left seed to the later time of the
world"; 18:4: "to the course of the world"). LSJ take stochasasthai here
to mean 'survey', 'explore' (as in Deut 19:3, LXX). The author of
Wisd may also be alluding here to the Hellenistic deity Aion, god of Eter­
nity, whose mysteries are known to have been celebrated in Alexandria
from about 200 B C E (Ps-Callisthenes 1.30.6; 1.33.2; Epiphanius Panavion 51.22). "A late inscription dedicated to Zeus Helios Great Sarapis
Aion illustrates the syncretistic development of the Sarapis figure. Aion was
also equated with Sarapis on an amulet addressed to Aion Herpetes Lord
Sarapis. Before the second century CE, Aion was more a flexible philo­
sophical concept than a well-defined god with established cults—Nock
listed eight distinct conceptions, starting with Plato's, through various
Orphic and magical interpretations, ending with the establishment of a cult
of Aion as a personal god, at Alexandria in the second century CE.
Pseudo-Callisthenes (1.30.6; 1.33.2) called Sarapis 'Plutonian Eternity,
himself ruling on the five-ridged peaks of Alexandria and turning round
the endless cosmos'" (John E. Stambaugh, Sarapis under the Early
Ptolemies [Leiden 1972] 84-85; Nock 1972:375-400; Festugiere 1950 4.
152-199). More important is Philo's report that "time is considered a god
by the wicked among men, who would conceal the really existing One. For
which reason Scripture says, 'The time of all mankind has come against
me,' inasmuch as they made a god of human time and oppose it to the true
God" (QG 1.100). (For the philosophical sources of the concept of aion,
see Plato Tim. 37D#; Parmenides DK, B.8.5; Aristotle De Caelo
283b26#;279a23#).
XXVII. W R E T C H E D WOODEN-IMAGE MAKING
(13:10-14:11)
13
1° But wretched are they and on dead things are their hopes,
who designated as gods the works of human hands, gold and silver
artfully contrived, and animal representations, or useless stone, a
product of ancient craftsmanship. H F o r granting some skilled
worker in wood has sawn a ready tree, skillfully scraped off all the
bark, and with cunning art shaped a vessel for everyday use, i while
the castings of his manufacture he used up for the preparation of his
food and had his fill. 13 But taking one of these useless castings, a
crooked piece of wood streaked with knots, he diligently carved it in
his spare moments, fashioned it with leisurely skill and made it into
the likeness of a human image; 14 or else he likened it to a worthless
creature, coating it with vermilion, dyeing its surface red, and smear­
ing over every blemish in it. 1 Then making for it a worthy shrine, he
fixed it in a wall and secured it with iron, 16 thus taking precautions
that it might not fall, in the knowledge that it is powerless to fend for
itself, for it is an image and in need of help. Yet praying to it about
his possessions, his marriage, and his children, he feels no shame in
addressing this lifeless object; for health he invokes that which is fee­
ble; i for life he prays to a corpse, for succor he beseeches one to­
tally inexperienced, for a journey, that which is incapable of using its
legs; 19 for means of livelihood, business, and success of his handi­
work, he asks for strength from that whose hands are entirely impo­
tent.
14
1 Again, one setting out on a voyage and about to travel
through savage seas, cries out for aid to a piece of wood more un­
sound than the craft that carries him. For the latter was invented by
the drive to obtain a livelihood, and Wisdom the Artificer built it.
But it is your providence, Father, that pilots it, for you have made a
road through the sea and a safe path through the waves, 4 showing
that you can save from all, so that even without [navigational] skill a
man may put to sea. It is your will that the works of your wisdom
2
5
1 7
g
2
3
5
13:10-14:11
259
WRETCHED WOODEN-IMAGE MAKING
not lie idle; and therefore men trust their lives to the flimsiest plank,
and passing through the surf on a raft come safely through. 6 For in
the beginning, too, while haughty giants were perishing, the hope of
the world escaped on a raft and, piloted by your hand, bequeathed to
the world the germ for a [new] generation. For blessed is the plank
through which righteousness has survived; but the idol made by
hand is itself accursed and he that made it—he because he made it,
the other because, though perishable, it was called a god. For
equally hateful to God are both the godless man and his godlessness;
i°both the deed and the perpetrator will be punished, n Divine
judgment will therefore also overtake the idols of the nations, for
though part of God's creation they have become an abomination, a
stumbling for men, and a snare for the feet of fools.
7
8
9
NOTES
13:10. dead things. Cf. Ps 105:28, LXX; EpJer. 21: "but the offerings
are set before them, as if they were dead men (hosper nekrois)."
the works of human hands. Cf. Deut 4:28; Ps 115:4.
contrived (emmeletema). First attested here. Cf. AP 6.83.
representations (apeikasmata). Elsewhere only in Plato Cratylus 402D;
420C.
useless stone. Cf. Euripides Iphigenia in Taurus 911 \ Acts 19:35;
Pausanias 1.44.2; 2.9.6; 10.24.6; 9.24.3 ("There [in Hyettus] is an image
not carefully carved, but of unwrought stone after the ancient fashion":
lithon de argon kata to archaion); Tacitus Historiae 2.3. See Albert
(M.-J.) Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions semitiques (Paris, 1905):
158-216; H. Vincent, Canaan d'aprte
Vexploration r&cente
(1907): 102-123; 144#. Philo of Byblos defined the bethels (in Greek
transliteration: baityl) (rough stones regarded as the residence of a god)
as lithoi empsychoi or 'animate stones' (FGH 790, f2=Eusebius PE
1.10.23). "They became in time the origin both of altars and of iconic
statues, passing through gradations of rude shaping. At first unshaped sin­
gle rocks or cairns, we find them developed in the majority of earlier
Aegean cult-scenes into pillars, monolithic or built up" (ERE 1.143).
Aphrodite Astarte was worshiped in the shape of a conical stone at
Paphos, and a black aerolite covered with projections and depressions to
which a symbolic meaning was attributed represented Elagabal (the Baal
of Emesa in Syria) and was transferred from Emesa to Rome by the four-
260
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvn
teen-year-old Emperor Elagabalus in 219 (Dio Cassius 79; S.H.A. Heliogabalus; cf. Dio Chrysostomus 12.61: asemous lithous; F. Cumont, Orien­
tal Religions in Roman Paganism [New York, 1956] 114-116; F.
Lenormant, in Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquitis
grecques et romaines d'apres les textes et les monuments [1877-1919] s.v.
Baetylia: 642-647). See also Carl F. Graesser, "Standing Stones in An­
cient Palestine," BA 35 (1972) 34-63. For further bibliography, see
Nock (1966):xlviii, n.47. The animate quality mentioned by Philo of
Byblos was magnetism, very common in meteorites (T. Hopfner, "Lithika," PW, X n i [1927]:756-757; see also W. Gundel, "Sternschnuppen,"
PW, IIIA [1929]:2439-2449). According to J. Goldstein, Antiochus IV
had ordered meteorites to be affixed to the temple altar as objects to be
worshiped (see his edition of I Maccabees, AB 41 [New York, 1976]
145#); cf. also Pausanias 7.22.4: "[At Pharae in Achaia, close to the
image of Hermes], stand square stones, about thirty in number. These the
people of Pharae adore, calling each by the name of some god. At a more
remote period all the Greeks alike worshiped uncarved stones instead of
images of the gods" (cf. J. G. Frazer, Pausanias* Description of Greece
(London, 1898) 4 . 1 5 4 ) ; Lucian Alexander 30.
11. The apodosis of ei de kai tis is found only at the end of v. 13. Verses
11-19 are inspired by Isa 44:9-20 (see Gilbert 1973:64-75). Cf. Jer
10:3; EpJer.; Archias AP 10.8 (on a rough-hewn image of Priapus, pa­
tron of fishermen): "Small to look at, I, Priapus, dwell on the breakwater
by the beach, head pointed, feet wanting, such as the sons of toiling fisher­
men might carve on deserted shores. Yet if any fisher with net or line calls
me to help him, swifter than the wind I rush . . . truly it is from their
deeds, not from their shapes that the character which spirits have is recog­
nized" {The Garland of Philip, eds. A. S. F. Gow and D. L. Page [Cam­
bridge, 1968] 1. 418-419); Horace Satirae 1.8.1: "Once I was a fig-wood
stem, a worthless log, when the carpenter, doubtful whether to make a
stool or a Priapus, chose that I be a god."
some skilled worker in wood. The tis in tis hylotomos tekton is scornful
—any common workman (Farrar [1888]).
has sawn (ekprisas). More precisely, "after sawing down one tree out of
a number" (Grimm; Farrar).
a ready tree, eukineton means 'easily moved,' i.e. easy to handle or man­
age.
a vessel for everyday use. For chresimon skeuos, cf. EpJer. 59: "It is
better to be a vessel in a house profitable (ei skeuos en oikia chresimon)
for that whereof the owner shall have need, than such false gods." For
the literary structure of w . 11-19, see Gilbert 1973:55-63.
12. castings, apoblemata is first attested here. Cf. Scholia on Aris­
tophanes Equites 412.
13:10-14:11
261
WRETCHED WOODEN-IMAGE MAKING
for the preparation of his food and had his fill. Cf. Isa 44:16, LXX;
Apoc. Abraham 5: Abraham is commanded by his father: "Take and
collect the splinters of the wood out of which I made gods of pinewood
before thou earnest; and make ready for me the food of the midday meal."
While collecting the splinters Abraham finds a little god called Barisat
(probably bar 'ishta, 'son of fire') and throws him too into the fire with in­
structions to pay careful attention that the fire not die down until he re­
turns. Cf. Deut.R., Lieberman: 56; Mek. Bahodesh, on Exod 20:3: "R.
Eliezer says: 'Other God'—For every day they make for themselves new
gods. How so? If one has an idol of gold and then needs the gold, he
makes the idol of silver. If he has one of silver and then needs the silver,
he makes the idol of copper . . ."; Clem.Alex. (Prot. 4.46) similarly
writes: "Dionysius the tyrant, the younger, having stripped off the golden
mantle from the statue of Jupiter in Sicily, ordered him to be clothed in a
wooden one, remarking facetiously that the latter was better than the
golden one, being lighter in summer and warmer in winter. And Antiochus
of Cyzicus, being in difficulties for money, ordered the golden statue of
Zeus to be melted, and one like it, of less valuable material, plated with
gold, to be erected in place of it"; cf. 2.24: "Another, taking an image of
Herakles made of wood (for he happened most likely to be cooking some­
thing at home), said, Come now, Herakles; now is the time to undergo for
us this thirteenth labor . . . and so cast it into the fire as a log of wood";
Epicharmus Frag. 77, Olivieri.
13. streaked with knots. For sympephykos. Cf. Philo Cont. 7: tes
symphyias.
carved it. For eglypsen. Cf. Isa 44:9-10; Hab 2:18, LXX.
and made it into the likeness of a human image: or else he likened it
. . . For apeikasen auto eikoni anthropou . . . homoiosen auto. Cf. Deut
4:16, LXX: glypton homoioma pasan eikona; Isa 40:18,19; Gen 1:26,
LXX.
14. coating it with vermilion. Cf. Sib Or 3.589 (miltochrista); Pliny the
Elder NH 33.36; Pausanias 2.2.6 (the faces of the wooden images of
Dionysus are ornamented with red paint); Virgil Eel. 10.26-27 ; Ovid
Fasti 1.415; Tibullus 2.1.55; Herodotus 4.19. See E. Wunderlich, Die
Bedeutung der roten Farbe im Kultus der Griechen und Romer (Giessen,
1925); J. G. Griffiths, "The Symbolism of Red in Egyptian Religion," Ex
Orbe Religionum (Leiden, 1972) 1.81-90.
15. with iron. Cf. Isa 41:7; 40:19-20, LXX; Jer 10:4.
16. might not fall. Cf. EpJer. 27; Isa 46:7.
17. praying to it. Cf. Isa 44:17, LXX; Philo Decal. 72.
lifeless object. Cf. Ps 134:17. Criticism of images as lifeless is already
implied in the famous utterance of Heraclitus, DK, B.5. Timaeus of
Tauromenium used the adjective apsychos as a term of reproach for statr
262
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ xxvn
ues of the gods (FGH 566, F 32). Philo similarly writes: "Let no one,
then, who has a soul worship a soulless thing (apsycho tint)" (Decal. 76).
Cf. Plato Laws 931 A: "but of other gods we set up statues as images, and
we believe that when we worship these, lifeless though they be (apsychous ontas), the living gods beyond feel great good-will towards us and
gratitude"; Epictetus 2.8.20: "And the Athena of Pheidias, when once it
had stretched out its hand and received the Nike upon it, stands in this at­
titude for all time to come, but the works of God are capable of move­
ment, have the breath of life (empnoa), can make use of external impres­
sions and pass judgment upon them." Philo LA 1.6: "For whereas things
produced by human art when finished stand still and remain as they are,
the products of divine skill, when completed, begin again to move."
It should be noted that the Egyptian view of their idols was considerably
more sophisticated than it would appear from our author's polemical de­
scription. A ritual of "opening the mouth" was performed on the statues
while they were still in the sculptor's workshop (the "gold house"), as a
result of which the work of human hands was thought to come alive. The
deity was thought to be in the heavens, and only to take up a temporary
residence in his image after the necessary rite had been performed (see S.
Morenz, Egyptian Religion [London, 1973] 155-156). Cf. Bevan,
1940:31-39; ERE 7. 144-145, 113, for other examples of rituals for the
animation of images among the Hindus, the Africans of the West Coast,
the New Zealanders, etc.; R. Wilhelm, The Soul of China (New York,
1928) 314, where it is observed that in Chinese temples the images of the
gods are ordinarily treated with no respect. "These pictures are not gods at
all. They are merely places which they enter if they are called upon in the
right way. When the god is there, then the presence in his image is a stern
and holy matter. When he is not there, then his image is a piece of wood
or clay." The Suda has preserved a fragment of Damascius which tells us
of an Alexandrian philosopher, Heraiskos (fifth century C E ) , who "had a
natural gift of discernment in regard to sacred images, whether they were
alive or not. The moment he looked at one, if it was alive, he felt a stab of
peculiar feeling go through his heart. . . . If, on the other hand, he felt no
such emotion, the image was a lifeless one, destitute of any divine spirit. It
was in this way that he knew, by what may be truly called a mystical union
with the deity, that the awful image of Aion was inhabitated by the god
whom the Alexandrians worshipped, and who is Osiris and Adonis in one"
(Bevan 1940:34-35). Still, the very notion that the idols were capable of
being vitalized through the performance of some sort of ritual would have
been sufficient to arouse our author's contempt. It may be observed that
even a philosopher like Plotinus, who would deny that a god may himself
descend into an image, could yet seek to defend the use of statues with the
following arguments: "I think, therefore, that those ancient sages, who
13:10-14:11
WRETCHED WOODEN-IMAGE
MAKING
263
sought to secure the presence of divine beings by the erection of shrines
and statues, showed insight into the nature of the All; they perceived that,
though this Soul is everywhere tractable, its presence will be secured all
the more readily when an appropriate receptacle is elaborated, a place es­
pecially capable of receiving some portion or phase of it, something
reproducing it, or representing it and serving like a mirror to catch an
image of it" (4.3.11).
17b-19. We have here a very effective series of rhetorical contrasts.
18. for succor. Pausanias speaks of Apollo epikourios (8.41.7). Cf. Dittenberger, SIG 1015, 25-35 (third century B C E ) ; Philo Flac. 191; Virt.
45. In the Hellenistic period, gods are often designated as boethoi
(Callimachus Hymns 4:27; Theocritus Idyls 22:23; Isyllus of Epidaurus
IGTV 128.60).
19. strength, eudraneia is first found here, and elsewhere only in a
Phrygian inscription of second/third centuries CE, in which vigor (eudranie) is attributed to Artemis. Cf. Ps-Aristeas 134: "Though they are
themselves much more powerful than the gods they vainly revere." Note
the double polyptoton: cheiron . . . chersin . . . adranestaton . . .
eudraneian.
2
14:1 The argument of the first two verses of chap. 14 may be stated
briefly. The idolator calls to his aid a piece of wood artlessly fashioned by
a simple woodcutter, while sailing aboard a vessel which was at least art­
fully contrived by a well-motivated shipwright. The idol whose aid is in­
voked is thus clearly inferior to the ship it is called upon to protect.
setting out on a voyage. Cf. Philo Decal. 14: hoi stellomenoi makron
ploun (stellesthai has same sense in active. Cf. Sophocles Ajax 1045;
Philoctetus 911).
cries out for aid to a piece of wood. Cf. Herodotus 3.37: "The
Phoenician Pataici which the Phoenicians carry on the prows of their
triremes" (they were in the form of dwarfs); Horace Odes 1.3.2; Acts
28:11: "We set sail on an Alexandrian ship . . . its figurehead was the
Sign of the Twins [Castor and Pollux]." (Cf. M. Nilsson, History of
Greek Religion [Oxford, 1949] 35.) Cyril of Alexandria on Acts 28:11
says it was especially an Alexandrian custom to have pictures of the twins
to right and left of the ship's prow. Cf. also Epictetus 2.18.29: "Call upon
God to help you and stand by your side, just as voyagers, in a storm, call
upon the Dioscuri"; Ovid Amores 2.11.29.
2. Antithetical notions shaped the ancients' attitude toward man's ability
to navigate the seas. The primitivists, who idealized man's early existence
and characterized it as a life of innocent bliss and carefree abundance
which was forfeited in the course of time, naturally looked askance at the
newfangled sophistication which launched men upon the open seas, and
264
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvn
attributed it to their greed. Cf. Hesiod Op. 236: "They flourish continually
with good things and do not travel on ships"; Ps-Plato Axiochus 368AB:
"for terrestrial man casts himself upon the sea as though he were an am­
phibian, entirely at the mercy of Chance"; Horace Odes 13:21-40: "Vain
was the purpose of the god in severing the lands by the estranging main, if
in spite of him our impious ships dash across the depths he meant should
not be touched. . . . Daedalus essayed the empty air on wings denied to
man. . . . No ascent is too steep for mortals. Heaven itself we seek in our
folly"; Odes 3.24.40$; Propertius 1.17.13; 3.7.31-38: "Earth was too
small for death, we have added the waves: by our craft have we enlarged
the cruel paths of fortune . . . Nature with guile hath made the sea a
path for greed"; Virgil Eel. 4.32: "yet shall some few traces of olden sin
lurk behind, to call men to essay the sea in ships"; Eel. 38-39: "even the
trader shall quit the sea, nor shall the ship of pine exchange wares, every
land shall bear all fruits"; Ovid Amores 2.11; Statius Silvae 3.2; AP 9.29
(Antiphilus sees tolma or 'audacity' as inventor of ships); Seneca Ep.
90.24$; "Reason did indeed devise all these things, but it was not right
reason. It was man, but not the wise man, that discovered them; just as
they invented ships, in which we cross rivers and seas" (cf., however, his
De Beneficiis 4.28.3: "it was to the common good that traffic on the sea
should be open to all, and that the kingdom of mankind should be en­
larged"); CH 23 (Kore Kosmou) AS. The antipodal view held that man
once lived like a wild beast, and only by a gradual ascent with the aid of
the arts achieved a more humane and abundant life. From this point of
view, seafaring is but one further step forward in man's slow ascent. Cf.
Euripides The Suppliant Women 201-213; Sophocles Antigone 332$;
"Wonders are many, and none is more wonderful than man; the power
that crosses the white sea, driven by the stormy south-wind, making a path
under surges that threaten to engulf him"; Aeschylus Prometheus Bound
467-468; Lucretius 5:330-333; TestZebulun 6 : 1 : "I was the first to
make a boat to sail upon the sea, for the Lord gave me understanding and
wisdom therein." The author of Wisd clearly follows the latter view, and
the greed or avarice which the former saw as the chief motive for seafaring
is softened by him into the drive to obtain a livelihood.
Wisdom the Artificer built it. Philo's "champions of mind" are similarly
impressed with the powers of the human mind: "It is mind which con­
structed a ship (ho naun kataskeuasas), and by devices admirable beyond
description turned what was naturally dry land into a waterway, opened
up in the sea routes whose many branches serve as highways to the havens
and roadsteads of the different states, and made the inhabitants of the
mainland and those of the islands known to each other, who would never
have met if a vessel had not been built" (Spec. 1.335). It may also be
noted that Athene, goddess of wisdom, patroness of arts and crafts, and
13:10-14:11
WRETCHED WOODEN-IMAGE MAKING
265
known in such connections by her title Ergane, 'the work-woman'
(Pausanius 1.24.3), is said to have supervised the construction of the
Argo. She is said to have inserted into its prow an oak branch from
Dodona, endowed with the power of prophecy (Apollonius Rhodius 1.
113-114; Ps-Apollodorus 1.9.16#). Cf. Aelius Aristides Oration 2: "She
[Athena] alone has the names of Craft-worker (Ergane) and Provi­
dence, having assumed the appellations which indicate her as the savior of
the whole order of things" (Bevan, 1927:160).
3. your providence . . . that pilots it. Platonic and Stoic terminology.
For diakybernad, see NOTE on 10:4. We find a similar cooperation be­
tween God and human art in the following passage of Plato: "God con­
trols all that is, and Chance and Occasion cooperate with God in the con­
trol of all human affairs. It is, however, less harsh to admit that these two
must be accompanied by a third factor, which is Art. For that the pilots'
art should cooperate with Occasion—verily I, for one, should esteem that
a great advantage" (Laws 709B). Cf. Tim. 42E; Philebus 28D; and for
pronoia: Tim. 30C, 44C; SVF 2.1157, 1107-1108, 1029; Herodotus
3.108; Xenophon Mem. 11.4.2; III Mace 4:21; IV Mace 9:24; 13:19.
Pronoia is very frequent in Philo (Op. 9: Deus 29; Decal. 58; etc.), and
even forms the subject of a special treatise (the De Providentia, preserved
only in an Armenian translation and some Greek fragments). Cf. also PsAristotle De Mundo; Jos. Ant. 10.11.7 (278); Taylor's commentary on
Tim. 42E3. Except for Wisd and II Mace 14:9, pronoia in the sense of Di­
vine Providence is absent from the LXX. See Freudenthal 1890:217.
Father. The earliest invocation of God as 'Father' is in Sir 23:1, and it
appears again in III Mace 6:3. Cf. Isa 63:15; Sir 4:10, 51:10; Tobit
13:4; Apoc. Moses 35:3; Mark 14:36; Rom 8:14-15; Gal 4:6; Apostolic
Constitutions 7:24; Jos. Ant. 2.6.8; Philo Jos. 2.65; Sacr. 68 (see Drummond 2. 63, note); BT Ta'an. 23b: "When the world was in need of
rain the Rabbis would send to him [Hanan ha-Nehba] school children
and they would take hold of the hem of his garment and say to him,
Father, Father, give us rain. Thereupon he would plead with the Holy
One, Blessed be He, Master of the Universe, do it for the sake of those
who are unable to distinguish between the Father who gives rain and the
father who does not"; 23a: "Thereupon Simeon b. Shetah sent this mes­
sage to him [Honi the Circle-Drawer], 'Were it not that you are Honi I
would have placed you under the ban . . . but what shall I do unto you
who actest petulantly before the Omnipresent and He grants you your
desire, as a son who acts petulantly before his father and he grants his
desires; thus he says to him, Father, take me to bathe in warm water, wash
me in cold water, give me nuts, almonds, peaches, and pomegranates and
he gives them unto him. Of you Scripture says, 'Let thy father and thy
mother be glad, and let her that bore thee rejoice'" (Prov 23:25). The
266
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ xxvn
invocation of the deity as 'Father* was common in Greek literature from
Homer on. Two Hellenistic examples are Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus 30,
and Aratus Phaenomena 15 (cf. Aristotle EN 8.1160b24). See Kohler,
JE 1. s.v. Abba; Marchel: 77-84, and passim. It should be noted that as in
Philo and Josephus, the term 'Father' is employed by our author in a uni­
versal context.
a road through the sea. Cf. Isa 43:16; 51:10; Ps 77:20 (alluding to the
passage through the Reed Sea: see Gilbert 1973:104-109); Ps
107:22-30; Philo Spec. 4.155: "By observing the courses of the stars he
[the skilful navigator] has been able to open up in the pathless waste
highroads where none can err, with this incredible result, that the creature
whose element is land can float his way through the element of water";
Isis Aretalogy, Kyme 13, 3 7 , 4 1 , 4 8 ; P. Oxy. xi 1380, 61,69 (kybernetin),
15 and 74 (hormistria), 121-123.
4. without [navigational] skill. The reference is apparently to Noah. Cf.
10:4 and NOTE; also v. 6 below.
5. that the works of your wisdom not lie idle. Without God's special
providence man's shipbuilding and navigational art would not have
sufficed to make a safe path for him through the seas. The deity, however,
who does not wish that "the works of his wisdom lie idle," supplements
man's limited resources, thus allowing him to hazard a path through
trackless seas. Similarly, it was God's piloting hand that brought Noah
through the Flood. Most commentators, however, understand the words
me arga einai to mean that God wishes to allow for a better distribution of
nature's products, thereby avoiding unnecessary waste and affording a
fuller utilization of earth's riches. The same notion is suggested by
Euripides: "and commerce over sea, that by exchange a country may ob­
tain the goods it lacks" (The Suppliant Women 209). Very likely both
ideas are in the author's mind (cf. Deane's comment: "God wills that men
should employ the faculties which he gives them, and use the products of
sea and land which he has provided for them" [1881]. So, too, Heinisch
[1912]).
arga . . . erga represent an etymological play on words (argos comes
from afergos). Cf. Aristotle EN 1097b30: "Are we then to suppose that,
while the carpenter and the shoemaker have definite functions (erga tina)
or businesses belonging to them, man as such has none, and is not de­
signed by nature to fulfill any function (argon pephyken)T
the flimsiest plank. A common literary theme. Cf. Anarcharsis' remark,
after ascertaining that the ship's side was four fingers* breadth in thickness,
"That the passengers were just so far from death" (D.L. 1.103); Iliad
15.624-628; Aratus Phaenomena 299: "and only a thin plank staves off
death"; Horace Odes 1.3; Seneca Ep. 49.11: "You are mistaken if you
13:10-14:11
WRETCHED WOODEN-IMAGE MAKING
267
think that only on an ocean voyage there is a very slight space [i.e. the
timbers of the ship] between life and death"; Medea 301: "Too ven­
turesome the man who in frail barque first cleft the treacherous seas and,
with one last look behind him at the well-known shore, trusted his life to
the fickle winds; who, ploughing the waters on an unknown course, could
trust to a slender plank, stretching too slight a boundary between the ways
of life and death"; 364: "Now, in our time, the deep has ceased resistance
and submits utterly to law; no famous Argo, framed by a Pallas' hand . . ,
is sought for; any little craft now wanders at will upon the deep." In the
Life of Secundus 14, a boat is described as "a ready-made tomb, a floating
death, or death in prospect," and a sailor as "a neighbor to death."
on a raft come safely through, diesothesan is a Gnomic Aorist. For
schedia cf. Odyssey 5.160$, where the goddess Calypso bids Odysseus
"hew with the axe long beams, and make a broad raft (schedien), and fas­
ten upon it cross-planks for a deck well above it, that it may bear thee
over the misty deep." Cf. MacDonald:97.
6. in the beginning, arches is a genitive of time; used with a preposition
in Attic.
haughty giants. Cf. Judith 16:6: hypseloi gigantes (probably 'proud'
rather than 'tall,'); Sir 16:7; Bar 3:26; Jub 7:22; I Enoch 7:5; III Mace
2:4 ("the giants who trusted in strength and boldness"); Ps-Eupolemus,
ap. Eusebius PE 9.18.2 (FPG: 198); Jos. Ant. 1.31 (73) (hybristas . . .
paidas); 1.3.8 (100) (eksybrizon)\BR 31.12.
the hope of the world. Cf. IV Mace 15:31: "The ark of Noah bearing
the universe"; Virgil Aeneid 12.168: Ascanius, magnae spes altera
Romae.
the germ for a [new] generation. Cf. Philo Mig. 125; Mos. 2.60: spermata hypoleipomenos; QG 1.96: "as the seed and spark of the new gener­
ation of men that was to be." The Sumerian counterpart to Noah, Ziusudra, is similarly called the "preserver of the seed of mankind"
(ANET:44).
7. plank. The reference is to Noah's ark. It was natural that the Church
Fathers should apply this verse either directly or symbolically to the cross,
which is often called ksylon in the New Testament (Acts 5:30; Gal 3:13;
etc.). Graetz (1888: 3. 613) considered this verse a Christian interpola­
tion. See Gilbert 1973: 114-124.
8. made by hand. In the LXX, cheiropoieta renders the Hebrew 'ettlim.
accursed. Cf. Deut 27:15.
11. the idols of the nations. Cf. Exod 12:12; Jer 10:15; 46:25.
abomination . . . stumbling. Cf. Josh 23:13: esontai hymin eis pagidas
kai eis skandala; Judg 2:3; 8:27, LXX; Ps 105:36, LXX.
part of God's creation. Cf. M. A.Z. 4.7: "[Some Romans] asked the
elders in Rome, 'If God have no desire for idolatry, why does he not abol-
268
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvn
ish it?* They replied to them, 'If they worshipped a thing for which the
world has no need, he would abolish it; but, behold they worship the sun,
and the moon, and the stars and the planets, shall he then destroy his
world because of fools?' They said to them, 'If so, let him put an end to
that which the world does not need and leave what the world does need.'
[The elders] answered them, 'We should on our part only strengthen
the contention of those that worship them since they would say, "Know
that these are [true] deities, for, lo, they have not been destroyed."'"
XXVIH. ORIGIN AND EVIL CONSEQUENCES OF
IDOLATRY
(14:12-31)
14
12 For the invention of idols is the beginning of fornication,
and their discovery is life's ruin. They did not exist from the begin­
ning, nor will they exist forever. i4For they came into the world
through the empty illusions of men, and therefore a sudden end was
devised for them. A father consumed with untimely grief, having
made an image of the child so swiftly taken from him, now honored
as a god what was once a human corpse, and handed down to his de­
pendents mysteries and initiation rites. i Then confirmed by the pas­
sage of time, the impious custom was maintained as a law. Again, at
the command of rulers graven images came to be worshiped. 17 When
men were unable to do honor to these princes in their presence be­
cause of the remoteness of their dwelling, they formed a likeness of
the distant face, and made a palpable image of the king they wished
to revere, so that they might earnestlyflatterthe absent one as though
present. 18 But the ambition of the artist impelled even those who had
no knowledge of the matter to a higher pitch of worship. 19 For he,
in his desire perhaps to please the ruler, skilfully forced the likeness
into a more beautiful form; but the masses, drawn by the charm of
his workmanship, now took for an object of worship him who was but
lately honored as a man. 21 And this became a trap for human life,
that men enslaved either by misfortune or tyranny bestowed on stocks
and stones the name that may not be associated with others. And
so they were not content to err concerning the knowledge of God, but
though living in the midst of a great war rooted in their ignorance,
they call such monstrous evils peace. For either performing ritual
murders of children or secret mysteries or frenzied revels connected
with strange laws, they keep neither their lives nor marriages pure,
but one either slays his neighbor insidiously or pains him by adultery.
All is confusion—bloody murder, deceitful theft, corruption,
treachery, tumult, perjury, agitation of decent men, ingratitude, soul
defilement, interchange of sex roles, irregular marriages, adultery and
13
15
6
2 0
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
26
270
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvra
2 7
debauchery. For the worship of the unspeakable idols is the begin­
ning, cause, and end of every evil. 28 For they either make merry to
the point of madness, or prophesy lies, or live unrighteously or readily
perjure themselves. ^ Placing their trust in lifeless idols, they expect
no punishment when swearing falsely.
On both accounts will jus­
tice pursue them, because in their devotion to the idols they thought
wrongly about God, and in their contempt for religion swore deceitful
lies. 31 For it is not the power of those by whom they swear, but the
judgment of them that sin, that ever proceeds against the transgres­
sion of the wicked.
2
3 0
NOTES
14:12-31. To bolster his attack on idolatry, the author argues that it
did not exist from the beginning but arose in the course of time through
human error. Two different explanations are adduced for its origins. The
first, based to some extent on a widespread religious phenomenon of the
Greco-Roman world, refers to a father, who, stricken with grief for the un­
timely death of his child, sets up an image of it to be accorded divine
honors. The second refers to the statues of rulers whose beauty has been
enhanced by skillful artists intent on flattery, and subsequently become ob­
jects of divine worship by the masses. Similar explanations for the rise of
idolatry were later given by Minucious Felix (fl. 200-240 CE) in his dia­
logue Octavius (20.5), and by Lactantius (ca. 240-320 C E ) , in his Divine
Institutions 2.2.3). See Geffcken:xxii, n.2. Although they are somewhat
reminiscent of Euhemerus' theory of the origin of the gods [expounded in
his Hiera Anagraphs or Sacred Record, ca. 300 BCE], which held that
Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus had been great kings in their day who were
later worshiped as gods by their grateful subjects, they do not derive
directly from it, but probably from a later "Euhemeristic" source (see
NOTE on v. 15 below), for the author of Wisd is more narrowly interested
in explaining the origins of idolatry, whereas Euhemerus was concerned
with the larger question regarding the origins of the gods of Greek mythol­
ogy. A more direct use of Euhemerus' theory by Jewish writers, on the
other hand, may be found in the so-called Letter of Aristeas and in the
Sibylline Oracles. In his attack on idolatry (134-137), fcs-Aristeas first
ridicules the senselessness of the stone and wooden images, and then, in
direct allusion to Euhemerus' view, argues that it is foolish to deify men
because of some invention they had contrived, since "such persons only
14:12-31
ORIGIN,
CONSEQUENCES
OF I D O L A T R Y
271
took things already created and put them together and showed that they
possessed further usefulness, but they did not themselves create the ob­
jects." (Stambaugh has suggested that it was Aristeas of Argos, an adviser
at the court of Ptolemy II, who served as the prototype of Ps-Aristeas, for
we are told by Clement of Alexandria [Strom. 1.21.106] that according to
Aristeas, Sarapis was a deified form of an Argive king named Apis. "The
climate was congenial to Euhemerism in Egypt where the line between di­
vinity and royal humanity had always been vague, and where Osiris was
widely viewed as a mortal king who had been deified [Plutarch Is. et Os.
359D-360B; Diodorus 1.13.4; Apuleius De deo Socratico 153-154]"
(J. E. Stambaugh, Sarapis under the Early Ptolemies [Leiden, 1972]:
68-74.) According to the third Sibylline Oracle (ca. 140 B C E ) (108113), "Cronos, Titan and Iapetos were kings, the goodliest children
of Gaia and Ouranos, whom men called Earth and Heaven, dubbing
them so because they were the first of all articulate men" (cf. 3.723,
and 522-555). According to Fraser (1.299), it is not likely that the Sibyl
derived this directly from Euhemerus, since he evidently referred to the
Jews at some point in his work in what was regarded by Josephus
(Ag.Ap. 1.215-217) as a disparaging manner, and if he applied the same
theology to Yahweh as he did to Zeus, that will not have recommended
him to the Sibyl. For the Euhemeristic elements in Artapanus' account of
Moses, see Gutman: 2. 120-126. Ps-Eupolemus, probably writing in Pal­
estine in the first half of the second century BCE, had already identified
Nimrod with the Babylonian Bel and Greek Kronos. The only one of the
'giants' to have been rescued from the great Flood, he founded Babylon
and built the famous Tower (FGH 724: F 1 and 2 ) . See Freudenthal
1875-79:35-82; Hengel: 1.89; B. Wacholder, Eupolemus (New York,
1974): 194-205. Fraser asserts that, "there can be little doubt that Eu­
hemerus was led to his reformation of myth above all by the example of
the contemporary deification of Alexander and the Diadochi by various
Greek cities [a suggestion already made by J. Kaerst in an article entitled
"Alexander der Grosse und der Hellenismus," Historische Zeitschrift 74
(1895):226], even if he may have been aware of the occasional deifica­
tion of certain classes of mortals—successful athletes, notable physicians,
and others—at a much earlier date, to say nothing of the accepted mortal
origin of Asclepius and other gods. . . . In official quarters his work was
probably well received as providing a theological system into which the
deified rulers fitted as by right" ( 1 . 294).
14:12. beginning of fornication. For the close connection between forni­
cation and idolatry, cf. Test.Reuben 4:6: "For a pit unto the soul is the
sin of fornication, separating it from God (cf. Wisd 1:3), and bringing it
near to idols. . . . 11: For if fornication overcomes not your mind, neither
can Beliar overcome you"; Test.Simeon 5:3; Sifre Deut. 171, Finkelstein
272
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvm
218: "'who consigns his son or daughter to the fire' (Deut 18:10), this
refers to one who has intercourse with a heathen woman, and begets from
her a child hostile to God"; BT Sank. 82a: "R. Hiyya b. Abuiah said: He
who is intimate with a heathen woman is as though he had entered into
marriage relationship with an idol, for it is written, 'and hath been intimate
with the daughter of a strange god': hath then a strange god a daughter?
But it refers to one who cohabits with a heathen woman"; BT Shab. 17b:
"They decreed against their bread and oil on account of their wine, and
against their wine on account of their daughters, and against their daugh­
ters on account of 'the unmentionable' (literally, 'something else,' Le.,
idolatry)"; BT Meg. 25a; Ps-Jonathan on Lev 18:12; Ket. 13b: "most of
the idolators are unrestrained in sexual matters." In Philonic allegory, the
son of a whore is a polytheist, "being in the dark about his real father, and
for this reason ascribing his begetting to many, instead of to one" (Mig.
69).
13. from the beginning. For the rise of idolatry in the time of Serug
(Hebrew sur=tma aside) under the influence of Mastema, see Jub 11:4$.
"This view is entirely unknown to the older rabbinic literature (although it
is frequently found among the Church Fathers, e.g. Minucius Felix Octavius 26.7; Justin Apologia 2.15; Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions
4.13-15; Tatian Oratio ad Graecos 8; Lactantius Divinae Institutiones
2.16, and later in the Kabbalah). The beginning of idolatry according to
the older rabbinic sources, based on their interpretation of Gen 4:26, took
place in the time of Enosh (Sifre Deut. 43, Finkelstein 97; Mek. Bahodesh
6, Lauterbach, 2.239; Mid. Tannaim 20 and 195; BR 2.3; Wayyik.R. 23.3;
BT Shab. 1186) According to Maimonides (very likely on the basis of
older sources), Enosh himself was an idolator (M.T. Avodat Kokhavim
1.1; cf. Guide 1.36; 3.29, 37; Letter on Astrology). In the Pseudo-Clem­
entine Homilies 9.4-6, Nimrod is identified with Zoroaster, and is desig­
nated as the one 'who chose, giant-like, to devise things in opposition to
God, and who, after his death by fire, was worshipped by the ignorant
populace. This was the beginning of the worship of idols. Subsequent rul­
ers demanded similar adoration to that which was accorded to Nimrod'"
(Ginzberg, 5. 150-151). It should also be noted that according to St.
Augustine, Varro claimed that, "for more than one hundred and seventy
years the ancient Romans worshipped the gods without an image. Tf this
usage had continued to our own day,' he says, 'our worship of the gods
would be more devout' And in support of his opinion he adduces, among
other things, the testimony of the Jewish race." (Augustine Civ.Dei
4.31). Cf. Strabo 16.2.35: "[Moses] taught that the Egyptians were
mistaken in representing the Divine Being by the images of beasts and cat­
tle, as were also the Libyans; and that the Greeks were also wrong in
modelling gods in human form; for, according to him, God is this one
thing alone that encompasses us a l l . . ." (see P. BoyancS, "La Th6ologie
14:12-31
ORIGIN,
C O N S E Q U E N C E S
OF
IDOLATRY
273
de Varron," Revue des Etudes anciennes 57 [1955] 57-84; Nock
1972:860-865. Nock suggests that the excursus in Strabo may reproduce
the creation of a Jew familiar with the ideas of Posidonius), Heinemann
(1968:147-150) maintained that Wisd's theory as to the origin of idola­
try is derived from Posidonius, since a similar theory is to be found in
Lactantius and Minucius Felix, who are known to have drawn on Seneca's
lost work De Superstitione, and Seneca in turn is known to have drawn
from Posidonius. This argument is inadequate, since Seneca is known to
have drawn much from Epicurean sources, and the 'Euhemeristic' expla­
nation of idolatry found in Minucius Felix and Lactantius is part of a
much larger criticism of anthropomorphic gods, which apparently derives
from a lost Epicurean source of ca. 150 B C E , and is also echoed in Cicero
ND, in Josephus (Ag.Ap. 2.242# (esp. 250-254), in Philodemus On
Piety, and many other authors. See Geffcken:xxii#.
nor will they exist forever. Cf. Isa 2:18; Zech 13:2; Ezek 30:13; Micah
5:12; EpJer. 50ff.
14. empty illusions, kenodoksia is an Epicurean term. We read in K.D.
30: "Such pleasures are due to idle imagination (kenen doksan) and it is
not owing to their own nature that they fail to be dispelled, but owing to
the empty imaginings (kenodoksian) of the man" (i.e. a mental picture of
some object, which does not really contribute to pleasure, causes us to
desire it. Cf. K.D. 15 and 29; Usener:456). Cf. Ps-Aristeas 8; IV Mace
2:15; 8:19; Philo Mut. 94-96; Jos. 36; Legat. 114; Praem. 100; Virt. 7;
QG 3.47; Somn. 1.255; 2.105. Moreover, kenodoksia is a philosophical
term with deep roots in Epicurus' epistemology, for the latter had espe­
cially cautioned against the use of kenoi phthongoi or words devoid of
meaning (Epistulae 1.38; K.D. 37; Cicero Fin. 2.48; Tusc. 5.73). It was
therefore an eminently apt term for the biblical conception of idolatry,
which, as Kaufmann had pointed out long ago, was a fetishistic one and
therefore saw in the idols objects completely empty and devoid of mean­
ing. On the day when the nations repent of the sin of idolatry they will say,
"Our fathers inherited naught but lies, vanity and things wherein there is
no profit. Shall a man make for himself gods, they being no gods?" (Jer
16:19). When men stop worshiping fetishistic 'no-gods' idolatry shall
come to an end (see Y. Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel [Chicago,
1960] 15). Wisd's words now take on a more poignant meaning. Since
the origin of the idols, he argues, is rooted in kenodoksia or total vacuity,
"a sudden end was devised for them," i.e. the moment their vacuous char­
acter is disclosed idolatry will immediately evaporate into thin air and
completely disappear, almost as if it had never existed.
15. untimely grief. The grief may by hypallage be called "untimely" be­
cause the child's death is premature (Farrar [1888]). Cf. Prov 10:6:
penthos adron; Sir 16:3: penthei adro; Euripides Alcestis 168. As Cumont
274
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXVIII
has pointed out, the masters of sidereal divination were much preoccupied
with the calculation of life-spans and the types of death predetermined by
the stars, writing long chapters on this subject (peri chronon zdes: Ptolemy
Tetrabiblos 3.2; Vettius Valens 9.8#). An individual's natural end could be
hastened through the intervention of a murderous star (either Saturn or
Mars), which, under certain conditions, causes sudden death. At times the
maleficent planets carry away a nursing child from its mother's breast be­
fore a single revolution of the sun has been accomplished: these are the
atrophoi or non nutriti (those left unnourished), alluded to by Virgil
(Aeneid 6.426-429; cf. Plato Rep. 615C). The enormous rate of infant
mortality in the Roman world focused great attention on the fate of the
aoroi or inmaturi (those who died before reaching maturity). (On the
very high infant mortality rate in Egypt, see M. Hombert and C. Pr6aux,
Chronique d'Egypte [1945] 139ff.) At other times, they cut children off in
their adolescence, before marriage could assure them posterity: these are
the agamoi or innupti of Tertullian (De Anima 55Aft; cf. O. J. H. Waszink's commentary [Amsterdam, 1947] ad l o c ) . (For the Babylonian ori­
gin of the superstitious views concerning the aoroi as well as the biaiothanatoi or those who died a violent death, see E. Ebeling, Tod und Leben
nach den Vorstellungen der Babylonier [Berlin, 1931] 1:131#; 145#.
Moreover, Cumont points to a passage in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos [4.9.12]
where one finds grouped together three of the four classes of biothanati
mentioned by Virgil [Aeneid 6.430, 435, 479], thus demonstrating that
astrology was the source of the aforementioned superstitions. Nock, how­
ever, has questioned this interpretation [1973:712-719].) It was further
believed that these unfortunate souls, obedient to Fate, had to linger on
earth until their appointed time was accomplished, and became demons
who lent their aid to diviners and sorcerers. Feeling and reason, at the
same time, protested against the cruel doctrine which relegated guilty and
innocent alike to long torture. When accident or illness caused the death
of a beloved son, could his parents be reconciled to the belief that he
would suffer undeserved chastisement? More humane doctrines soon
aligned themselves against these cruel superstitions. According to the Py­
thagoreans, the age of reason did not begin before puberty or sixteen, and
until then the soul was exempt from virtue as well as from vice, so that the
aoroi could not deserve any punishment. Indeed, according to some
thinkers, "the souls that are quickly released from intercourse with men
find the journey to the gods above most easy, for they carry less weight of
earthly dross" (Seneca De Consolatione ad Marciam 23.1; cf. Plutarch
Consolatio ad uxorem 61 I E ) . It is hard to determine to what degree these
moral ideas had penetrated the popular mind. Religion, however, offered a
remedy for the ill to which it had itself lent persuasion. The custom of in­
itiating children to the mysteries became a means of preserving them from
14:12-31
ORIGIN,
CONSEQUENCES
OF I D O L A T R Y
275
the fatal lot which threatened them, and of ensuring their happiness in the
other life. Above all, the influence of astral cults, added to that of philoso­
phy, persuaded those parents who were inclined to believe it, that these in­
nocent creatures ascended to the starry heavens. An epitaph of Thasos
speaks of a virgin, flower-bearer probably of Demeter and Kore, who was
carried off at the age of thirteen by the inexorable Fates, but who, "living
among the stars, by the will of the immortals, has taken her place in the
sacred abode of the blessed," and a relief from Copenhagen shows the bust
of a little girl within a large crescent surrounded by seven stars, thus in­
dicating that she has risen toward the moon, the abode of blessed souls.
(Cumont 1942:282, n.3, 242). Transported thus to heaven, these loved
beings were transformed by the tenderness of their relatives into protectors
of the family in which their memory survived. Whether they were called
'heroes' in Greece, or as elsewhere 'gods/ they were always conceived as
guardian powers who acknowledged by benefits the worship rendered
them. Thus in the middle of the second century the familia of a proconsul
of Asia, C. Julius Quadratus, honored a child of eight years as a hero, at
the prayer of his father and mother; and at Smyrna the parents of a dearly
loved child of four, raised a tomb to this baby as their tutelary god (IGR
4.1377; Kaibel:314). Lieberman (1974:263) writes: "The author of
Sapientia Salomonis informs us that when a heathen father was afflicted
with untimely mourning, he used to make an image of the child and would
worship it as a god. This was a good consolation to a heathen father. The
Jew comforted himself in a Jewish manner. The rabbis assert that the
Lord himself teaches Torah to the babies who died in their infancy (BT
A.Z. 3b). According to another version (Gemara to minor tractate Kallah
2) the angel Metatron teaches them." We do find, however, that the grief of
fond parents, who with great admiration had followed the blossoming
mind of their precocious child taken away from them too soon, sought
comfort in the idea that the studies in which he had distinguished himself
would assure him a favorable lot in the hereafter. A series of sarcophagi,
which reproduce the career of a child prematurely dead, show him being
instructed by his teacher and then elevated to the rank of hero or raised
heavenward on a chariot leading to his deification (Cumont, 1942:344$).
In a letter to Marcellinus, Pliny the Younger eulogizes the daughter of his
friend! Fundanus: "She was scarce thirteen and already had all the wisdom
of age and sedateness of a matron" (Epistulae 5.16). Her tomb was dis­
covered in Rome, and it carries at its top the eagle which symbolizes
deification (CIL 6.16331). (For all this, see Cumont 1949:303-342,
whose detailed discussion has here been briefly summarized.)
Wisd's explanations for the origin of idolatry are undoubtedly etiolog­
ical, but it is likely that the background of the author's theory lay in
certain religious practices of the Greco-Roman age (such as those noted
276
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ xxvin
above), which were then projected backward either by him or by his
source (just as Euhemerus was probably influenced by the contemporary
deification accorded to Alexander and to the Diadochi by various Greek
cities). Moreover, even if children who died young were never actually
worshiped and no cult-images were ever made of them, the evidence cited
by Cumont (however it is interpreted) could easily have served as a suffi­
cient stimulus for the etiology of idol worship expounded in 14:14-16.
Guillaumont (1959), Heuten, and Gilbert have noted the close anal­
ogy to Wisd's first explanation provided by Firmicus Maternus' 'Euhemeristic' version of the myth of Dionysus-Zagreus (De errore profanarwn
religionum 6 ) , in which Liber or Dionysus is the son of a Cretan king
named Jupiter. Since Dionysus is the product of an adulterous union,
the king's wife Juno, in her fury, has the infant murdered in the
absence of the king by henchmen known as Titans. Upon his return, the
father, acerbi luctus atrocitate commotus (=penthei trychomenos pater),
and utterly disconsolate, has an image made in the likeness of his son and
institutes a cult. This parallel and the Fulgentius passage quoted immedi­
ately below, may well go back to a pagan Hellenistic source, a highly ra­
tionalized 'Euhemeristic' account of the origins of idol cult. (See G. Heuten's edition with commentary of Firmicus Maternus De errore
profanarum
religionum
[Bruxelles,
1938]
152-157;
Gilbert
1973:153-155; J. Geffcken, "Der Bilderstreit des heidnischen Altertums,"
ARW 19 [1919] 292-293.)
having made an image. Fabius Planciades Fulgentius (ca. 467-532 CE,
probably identical with the famous bishop of Ruspe), quoting from the
Antiquities of one Diophantus of Sparta, tells of an Egyptian named
Syrophanes, who, overcome with grief for the loss of his son, erected a
statue of him in his house (in aedibus). To please the master of the house,
the members of the family decked it with flowers, and slaves even fled to it
for sanctuary. Thus the statue gradually became an idol. (Mitologiarum
1.1, ed. Helm [Teubner] 15-17. Cited by R. Holkot, In Librum Sapien­
tiae praelectiones [Venice, 1509]: 139 verso, col. a.) We have an interest­
ing reference to such an Egyptian custom in Mek.Pisha on Exodus 12:30
(Lauterbach, 1:100): "'For there was not a house where there was not
one dead.' R. Nathan says: Were there not houses in which there was no
first-born? It means simply this: when the first-born of one of the Egyp­
tians died, they would make an image (eikonion) of him and set it up in
the house. On that night such images were crushed, ground and scattered.
And in their eyes that day was as sad as though they just then buried their
first-born" (cf. PRK, Mandelbaum: 127; Mid. Hagadol, on Exod 12:30,
p. 209). A. Calmet has cited Apuleius Metamorphoses 8.7, where we are
told that Charite, on the death of her beloved husband Tlepolemus, "spent
whole days and nights in miserable longing, and there was an image of her
14:12-31
ORIGIN,
C O N S E Q U E N C E S
OF
IDOLATRY
277
husband, which she had made like unto Bacchus, unto which she rendered
divine honors and services, so that she grieved herself even by her conso­
lation." This motif is already found in Euripides Alcestis 348#, though in
a non-religious context. In the seventeenth century many commentators
had already noted Cicero's intention to set up a shrine for his lost daugh­
ter Tullia (Cicero Ad Atticum 12:35-36; Lactantius Divinae Institutiones
1.15,16-20). Heinisch (1912) cites the decree of Canopus, discovered in
1865, from which we learn that in 237 BCE, the synod of this town ac­
corded divine honors not only to Ptolemy in Euergetes and his spouse
Berenice II, but also to their daughter, likewise named Berenice, who had
died at the tender age of eight, proclaiming her queen of virgins, and es­
tablishing an annual festival to commemorate her death. Recently, Duliere
(1960) has insisted that the reference here is to Hadrian's favorite Antinous, who had drowned in Egypt in 130, and in whose honor Hadrian
had instituted cultic mysteries and initiation ceremonies which, according
to Dio Cassius (69.11.3), had spread almost throughout the inhabited
world. Duliere concluded that the entire pericope of 14:12-16 was an in­
terpolation. Actually, as Gilbert has pointed out, Dulifcre had already been
anticipated by Jansenius of Ypres (1644), Gutberlet (1874), Deane
(1881), and Farrar (1888), though they did not absolutize the matter as
he had done. Most scholars, however, have rightly rejected this hypothesis.
Finally, Scarpat (1967, following Motzo [1924]) has suggested that the
allusion here is to the cult rendered by the incestuous Caligula to his sister
Drusilla, confused by the author of Wisdom with Caligula's daughter of
the same name (see Gilbert 1973:146-157).
what was once a human corpse. Cf. Sib Or 3:721-723: "But we had
gone astray from the path of the Eternal and with foolish heart worshiped
the works of men's hands, idols and images of men that are dead."
16. at the command, epitage is late Greek prose. Cf. 18:16; 19:6; III
Mace 7:20; Polybius 13.4.3; Diodorus 1.70. Many commentators place
the period after glypta rather than after ephylachte, for, as Grimm (1860)
pointed out in v. 17 speaks of a freely adopted honoring of images
rather than one commanded by princes. The author would then be saying
that what began as a family custom ended as a state ordinance. Having
mentioned rulers, however, he is then naturally led to his second cause of
the rise of idolatry, without explicit indication of this transition. If, finding
it difficult to begin a new explanation with the relative pronoun, we place
the period with Ziegjer (1961) after ephylachte, we should then have to
understand the passage as follows: Graven images came to be worshiped
at the command of rulers, inasmuch as their demand for official expres­
sions of honor led their distant subjects to the production of images exag­
gerating their beauty, which then led to their awed worship by the masses.
came to be worshiped, ethreskeueto is the inchoative imperfect.
278
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ xxvm
17. formed a likeness, anatypoo is first attested here. Cf. 19:6; Plutarch
Moralia 329B. It is used only once by Philo (Plant. 27).
a palpable image, emphane is perhaps an allusion to the epithet of Ptol­
emy V and Antiochus IV, and Nero's title emphanes theos kaisar. Cf.
Lactantius Divininae Institutiones 1.15; Minucius Felix Octavius 20.5
(Gilbert 1973:156).
18. who had no knowledge. I.e. "even those who did not know whom
the statues represented, or how they originally came to be worshiped"
(Farrar).
worship, threskeia is found in Herodotus 2.18, 37 and inscriptions in
the sense of "ritual" or "cult." For the meaning "religion," "service of
God," cf. Philo Legat. 232, 298; Fug. 41 (in Det. 21 it is used in the bad
sense of "religious formalism"); Acts 26:5; CH 12.23. It appears three
times in Symmachus' version of the Bible: Jer 3:19; Ezek 20:6,15; Dan
2:46. J. Van Herten has pointed out that threskeia is not found in literary
texts after Herodotus, but reappears in inscriptions of the period of
Augustus ("Threskeia, Eulabeia, Hiketes, Bijdrage tot de Kennis der
religieuze terminologie in het grieksch" [Diss. Amsterdam, 1934] 2-27).
The most up-to-date account of this word is given by L. Robert, Etudes
epigraphiques et philologiques [Paris, 1938] 226-235; Robert asserts:
"Le mot n'est certainement pas hellenistique; l'argument e silentio est ici
tr&s fort; tant et tant descriptions de TtSpoque hellenistique traitent du
culte et louent la pi&6; on n'y rencontre jamais threskeia" He also con­
cludes that Wisd was written in the Imperial Age; idem, Hellenica 2
(1946): 132-133; cf. A. Pelletier, Flavius Josephe Adapteur de la Lettre
d*AristSe [Paris, 1962] 33).
19. forced. Cf. Plutarch Timoleon 36. See H. P. L'Orange, Apotheosis
in Ancient Portraiture (Oslo, 1947); H. G. Niemeyer, Studien zur star
tuarischen Darstellung der romischen Kaiser (Monumenta Artis Romanae
VI, Berlin, 1969).
20. by the charm. Philo similarly writes: "Further, too, they have
brought in sculpture and painting to cooperate in the deception, in order
that with the colors and shapes and artistic qualities wrought by their fine
workmanship they may enthrall the spectators and so beguile the two lead­
ing senses, sight and hearing" (Spec. 1.29). CI. Her. 69; Gig. 59; Decal.
66, 156; Cicero ND 1.42: ipsa suavitate nocuerunt (of the poets); Seneca
Ep. 88.18; Dio Chrysostomus 12.50$; Clem.Alex. Prot 4: "In Rome, the
historian Varro says that in ancient times the Xoanon of Mars—the idol
by which he was worshipped—was a spear, artists not having yet applied
themselves to this specious pernicious art; but when art flourished, error in­
creased." Discussing the deified Antinous, Clement says: "And why
should you enlarge on his beauty?" (Prot.). Cf. also Cicero ND 1.77:
"These notions, moreover, have been fostered by poets, painters and
artificers, who found it difficult to represent living and active deities in the
likeness of any other shape than that of man."
14:12-31
ORIGIN,
C O N S E Q U E N C E S
OF
IDOLATRY
279
20. an object of worship, sebasma is late Greek prose, first attested in
D.H. 1.30; cf. 15:17 below; Bel and the Snake 27; Acts 17:23; Jos. Ant.
18.345. If our author is thinking of any of the colossal statues of em­
perors, like that of Augustus at Ancyra, the word sebasma would recall the
name "Augustus" (=Sebastos), a word apparently coined at the time
(27 BCE) of the bestowal on Octavian of the title Augustus for use in the
eastern half of the empire. Herod refounded Samaria under the name
Sebaste, where he built a splendid temple of Augustus. "In fact he built
shrines of the emperor in many cities of his kingdom, refraining only in
the cities of Judaea. He went so far in bestowing honors that he felt it nec­
essary to make apologies to his subjects for his violation of national cus­
toms, and declared that he acted under orders" (eks entoUs kai prostagmaton [cf. 14:16] [Jos. J.W. 1.403-415; Ant. 15.328-330]); (L. R.
Taylor:160, 171).
21. enslaved. Douleusantes is joined by zeugma both to symphora and
tyrannidi.
that may not be associated with others. Cf. Isa 42:8; Philo Ebr. 110:
"but they even allowed irrational plants and animals to share the honor
which belongs to things imperishable"; Numenius, Frag. 56 (where it is
said that the God of the Jews was akoindnetos, and disdained that anyone
should share in his honor).
22. midst of a great war . . . they call such monstrous evils peace. Cf.
Jer 6:14; Tacitus Agricola 30: "To plunder, butcher, steal, these things
they misname empire; they make a desolation and they call it peace";
Philo Gig. 51; Conf. 46: "For all the deeds of war are done in peace. Men
plunder, rob, kidnap, spoil, sack, outrage, maltreat, violate, dishonor and
commit murder sometimes by treachery, or if they be stronger without dis­
guise." This theme of war-in-peace was common in the Cynic-Stoic dia­
tribe literature of the first century C E . Cf. Ps-Heraclitus Epistle 7: "In
peace you make war with words; in war you deliberate with iron. . . .
Give me an opportunity for laughter in peacetime, when you do not do
battle in the law courts with weapons on your tongues, after committing
frauds, seducing women, poisoning friends, spoiling temples, procuring,
being found faithless in your oaths. . . ." (See Attridge:73, line 17; 69,
lines 21-25); Ps-Diogenes Epistle 28: "nor even in peace, but in war do
you grow old throughout life" (Hercher, Epistolographi graeci [Paris,
1873]:242). (See Gilbert 1973:161-164.)
23. secret mysteries. Cf. NOTE on 12:4. Philo inveighs against the mys­
teries with equal vigor: "Furthermore, he banishes from the sacred legisla­
tion the lore of occult rites and mysteries (teletas kai mysteria) and ail
such imposture and buffoonery. He would not have those who were bred
in such a commonwealth as ours take part in mummeries and clinging on
to mystic fables despise the truth and pursue things which have taken night
and darkness for their province, discarding what is fit to bear the light of
280
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ xxvin
day" (Spec. 1.319). Cf. Ps-Heraclitus Epistle 4: "Where is God? Is he
shut up in temples? You are a fine sort of pious man, who set up God in
darkness!" (See Attridge:59.)
frenzied revels. Cf. II Mace 6:4; Philo Flac. 4: "The sodalities and
clubs, which were constantly holding feasts under pretext of sacrifice in
which drunkenness vented itself in political intrigue, he dissolved" (for eksallon thesmon, cf. Philo Virt. 219: ekthesmon ethori).
ritual murders of children. Cf. 12:5 and 11:7 (nepioktonos). teknophonous is found only here, (teknophoneo in A.P. 9.345.) Cf. the epithet
brephoktonos applied to Palaimon. Ino, Dionysus' mother's sister, is said
to have killed her own infant son, Melikertes, in a fit of madness (Apollodorus 3.4.3). This son of Ino's was worshiped on the island of Tenedos as
Palaimon, and since children were sacrificed to him, he was called the
"child-killer" (Lycophron 229, and scholia. See W. F. Otto, Dionysus
[Bloomington and London, 1965] 106).
24. by adultery, notheuon. s.c. autou gamon. Cf. Philo Jos. 45.
25. For the catalogue of crimes in w . 25-26, cf. Philo Conf. 46 (quoted
in NOTE on v. 2 2 ) ; Jer 7:9; Hos 4:2; III Bar 4:17; Sib Or 2.256; Rom
1:29-31; Gal 5:19-21; I Tim 1:9-10; Mark 7:21; Matt 15:19; Didache
5:1. See S. Wibbing, Die Tugend-u. Lasterkataloge im N.T. (Berlin,
1959); Anton Vogtle, Die Tugend-u. Lasterkataloge im N.T. (Miinster,
1936); A. Dieterich, Nekyia (Leipzig, 1893) 163ff; A. Deissmann, Light
from the Ancient East (New York, 1922) 315-318; Bultmann: 19, n.3.
apistia, tarachos. Cf. Philo Decal. 172; Jos. 143.
26. ingratitude, amnestia is found only once in Plato Menexenus 239C
Cf. Ps-Heraclitus Epistle 2; Plutarch Moralia 612D.
defilement, miasmos. In moral sense, first attested here and in Test.Benjamin 8:2-3 (cf. Levi 17:8). In I Mace 4:43 it refers to physical defile­
ment. Cf. Plutarch Moralia 393C.
interchange of sex roles, geneseos enallage. Cf. Philo Cher. 92: physeos
ergon enallage; Test.Naphtali 3:4: "that ye become not as Sodom; which
changed the order of nature" (enellakse taksin physeos autes); Rom 1:26:
"their women exchanged (metellaksan) natural relations for unnatural."
geneseos\ as Goodrick (1913) remarks, is the wrong word. We would
expect genous.
irregular marriages, garndn ataksia. The adjective ataktos is used of
sensual excess, and may mean "irregular," "inordinate": Plato Laws 840E
(atakton Aphroditen).
27. unspeakable. Euripides describes the Furies as andnymoi (Iphigenia
in Taurus 944; cf. Sophocles Oedipus at Colonus 128). andnymoi, how­
ever, may also mean 'not to be named,' 'unspeakable': Aristides Oration
50.8. Cf. Exod 23:13.
30. will justice pursue them. Cf. IV Mace 18:22: he theia dike metelthen kai meteleusetai, Esther 8:13, LXX.
X X I X . ISRAEL'S IMMUNITY F R O M I D O L A T R Y
(15:1-6)
15
i But you, our God, are good and true, slow to anger, and gov­
erning all with mercy. For even if we sin, we are yours, since we are
cognizant of your might; but knowing that we are reckoned yours,
we will not sin. For to know you is the sum of righteousness, and to
recognize your power is the root of immortality. 4 For neither did the
malicious inventiveness of men lead us astray, nor the sterile labor of
painters, a shape splashed with varied colors, 5 the sight of which ex­
cites fools to lust for the unbreathing form of a dead image. 6 In love
with evil and worthy of such hopes, are they who make these things,
they who long for them, and they who worship them.
2
3
NOTES
15:1. For the four divine attributes enumerated in this verse, see Exod
34:6 (cf. Num 14:18). The Hebrew rab-fyesed we'emet is translated in
the LXX as polyeleos kai alethinos, where alethinos undoubtedly means
"trusty" or "faithful." The new Jewish Publication Society translation
renders it "rich in steadfast kindness." In our context, however, which
seeks to contrast the true God over against the false gods of the heathen,
alethes carries an additional connotation to that which 'emet bears in
Exod 34:6. Cf. Jer 10:10; Wisd 12:27. For chrestos, cf. 8:1; Pss 99:5;
85:5; 144:8, LXX.
2. we are yours. Cf. Exod 34:9; Jer 3:22, LXX; PRK 16.9, Mandelbaum: 278: "Said Moses before the Holy One, blessed be He: Master of
the Universe, when they sin they are mine, but when they are meritorious
they are yours; but rather whether they are sinful or meritorious they are
yours, as it is written, 'Yet they are your very own people' (Deut 9:29)";
Sifre Deut. 96, Finkelstein: 157: "'You are children of the Lord your
God' (Deut 14:1). R. Judah says, if you behave like children, then you
282
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ XXIX
are children, but not otherwise. R. Meir says in either case you are chil­
dren of the Lord your God"; Sifre Deut. 308, Finkelstein: 346): accord­
ing to R. Meir (commenting on Deut 32:5), "even when they are full of
blemishes they are called children"; Philo Spec. 4.181.
cognizant of your might. Cf. 12:16. Aware of God's infinite power, we
know that he will not abandon us in our sins, but this sense of confidence
in God will actually prevent us from sinning in the first place.
3. sum of righteousness. For holokleros, cf. IV Mace 15:17 (eusebeian
holokleron).
your power. With the power of God we may compare the powerlessness
of Death's domain (17:14) and his impotence on earth (1:14; cf.
13:17-19, where the author presents by way of a series of pointed con­
trasts a vivid picture of the total impotence of the idols). See
Murphy: 88-93. The rabbis similarly see the special manifestation of
God's power in his ability to resurrect the dead (the second benediction of
the Amidah, known as gebfirot or "mighty deeds," concludes with
"Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who revives the dead"). See M. Ber. 5.2; BT
Ber. 33a. Cf. John 17:3.
4. The writer is thinking of his own period. The consensus among the
rabbis of the third century was that all idolatrous impulses had been eradi­
cated from Israel as early as the beginning of the Second Temple period
(BT Yoma 69b; Sanh. 64a; Arakhin 32b). For this view there is parallel
evidence in Judith 8:18: "For there has not risen in our generations, nor
is there today, a tribe, a family, a clan or a city that worships idols made
by human hands, as there was once in olden times." Hecataeus of Abdera
praises Moses for his non-anthropomorphic notion of God: "But he
[Moses] had no images whatsoever of the gods made for them, being
of the opinion that God is not in human form" (Stern:28). Tacitus grudg­
ingly allows that Jewish worship is free of idolatry (Historiae 5. 5: "The
Jews conceive of one god only, and that with the mind alone: they regard
as impious those who make from perishable materials representations of
god in man's image; that supreme and eternal being is to them incapable
of representation and without end. Therefore they set up no statues in
their cities, still less in their temples; this flattery is not paid their kings,
nor this honor given to the Caesars").
sterile labor of painters. The choice of the word skiagraphos is delib­
erate, since skiagraphia is "painting with the shadows so as to produce an
illusion of solidity at a distance" [LSJ], and is frequently used to refer to
what is illusory or unreal. Cf. Plato Critias 107D; Rep. 365C; Phaedrus
69B; Aristotle Metaphysica 1024b23; Protrepticus B104, During: "For
one will find that all the things men think great are mere scene-painting."
skiagraphos is found only here. Epiphanius (fourth century C E ) connected
the beginnings of idolatry with painting or shadow-sketching (skiagra­
phia) : "With Serug, idolatry and paganism (Hellenismos) took their start
15:1-6
ISRAEL'S
IMMUNITY FROM
IDOLATRY
283
amongst men. It was, however, so far, not a matter of images and the
graving of stones or of wood, or of figures fashioned in silver or any other
substance: it was only in the way of color-painting and pictures that the
mind of man devised for itself evil." With Serug!s son Terah, however,
"there began the fashioning of statues from moulded mud by the craft of
the worker in clay, according to the art of this same Terah" (Panarion
3.4-5). In his Ancoratus (102.1), he actually uses the word skiagraphia
in this connection: "When this innovation was made by men through the
evil work of demons, the idols were first drawn in shadow-sketches (en
skiagraphiais). Next, everybody passed on to his children, for their hom­
age, the products of the particular art which he himself exercised, and by
which he got his living. In the material with which his particular craft dealt
each man fashioned gods; the potter in clay, the carpenter in wood, the
goldsmith in gold, and so forth." This notion seems to be based on the
Greek legend regarding the origin of the art of modeling images in clay. It
began, says Pliny, with Butades of Sicyon, whose daughter, "when her
lover was going abroad, drew in outline on the wall the shadow of his face
thrown by a lamp. Her father pressed clay on this and made a relief, which
he hardened by exposure to fire with the rest of his pottery" (NH 35.151.
See Bevan 1940:51-54). The story is repeated by Athenagoras: "Relief
modelling was discovered by the Corinthian maid: she fell in love with
someone and traced the outline of his shadow on the wall (periegrapsen
. . . en toicho ten skian) as he slept; then her father, a potter, delighted
with so precise a likeness, made a relief of the outline and filled it in with
clay . . ." (Legatio ad Graeeos 17.3, Oxford Early Christian Texts Series,
ed. W. R. Schoedel, 1972). See Geffcken 1907:xxii, n.2. It is interesting
to note that in rabbinic literature a distinction was made between engrav­
ing and relief: "A ring bearing an idolatrous emblem may not be used if it
is in relief (boletet), but may be used if it is not in relief (Tosef. A.Z.
5.2; BT Rosh HaShana 24b).
colors. Cf. Plato Rep. 420C. "That the surface of archaic statues was
regularly painted is now no longer doubtful. During the best period, in the
case of marble or other polished surfaces, the painting was regularly
confined to the eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, hair, and the like" (J. Adam, com­
mentary on Plato's Republic, ad l o c ) .
5. We have in this verse (imperfect) iambic rhythms. Cf. Heb
12:13-14; James 1:17 (Farrar [1888]).
to lust for the unbreathing form. Grimm cites the story of Pygmalion, leg­
endary king of Cyprus, who having fashioned an ivory statue of a woman
fell in love with it (Ovid Metamorphoses 10.243-297; Arnobius Adversus
Nationes 6.22, contains a much cruder version of the story). Cf. Alexis
40, Edmonds, 2:393; Pliny NH 36.21: "There is a story that a man once
fell in love with it [Praxiteles' Venus at Cnidos] and hiding by night em-
284
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXIX
braced it, and that a stain betrays this lustful act"; Lucian Imagines 4; PsLucian Amores 13-16; Philostratus Vita Apollonii 6.40.
6. make these things. The context requires drontes to mean "make," but
such a usage seems to be unparalleled. Schleusner quotes Hesychius:
drontes, poiountes, ergazomenoi (Deane [1881]).
X X X . MALICIOUS M A N U F A C T U R E O F C L A Y
FIGURINES
(15:7-13)
15
7 For a potter, laboriously tempering soft clay, molds each sin­
gle article for our service, but out of the selfsame clay he fashions
those vessels which serve for clean purposes and the contrary sort, all
alike; but what shall be the use of each vessel of either class, the
worker in clay decides. 8 With misspent toil he molds a nothing-god
out of the same clay, he who but shortly before came into being out of
the earth and shortly after returns whence he was taken, when the life
that was lent him is demanded back. 9 But his concern is not that his
health is likely to fail or that his life will shortly end, but he vies with
goldsmiths and silversmiths, and emulates molders of bronze and con­
siders it high honor to fashion counterfeits. i°His heart is ashes, his
hope meaner than dirt, and his life more ignoble than clay,
be­
cause he knew not the one who fashioned him and infused him with
an active soul and breathed into him a vital spirit. He rather counts
our existence a game, and our life a holiday bargain fair, for one must
earn a living, he says, from whatever source, however foul. i F o r
this man knows more than any other that he is doing wrong, fabricat­
ing from earthen stuff frail vessels and carved images.
1 1
1 2
3
NOTES
15:7. for clean purposes and the contrary sort. This theme is reminis­
cent of the story about Amasis narrated by Herodotus 2.172 (cf. Aristotle
Politica 1259b8; Ps-Plutarch De Nobilitate 3.924), and often quoted by
Christian writers (Athenagoras Legatio ad Graecos 26; Minucius Felix
Octavius 22 A: see Geffcken, XXVH, n.l. For rabbinic allusions to this
story, see Lieberman 1950:122-126). Philo, too, refers to this theme: the
images' substance "is wood and stone, till a short time ago completely
286
THE
W I S D O M
OF
S O L O M O N
§ XXX
shapeless, hewn away from their congenital structure by quarrymen and
woodcutters while their brethren, pieces from the same original source,
have become urns and footbasins or some others of the less honorable ves­
sels which serve the purposes of darkness rather than of light" (Cont. 7;
cf. Gilbert 1973:205-207). Cf. Rom 9:21: "Has the potter no right over
the clay, to make out of the same lump one vessel for beauty and another
for menial use?"; Epicharmus Frag. 131, Kaibel: "Out of any piece of
wood the yoke of a plough may be made and out of the same piece, a
god." See Walzer: 164-174.
what shall be the use of each vessel of either class. Cf. TesLNaphtali
2:4: kathaper oiden ho kerameus henos hekastou ten chresin. The "pot­
ter" is here contemptuously used to include a sculptor in clay (Farrar
[1888]). Moreover, whereas the woodworker was depicted as at least
a believer in his wooden idols, the potter appears as a mere mercenary
(v. 12), and is much more vehemently denounced. Work in faience was
indeed particularly popular in Alexandria, and it included statuettes of
native deities (see Fraser: 1.140).
the worker in clay. The substantive pelourgos is first attested here (ad­
jective found in Lyrica Alexandrina Adespota, ed. J. U. Powell, Collectonea Alexandrina (1925) 7.16). Cf. Lucian Prometheus Es in Verbis 2.
8. With misspent toil, kakomochthos is found only here. Cf. eumochthos
Epigr.Gr. 239; IG 3.758a.
returns. For poreuetai see NOTE on 3.3. Cf. Plato Menexenus 236D;
Phaedo 67B; 113D.
the life that was lent him is demanded back. We have here a Platonic
image that had become very popular. In fashioning the mortal parts of
man, the young gods, according to Plato, "imitating their own Maker, bor­
rowed (daneizomenoi: cf. Wisd 15:16) from the Cosmos portions of fire
and earth and water and air, as if meaning to pay them back" (Tim.
42E). Cf. Ps-Plato Axiochus 367b2: "Nature is like a small money­
lender; if we do not repay the debt (chreos) of life promptly, she comes
down on us and takes sight or hearing, or often both, as pledges for a set­
tlement." These words are very similar to those of Bion of Borysthenes:
"Just as we move out of a house when the landlord, failing to collect his
rent, removes the door, or the tiling, or shuts up the well, so do I quit the
body when landlady Nature (misthosasa physis) takes away eyes, ears,
hands or feet" (O. Hense, Teletis Reliquiae [rep. Hildesheim, New York,
1969] 15-16. Cf. also his statement: "Fortune does not give to the rich,
it lends" [dedaneiken] [Stobaeus 4.41]). Cf. Alexis (Middle and New
Comedy poet): "Because the life we have is not ours: God takes it back
from each one lightly when he thinks fit" (P. Berol. 11771); Serbian in­
scription: "We shall make a monument for our life and that which we
have unknowingly received we shall return. That's that" (see Nock
1966:23-24). Lydian Inscription, second century C E : "I did not receive
15:7-13
MANUFACTURE
OF CLAY
FIGURINES
287
this life as my own, stranger. I borrowed it from time and now return it to
time as to my creditor" (Peek, 1960: no. 260). Lucretius 3.971: "Life is
granted to none for freehold (mancipio), to all on lease (usu)"; Euripides
The Suppliant Women, 534; Phoenician Women 555; Cicero Ad Familiares 7.29.1; 7.30.2; Accius, Frag. 422; Heraclitus Homeric Allegories
22.10: "The debt which Nature gave us as a loan in the beginning (ha
dedaneiken en arche chrea), she takes back in the end; Cicero Tusc.
1.93; Plutarch Moralia 106F: "Wherefore it is said that life is a debt to
destiny (moiridion chreos) the idea being that a loan which our forefa­
thers contracted (edaneisanto) is to be repaid by us;" Ps-Phocylides 106
(FPG: 152); Sextus Sentences 21 (Chadwick: 14, line 2 1 ) ; Vettius
Valens Anthologiae, ed. W. Kroll (Berlin, 1908): 330, 33; Jos. J.W.
3.8.5 (372-374); Luke 12:20: "Fool, this night they shall demand back
(apaitousin) from thee thy soul." Philo is particularly fond of this image:
Abr. 257; Post. 5; Her. 104; Cher. 118; Spec. 1.295; ShR on Exod 22:24
(God lends the soul without interest, taking back only the capital; cf.
Seneca De Consolatio ad Polybius 10.4-5: "If anyone should be angry
that he has had to pay back borrowed money—especially that of which he
had the use without paying interest—would he not be considered an unfair
man? Nature gave your brother his life. . . . If she has required from him
from whom she wanted it an earlier payment of her loan, she has but used
her own right"); Hennas Mandates 3.2; Similitudes 9.32.2; ARN 14; Tanh
Shophetim 12 (Hadrian's wife said to him, when he proposed to make
himself God, that he might do so after returning to God his deposit, his
soul); Eccles 12:7; Mid. Mishle 31.10. See D. Daube, "Josephus on Sui­
cide and Liability of Depositee," The Juridical Review 3 (1964): 1-13.
Cf. also Life of Secundus the Philosopher, ed. B. E. Perry (Ithaca,
1964) :8, where man is described as ges apaitema.
whence he was taken. Cf. Gen 3:19, LXX.
9. will shortly end. brachytele. Found only here (but reappears in
Patristic Greek).
goldsmiths, chrusourgos first attested here. Cf. Pollux 7.97.
silversmiths, argyrochoos found only here (but reappears in Patristic
Greek).
molders of bronze, chaikoplastos found only here (but reappears in Pa­
tristic Greek).
counterfeits. Earthen figures, colored and glazed, or varnished to look
like metal (Deane [1888]).
10. His heart is ashes. Based on a mistranslation of Isa 44:20 in LXX.
11. a vital spirit. Erasistratus of Alexandria had distinguished between a
pneuma zdtikon and a pneuma psychikon, and our author, with Gen 2:7
in mind, readily adopted this Greek formulation (see Verbeke
1945:224-225; cf. Gilbert 1973:213). It should be noted that the LXX,
untouched by Greek philosophical influence, translated Hebrew nepeS in
Gen 2:7 not with the Greek psychs, but with pnoe. Cf. Prov 24:12;
9
288
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXX
20:27, LXX; Ps 150:6, LXX; IV Ezra 16:62. See Freudenthal
1890:210-212.
12. a game. For this metaphor, cf. Plato Laws 644D, where it is
suggested that man may be an ingenious puppet of the gods, contrived by
them by way of a toy (paignion) or for some serious purpose; Aristotle
Politics 1337b35; EN 1176b27; Cicero Off. 1.103: "for Nature has not
brought us into the world to act as if we were created for play or jest, but
rather for earnestness"; Suetonius Divus Augustus 99.1; Palladas (fourth
century C E ) : "The world's a stage and life's a toy" (paignion); (AP
10.72); Life of Secundus 8 (where man is described as Tyches paignion);
Quran 57:19: "The life of this world is but a sport, and a play and a
gaud."
a holiday bargain fair, panegyrismon. Life as a festival is another wide­
spread motif. Cf. Alexis, Frag. 219: "I've myself no doubt that all man's
doings are madness out and out, and those now living are visitors to this
light, allowed a holiday (eis panegyrin tina) from death and night, And
whoever laughs, drinks, loves, and, if he can, Dines out, the most, goes
home the happiest man" (Edmonds 2:4801); Menander Reliquiae II, ed.
Koerte, n.416,8; Menander Sententiae, ed. Jaekel, 627; Vettius Valens,
ed. Kroll, 246.2 (life is mere farce [paignion], error [plane], and panegyris); Epictetus 4.1.105: "Are you not willing, then, for so long as has
been given you, to be a spectator of his pageant and his festival (pane­
gyrin) . . . but the festival has come to an end"; 3.5.10: "And now it is
thy will that I leave this festival; I go, I am full of gratitude to Thee that
Thou hast deemed me worthy to take part in this festival with Thee";
Teletis Reliquiae, ed. Hense: 15.10; Ps-Longinus On the Sublime 35.2;
Methodius Symposion 8.1.171; D.L. 8.8; Cicero Tusc. 5.9: "Pythagoras
replied that the life of man seemed to him to resemble the festival which
was celebrated with most magnificent games before a concourse collected
from the whole of Greece; for at this festival some men . . . sought to
win the glorious distinction of a crown, others were attracted by the
prospect of making gain by buying or selling . . ."; BT Erub. 54a:
"hurry on and eat, hurry on and drink, since the world from which we
must depart is like a wedding feast."
from whatever source, however foul. Another commonplace. Cf. Sopho­
cles Antigone 312: "and learn that it is not well to love gain from every
source"; Xenophon Mem. 2.9A; Chilon, ap. D.L. 1.70; Horace Epistulae
1.1.65: "Make money, money by fair means if you can, if not, by any
means money"; Juvenal 14.204: "The smell of gain is good whatever the
thing from which it comes. . . . Let this maxim be ever on your lips: 'no
matter whence the money comes, but money you must have'"; Philo Prob.
65: "As it is, for the sake of money we ransack every corner and open up
rough and rocky veins of earth"; Praem. 11: "In hope of gain the trades­
man arms himself for the manifold forms of money getting."
XXXI. FOLLY OF EGYPTIAN IDOLATRY
(15:14-19)
4
15
1 But most foolish of all, and sorrier than blind infants are the
enemies and oppressors of your people, 1 for even all the idols of the
nations they accounted gods, though they have neither use of eyes for
seeing, nor nostrils for drawing breath, nor ears to hear, nor fingers
for feeling, and their feet are ineffectual for walking. * It was a man
who made them, and one who borrowed his breath shaped them; for
no human has the power to fashion a god like himself. i But being
mortal, he makes a lifeless thing with his lawless hands; for he
surpasses the objects of his worship, in that he had life, but they never
did. is Moreover, they worship the most hateful beasts, who com­
pared for brutishness are worse than all the rest. i^Nor do they
chance to have a trace of beauty, so as to make them objects of
desire, to the extent that this is possible with a beastly appearance;
but they have escaped both the approval of God and his blessing.
5
6
7
NOTES
15:14. than blind infants. Cf. NOTE on 12:24.
15. Cf. Pss 115:4$; 135:15$; Philo Decal. 74.
for drawing breath. Cf. Test.Reuben 2:5: "The fourth is the sense of
smell, with which taste is given to draw air and breath (eis synolken aeros
kai pnoes) (this verse is a late addition to the text, undoubtedlyfirstmade
in the Greek version. See Test.XII, ad loc.). synolke isfirstattested here.
Cf. Hierocles 62A; Ps-Dioscorides Peri Deleteridn Pharmakon (On
Noxious Poisons) 14; Galen 2.266C.
17. he surpasses the objects of his worship. Philo makes the same point:
"In their general ignorance they have failed to perceive even that most ob­
vious truth which even 'a witless infant knows* [cf. Iliad 17.32; Hesiod
Op. 218], that the craftsman is superior to the product of his craft both in
time, since he is older than what he makes and in a sense its father, and in
290
THE WISDOM
OF
§ XXXI
SOLOMON
value, since the efficient element is held in higher esteem than the passive
effect. And while if they were consistent in their sin, they should have
deified the sculptors and painters themselves . . . they leave them in ob­
scurity . . . while they regard as gods the figures and pictures made by
their workmanship" (Decal 69).
18. compared for brutishness. Philo similarly writes: "But actually the
Egyptians have gone to a further excess, and chosen the fiercest and most
savage of wild animals, lions and crocodiles and among reptiles the ven­
omous asp. . . . For after ransacking the two elements given by God to
man for his use, earth and water, to find their fiercest occupants, they
found on land no creature more savage than the lion nor in water than the
crocodile and these they reverence and honor" (Decal. 78; cf. Cont. 8;
Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.6).
19. nor do they chance to have a trace of beauty (oud . . . kala tyngchanei). sc. onta. Cf. Philo Cont. 9: "They render worship to them, they
the civilized to the uncivilized and untamed, the reasonable to the irra­
tional, the kinsfolk of the Godhead to ugliness unmatched even by a Thersites." Plutarch, on the other hand, attempts to find a justification for ani­
mal worship (see Is. et Os. 382).
so as to make them objects of desire (hoson epipothesai). A good
classical construction (it equals: epi tosouton hoste), but it does not seem
to occur in Hellenistic Greek (Goodrick [1913]).
escaped both the approval of God and his blessing. This is certainly not
a Jewish teaching, and the author appears to be alluding to one of the
characteristic doctrines of Zoroastrianism. "All that is aggressive or repul­
sive," writes M. Boyce, "is classed as da&vic; and in time a whole double
vocabulary developed for good and evil creatures. Daevic creatures were
naturally considered as unclean in themselves, and to slay them was a pos­
itive merit; for there is no sin in bringing death to the creatures of him
who created death. The generic Avestan term for them, khrafstra, used by
the prophet himself (Yasna 28.5; 34.5) [Bailey suggested a derivation of
the word from Indo-European verbal base *skrep—meaning "bite, sting,
pierce"]), occurs in Middle Iranian as khrafstar, or dialectically frestar. It
was applied particularly to insects and reptiles, but could also be used of
beasts of prey. . . . Destroying such creatures amounted, in Zoroastrian
eyes, to eliminating sources of evil and corruption, and so seemed unques­
tionably good as does the destruction of disease-germs and microbes to the
rationalist today. This practice continued down the ages, being first noticed
by Herodotus (1.140), and till the mid-19th century the Zoroastrians of
Kerman kept up an annual observance called kharastar-kdli, when
members of the community went out into the plains around the city and
slew as many kharastars as they could, such as scorpions, tarantulas, liz­
ards, snakes, ants, and all else that crept and crawled, pricked, bit or
9
15:14-19
FOLLY
OF E G Y P T I A N
IDOLATRY
291
stung, and seemed hideous and repulsive" (pp. 298-299; see also Winston
1966:209, n.72). In the two millennia of Oshetar and Oshetarmah, which
are the prelude to the Frashkart or Final Rehabilitation, the noxious
beasts created by Ahriman, that is, the wolf and cat tribes on the one
hand, and reptiles and poisonous insects on the other, are destroyed (Se­
lections of Zatspram, chap. 34, translation in Zaehner 1972:354). Cf.
Virgil Eel. 4.24: "The serpent, too, shall perish, and the false poison-plant
shall perish" (Nicander Theriaca Sff quotes Hesiod for the view that
snakes sprang from the spilt blood of the Titans).
X X X I I . SECOND ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIANS HUNGER
THROUGH ANIMAL PLAGUE, BUT ISRAEL
ENJOYS E X O T I C QUAIL F O O D
(16:1-4)
16
i Therefore they were duly chastised by similar creatures, and
tormented by swarms of beasts. In lieu of such punishment, you ex­
hibited kindness to your people and prepared for the satisfaction of
their fierce craving an exotic delicacy of quail food; so that those
others, though desiring food, might turn away even from their neces­
sary craving through the hideousness of the creatures sent against
them, while your people, only briefly made to want, might partake of
an exotic dish. For it was necessary that an inexorable famine over­
take the oppressors, but for your people only to be shown how their
enemies were tortured.
2
3
4
NOTES
16:1. Therefore. I.e. because they worshiped "the most hateful beasts
(15:18).
swarms of beasts. The plagues included frogs, lice, locusts, and either
"a mixture of wild beasts" (Jos. Ant. 2.14.3) or dogflies (LXX: kynomuia (cf. ShR 11.4).
2. quail food, ortygometra is the LXX translation of Hebrew sllaw, but
rendered in LSJ as "a bird which migrates with quails, perhaps, corncrake,
landrail, Rallus crex." Cf. Exod 16:9-13; Num 11:10-32; Pss 78:26-29;
105:40.
3. craving. For oreksis, cf. Sir 18:30; 23:6. It is an Aristotelian term:
De Anima 414b2. Cf. Epicurus K.D. 26; Frags. 45 and 60, Bailey.
hideousness. eidechtheia is found only here (but occurs again in Patris­
tic Greek). (In Philo Op. 158, the editor, L. Cohn, has removed the
word.) For eidechthes, see Theophrastus Characteres 28.4; Polybius
16:1-4
SECOND
ANTITHESIS
293
36.15.1; Philo LA 3.62; Jos. 101; Aet. 56. The author has adapted the
biblical version of this event to serve his own peculiar exegesis, by omit­
ting all mention of the people's murmuring and gluttony and God's furious
anger which culminated in the destruction of many of them (a character­
istic feature of encomiastic writing).
X X X I I I . T H I R D ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIANS SLAIN BY
LOCUSTS A N D FLIES, BUT ISRAEL SURVIVES
A SERPENT ATTACK T H R O U G H T H E BRONZE
SERPENT, SYMBOL O F SALVATION
(16:5-14)
5
16
Even when the terrible fury of beasts came upon them, and
they were perishing through the bites of tortuous serpents, your anger
did not abide to the end; 6 only for a while were they thrown into
disarray as a warning, possessing as they did a symbol of your salva­
tion to remind them of the commandment of your law. 7 For whoever
turned towards it was saved not by the sight beheld, but through you,
the savior of all. And by this you convinced our foes that you are
the one who delivers from every evil. 9 For those men were slain by
the bites of locusts and flies, and no remedy was found for their life,
since they deserved to be punished by such creatures. H>But your
sons were not overcome by the fangs of venom-spraying serpents, for
your compassion came forth to their aid and healed them, n It was to
remind them of your oracles that they were sharply prodded and
quickly delivered so that they might not fall into a deep forgetfulness
and become complacent through your kindness. i F o r it was neither
herb nor emollient that cured them, but your word, O Lord, that
heals all. For you have the power of life and death; you lead down
to the gates of Hades and bring back up again. i*Man indeed slays in
his wickedness, but he does not bring back the expired life breath nor
release the soul embraced by death.
8
2
1 3
NOTES
16:5. tortuous serpents. Cf. Isa 2 7 : 1 : ton drakonta ophin skolion; Virgil
Aen. 2.204.
to the end. Cf. 19:1; I Thess 2:16; Test.Levi 6:11.
6. a symbol of your salvation. Le. the bronze serpent. Cf. Num 21:9.
16:5-14
THIRD
ANTITHESIS
295
(Ms HA reads symboulon, which is reminiscent of Philo Agr. 97, where the
serpent of Eve or 'pleasure* is described as symboulon anthrdpou. Cf.
Agr. 95. F. H. Colson (the translator of Philo in the LCL), however, sug­
gests the reading epiboulon in that passage.) Philo similarly interprets the
serpent of Moses as a symbol of steadfast endurance (karteria), which ex­
plains, he says, "why it is represented as being made of very strong mate­
rial like brass." "He, then, who has looked with fixed gaze on the form of
patient endurance, even though he should perchance have been previously
bitten by the wiles of pleasure, cannot but live; for, whereas pleasure men­
aces the soul with inevitable death, self-control (engkrateia) holds out to
it health and safety (soterion) for life" (Agr. 98). Cf. LA 2.79-81; Justin
Apologia 1.60: "Moses, by the inspiration and influence of God, took
brass, and made it into the figure of a cross, and set it in the holy taber­
nacle, and said to the people, 'If ye look to this figure (typo), and believe,
ye shall be saved thereby'"; John 3:14.
7. was saved not by the sight beheld. The author seeks to replace the
principle of homeopathic magic which appears to be operative in Num
21:8-9 with a spiritual conception. (See B. A. Levine, In the Presence of
the Lord [Leiden, 1974]: 85-86.) We find a similar interpretation in
M. Rosh Hashanah 3.8: "But could the serpent kill or could the serpent
keep alive? But rather, whenever Israel looked on high and subjected their
heart to their Father in heaven were they healed, but if not, they
perished." It may be noted that the rabbis explained the punishment of the
Israelites by means of serpents on the talion principle, a conceit to which,
as we have already seen, both they and the author of Wisd were equally
attached. See Tanfy. Hukat 45: "Let the serpent who began with slander
come and exact punishment from those who utter slander. . . . Let the
serpent who eats all kinds of food and yet enjoys only one taste (cf. BT
Yoma 75a), come and exact punishment from those who eat only one
kind of food and yet enjoy the taste of many kinds." Cf. Targ.Yerush.
and Ps-Jonathan on Num 21:6: "And the bath-kol fell from the high
heaven and thus spoke: I made manna come down for them from heaven,
yet now they turn and murmur against me. Yet, behold, the serpent whom,
in the days of the beginning of the world, I doomed to have dust for his
food, hath not murmured against me. Now shall the serpents who have not
complained of their food come and bite the people who complain."
9. slain. The only allusion to deadly effects of the locusts is in Exod
10:17, where Pharaoh calls the locusts 'this death.' Josephus, on the
other hand, tells us that the Egyptians perished miserably both through the
attacks of the lice and "the wild beasts of every species and kind" (Ant.
2.14.3-4). For a vivid description of the ferocious dog-fly, see Philo
Mos. 1.130-132.
10. venom-spraying. For iobolon, cf. Aristotle Historia Animalium
296
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXIII
607a28; Philo Op. 156; Agr. 95; Ebr. 223; etc. For Philo the reptiles are
a symbol of poisonous passions (iobolon pathori): QG 2.56.
came forth to their aid. (antiparelthen). In the sense of "come up and
help" found only here.
11. to remind them of your oracles. Cf. Ps-Aristeas 158: "He has or­
dained for us that we place the chapters (ta logia) 'upon our doorposts
and gates' to serve as a remembrance (mneian) of God."
prodded, enkentrizo in the sense of 'goad,' 'spur on,' used only here
(but occurs again in Patristic Greek).
complacent. For aperispastos, cf. Epictetus 3.9.19; 2.21.22 ("free from
distraction"; here, in the sense of complacency).
12. neither herb nor emollient that cured them. Cf. Philo Sacr. 70:
"When anything befalls them which they would not, since they have never
had any firm faith in God their savior, they first flee to the help which
things created give, to physicians, herbs (botanas) drug-mixtures, strict
rules of diet, and all the other aids that mortals use."
word. Cf. Ps 107:20.
13. power of life and death. Cf. Deut 32:39; I Sam 2:6.
lead down . . . and bring back. Cf. I Sam 2:6; Tobit 13:2: "He leads
down (katagei) to Hades below the earth, but he delivers (or brings
up: anagei) from the great Abyss." For the gates of Hades, cf. Isa 38:10;
Job 38:17; III Mace 5:51; Pss 9:14; 107:18.
14. he does not bring back the expired life breath. A basic sentiment.
Cf. Iliad 9.408-409: "but that the spirit of man should come again when
once it hath passed the barrier of his teeth, neither harrying availeth nor
winning."
9
XXXIV. FOURTH ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIANS PLAGUED
BY THUNDERSTORMS, BUT ISRAEL FED
BY A RAIN OF MANNA
(16:15-29)
5
16
1 But from your handflightis impossible; 1 6 for godless men
who denied knowing you were scourged by the might of your arm,
pursued by unusual downpours and relentless hail and thunderstorms,
and utterly wasted by fire. i?Most incredible of all, in water which
quenches everything,firewas the most dynamic force, for the cosmic
order champions the righteous. At one moment theflamewas tem­
pered, so that it might not burn up the beasts sent against the godless,
the better for them to see and perceive that it was by God's judgment
that they were pursued; 15 at another, even amid the water it flared
up beyond the ordinary force of fire, to destroy the fruits of an
unrighteous land. 20 By contrast, you spoonfed your people with
angel food, and unwearyingly furnished them from heaven bread al­
ready prepared, equivalent to every pleasure, and suited to every
taste. 21 For your sustenance displayed your sweetness toward your
children, and serving the desire of him that tasted it, changed its na­
ture in accordance with what anyone wished. But the snow and
ice[-like food] endured fire and did not melt, that they might know
thatfiredestroyed the fruits of their enemies,flamingin the hail and
flashing in the storm; and thisfireagain has forgotten even its own
power, in order that the righteous be fed. For creation, serving you
its maker, tenses itself for punishment against the unrighteous, and
slackens into benevolence on behalf of those who trust in you.
Therefore, at that time, too, changing into all things, it served your
all-nurturing bounty in accordance with the wish of those who were in
want, that your sons whom you love, O Lord, might learn that it is
not the varieties of fruit which nourish a man, but that your word
preserves those that trust in you. For that which was not destroyed
by fire, melted straightaway when warmed by a fleeting sunbeam,
so that men might know that one must rise before the sun to give
18
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
298
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXIV
you thanks, and make petition at the crack of dawn. 29 For the hope
of the ungrateful will melt away like the winter's frost, and drain off
like water that goes to waste.
NOTES
16:15. from your hand flight is impossible. Cf. Tobit 13:28: "There is
nothing that can escape his hand" (ouk estin ouden ho ekpheuksetai ten
cheira autou).
16. unusual downpours. Philo highlights this fact: "We must remember
that Egypt is almost the only country, apart from those in southern lati­
tudes, which is unvisited by one of the year's seasons—winter. , . . Such
was the condition of the land, enjoying springtime at mid-winter, the
seaboard enriched by only slight showers, while the parts above Memphis,
where the royal palace of Egypt was, experienced no rainfall at all, when
suddenly a complete change came over the air, and all the visitations
which belong to severe winter fell upon it in a body" (Mos. 1.114, 118).
17. fire was the most dynamic force. See Exod 9:24. Philo similarly
writes: "These last [flashes of lightning and thunderbolts] provided a most
marvellous spectacle, for they ran through the hail, their natural antago­
nist, and yet did not melt it nor were quenched by it, but unchanged
coursed up and down and kept guard over the hail" (Mos. 1.118). Cf.
ShR 12.6: "a miracle within a miracle."
18. Cf. 19:21. The author appears to be assuming that the plagues of
frogs, flies, lice, locusts and hail were coterminous, thus contradicting the
biblical narrative. Although there were varying traditions concerning both
the number and order of the plagues, and we find Artapanus, for example,
combining locusts, lice, and frogs into one plague (FPG: 194, lines
17-20), there is no known parallel to our author's particular scheme.
20. spoonfed. For epsomisas, cf. Deut 8:3: epsomise se to manna.
angel food. Cf. Ps 78:25, LXX, where lehem abbirim is translated arton
angelon; BT Yoma 75b, where this interpretation is maintained by
R. Akiba. His colleague R. Ishmael, however, strongly objects to the view
that angels partake of food, and interprets lehem abbirim as bread which
is absorbed by the 248 parts [ebdrim] of the body (cf. Tanh. Buber,
Beshallah 34; Targ. Yerush on Ps 78:25; IV Ezra 1:19 {panem
angelorum]; Vita Adae 4 : 2 ) .
unwearyingly. For akopiatos, cf. SVF 1.549: ten akamaton kai akopiaton pronoian (the adverbial form is found in Philodemus De Pietate 15).
The translation 'without their laboring for it' is grammatically unjustified
16:15-29
FOURTH
ANTITHESIS
299
(see Fichtner [1938], ad loc.), though it ties in well with Philo's designa­
tion of the manna as ten aponon kai atalaipdron trophen (Congr. 173;
Mos. 2.267).
suited to every taste. Cf. Mek.Wayassa' 5.41, on Exod 16:23:
"R. Joshua says, if one liked it baked, it would become baked for him; if
one liked it cooked, it would become cooked for him. R. Eliezer of Modi'im says, if one liked to eat something baked, he could taste in the
manna the taste of any kind of baked things in the world; if one liked to
eat something cooked, he could taste in it the taste of any dish in the
world"; Sifre Num. 89; BT Yoma 75a: "R. Akiba said: [Do not read
le-$ad (cake), but Sad (breast)] i.e. Just as the infant finds very many a
flavor in the breast, so also did Israel find many a taste in the manna as
long as they were eating it. Some there are who say: ["Le-Sad" means] a
real demon, even as the demon changes into many colors, so did the
manna change into many tastes"; ShR 25.3, on Exod 16:4.
21. sustenance. Others translate 'substance,' referring either to God's
substance as the power working in the manna (Grimm [I860]) or to the
manna itself (Farrar [1888]; Heinisch [1912]), "Many commentators take
it to refer to the Person of the Logos, as Heb 1:3 (charakter tes hypostaseos autou), but the corresponding clause ('and serving the desire of
him that tasted it') shows that it refers to the manna" (Deane [1881]).
In Philo's allegorical interpretation, the manna refers to the Logos:
"Manna is the divine Logos, eldest of all existences, which bears the most
comprehensive name of 'somewhat' (to genikotaton ti). Out of it are
made two cakes, the one of honey, the other of oil. These are two insepa­
rable and all-important stages in education, at the outset causing a
sweetness to flow from what knowledge opens, and afterwards causing a
most brilliant light to flash from them on those who handle in no fickle
and perfunctory way the subjects which they love, but lay hold of them
strongly and firmly with a persistence that knows no slackness of inter­
mission" (Det. 118).
changed its nature, metakirnad (=metakerannymi.
Cf. Pausanius
9.28.4) is found only here (but occurs again in Patristic Greek).
22. snow. Cf. 19:21. Exod 16:14 merely speaks of the manna as "small
as the hoar frost on the ground" but the comparison to snow occurs al­
ready in Artapanus: chioni paraplesion ten chroan (FPG: 195, lines
23-24), and again in Josephus (Ant. 3.1.6). Cf. Philo Mos. 1.200.
did not melt. I.e. in ordinary fire, since it did melt under sunlight (see
v. 27 below). Cf. Philo Mos. 1,118; Plato Phaedo 106A.
flaming in the hail. Cf. Exod 9:24, LXX.
flashing, diastrapto is found only here (but occurs again in Patristic
Greek) (classical form is astrapto).
24. serving you its maker. Philo uses virtually the same language in a
300
THE WISDOM
OF
§ XXXIV
SOLOMON
similar context: "But God has subject to him not one portion of the uni­
verse, but the whole world and its parts, to minister as slaves to their
master (hos despote doula hyperetesonta). So now it has seemed good to
him that the air should bring food instead of water" (Mos. 1.201).
tenses itself . . . and slackens. The intent of this verse is that the ele­
ments of fire and water, through a heightening or lowering of their tonos
('tension'), underwent a sufficient inner transformation to account, on the
one hand, for the miracle of the ice-like manna which "endured fire and
did not melt," and, on the other hand, for the punishment of the Egyptians
by fire "flaming in the hail and flashing in the storm." Cf. 19:6,18-20,
with commentary. The correlative notions of epitasis and anesis may be
traced back to Plato: Rep. 442A; Phaedo 86C, 94C. For the Stoics, see
SVF 3.92, 525, where we are told that Virtue and the Good admit neither
of epitasis nor anesis, and in this differ from the technai which do admit
of such variations and gradations. According to Chrysippus each virtue
was a different state of the pneuma which constituted the psyche: SVF
3.259. The health of the soul was equated with the right tension or eutonia, and its sickness with wrong tension or atonia: SVF 3.471. Sleep was
thus seen by the Stoics as a slackening (anesis) of the soul's perceptive
pneuma and death as its total slackening: Dox. 436al0#. Philo similarly
describes the diseased or healthy state of the soul in terms equivalent to
the Stoic atonia and eutonia (Conf. 166; Virt. 13; Ebr. 95, 122), and sug­
gests that perhaps Moses indicates by the bow which God sets in the
clouds (Gen 9:13-17); that "in the laxness and force (anesin kai epitasin)
of earthly things there will not take place a dissolution by their being com­
pletely loosened to the point of incongruity nor will there be force up to
the point of reaching a break" (QG 2.64; cf. Deus 162; Her. 156; Mut.
87).
into benevolence (eis euergesian) Cf. Philo Congr. 173: ep euergesia
ton chresomenon.
25. changing. For metalleuomene see NOTE on 4:12.
into all things (eis panta). Heinisch [1912] translates 'completely,'
insisting that it did not change into everything, but that it simply adapted
itself to each individual's taste.
all-nurturing (pantotropho). Cf. Philo Confr. 174: tou pantotrophou
geumatos sophias.
26. An adaptation of Deut 8:3 (rhema is the LXX rendering of Hebrew
motza' pi). Cf. Philo LA 3.162-163: "You see that the soul is fed not
with things of earth that decay, but with such words as God shall have
poured like rain out of that lofty and pure region of life to which the
prophet has given the title of 'heaven'"; Fug. 137; Mut. 259; Her. 191.
27. melted. See Exod 16:21. We read in Mek. Wayassa' on Exod 16:21 :
"As soon as the sun shone upon it, it began to melt and formed rivulets
9
16:15-29
FOURTH
ANTITHESIS
301
which flowed into the great sea. Harts, gazelles, and roebuck, and all kinds
of animals would come and drink from them. The nations of the world
then would hunt these animals and eat them and taste in them the taste of
the manna that came down for Israel" (cf. Targ.Yerush. on Exod 16:21,
where we find a slightly different version).
28. rise before the sun. Cf. Pss «7:13, LXX; 77:34; 62:1; 56:8; Job
8:5, LXX; Test Joseph 3:6.
at the crack of dawn. Cf. Sir 39:5; BT Ber. 9b: "The watikin (i.e. those
'strong' in their piety) used to finish it [the recital of the Shema] with sun­
rise"; Jos. J.W. 2.8.5: "Before the sun is up they [the Essenes] utter no
word on mundane affairs, but offer to him certain prayers which have been
handed down from their forefathers, as though entreating him to rise." Cf.
M. Smith, "Essenes in Josephus and the Philosophumena," HUCA 29
(1958) 288, n.55 (quotes Lieberman as saying that Josephus' account
misinterprets the use of Isa 60:1, known from Genizah fragments to have
been recited in morning prayers). Philo writes of the Therapeutae: "They
stand with their faces and whole body turned to the east and when they
see the sun rising they stretch their hands up to heaven and pray for bright
days." Cf. also Ezek 8:16; M. Suk. 5.4. For further examples, see Festugiere 1950:4. 245, n.3. Cf. Hengel 1:236; 2:159, n.821. We have here an­
other example of our author's eagerness to uncover the symbolic meaning
behind physical events whenever he is able to do so.
XXXV. FIFTH ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIANS TERRIFIED
BY DARKNESS, BUT ISRAEL ILLUMINATED WITH
BRIGHT LIGHT AND GUIDED THROUGH
DESERT BY A PILLAR OF FIRE
(17:1-18:4)
17
i Great and inexplicable are your judgments; therefore did un­
trained minds go astray. For though lawless men thought to lord it
over a holy people, themselves shackled by darkness and captives of
the long night, they lay locked in under their roofs, fugitives from
eternal providence. Thinking to remain unnoticed in their secret
sins, cloaked by dark oblivion, they were scattered in fearful dismay
and terrified by phantoms. 4 For even the cranny that confined them
did not shield them from fear, but terrifying noises crashed all around
them, and gloomy grim-faced apparitions appeared. 5 No fire had
force enough to give them light, nor did the brightly blazing stars
avail to illumine that hideous darkness. 6 Only a terrifying selfkindledflamingmass opened a path of light for them, but terrified
when the sight was no longer visible, they considered what they had
seen more terrible than ever. 7 Their magical shams proved ineffec­
tual and their pretension to wisdom was contemptuously unmasked,
for they who were pledged to drive out terror and tumult from sick
souls were themselves diseased with a ridiculous timorousness. 9 For
even if nothing disturbing alarmed them, they were panicked by the
prowling of beasts and the hissing of reptiles, H>and perished stricken
by convulsions and refusing so much as to look upon the dark haze
from which there was no escape. HFor wickedness [self-]condemned testifies to its innate cowardice, and when anguished by
conscience always increases its pain. i Fear is nothing but the aban­
donment of reason's aid, 1 and the vanquished expectation within ac­
counts its ignorance of greater concern than the cause through which
its torment comes. i4But they, all through a night in reality power­
less, inasmuch as it came upon them out of the recesses of the power­
less infernal realm, entranced by a death-like sleep, is were now
2
3
8
2
3
17:1-18:4
FIFTH
303
ANTITHESIS
plagued by phantom monsters, now paralyzed by the betrayal of their
own minds, for sudden and unexpected fear poured over them.
^ T h u s , whosoever fell down there was held bound, locked in a
prison without bars. Farmer or shepherd or troubled laborer in the
desert he was overtaken and awaited the inescapable fate; * for all
were bound by one chain of darkness. Whether it was a whistling
wind, or the tuneful song of birds in spreading branches, or the
cadence of violently onrushing water, w or the harsh din of avalanching rocks, or the unseen racing of bounding animals, or the roar of
savage beasts, or an echo reverberating from a hollow in the hills—it
paralyzed them with terror. 20 For the whole world was illuminated
with bright light and went about its tasks unhindered; 21 over them
alone there stretched oppressive night, an image of the darkness
which was to receive them; yet they were to themselves more burden­
some than darkness.
18
i But for your holy ones there was light supreme. The enemy
who could hear their voices though not discover their shapes, deemed
them happy because they had not suffered like themselves, and were
thankful that they did not harm them though wronged first, and
begged the favor of their being parted. i n contrast you provided
your people with a blazing pillar as a guide for their uncharted jour­
ney, a benign sun to accompany them on their glorious pilgrimage.
But well did those others deserve to be deprived of light and impris­
oned in darkness, since they kept your sons captive, through whom
the imperishable light of the Law was to be given to the world.
1 7
8
2
3
4
NOTES
17:1 - 1 8 : 4 . In this elaborate antithesis, the author employs all his rhe­
torical skill to provide his readers with a living impression of the psycho­
logical terror occasioned by the plague of darkness. As is his wont, he
deftly and almost imperceptibly moves from the physical contrast between
darkness and light to the spiritual one which sees in the Egyptians moral
villains obsessed with a bad conscience, and in Israel ethical heroes des­
tined to illumine the world with the light of the Torah. Although his lan­
guage lapses occasionally into virtual obscurity, it is not lacking in either
power or pathos, and his vivid description of the paralyzing fear which
304
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXV
had gripped the Egyptians, though rhetorically effusive, is not unimpres­
sive. It has been pointed out that the author was undoubtedly influenced
by the literary genre known as katabaseis or 'descents into Hades' (our
best surviving example is Virgil's Aeneid, book 6 ) , which includes a
graphic description of the terror that paralyzed the guilty. The rabbis had
similarly identified the darkness which plagued the Egyptians as coming
from Gehenna (ShR 14.2, where in support of this R. Nahman quotes Job
10:22). See Cumont 1949:64-65, 221ff; T. F. Glasson, Greek Influence
in Jewish Eschatology (London, 1961) 8-11; Reese 1970:101-102.
17:1. inexplicable dysdiegetoi is found only here (but occurs again in
Patristic Greek). Cf. Isa 40:13-14; Rom 11:33.
2. For. gar. It has been remarked that the use of the particle gar
here is very loose, and that eight out of the first twelve verses of this
chapter begin with gar (Gregg). Such a loose use of particles was also
characteristic of the early diatribe.
lawless men. I.e. the Egyptians.
the long night. Cf. Exod 10:22: "Thick darkness descended upon all
the land of Egypt for three days." Cf. Philo Mos. 1.123: "What else could
it seem but a single night of great length (mian nykta makrotaten) equiva­
lent to three days and the same number of nights?" Some rabbis further
exaggerated the length of the darkness: "There were seven days of dark­
ness. How so! During the first three days, whoever was seated and wished
to stand up could do so, and vice versa, and concerning these three days it
is said, 'Thick darkness descended upon all the land of Egypt for three
days, people could not see one another.' During the other three days, he
who was seated could not get up, he who was standing could not be
seated, and he who was lying down could not stand erect, and concerning
them it is said, 'and for three days no one could get up from where he
was.' These were the six days of darkness in Egypt, whereas the seventh
day of darkness was at the sea, as it is said, 'and there was the cloud with
the darkness and it lit the night,' Thus did the Holy One blessed be He
send cloud and darkness upon the Egyptians while illuminating Israel, as
he did for them in Egypt, and concerning this it was said, 'The Lord is my
light and my help'" (Ps 27:1) (ShR 14.3 ).
fugitives. CI. Empedocles, DK, B.115: phygas theothen, 'a fugitive
from heaven.'
3. in their secret sins. Another example of the principle of talion (cf.
NOTE on 11:5): they sought to conceal their sins in darkness, and were
therefore plagued by darkness. In ShR 14.2, Hizkiah similarly explains
that "because 'the works of the wicked are in the dark' (Isa 29:15), there­
fore the Holy One blessed be He covers them over with the deep (tehom)
which is darkness, for it is said, 'and darkness over the surface of the deep'
(Gen 1:2), this refers to Gehenna." Cf. Tanfy. Buber, Bo 5, 21a: "What-
17:1-18:4
FIFTH
ANTITHESIS
305
ever the Egyptians planned against the Israelites, the Holy One blessed be
He brought upon them. . . . They planned to imprison them, therefore
He brought darkness upon them."
cloaked by dark oblivion, parakalymma: First attested in the comic poet
Antiphanes (fourth century BCE), 167, and occurs again later in Philo
Decal. 39; Jos. Ant. 16.8.1; Plutarch Moralia 654D.
scattered. I.e. they were sundered from one another by the solid dark­
ness.
by phantoms, indalma is used in Jer 27:39, LXX, in the sense of 'idol,'
but is first attested here in the sense of 'appearance' or 'hallucination.'
Cf. Aelianus De natura animalium 17-35; IG 3.1403; Lucian Gallus 5;
Indalmoi is the title of one of the writings (Aretaeus SD [On the Causes
and Symptoms of Chronic Diseases] 1.6) of the skeptic Timon of Phlius
(ca. 320-230 BCE) (D.L. 9.65, 105). By indalmoi he probably meant the
deceptive images or appearances of wisdom brought forward by philoso­
phers. Cf. Philo Somn. 2.133: "The sunless region of the impious where
deep night reigns and endless darkness, and innumerable tribes of spectres
and phantoms (eidolon kai phasmaton) and dream illusions."
4. crashed all around them, perikompeo is first attested here, and in the
sense 'sound round about' only here (though it occurs again in Patristic
Greek). Cf. Jos. J.W. 1.25.2 (where it means 'declare loudly').
5. No fire had force enough. Philo similarly writes: "The light of
artificial fire (or 'fire of common use') was partly quenched by the prevail­
ing storm wind, and partly dimmed to the point of disappearance by the
depth of the darkness," cf. Jos. Ant. 2.14.5: "darkness so thick that their
eyes were blinded by it and their breath choked." "From the fact that the
darkness could be felt it has been supposed that it consisted of something
of cloudlike density—moderns have thought of dense hamsin sandstorms"
(M. Greenberg, Understanding Exodus [New York, 1969] 165, n . l ) .
['Hamsin,' from the Arabic, 'hot wind, heat-wave.']
6. The meaning of this verse is unclear. Goodrick [1913], following k
Lapide [1627], gives the likely meaning: "Every now and then an electric
flash lit up the darkness and showed the Egyptians the spectral forms of
objects for a moment; when the flash ceased they exaggerated in the dark­
ness the things they had for an instant beheld." For automate pyra, cf.
Nonnus Dionysiaca 40.474: automaton pyr.
7. magical shams. Cf. Exod 7:11; 8:14. ephybristos is first attested here,
although the adverb is found in Posidonius, F 59, Kidd. For the adjective,
cf. Vettius Valens 71.18; Herodian 2.4.2, but in the passive sense of 'con­
temptible,' found only here.
8. timorousness. eulabeia in bad sense of 'overcaution,' 'timidity,' first
attested here. Cf. Plutarch De Fabio Maximo 1.3; Aretaeus Medicus CA
(Remedy of Acute Diseases) 1.2.
306
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXV
10. the dark haze from which there was no escape (medamothen pheukton aera). Grimm notes the suggestion that aer may mean darkness, but
although it may signify cloudy, and therefore murky, dark air in Homer,
he doubted that it could mean darkness (skotos). Deane (1881) added
that "it is hardly likely that, after the harrowing description of the dark­
ness given above, the author should apply to it the mild term aer in a sense
almost unknown to later writers." The fact is, however, that the Homeric
conception of air would fit our passage very well indeed, and that this
term was so employed in literature quite familiar to our author. "Aer,"
writes Kahn, "is closely related in sense to 'cloud,' as well as to darkness,
conceived not as a privation of light, but as a positive reality. This is
brought out very clearly in the battle scene around the body of Patroclus.
In order to protect the corpse from the Trojans, Zeus 'poured an abundant
aer about the helmets' of the Achaean warriors standing around it (Iliad
17.268$). Their view was so obstructed in consequence that 'one would
say that neither sun nor moon was safe and sound; for they were
oppressed by aer,' while the other warriors continued to fight at ease
'under a clear sky' (366$). Unable to see the field around him, Ajax
calls upon father Zeus: 'Deliver the sons of the Achaeans out from under
the aer; make the sky bright and grant us to see with our eyes. Yea, de­
stroy us in the light, if such is now thy pleasure' (645$). Zeus had pity on
his prayer and his tears, 'and straightway scattered the aer and pushed
away the mist' (649). The aer thus dispelled by Zeus is plainly a kind of
'suspension' like haze or fog. Moreover, the haze in which Apollo hides
Hector is described as 'deep' or thick, and Achilles strikes it three times
with his spear (20.446). Such a haze is even conceived as capable of sup­
porting objects belonging to the gods. Thus Ares, when he rests from bat­
tle, deposits his spear and chariot in an aer (5.356)" (see Charles H.
Kahn, Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology [New York,
1960] 140-145). Plato similarly writes: "And so with air: there is the
brightest and clearest kind called aether, and the most turbid called 'murk'
(homichle) and 'gloom' (skotos)" (Tim. 58D). The same conception is
found in Stoic physics. According to Chrysippus the air "is naturally
murky" (physei zopheron [SVF 2.429]). Expounding Stoic doctrine, Plu­
tarch writes: "It follows, then, that in nature the primordially dark is also
the primordially cold; and that it is air which is primordially dark does
not, in fact, escape the notice of the poets since they use the term 'air' for
'darkness' (skotos). (There follow quotations from Odyssey 9.144-145;
Hesiod Op. 255; Iliad 17.649-650.) They also call the lightless air
knephas, being as it were kenon phaous; and collected and condensed air
has been termed nephos or cloud because it is a negation of light. Flecks
in the sky and mist and fog and anything else that does not provide a
transparent medium for light to reach our senses are merely variations of
air; and its invisible and colorless part is called Hades and Acheron"
17:1-18:4
FIFTH
ANTITHESIS
307
(SVF 2.430). Philo, too, in describing the creation of the intelligible
world, writes: "First, then, the Creator made an incorporeal heaven, and
an invisible earth, and the idea of air and of void. He called the one dark­
ness, since air is black by nature" (Op. 29; cf. Spec. 1.85, 94; Mos. 118).
Cf. also Ps-Aristotle De Mundo 392b6: ho aer . . . zophodes on.
anguished by conscience. For synechomene te syneidesei, cf. Test.
Reuben 4:3: "My conscience (syneidesis) causeth me anguish (synechei)
on account of my impiety." The notion of conscience had already ap­
peared in the writings of the Greek poets and popular moralists, such as
Euripides and Menander (Eur. Orestes 396; Men Monostichi 654, Frags.
145, 522, 531; Prologues to Samia and Misoumenos; Terence Eunuchus
119; Adelphoe 348; Plautus Mostellaria 544; Cicero Pro Cluentio 159;
Tusc. 4.45), and above all, in the Epicureans' constant stress on the pangs
of conscience suffered by the guilty sinner (Lucretius 3.101 Iff; Seneca Ep.
97.15; 105.9). The closest verbal anticipation of Philo's notion of con­
science is found in Polybius (18.43.13), and virtually the same philo­
sophical conception appears in the writings of the Late Stoa (Posidonius
F 187, Kidd; Epictetus 1.14.11-14; 2.8.13-14; M. Aurel. 3.6.2; 5.27;
2.17; 3.16.2-4; Seneca Ep. 41), although there is a hint of Cicero ND
3.85, that it had already appeared in the Stoic writings of the first century
BCE. "To express the concept of conscience, Philo uses two main terms, ei­
ther singly or in combination, elenchos and syneidos. The latter, more fre­
quently in the form synesis or syneidesis (or their cognates) is the normal
Greek term for conscience (cf. Stobaeus Anthology, chap. 24). The for­
mer, on the other hand, does not appear to be found in precisely this sense
before Philo. As a legal or philosophical term, it connotes interrogation or
cross-examination and has sometimes the further sense of proof, refuta­
tion, or conviction. And while the parallel, and sometimes the contrast, is
drawn in contemporary philosophical literature between conviction by an
external court or accuser and by the inner voice of conscience (Cicero De
Legibus 1.40; elenchos appears five times in a similar context in chap. 1 of
Wisd), Philo's use of the term to mean conscience as such still seems to be
original (cf. Philo Virt. 206; Jos. 47-48). The most complete description
of the function of the elenchos comes at Det. 22-32 (cf. Fug. 117-118,
131; QE 2.13; Deus 50, 126; 135-138; 182-183; Decal. 17; Op. 128;
Post. 59). (See R. T. Wallis, "The Idea of Conscience in Philo of Alex­
andria," Colloquy 13 of the Center for Hermeneutical Studies in Hellenis­
tic and Modern Culture, ed. W. Wuellner [Berkeley, 1975]) 2; cf.
V. Nikiprowetzky, "La Doctrine de l'elenchos chez Philon," Colloques na~
tionaux du CNRS (Paris, 1967) 255-273; Br6hier:295#; W. D. Davies,
"Conscience," IDB, A-D (1962) 671-676; A. Pelletier, "Deux Expres­
sions de la notion de Conscience," REG 80 (1967) 363-371. C. Maurer,
Synoida, syneidesis, TDNT 7 (1971) 898-919; D. E. Marietta, "Con-
308
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXV
science in Greek Stoicism," Numen 17 (1970): 176-187. For the question
of whether conscience in Philo's view is a transcendent power or one im­
manent within man, see my discussion "Philo's Ethical Theory" in ANRW
(forthcoming).
11. innate cowardice. For deilon, 'a cowardly thing' see NOTE on 7:24.
Cf. Menander Frag. 522, Korte: "When anyone has something on his con­
science, even the bravest man is transformed into a coward by that con­
science."
12-13. The meaning of these verses is unclear, although they possess
the earmarks of a sententious pronouncement culled from some Alex­
andrian philosophical handbook. Cf. Plutarch Moralia 165D: "But fear
alone, lacking no less in boldness than in power to reason (ouch hetton on
tolmes endees e logismou), keeps its irrationality impotent, helpless, and
hopeless." Our author appears to be saying that those who, in their des­
peration, have abandoned reason as a key to the understanding of their
lives, find their greatest source of misery to lie in their ignorance of the
causes which lead to their various troubles.
13. expectation. Scilicet of reason's aid (prosdokia, sc. ton apo logismou boethematon). prosdokia usually appears in Stoic definitions of fear.
Cf. Philo Mut. 163: "The presence of evil produces grief, and its expecta­
tion (prosdokia) fear"; D.L. 7.112. Heinisch (1912) translates 12a as
follows: "but if the fear within is less," taking prosdokia as prosdokia
kakon, the Stoic definition of fear.
14. out of the recesses of the powerless infernal realm. Cf. ShR 14.2,
quoted in NOTE on 17:3. Sheol is a land of the silent and utterly weak
(Pss 88:12; 115:17; Isa 38:18-19; 14:9-11,18). For mychos in connec­
tion with Hades, cf. Hesiod Theogonia 119; Euripides The Suppliant
Women 926; AP 7.213.6. On their return voyage, the Argonauts encoun­
ter a sudden and total darkness which makes navigation impossible. In his
description of it, Apollonius of Rhodes connects it with the darkness of
Hades: "But straightway as they sped over the wide Cretan Sea night
scared them, that night which they name the Pall of Darkness; the stars
pierced not that fatal night nor the beams of the moon, but black chaos
descended from heaven, or haply some other darkness came, rising from
the nethermost depths (mychaton barathron). And the heroes, whether
they drifted in Hades or on the waters, knew not one whit . . ." (Argonautica 1694-1700). Callimachus, a contemporary of Apollonius and
perhaps his source, described the same incident in his Aetia, but only a
few lines of his description survive (Frag. 17-18, Pfeiffer). One of the ex­
tant lines mentions aer: "if you [Apollo] would drive away from the ship
the misty aer. . ." (Frag. 18.8; cf. Wisd 17:10).
entranced by a death-like sleep, ton auton hypnon means the same sleep
that characterizes the inhabitants of Hades. Cf. 17:21.
17:1-18:4
FIFTH
ANTITHESIS
309
15. phantom monsters. For phantasmaton. Frequent in Plato for 'ap­
pearances' or 'images' (eidola). Cf., for example, Tim. 71 A: "bewitched
for the most part both day and night by images and phantasms (eidolon
kai phantasmaton) '; Rep. 584A. It is a technical term in Aristotles' psy­
chology for the percept persisting as an after-image. "So also in sleep,"
writes Aristotle, "the images (phantasmata) or residuary movements that
arise from the the sense-impressions are altogether obscured owing to the
aforesaid movement when it is too great and sometimes the visions appear
confused and montrous (teratodeis), and the dreams are morbid" (De
Divinatione per Somnia 461al8). Cf. De Anima 431al7. It is also used
by the Epicureans and Stoics; cf. Epicurus Epistulae 2.88, 102, 110; 1.75;
SVF 2.55 (phantasma is dokesis dianoias); Ps-Aristotle De Mundo
395a29.
sudden and unexpected fear. For aiphnidios . . . kai aprosdoketos. Cf.
Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 680: aprjosdoketos d'auton aphnidios
mows tou zen apestergsen.
16. prison without bars. For asideron heirkten, cf. Euripides Bacchae
1104: asiderois mochlois.
17. or troubled laborer in the desert. The commentators have been
puzzled by this curious reference. "What could a man, not a shepherd,"
asks Goodrick, "be toiling at in the desert? It is probably another instance
of the wrong word. Very likely Pseudo-Solomon meant kaf eremian, 'in
peace'—a mechanic quietly working in his shop at his trade: we have then
a pretty complete enumeration of the working class." There may, however,
be a simple explanation, which involves the economic conditions in Egypt
under the domination of the Ptolemies and of Rome. "It often happened,"
writes Festugfere, "that the peasants, crushed by taxes and tolls, left their
village to withdraw (anachorein, ekchorein) either to a place of asylum or
to some village where they might be hidden, or even to swamps or the des­
ert (anachorein eis ten ksenen, eis ten eremian), where they led the life
of outlaws. These flights, which could be isolated or collective, constituted
a kind of strike, which the government tolerated while it did not sanction
it as a right." (R. P. Festugiere, Personal Religion among the Greeks
[Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1954] 57-58; cf. Claire PrSaux, Economie
royale des Lagides [Brussels, 1939]; M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic
History of the Hellenistic World [Oxford, 1941]; The Social and Eco­
nomic History of the Roman Empire [Oxford, 1957], index, s.v. anachoresis). "But while in the Ptolemaic period," writes N. Lewis, "these
flights often partook of the nature of strikes, which ended with the return
of the fugitive upon the removal of the injustice against which the flight
was a protest, under the increased and ever-increasing fiscal oppression
which the Roman domination brought for the Egyptian people these
'strikes' became definite departures, with no intention of return. Under the
9
310
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXV
Romans fugitives became also more numerous, and flights more frequent
and widespread. Already Philo, writing under the first Emperors, describes
the brutal treatment which the impoverished suffered at the hands of ruth­
less tax-collectors, their despairing flight, and the resultant depopulation of
villages and towns" (Spec. 3.159). For the village of Philadelphia, we
know from P. Corn. 24 that the number "of poor people who fled in the
first year of Nero (54/5) and whose whereabouts are unknown, was 44"
(N. Lewis, "Merismos Anakechorekoton: An Aspect of the Roman Op­
pression in Egypt," JEA 23 [1937] 63-75).
18. bound by one chain of darkness, mia gar halysei. . . edethesan. Cf.
Dio Chrysostomus 30.17: en halysei mia dedemenous.
inescapable (dysalyktoh). First attested in Nicander (second century
BCE) Alexipharmaca 251.537.
"It is plain," writes Goodrick (1913), "here as elsewhere, that the
darkness is conceived as only covering the Egyptians, while the birds were
singing in the trees around, and all natural noises still going on." The
suspension-like haze referred to in our NOTE on 17:9 would fit this state
of affairs well.
21. an image of the darkness. Cf. Test.Reuben 3 : 1 : "Besides all these
there is an eighth spirit of sleep, with which is brought about the trance of
nature and the image of death (eikon tou thanatou)"; Iliad 14.231:
"There she [Hera] met Sleep, the brother of Death."
18:1. light supreme. See Exod 10:23. Cf. Mishnat R. Eliezer, 19:
"When an Israelite approached an Egyptian in order to borrow from him,
the light accompanied him, and when he left, the light exited along with
him."
had not suffered. Grimm explains the pluperfect (epepontheisan), in­
stead of the expected imperfect, as referring to the moment at which the
plague of darkness had struck the Egyptians.
2. of their being parted. Cf. Exod 11:8; 12:33; Ps 105:38. Others
translate: "and asked forgiveness for their past ill will" (Fichtner, JB).
3. a blazing pillar. Cf. Exod 13:21, LXX. According to the rabbis, the
Israelites were constantly accompanied by seven clouds of glory during
their sojourn in the desert, four hovering in front, behind, and at the two
sides of them, one suspended above them, to keep off rain, hail, and the
rays of the sun, and one under them [or alternatively, one for the Divine
Presence which was among them]. The seventh cloud preceded them, and
prepared the way for them, making a pathway, exalting the valleys and
making low every mountain and hill, killing the snakes and scorpions, and
burning away brambles and thorns. That a difference might be made be­
tween day and night, a pillar of fire took the place of the cloud in the
evening. (Tosef. Sotah 4.2; BR, Th-Alb:487; Sifre Num. 83; Mek.
Beshallah on Exod 13:31; BT Shab. 23b; MRS Epst-Mel: 47; Ps-
17:1-18:4
FIFTH
ANTITHESIS
311
Jonathan on Exod 12:37). Cf. Philo Mos. 1.165-166: "A cloud shaped
like a tall pillar, the light of which in the daytime was as the sun and in
night as flame, went before the host, so that they should not stray in their
journey, but follow in the steps of a guide who could never err. Perhaps
indeed, there was enclosed within the cloud one of the lieutenants of the
great King, an unseen angel, a forerunner on whom the eyes of the body
were not permitted to look." For Wisdom dwelling in a cloud, cf. Sir 24:4;
I Bar 3:29; On the Origin of the World (CG II) 106, 5-6.
a benign sun. Cf. Ps 121:6. We find a similar notion in MRS, Epst-Mel:
47: (commenting on Exod 13:21 "That they might travel day and night")
"He compares their journey by day to their journey by night . . . just as
during their journey by night 'they suffered neither hunger nor thirst and
hot wind and sun did not strike them' (Isa 49:10), so during their journey
by day, they suffered neither hunger nor thirst and hot wind and sun did
not strike them."
4. deserve to be deprived of light. Another example of measure for
measure. The rabbis made a similar spiritual contrast between Egypt and
Israel: "Said the Holy One blessed be He, let the darkness which is distin­
guished from light come and exact punishment from the Egyptians who
sought to annihilate a nation distinguished from the Canaanites who
worshipped idols, which were called darkness, as it is said, 'Behold! Dark­
ness shall cover the earth. . . . But upon you the Lord will shine. . . .
And nations shall walk by your light' (Isa 6 0 : 2 ) " (Midrash Yelamdenu,
cited by Yalkut Shimeoni: see M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah, v. 10/11, p.
16. Cf. Tanh. Bo, 796; PRK, 7.12, Mandelbaum: 134).
imprisoned, phylakizo is first attested here and Test.Joseph 2:3; cf. Acts
22:19. It occurs again in Patristic Greek.
through whom the imperishable light of the law was to be given to the
world. Cf. Isaiah 2; Deutero Isa 42:1-6. Both in Jewish-Hellenistic and
in rabbinic literature, we find an attempt to interpret Israel's acceptance of
the Torah as including the obligation to spread Torah's teachings to the
Gentile nations. Thus we read in Test.Levi 14:4: "That if ye be darkened
through transgressions, what, therefore, will all the Gentiles do living in
blindness? Yea, ye shall bring a curse upon our race, because the light of
the law which was given to lighten every man (we have variant readings
here: to phos tou kosmou [nomou; kosmou kai nomou], to dothen en
hymin eis photismon pantos asthropou), this ye desire to destroy by teach­
ing commandments contrary to the ordinances of God." Cf. II Bar 48:40;
59:2; IV Ezra 7:20-24; 14:20; Test. Orpheus 3: "Who flee the laws of
the righteous, though God established them for all men [reading: theioio
tithentos pasin homau] (FPG: 164); Mek. Bahodesh 5.65, 100, on Exod
20:2, Lauterbach, 2:234-237: "And it was for the following reason that
the nations of the world were asked to accept the Torah: in order that
312
THE WISDOM
OF
§ XXXV
SOLOMON
they should have no excuse for saying: Had we been asked we would have
accepted it for behold they were asked and they refused to accept it. . . .
To three things the Torah is likened: to the desert, to fire, and to water.
This is to tell you that just as these three things are free to all who come
into the world, so also are the words of the Torah free to all who come
into the world"; Sifre Deut. 343; BT A.Z. 2b. (Cf. also John 1:9, Isa
42:6; 49:6; Micah 4; Tobit 13:13). It is most interesting to observe
Philo's reformulation of the biblical doctrine of election under the impact
of his ideal of philanthropia or 'humanity,* rooted as that was in a universalistic conception of man. At every possible opportunity, Philo emphasizes
the universal aspects of Jewish particularism. The Jews are indeed "the
nation dearest of all to God," but it "has received the gift of priesthood
and prophecy on behalf of all mankind" (Abr. 98; cf. Spec. 1.168). "Out
of the whole human race God chose Israel and called them to his service,"
but it is only because they are "in a true sense men" (Spec. 1.303).
Israel's function is "to offer prayers on behalf of the whole human race
that it may be delivered from evil" (Mos. 1.149), and the High Priest
"makes prayers and gives thanks not only on behalf of the whole human
race but also for the parts of nature, for he holds the world to be his
country" (Spec. 1.96-97). The Sabbath becomes for Philo "a festival
of the universe" and belongs to all people as the birthday of the world
(Op. 89). Israel stands out as a model for all other peoples, "not for its
own glory, but for the benefit of the beholders. For to gaze continuously
upon noble models imprints their likeness in souls which are not entirely
hardened and strong" (Praem. 114; cf. QE 2.42, where Israel's law is
described "as a law for the world (kosmikon nomon) for the chosen
race is a likeness of the world"). Through proselytism, moreover, Philo
sees the possibility of the participation of all nations in the universal reli­
gion of Judaism "as pilgrims to truth" who have abandoned the "mythical
fables and multiplicity of sovereigns" to honor the "One who alone is
worthy of honor" (Spec. 4.178; 1.309; 1.51-52; Mos. 244). See my
"Philo's Ethical Theory" (in ANRW, forthcoming).
9
XXXVI. SIXTH ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIAN
FIRSTBORN DESTROYED, BUT ISRAEL
PROTECTED AND GLORIFIED
(18:5-25)
5
18
When they resolved to slay the infant children of your holy
ones—though one child had been exposed and saved—you bereaved
them of the multitude of their children for their discomfiture and de­
stroyed them as one in the violent waters. 6 That night was made
known in advance to our fathers, so that having sure knowledge of
the nature of the plighted compacts in which they trusted they might
be cheered. Your people expected the deliverance of the righteous
and the destruction of their enemies, 8 for by the same means
whereby you punished our antagonists, you summoned us to your side
and glorified us. 9 For secretly did the devout children of virtuous
folk make sacrifice and with one mind set forth the divine law that the
holy ones should share alike in both blessings and dangers, while al­
ready raising a chant of the praises of the fathers. i<>But the discord­
ant cry of their enemies echoed in response and the pitiable sound of
lamentation for their children was spread abroad, n Slave and master
were punished together with the same penalty, commoner and king
suffered a like fate: 12 united by a common death, all had corpses
past counting, for the living were not even sufficient to bury the dead,
since in a single moment their most precious offspring had perished.
1 Wholly incredulous thanks to their magical enchantments, at the
destruction of theirfirstbornthey acknowledged your people to be
God's son. 1 While all things were enveloped in peaceful silence and
night was midway through her swift course, is your all-powerful
Logos, out of the heavens, from the royal throne, leaped like a relent­
less warrior into the midst of the land marked for destruction,
16 bearing your unambiguous decree as a sharp sword. Standing it
filled all things with death; it touched the heavens, yet stood poised
upon the earth. 17 At once nightmarish visions terrified them, and un­
expected fears beset them, i* and one here, another there,flungdown
half dead, made known the cause of his dying. 1 For the dreams that
7
3
4
9
314
THE
WISDOM
OF
§ XXXVI
SOLOMON
bewildered them indicated this in advance, so that they should not die
without knowing the reason they suffered so terribly. But the right­
eous, too, were touched by an experience of death, and a mass slaugh­
ter took place in the wilderness, though the divine wrath did not long
abide. For a blameless man pressed forward to fight as their cham­
pion, introducing the armor of his ministry, prayer and atoning in­
cense. He withstood the wrath and set a limit to the disaster, showing
that it was you whom he served. He overcame the divine anger not
by bodily strength, nor by force of arms, but by word he subdued the
chastiser, by recalling the oaths and covenants of the fathers. 3 For
when the dead already lay fallen upon one another in heaps, he inter­
posed and checked the divine anger, cutting off its line of advance to­
ward the living. * On his full-length robe there was a representation
of the entire cosmos, and the glories of the fathers upon his four rows
of carved stones, and your splendor on the diadem upon his head.
To these the destroyer gave way, these he feared; for the single
taste of his wrath was enough.
2 0
2 1
2 2
2
2
2 5
NOTES
18:5. one child. I.e. Moses.
destroyed them . . . in the violent waters. The author returns to his fa­
vorite theme of measure for measure. The Egyptians who had slain the
children of the Israelites were first bereaved of their firstborn and later
were all drowned in the sea. We similarly read in Tanh. Buber, Bo 5, 22a:
"Whatever the Egyptians intended against Israel, the Holy One blessed be
He brought against them. . . . They intended to kill the Israelites, the
Holy One blessed be He killed their firstborn, as it is said, 'The Lord
struck down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt' (Exod 12:29); they in­
tended to submerge the Israelites in the water, the Holy One blessed be He
likewise submerged them in the water, as it is said, 'Who hurled Pharaoh
and his army into the Sea of Reeds' (Ps 136:15)." Cf. Mek. on Exod
14:26 (Lauterbach 1:243): " T h a t the waters may come back upon the
Egyptians.' Let the wheel [of fortune] turn against them and bring back
upon them their own violence. For with the same device with which they
planned to destroy Israel I am going to punish them. They planned to
destroy my children by water, so I will likewise punish them only by
water"; Mid.Yelamdenu on Exod 11:4: "Said the Holy One blessed be He,
I will go forth among the Egyptians in the middle of the night, and I will
18:5-25
SIXTH
ANTITHESIS
315
exact punishment of the Egyptians who sought to destroy a nation who are
the children of my friend Abraham who deployed against them at night in
order to destroy his enemies, as it is written, 'at night, he deployed against
them' (Gen 14:15); and because they cast my firstborn son into the Nile,
behold I shall slay your firstborn son; and because of the ten trials which
Abraham had undergone and was found perfect, I therefore smote them
with ten plagues." (See M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah, vol. 10/11 [New
York, 1941], 32). There is a similar notion in Jub 48:14: "The Lord
our God cast them into the midst of the sea, even as the children of Egypt
had cast their children into the river. He took vengeance on one million of
them, and one thousand strong and energetic men were destroyed on ac­
count of one suckling of the children of thy people which they had thrown
into the river." Goodrick (1913) notes that "on the strength of this verse
in Jubilees Charles would translate here 'in retribution (eis elengchon) for
even a single child that was exposed thou didst take away a multitude':
but it is more than doubtful if elengchos would bear this meaning."
6. That night. I.e. the well-known night on which the firstborn of the
Egyptians were slain. Cf. Exod 12:42.
our fathers. "Either the Israelite heads of families, who were forewarned
of the death of the firstborn (Exod 6:6; 11:4), or the patriarchs, to whom
the deliverance from bondage was revealed (Gen 15:14)" (Gregg
[1909]). We read in Mek. Pisfia 16 (on Exod 13:4): "R. Eleazar the
son of Azariah says: Because of the merit of our father Abraham did God
bring Israel out of Egypt, as it is said: 'For He remembered His holy word
unto Abraham his servant,' and, 'And He brought forth His people with
joy' (Ps 105:42)." Cf. PT Ta'anith 1.1; MRS to Exod 6:2. The intimate
connection between the night during which God gave his oath to Abraham
and the night of Passover is confirmed by Targ.Yerush. on Exod 12:42:
"Four nights are there written in the Book of Memorials before the Lord
of the world. Night the first, when He was revealed in creating the world;
the second, when He was revealed to Abraham; the third, when He was
revealed in Misraim, His hand killing all the firstborn of Misraim, and His
right hand saving the firstborn of Israel; the fourth, when He will yet be
revealed to liberate the people of the house of Israel from among the na­
tions." See Jaubert 1963:356; R. Le Deaut, La Nuit Pascale (Rome,
1963) 287-298.
be cheered, epeuthymeo is attested only here and in Aristaenetus Love
Letters 2.14 (fifth century).
8. by the same means. The redemption of Israel through the smashing
blow delivered upon the Egyptian firstborn by Yahweh marked the begin­
ning of Israel's national life as God's elect. The author may also be allud­
ing to the consecration of Israel's eldest born in consequence of God's
slaying the Egyptian firstborn while sparing the former (Exod 13:15).
316
THE WISDOM
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§ XXXVI
9. secretly. Goodrick thinks this is justified by Exod 12:46, but privacy
is not secrecy (cf. Exod 8:22; 12:22). Philo, however, had allegorized the
biblical phrase engkryphias azymous (Exod 12:39, LXX: "cakes baked in
the ashes or over charcoals"), interpreting it as "buried unleavened
cakes." "The Israelites kneaded the savage untamed passion with the aid
of reason that softened it as though it were food. And the method by
which they softened it and wrought it to something better was revealed to
them by divine inspiration, and they did not utter it aloud, but treasured it
in silence" (Sacr. 64; cf. 16.59). J. B. Segal has hesitatingly suggested that
it is perhaps this phrase engkryphias azymous that lay behind our author's
reference to the Paschal sacrifice as having been done kryphe (The He­
brew Passover [London, 1963] 25, n.6). It may also be noted that there is
a theory that there was an early tradition which knew the story of a secret
escape from Egypt, and perhaps connected with this tradition was the no­
tion of a secret sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb (see M. Noth, Exodus, A
Commentary [Philadelphia, 1962] 111). Another possibility is that our
author, writing in a milieu in which the mysteries of Isis and Osiris were
very prominent, wished to present the paschal ceremony in the guise of a
mystery, and felt that Exod 12:46 readily lent itself to such an inter­
pretation. Jacobson (1976:204) suggests that a slight emendation yields a
satisfactory text. Read: tryphe, "with joy" (Theodotion translates Isaiah's
"if you call the Sabbath a day of joy" [58:13] by tryphe hagian. Wisd uses
tryphe at 19:11.
with one mind. Cf. Philo QE 1.10: "And he decided that there is
nothing more beautiful than that the divine cult [the reference here is to
the Paschal sacrifice] should be performed by all in harmony."
the divine law. For theiotetos. Cf. Ps-Aristeas 95. See also A. J. Festugiere, Epicurus and his Gods (Oxford, 1955) 70, n.64.
raising a chant of the praises of the fathers, proanamelpontes is found
only here. The writer is attributing to those who partook of the first Pass­
over a practice which grew up in later days. Cf. II Chron 30:21; 35:15;
Jub 49:6: "And all Israel was eating the flesh of the paschal lamb, and
drinking the wine, and was lauding and blessing, and giving thanks to the
Lord God of their fathers, and was ready to go forth from under the yoke
of Egypt, and from the evil bondage" (wine appears here for the first time
as an accompaniment of the meal, and there appears to be an oblique ref­
erence to the psalmody mentioned by the Chronicler). Philo is more ex­
plicit: "but to fulfill with prayers and hymns the custom handed down by
their fathers" (Spec. 2.148). Cf. BT Pesafy. 117a.
10. the discordant cry of their enemies echoed in response. The rabbis
draw exactly the same contrast: "R. Jonathan says (in explanation of Ps
68:7: 'God . . . sets free the imprisoned, safe and sound (bakosarotY: Bakosarot means: There were those who wept and those who
18:5-25
SIXTH
ANTITHESIS
317
sang (understanding bakosarot as beki wesirot). The Egyptians wept, as
it is said: 'While the Egyptians were burying' (Num 33:4). The Israelites
sang, as it is said, 'The voice of rejoicing and salvation is in the tents of
the righteous. . . . The right hand of the Lord is exalted' (Ps
118:15-16), because the Lord was exalted over the Egyptians" (Mek.
Pisha 16, Lauterbach, 1:140; cf. Mid. Lekafr Tov, Shemot 13.17).
11. Slave and master. See Exod 11:5; 12:29.
12. united (homothymadon). Cf. Philo Mas. 1.136: "And so, since in
this general disaster the same emotion drew from all a united cry (athroos
homothymadon ekboesanton) one single dirge of wailing resounded from
end to end of the whole land."
by a common death (en heni onomati thanatou). onoma may be used
in periphrastic phrases. See LSJ, s.v. meaning iv.
not even sufficient to bury the dead. Perhaps a rhetorical amplification
of Num 33:3-4. Cf. Philo Mos. 1.100: "A great multitude of men, killed
by thirst, lay in heaps at the cross-roads, since their relatives had not the
strength to carry the dead to the tombs" (Gregg).
in a single moment. Cf. I Enoch 99:9 "Therefore in an instant (epi
mias) shall they perish."
13. God's son. An amplification of Exod 12:31. Cf. Exod 4:22-23;
Hosea 11:1; IV Ezra 6:58; Ps Sol 18:4 PT Pesah. 5.5: "What did
Pharaoh say! Up, depart from among my people, in the past you were
Pharaoh's servants, henceforth, you are the servants of the Lord." A simi­
lar acknowledgment is found in Wisd 5:5; cf. I Enoch 62:5-9; Esther
8E:16, LXX (Hanhart); III Mace 6:28; Joseph and Asen 5-6 (see Nickelsburg:83, 91-92). Cf. also Ps-Aristeas 140: "Whence the priests who
are the guides of the Egyptians, who have looked closely into many things
and are conversant with affairs, have named us 'men of God,' a title ap­
plicable to no other but only to men who revere the true God. The rest are
men of food and raiment, for their whole disposition has recourse to those
things." (In II Maccabees, the Jews are called "sons of heaven" in the
presence of the persecuting Syrian king. See Gutman 2. 115.)
15. all-powerful Logos. The description of the Logos here is strikingly
similar to that of Sophia earlier in the book. Both are all-powerful (cf.
7:23); descend from the heavenly throne (cf. 9:4,10,17); and carry out
God's commandments (cf. 7:21; 8:4) (Fichtner).
leaped like a relentless warrior. Athena, the personification of phronesis,
is similarly described in the Hymn to Athena 5-9: "From his awful head
wise Zeus himself bare her arrayed in warlike arms of flashing gold. . . .
But Athena sprang quickly from the immortal head and stood before Zeus
. . . shaking a sharp spear." For the Stoic allegorization of Athena's birth,
see SVF 3. Diogenes Babylonius 33; Cicero ND 1.41. Cf. Pseudo-Clemen­
tine Homilies 6.8, where we are told that the aether is in ceaseless palpita9
318
THE WISDOM
OF SOLOMON
§ XXXVI
tion which begets intelligence, and is called on that account Pallas (pallesthai). "And this is artistic wisdom, by which the aetherial artificer
wrought out the whole world." The Stoics also tried to connect Athena
with the conception of immortality, explaining Athena as athanatos
(Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions 10.33). See Harris 1922-23:56-72; A.
Henrichs, "Towards a New Edition of Philodemus' Treatise on Piety,"
GRBS 13 (1972) 96, n.97. A whole catalogue of poetic descriptions of
Athena's birth from the head of Zeus (including her "leaping" [hallesthai
was believed to underlie her epithet Pallas] and her armor) can be found
in P. Oxy. 2660 (Vol. 20, 1952). The poets quoted include Ibycus (Frag.
298, Page, Poetae Melici Graeci), Stesichorus (Frag. 233, Page), and Callimachus (Frag. 37, Pfeiffer). The papyrus is a fragment of Apollodorus,
Peri Theon (ca. 150 BCE). Callimachus used the same verb as the author
of Wisd: "From your father's divine head you [Athena] leaped (helao) in
full armor" (Frag. 37, Pfeiffer).
The imagery of leaping or springing forth recurs in the Gnostic writings.
In the system of Simon Magus, First Thought or Wisdom (or Holy Spirit)
is described as "leaping forth" (exsilientem) from God (Irenaeus Adv.
Haer. 1.23.2). See G. Ludemann, Untersuchungen zur simonianischen
Gnosis (Gottingen, 1975) :58. Similarly, according to the Barbelognostics, Sophia, seeking a partner and not finding one, extended herself down­
wards and made a leap (Irenaeus Adv. Haer. 1.29.1-4). Cf. Valentinus,
Irenaeus Adv. Haer. 1.2.2: proelato . . . he Sophia; CH 1.5 (and 10),
where the Logos leaps (ekesepedesen) like a flame from the moist nature
upwards into the light.
16. bearing your unambiguous decree as a sharp sword. According to
Orphic tradition, Athena springs from the head of Zeus "gleaming with
arms, a brazen glory to behold," and becomes the "accomplisher of his
will" (Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta 21, 174, 176). Philo employs the
fiery sword of the Cherubim as a symbol of the Logos (Cher. 28; cf. 35:
"behold the armed angel, the reason of God"); Mut. 108. Cf. Isa 49:2;
Judg 3:19-21; Heb 4:12: "for the word of God is living and active,
sharper than any two-edged sword"; Eph 6:17; Rev 1:16; 2:16; 19:15. In
PGM 4.1717, an incantation is described as "the sword of Dardanus," a
formula employing seven archangels. See M. Gaster, "The Sword of
Moses," in Studies and Texts (rep. New York, 1971) 288-337; M.
Margaliot, Sefer Ha-Razim (Jerusalem, 1966) 29-30.
it filled all things with death. The author of Jubilees (49:2) ascribes the
slaying of the firstborn to all the powers of Mastema whereas Ezekiel the
Tragedian ascribes it to a "fearful angel" (deinos angelos) (FPG: 213,
line 1). In Targ.Yerush. on Exod 12:29, it is the Word (memra) of the
Lord which slew them. The memra of the Targum, however, is only a rev­
erent circumlocution for God, and is, as Moore ( 1 . 419) puts it, "purely a
phenomenon of translation, not a figment of speculation." The rabbis, on
18:5-25
SIXTH
ANTITHESIS
319
the other hand, emphasized that God did not employ either an angel or a
messenger for this task. Cf. Mek. Pisha 7 and 13, Lauterbach, 1:53, 97;
PT Sanh. 2.1; Horayot 3.1. Philo's position in this matter is not quite
clear, but it would appear that when he writes that three of the plagues
(the dog-fly, murrain, and the death of the Egyptian firstborn) were ac­
complished by God or were "self-wrought" (autourgetheisai: Mos. 1.97,
130-135; cf. ShR 12.4), he only wishes to say that they were not, as the
other seven, carried out either by Aaron or Moses or both in common, but
rather by himself, without any human partnership. This is not necessarily
to deny, however, that God, as is his wont, inflicted these punishments
through his regent or punitive power rather than by himself directly. Our
author's position would appear to be similar to that of Philo, and is thus
somewhere between the view of the author of Jubilees who assigns this
plague to Mastema and that of the rabbis who emphatically deny that God
employed any intermediary whatever. Still, since the Logos is in reality
God himself in one of his aspects, our author's position is almost identical
with that of the rabbis. (The words wild 'al y£d£ haddabar, "and not
through the word," are a later addition to the Passover Haggadah in the
version of Saadiah Gaon and in the Genizah fragments. See D. Goldschmidt, Haggadah Shel Pesah (Jerusalem, 1960) 44, n.60; Kasher:45;
J. Goldin, "Not by Means of an Angel and not by Means of a Messenger,"
in Religions in Antiquity, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden, 1968) 412-424).
it touched the heavens, yet stood poised upon the earth. The author is
employing a well-known Homeric image. We read in Iliad 4.443: "She
[Discord] plants her head in heaven, while her feet tread on earth"
(ourand esterikse karg kai epi chthoni bainei). This was imitated by Vir­
gil in Aeneid 4.177: "she [Rumor] mounts up to heaven, and walks the
ground with head hidden in the clouds." We find a similar image in Testament of Orpheus 33-34: "God is firmly set in brazen heaven on his golden
throne, and plants his feet upon the earth" (chalkeion es ouranon esteriktai . . . gate d'hypo possi bebeke) (FPG: 166). Very likely, I Chron
21:16 was also in our author's mind: "[David] saw the angel of the Lord
standing between the earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his
hand stretched out over Jerusalem". Cf. the description of the angel Sandalfon as "standing on earth with his head reaching to the Heavenly Liv­
ing Creatures [Hayot]" (BT Hag. 13b).
18. half dead. We find the same notion in PRK 7.5, Mandelbaum
1:126-127: "The firstborn received the deathblow in the evening, strug­
gled convulsively through the night, and died in the daytime." The
midrash is attempting to reconcile two apparently conflicting verses: "In
the middle of the night the Lord struck down all the firstborn" (Exod
12:29)—"On the day that I smote every firstborn in the land of Egypt"
(Num 3:13).
20. a mass slaughter took place in the wilderness. See Num 17:6-15.
9
320
THE
WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXVI
For thrausis, cf. Num 16:47-50, LXX, where it translates Hebrew
maggepa and negep; U Kings 17:9; 18:7; 24:15, LXX.
21. pressed forward. See Num 17:12; cf. IV Mace 7:11.
the armor of his ministry. For prayer as the righteous man's weaponry,
cf. Mek. Beshallah on Exod 14:10: "'Moreover, I have given to thee one
portion above thy brethren, which I took out of the hand of the Amorite,
with my sword and with my bow' (Gen 48:22). And did he really take it
with his sword and his bow? Has it not already been said: 'For I trust not
in my bow, neither can my sword save me' (Ps 47:7)? Hence, what must
be the meaning of the words, 'with my sword and with my bow'? With
prayer." (beqaSti read as baqqdSdti. Cf. MRS on Exod 14:10, Epst-Mel:
53: ubeqasti zA baqqasd; BT B.B. 123a; Targum to Gen 48:22) (Stein
[1936]).
prayer. Cf. Targ.Yerush. on Num 17:12: "Aaron stood in the midst
with prayer" (derived from the verb wayya 'imod; dmida in rabbinic lit­
erature signifies 'prayer').
atoning incense. Cf. IV Mace 7:11 (to thymiaterio kathoplismenos);
Mek.Wayassa* on Exod 17:5, Lauterbach, 2.131: "The Israelites used to
say: This incense is but a means of punishment. It was this that killed
Nadab and Abihu. For it is said: 'And Nadab and Abihu took,' etc. (Lev
10:1). Therefore the people should know that it was really a means of
atonement, as it is said, 'And he put on the incense, and made atonement
for the people'" (Num 17:12).
22. the divine anger, cholon. Bauermeister's emendation of the Manu­
scripts' ochlon has been adopted by most commentators. Cf. Aquila on Ps
6:2: en ochlo instead of cholo (translating Hebrew bahamatka). See
Grimm's detailed discussion. "Gregg's suggestion ton ochlounta (the
'harasser') from Tobit 6:8, where it is used of the troublings of an evil
spirit, does not seem likely, it would not have been altered; but his second
suggestion, that angelon may have been originally read, is better. A copyist
finding that the word was elsewhere studiously avoided, may have altered
it here" (Goodrick). Cf. IV Mace 7:11, where the destroyer is called
'angel of fire': empyristen angelon.
by word. Cf. Philo Her. 201: "I marvel too when I read of that sacred
Word (hieron logon), which ran in impetuous, breathless haste 'to stand
between the living and dead.'" In the light of this Philonic passage,
Goodenough translates "by Logos" (1969:275).
the chastiser. In Philo's writings, the kolastike dynamis or Punitive
Power (also called 'Regent' or 'Legislative Power*) is one of the two pri­
mary Powers of God (the other being the poietikS dynamis, the 'Creative'
or 'Beneficent Power') which constitute the dynamic polar principles of
the Logos' activity (see, for example, Her. 166).
(
18:5-25
SIXTH
ANTITHESIS
321
the oaths and covenants of the fathers. Cf. 12:21 above, where diatheke
is replaced by syntheke. In II Mace, synthike is exclusively employed for
treaties between men, whereas diatheke is reserved for God's covenant.
See Jaubert 1963:311-315. According to some rabbinic texts, it is
because of the convenant with the fathers that Israel was released
from Egypt (ShR 1.36; 15.4). When Israel worshiped the golden calf,
Moses uttered ever so many prayers and supplications and he was not
answered. Indeed, his pleading for Israel lasted not less than forty days
and forty nights, but all in vain. Yet when he said, "Remember Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob thy servants" (Exod 32:13), his prayer was heard at
once (BT Shab. 42a; cf. ShR 44.1. See Schechter 1936:170-198).
23. in heaps, soredon. Cf. Philo Mos. 1.100: polys ochlos . . .
diaphthareis ekeito soredon epi ton triodon; .255; Prob. 119. The word
is first attested in Polybius 1.34.5.
24. full-length robe, poderes is used alone in the LXX of the High
Priest's robe (Exod 25:6, 28:4, LXX; cf. Ps-Aristeas 96; Test.Levi 8:2;
Philo Mos. 2.118), translating Hebrew ephod, hoShen, bad, or me'il.
the entire cosmos. We have here a fleeting allusion to a notion which
was especially widespread in Stoic and Cynic writings of the first century
CE, namely, that the true temple is the universe itself. We read, for exam­
ple, in the fourth epistle of Ps-Heraclitus: "You ignorant men, don't you
know that God is not wrought by hands and has not from the beginning
had a pedestal, and does not have a single enclosure! Rather the whole
world is his temple, decorated with animals, plants, and stars" (Attridge
1976:59; cf. 13-23, where the same idea is quoted from an Egyptian
shard. See J. and L. Robert REG 64 [1951] 210). Cf. Euripides Frag.
968; Seneca Ep. 90.28; Benficiis 7.7.3; Plutarch Moralia 477c; Chrysippus, ap. Cicero ND 3.10.26; De Republica 3.14; 6.15.15. An exact par­
allel, however, to our author's allusion may be found in Philo Spec.
1.66-97, where we are told that the truest temple of God is the whole uni­
verse, with heaven for its sanctuary, the stars for its votive ornaments, and
the angels for its priests. The high priest's "long robe" is in its very compli­
cated formation a likeness and copy (apeikonisma kai mimema) of the
universe: "It is a circular garment of a dark blue color throughout, a tunic
with a full-length shirt (poderes chiton), thus symbolizing the air, because
the air is both naturally black and in a sense a full-length robe stretching
from the sublunar region above to the lowest recesses of the earth.
Secondly on this is set a piece of woven work in the shape of a breastplate,
which symbolizes heaven. . . . Then on the breast there are twelve pre­
cious stones of different colors, arranged in four rows (tetrastoichei) of
three each, set in this form on the model of the zodiac, for the zodiac
consisting of twelve signs makes the four seasons of the year by giving
three signs to each." This sacred vesture thus "expresses the wish first that
322
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXVI
the high priest should have in evidence upon him an image of the All, that
so by constantly contemplating it he should render his own life worthy of
the sum of things, secondly that in performing his holy office he should
have the whole universe as his fellow-ministrant." Cf. Mos. 2.117-135;
Cher. 100; QE 2.73, 76, 91; Somn. 1.214-215; Jos. Ant. 3.7.7; 3.7.5;
J.W. 5.5.4-5; Plutarch Is. et Os. 77 (382C). A good analogy to the cos­
mic symbolism of the high priest's garments is the shield of Achilles, in the
forging of which, according to Heraclitus the Rhetor (as also Crates of
Mallos), Homer depicted [in its metallic components] the genesis of the
cosmos and its elements (Quaestiones Homericae 43). It may also be
noted that Demetrius Poliorcetes wore a robe on which were figured the
hosts of heaven. Cf. also Bar 3:24; Targum on Isa 40:22. See also R.
Eisler, Weltenmantel und Himmelszelt, 2 vols. (Miinchen, 1910); and
NOTE on
9:8.
four rows of carved stones, tetrastichou lithon glyphes. Cf. Exod
28:17-21, LXX.
on the diadem. See Exod 28:36-38. Cf. BT Shab. 63b: "The ZIZ was a
kind of golden plate two fingerbreadths broad, and it stretched round [the
forehead] from ear to ear, and upon it was written in two lines 'yod he'
above and 'Holy "lamed"' below (i.e. the Divine Name on the upper line
and 'Holy unto' on the lower line). But R. Eliezer son of R. Jose said: I
saw it in the city of Rome, and 'Holy unto the Lord' was written in one
line." Philo interprets it as follows: "Above the turban is the golden plate
on which the graven shapes of four letters, indicating, as we are told, the
name of the Self-Existent, are impressed, meaning that it is impossible for
anything that is to subsist without invocation of Him: for it is IDs
goodness and gracious power which join and compact all things" (Mos.
2.132).
25. the single taste of his wrath was enough. Cf. Philo QG 2.54: "For it
is enough to be resentful and embittered this one time and to exact punish­
ment of sinners."
XXXVH. SEVENTH ANTITHESIS: EGYPTIANS D R O W N E D
ESf T H E SEA, BUT ISRAEL PASSES SAFELY T H R O U G H
(19:1-9)
1
19
But the godless were hounded to the very end by pitiless
anger, for God knew beforehand what they were yet to do: h o w
after permitting their departure, and urgently escorting your people
out, they would change their purpose and pursue them. 3 While they
were still engaged in their mourning, and stood lamenting beside the
graves of their dead, they adopted another mad scheme, and pursued
as fugitives those whom they had beseeched to leave. For a condign
fate drew them on to this denouement and made them forget what
had happened, so that they might fill in the one penalty still lacking to
their torments, and that your people might accomplish an incredible
journey, while their enemies might bring upon themselves a bizarre
death. 6 For the whole creation was fashioned over again in its origi­
nal nature, submitting to your commands, so that your children might
be preserved unharmed. ? One could see the cloud overshadowing the
camp, the emergence of dry land out of what before was water, an
unimpeded way out of the Red Sea, and a leafy plain in place of the
violent surf, 8 through which, sheltered by your hand, the whole na­
tion passed after gazing at amazing marvels. 9 They were like horses
at pasture, they skipped like lambs, as they praised you, O Lord, their
deliverer.
2
4
5
NOTES
19:1. the godless. I.e. the Egyptians.
to the very end. Until their final annihilation in the Reed Sea.
God knew beforehand. Philo, too, places great emphasis on divine prov­
idence: "God employs the forethought and foreknowledge (prometheia kai
pronoia) which are virtues peculiarly his own, and suffers nothing to es-
324
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXVII
cape his control or pass outside his comprehension. For not even about
the future (ton mellonton) can uncertainty be found with him, since noth­
ing is uncertain or future to God" (Deus 29). Cf. Ps-Philo LAB 22:7.
2. after permitting their departure, epitrepsantes . . . tou apeinai. The
genitive is surprising even if we read with Swete epistrepsantes and trans­
late either "having thought anxiously over their departure" (Grimm) or
"having changed their minds about their departure" (RV). See,
however, BDF 400.7: "Elsewhere tou is pleonastically prefixed to any sort
of infinitive after the pattern of LXX ( = H e b le), at least by Luke (espe­
cially in Acts) and sporadically by James (Acts 10:25; 23:15; James
5:17)." tou apeinai is a concise form of tou apienai kai apeinai (Grimm).
urgently. Cf. Exod 12:33, LXX.
escorting. We find the same notion in Mek. Beshnllah on Exod 13:17:
"'When Pharaoh had let the people go': Letting go (Silltiafy) means es­
corting, as it is said, 'And Abraham went with them to bring them on the
way' (Gen 18:16). The mouth that had said: 'And moreover I will not let
Israel go' (Exod 5:2), that same mouth said: T will let you go.' What was
the reward for this? 'Thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian' (Deut 23:8)."
3. and stood lamenting, prosodyromenoi. Found only here.
another mad scheme. According to Ps-Jonathan on Exod 14:9, Pharaoh
believed that the Egyptian deity Baal-Zephon had "shut the Israelites in
close upon the desert." Cf. Mek. on same verse: "Baal-Zephon alone was
left of all the deities, to mislead the minds of the Egyptians. To him
applies the scriptural passage: 'He misleadeth the nations and destroyeth
them'" (Job 12:23).
4. a condign fate. Cf. Sib Or 3:184: "And straightway a fated un­
godliness (asebeias anangke) shall fall upon them." In Jub 48:12, Mastema urges the Egyptians to pursue the Israelites. "In aksia anangke,"
writes Reuss, "we have a flat contradiction in terms. 'Fatality' implies pre­
destination; 'deserving' implies the free will of man" (cited by Goodrick
[1913]). In the literature of the ancient world, however, 'worthy' need
have no such implication. The 'worthy' may simply be those whom God in
his infinite wisdom has predetermined to be his chosen ones, for good or
for ill. Philo, for example, writes: "God has not fashioned beforehand any
deed of his, but produces him [Melchizedek] to begin with as such a king,
peaceable and worthy of His own priesthood" (LA 3.79). Similarly, we
read in Sir 1:14: "To fear the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and with
the faithful was she created in the womb." For the rabbinic explanation of
God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart, see ShR 13.4.
6. the whole creation was fashioned over again. The author employs a
Greek philosophical principle in order to make the notion of miracles
more plausible. The Presocratics had already taught the material inter­
change of the elements (D.L. 8.25). The principle behind this doctrine
was stated with especial clarity by Diogenes of Apollonia (DK, B.2). By
19:1-9
SEVENTH
ANTITHESIS
325
the Hellenistic age it was a commonplace of Greek philosophy that the
stuff of which the world is made is apoios hyli, and that therefore the ele­
ments were mutually interchangeable (D.L. 7.150; 8.25; Epictetus 3.24;
Frag. 8 (auta ta tettara stoicheia and kai koto trepetai kai metaballei)
SVF 2.405-411). The Stoics, in their attempt to explicate divination and
the various miracle stories it involved, made especial use of this principle
to show that the gods could accomplish anything without violating the
laws of nature (Cicero ND 3.39.92. See Winston 1971).
7. the cloud overshadowing the camp. Cf. Num 9:18, LXX: pasas tas
hemeras en hois skiazei he nephele epi tes skenes, parembalousin hoi huioi
Israel. Since the author is here invoking the motif of a new creation, the
cloud overshadowing the camp, rather than interposing itself between the
Israelites and the Egyptians as in Exod 14:19, may perhaps be an allusion
to the darkness over the deep in Gen 1:2. See Guillaumont 1959, ad loc,
and especially Beauchamp 1964:502$.
of what before was water (prouphestotos hydatos). proiiphistamai, usu­
ally in Aorist 2 and Perfect Active, meaning 'exist before' is first attested
here. Cf. Plutarch Moralia 570F.
the emergence of dry land. Continues the motif of a new creation. Cf.
Gen 1:9: kai ophtheto hi ksera. anadysis, in the sense of 'emergence,' first
attested here. Cf. Jos. J.W. 7.2.2; Scholia on Odyssey 5.377.
a leafy plain. Probably a legendary elaboration of the biblical narrative.
Gutmann quoted from a Hebrew prayer for the last day of Passover
(ome? gebhrotekd mi yemallel): "and he rebuked the Red Sea, and the
raging waters dried up, so that they walked through abysses as on paved
roads; on either side rose trees laden with fruit, and he caused sweet
springs to gush out for them in the abyss, and perfume of sweet spices to
spread its scent before them" (Moses Gutmann, Die Apokryphen des
alten Testaments [Altona, 1841] 39, note) (Grimm). "The 'green field,'"
writes Goodrick, "is possibly a fantastic description of the actual bottom
of the Red Sea." Cf. Pliny NH 13.135: "Shrubs and trees also grew at the
bottom of the sea—those in the Mediterranean being of smaller size, for
the Red Sea and the whole of the Eastern Ocean are filled with forests
[mangroves]. The Latin language has no name for what the Greeks
call phykos [seaweed], as our word alga denotes a herbaceous sea-plant,
whereas the phykos is a shrub. It has a broad leaf and is colored green." If
we see in the leafy plain a continuation of the creation motif (cf. Gen
1:11-13: "Let the earth sprout vegetation . . . " ) , then the sequence be­
comes perfectly clear. For chloephoron, cf. Philo Op. 40: keleuei gar
autSn chloZphorein.
8. the whole nation, panethnei. Elsewhere only in Strabo 5.1.6.
9. like horses. Cf. Isa 63:13.
they skipped, dieskirtesan. First attested here. Cf. Plutarch Eumenes 11;
and 17:18 above. For the imagery, see Ps 114:4.
X X X V H I . RETROSPECTIVE R E V I E W O F GOD'S WONDERS
T H R O U G H WHICH N A T U R E WAS REFASHIONED
F O R ISRAEL
(19:10-12)
1 0
19
They still recalled their experiences during their sojourn in a
foreign land: how instead of cattle the earth brought forth lice, and
instead of aquatic creatures, the river disgorged a swarm of frogs.
But later they also witnessed a new mode of bird production, when
driven by appetite they demanded delicacies, and quails came up
from the sea for their relief.
1 1
1 2
NOTES
19:10. instead of cattle. Cf. NOTES on 19:6 and 18.
brought forth. For eksegagen. Cf. Gen 1:24, LXX (and 1:20): eksagageto he ge.
lice. For sknipa. Cf. Exod 8:16, LXX.
disgorged. For eksereugesthai, cf. Exod 8:3; Pss 44:1; 118:171, LXX.
12. quails came up from the sea. "Quails in the Mediterranean area win­
ter in Africa and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. . . . This
is an exhausting flight and is done in stages. When the birds alight to re­
fresh themselves, they are easily caught. Presumably it was a cloud of mi­
grating quails that came down on the Hebrew encampment (cf. Aristotle
Historia Animalium 8.579b)" (McCullough, IDB, s.v.).
XXXIX. E G Y P T M O R E B L A M E W O R T H Y T H A N SODOM
(19:13-17)
1 3
19
On the sinners, however, punishments rained down, not
unheralded by violent thunderbolts; justly did they suffer from their
own misdeeds, since they practiced such cruel hostility toward
strangers. ^ O t h e r s refused to welcome strangers who visited them,
but these enslaved guests and benefactors. i*And that was not the
sum of it—indeed their final reckoning is yet to come—for the former
received strangers with hostility [from the start], 16 whereas the lat­
ter, after a festal welcome, oppressed with hard labor men who had
already shared with them equal rights. i 7 B u t they were struck with
blindness too, as were those at the doors of the righteous man, when
encompassed by an immense darkness each went groping for his own
doorway.
NOTES
19:13. by violent thunderbolts. Cf. Ps 77:16#. We read in Mek. Beshallah on Exod 14:25, Lauterbach, 1.241: "R. Nehemiah says: By the reper­
cussion of the thunder above, the pins of the wheels below flew off, as it is
said: 'The voice of thy thunder was upon the wheel, the lightnings lighted
up the world* (Ps 77:19)"; and on Exod 14:27: "When the last of the
Israelites came out from the sea, the last of the pursuing Egyptians entered
into the bed of the sea. The ministering angels then began hurling at them
arrows, great hailstones, fire and brimstone." Cf. Targ.Yerush. on Exod
14:24: "The word of the Lord looked forth upon the host of the Egyp­
tians and cast upon them pitch and fire and hailstones." Josephus tells us
that "rains fell in torrents from heaven, crashing thunder accompanied the
flash of lightning, aye and thunderbolts were hurled" (Ant. 6.16.3).
hostility toward strangers, misoksenia is found only here, but misoksenos occurs in Diodorus 34.1; 40.3; Jos. Ant. 1.11.1. In styling the con­
duct of the Egyptians as misoksenia, the author is reversing the very
328
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
§ XXXIX
charge made against the Jews by his pagan contemporaries. Even the
friendly Hecataeus of Abdera claimed that Moses introduced "a form of
life encouraging seclusion from humankind and a hatred of aliens"
(apanthropon tina kai misoksenon bion: Diodorus 40.3.4), although he
was prepared to explain it away as the result of their own expulsion from
Egypt. There is a fragment from the thirty-fourth book of Diodorus' his­
tory which deals with the struggle between Antiochus VIII Sidetes and the
Jews (134-132 BCE), and which relates that the anti-Semitic advisers of
the victorious Seleucid king suggested that he should storm Jerusalem and
"wipe out completely the race of the Jews, since they above all nations
avoided dealings with any other people and looked upon all men as their
enemies. They pointed out, too, that the ancestors of the Jews had been
driven out of all Egypt as men who were impious and detested by the
gods. . . . Having organized the nation of the Jews they made their hatred
of mankind into a tradition, and on this account had introduced utterly
outlandish laws: not to break bread with any other race, nor to show them
any good will at all. . . . They reminded him that Antiochus, called
Epiphanes, on defeating the Jews [in 169 BCE] had entered the innermost
sanctuary of the god's temple. . . . Finding there a marble statue of a
heavily bearded man seated on an ass, with a book in his hands, he sup­
posed it to be an image of Moses . . . the man who had ordained for the
Jews their misanthropic and lawless customs" (Jos. Ag.Ap. 2.79ff. The
common view that this passage derives from Posidonius is based mainly
on the prevalent opinion that Diodorus' narrative from the thirty-third
book on derives from Posidonius. See Stern: 142. For Lysimachus' similar
report, see 16.1.309). According to Pompeius Trogus, the Jews anxiously
avoided all contact with aliens. The original reason for this was fortuitous,
but Moses made of it a religious institution (Justinus 36.2; Stern
1976:332-343). At the beginning of the third century CE, Philostratus
wrote: "The Jews have long been in revolt not only against the Romans,
but against humanity, and a race that has made its own life apart (bion
amikton) and irreconcilable, that cannot share with the rest of mankind in
the pleasures of the table nor join in their libations or prayers or sacrifices,
are separated from ourselves by a greater gulf than divides us from Susa or
Bactra in the most distant Indies" (Vita Apollonii 5.33; cf. Tacitus Historiae 5.5.2). Philo not only inveigihs directly against these charges (Spec.
3.110, 113; 2.167), but accuses the ancient Egyptians in words very simi­
lar to those of our author: "So, then, these strangers, who had left their
own country and came to Egypt hoping to live there in safety as in a sec­
ond fatherland, were made slaves by the ruler of the country. . . . And in
thus making serfs of men who were not only free but guests, suppliants,
and settlers, he showed no shame or fear of the God of liberty and hospi­
tality and of justice to guests and suppliants" (Mos. 1.36; cf. J. N.
19:13-17
EGYPT
MORE
BLAMEWORTHY
329
Sevenster, The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World
[Leiden, 1975] 89-94).
14. Others. I.e. the Sodomites. Cf. Mek. Shirta 2 (Goldin:91-93).
guests. See Gen 45:17.
benefactors. A reference to Joseph's services. Some see in v. 14 an allu­
sion to the condition of the Jews in Egypt during the author's own period
(Gregg; Goodrick). The degrading laographia, or poll tax, imposed by the
Romans 24/23 BCE) only on those who were not Greek citizens was a
strong incentive for the Jews of Alexandria to strive to attain Greek citi­
zenship. The Greeks and Egyptians, however, violently opposed this at­
tempt. In the words "men who had already shared with them equal rights"
(v. 16), it is tempting to see a reference to the fact that in the Ptolemaic
period many Alexandrian Jews had indeed succeeded by irregular means
in gaining access to the gymnasium and thus to Greek citizenship, whereas
in the Roman period the gates were tightly shut before them. See
Tcherikover-Fuks 1957:1. 59-65. See also NOTE on 10:17.
15. The meaning of this verse remains obscure. Goodrick translates:
"And not only so, but whatever allowance (hetis episkope) there be shall
be theirs." I have in my own rendering adopted Swete's reading ^ ('in
truth'). Cf. IV Ezra 15:11-12.
16. a festal welcome. Cf. Gen 43:31-34. heortasma is found only here,
but heortasmos occurs in Plutarch Moralia 110IE.
shared with them equal rights. Cf. Gen 45:17-20 ("for the best of
the land of Egypt will be yours").
17. blindness. The reference is to Exod 14:20: "And there was the
cloud and the darkness." Cf. Mek. Beshallah ad l o c : "The cloud upon Is­
rael and the darkness upon the Egyptians. Scripture tells that the Israelites
were in the light and the Egyptians were in the dark. . . . 'And the one
came not near the other all night.' Scripture tells that if an Egyptian was
standing he could not sit down, if he was sitting he could not stand up; if
he was unladen he could not load, if he was laden he could not unload, be­
cause he was groping in the darkness." For aorasia cf. Philo Somn. 1.114.
the righteous man. Le. Lot.
immense darkness, achanes in this sense first attested here. Cf. Plu­
tarch Moralia 866B; M. Aurel. 12.32.
y
XL. TRANSPOSITION OF THE ELEMENTS
(19:18-21)
1 8
19
For as the notes of a psaltery vary the beat [key] while
holding to the melody, so were the elements transposed, as can be ac­
curately inferred from the observation of what happened. i^For land
animals became aquatic, and things that swim migrated to the shore.
20 So fire retained its own force in the water, and water forgot its
quenching properties. 21 Conversely,flamesdid not waste thefleshof
perishable creatures that walked among them, nor was the easily
melted ice-like type of heavenly food dissolved.
NOTES
19:18. transposed. For metharmozomena, cf. Philo Post. 108: "More­
over, just as instruments change their modes (metharmottetai) in accord­
ance with the infinite number of combinations of melody. . . ."
beat, rhythmos. If we translate rhythmos with the English term 'key'
(ordinarily rendered in Greek as tonos or tropos), then the musical anal­
ogy employed by the author would be particularly sharpened. He would
then be saying (in accordance with Stoic theory) that the tonos of the ele­
ments was either heightened or lowered through a change in the relative
proportions of fire and air constituting their pneumata (air currents), just
as the tonos of a musical mode is varied by the transposition of the notes
within it. Both the elements and the modes retain their identity despite the
transposition, which only affects their tonos. For the author's tendency to
view the transformation of nature in terms of a change in tonos, see 16:24
above. There is evidence that a variety of modes were in use by Alex­
andrian Jews in their chanting of the psalms, and Clement of Alexandria,
who praised the majestic psalmody of the Alexandrian Jews, singled out
one of these modes as the Tropos Spondeiakos, apparently a modification
of the Dorian mode (Paedagogus 2.4). In light of this Jewish familiarity
with modes, Wisd's use of a musical analogy referring to the latter is very
19:18-21
TRANSPOSITION
OF
THE
EVENTS
331
understandable (see Winston 1971: Appendix). As so often, Philo again
provides us with a very close analogy to the author's approach. Just as
Wisd explains some of the miracles as involving an interchange of func­
tions between the elements (19:10-12), and sees this as implying a new
creation (19:6,18-21), so, too, Philo. In describing the miracle of the
manna, he claims that the heavenly food "followed the analogy of the
birth of the world; for both the creating of the world and also the raining
of the said food were begun by God on the first day out of six. The copy
reproduces the original very exactly: for, as God called up His most per­
fect work, the world, out of not being into being, so He called up plenty in
the desert, changing round the elements (metabalon ta stoicheia) to meet
the pressing need of the occasion, so that instead of the earth the air bore
food for their nourishment, and that without labor or travail for those who
had no chance of resorting to any deliberate process of providing suste­
nance." (Cf. Mos. 2.266-267; 1.96; ShR 12.4.) Philo appears to be
ascribing the redistribution of functions among the various elements to
God's absolute power to create out of non-being, but as I have demon­
strated elsewhere ("Philo's Theory of Cosmogony", 1975), he is referring
only to a 'relative' non-being, and what he has in mind is God's power to
bestow form on what is in itself formless and qualityless. He is there­
fore not resorting to the well-known formulation known later as creatio ex
nihilo, whose champions invariably view the divine miracles as rooted in
God's ability to create something "not out of anything," a negative for­
mula which places them beyond the scope of human reason. For if God's
power to create, which serves as a paradigm for all other miracles, is itself
inexplicable and unamenable to rational analysis, then the latter too neces­
sarily have the same status. Those, on the other hand, who understand
creation as the bestowal of form on some sort of unformed material sub­
stratum have theoretically placed the divine miracles in the category of
what is rationally explicable. Since it is in their camp that Philo is located,
it is very likely that although he makes no explicit reference in this context
to the material principles involved (he does refer to them in other con­
texts), he, too, like the author of Wisd, had the Stoic theory in the back of
his mind as the rationale behind the divine miracles. It is instructive, how­
ever, to note that the author of Wisd, who is usually regarded as more
pious and less philosophically sophisticated than Philo, has gone consid­
erably further than the latter in his attempt to explicate certain well-known
biblical miracles by alluding to a specific physical theory well known in
Hellenistic philosophy. The psychological explanation for this may per­
haps be seen in the fact that Philo's religious philosophy as a whole is in
reality considerably more radical than that of the author of Wisd, so that
he felt constrained to exercise the greatest caution when discussing some­
thing so crucial to biblical tradition as the miracles. We have already seen
332
THE WISDOM
OF
SOLOMON
something analogous to this in the fact that Wisd designated Sophia as an
aporroia or effluence of God's glory, whereas Philo cautiously restricted
the application of that term to emanations of the Logos (see NOTES on
7:25).
19. land animals became aquatic. "By passing through the waters, the
Israelites momentarily obtained the powers of water-dwellers" (Gregg
[1909]).
things that swim. The reference is to the plague of frogs. Cf. Philo Mos.
1,103: "a multitude of frogs so numerous t h a t . . . every place, public or
private, was filled with them, as though it was nature's purpose to send
one kind of aquatic animals to colonize the opposite region" (Gregg
[1909]).
20. Cf. 16:17.
21. Cf. 16:18,22.
heavenly food. Cf. 16:20; Sib Or Frag. 3:46-49: "But they who honor
the true and everlasting God inherit life, throughout the aeonian time
dwelling in the fertile garden of Paradise, feasting on sweet bread from the
starry heaven"; 3:746; II Bar 29:8: "The treasury of manna shall
again descend from on high."
XLI. CONCLUDING D O X O L O G Y
(19:22)
2 2
19
For in every way, O Lord, you exalted and glorified your
people, and did not neglect to assist them in every time and place.
NOTES
19:22. Concluding doxologies are common in Jewish religious litera­
ture, e.g. Ps 150; Sir 51:30; III Mace 7:23; IV Mace 18:24; Tobit 14:15.
Moreover, it was already a common practice in the Tannaitic age for a
homily to end with words of consolation. Cf. Sifre Deut. 342, Finkelstein:
391: "Since Moses first addressed Israel severely, he later added words of
consolation." The following words, for example, were added to the end of
M. Moed Katan 3.9 (which dealt with the laws of mourning): "But as for
the time that is to come, [the Prophet] says: 'He will destroy death forever.
My Lord God will wipe the tears away from all faces.'" This type of
peroratio is known to us from later midrashim as a well-established for­
mula: "In this world it is so, but for the time that is to come." See E.
Stein, "Die homiletische Peroratio im Midrasch," HUCA 8-9 (1931-32)
353-371.
in every way . . . in every time, kata panta . . . en panti kaird. Cf. I l l
Mace 7:9; II Mace 14:15,34; Philo Decal. 178.
neglect. For hypereides. Cf. Ps 9:22: hyperoras.
to assist them in every . . . place, kai topo paristamenos. Cf. TestJoseph
2:6: epi pasi de topois paristatai; Ps 108:31, LXX.
INDEX OF A N C I E N T AUTHORS
Accius 287
Aelianus 119-20, 189, 241, 305
Aclius Aristides 182, 194-95, 202, 256,
265
Aelius Theon 227
Aeschines 135, 155
Aeschylus 105, 147, 172, 194, 219, 228,
240, 264, 309
Albinus 27, 2 9 - 3 0 , 5 3 , 253
Alcmaeon 117
Alexander of Aphrodisias 52-54, 252
Alexis 283, 288
Ambrose 194
Anacharsis 266
Anaxagoras 180, 187
Anaximander 214
Antiochus of Ascalon 34, 44, 168
Antiphanes 305
Antiphanes Megalopolitanus 228
Antiphilus 264
Antiphon 165
Antisthenes 198
Aphthonius 227
Apion 240
Apollodorus 241, 280
Apollonius Rhodius 221, 240, 265, 308
Apuleius 53, 138, 253, 271, 276
Aratus 103, 105, 154, 266
Archias 260
Aretaeus Medicus 305
Aristaenetus 315
Aristeas of Argos 271
Aristides 215, 232, 280
Aristobulus 36, 63, 147, 189, 195, 205,
248
Ariston of Chios 193
Aristophanes 101
Aristotle 13, 18-20, 51, 55, 116-17,
154, 160, 163-64, 171, 174, 180-82,
185, 187, 221, 233, 253, 265-66, 283,
285, 288, 292, 295, 326
Arnobius 283
Artapanus 63, 71, 220, 298-99
Athanasius 69
Athenaeus 154, 163
Athenagoras 68, 283, 285
Atticus 40
Augustine
272
119, 185, 199, 223, 235, 248,
Bacchylides 150
Bion of Borysthenes
193, 286
Calcidius 54
Callimachus 2 4 1 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 3 , 3 1 8
Carneades 53-54
Catullus 115, 135
Chariton 135
Chilon 288
Chrysippus 30, 55, 109, 117, 181-82,
300, 306, 321
Cicero 19, 29-30, 43-44, 52-53, 55,
116, 137-38, 142, 148-49, 154-55,
174-76, 181-82, 185, 194, 232,
250-53, 273, 277-78, 287-88, 307,
317, 321, 325
Claudianus Mamertus 235
Cleanthes 57, 179-80, 190, 205, 266
Clement of Alexandria 17, 68, 119,
170, 183, 261, 271, 278, 330
Clement of Rome 67, 216
Crates of Mallos 322
Critias 105
Cyprian 17
Damascius 262
Damocritus 240
Demetrius 63, 198, 221
Democritus 51, 116-17, 160, 181, 207,
232 251
Demosthenes 113, 133, 155, 194, 202
Didymus 27
Dio Cassius 232, 239-40, 260, 277
Diocles 117
Dio Chrysostomus 198, 260, 278, 310
Diodorus Siculus 105, 120, 133, 150,
173, 181, 190, 228, 239-40, 251, 271,
277, 327
Dionysius of Alexandria 68
Diogenes of Apollonia 180, 198, 214,
253, 324
Diogenes Babylonius 317
Diogenes Laertius 44, 104, 108, 116,
122, 146, 154-55, 163-64, 168, 176,
ANCIENT
182, 189-90, 198, 208, 253, 266, 288,
305, 308, 324-25
Diotogenes 63
Ecphantus 63, 139, 162, 207
Elias 182
Empedocles 117, 149, 166, 173, 185,
304
Epicharmus 261, 286
Epictetus 102, 120, 134, 154, 160, 169,
173, 181, 189, 250, 253, 262-63, 288,
296 307 325
Epicurus 13, 51-53, 116, 121, 160, 185,
196, 253, 273, 292, 309
Epiphanius 117, 180, 257, 283
Erasistratus of Alexandria 117, 287
Eudorus of Alexandria 39, 45, 171
Euhemerus 270, 276
Euripides 101, 113, 118, 150, 189, 202,
215, 228, 235, 240, 259, 264, 266, 273,
277, 280, 287, 307-09, 321
Eusebius 67-68, 119, 232, 239
Ezekiel the Tragedian 63, 174, 220, 318
Firmicus Maternus
Fulgentius 276
276
Galen 1 8 , 2 5 3 , 2 8 9
Gellius, Aulus 55, 155, 163
Gorgias 234
Gregory the Great 138
Hecataeus of Abdera 241, 253, 282,
328
Heliodorus 120, 186
Heraclitus 261, 287
Heraclitus Rhetor 322
Heraiskos 262
Hermippus 185
Hermogenes 227
Herodian 104, 305
Herodotus 47, 147, 150, 153, 163, 179,
189, 232, 240, 261, 263, 265, 278, 285,
290
Herophilus 117
Hesiod 103, 105, 135, 245, 264, 289,
306, 308
Hierocles 289
Hippocrates 207, 256
Hippolytus 117, 163, 188
Homer 47, 113, 126, 266, 319, 322
Horace 118-19, 135, 153, 166, 260,
263-64, 266, 288
Iamblichus 27, 150, 252
Ibycus 318
Irenaeus 67, 117, 121-22, 180, 213,
216, 318
AUTHORS
335
Isocrates 20, 150, 194
Isyllos of Epidaurus 263
Jerome 68, 132
Joannes Sardianus 227
John of Damascus 180
Josephus 43, 105, 125-27, 133, 142,
146, 148-50, 152, 174, 176, 196, 203,
207, 215-17, 222, 228-29, 2 3 2 - 3 3 ,
241, 253, 265-67, 271, 273, 279, 287,
290, 292, 295, 299, 301, 305, 322, 325,
327
Justin 41, 119, 272
Juvenal 232, 288
Lactantius 41, 270, 272-73, 277-78
Leucippus 116
Livy 238,241
Longinus 150
Lycophron 139
Lysimachus 328
Lucian 105, 120, 146-47, 198, 284,
286, 305
Lucretius 51-52, 115-16, 119, 166,
264, 287, 307
Macarius 138
Marcion 220
Macrobius 189
Marcus Aurelius 41, 57, 101, 117-18,
150, 154-55, 165, 185, 214, 251, 307,
329
Martial 135
Maximus of Tyre 188, 254, 256
Menander 128, 137, 163, 165, 288,
307-08
Menander Rhetor 135
Methodius 288
Minucius Felix 270, 272-73, 278, 285
Musonius Rufus 44, 160, 181
Nicander 291,310
Nicolaus 227
Nicomachus 185
Nonnus 305
Numenius 185, 279
Origen 68, 132, 189
Ovid 160, 163, 261, 263-64, 283
Palladas 288
Panaetius 44, 181
Parmenides 180
Pausanias 116, 215, 259-61, 265, 299
Petronius 118
Philemon 165, 170
Philo of Alexandria 3, 14, 22-24,
27-32, 34, 36-45, 54, 59-61, 101-09,
336
ANCIENT
113, 116-21,125-28, 131-32, 134,
137-38, 14(M2, 146-47, 149-50, 152,
154-55, 160, 163-64, 166, 169-70,
173-77, 179, 181-82, 185-90, 193-95,
198-99, 201-02, 204-05, 207-08,
213-15, 217, 220-22, 227-29, 232-35,
238, 241-42, 245, 248-50, 252-56,
261-67, 273, 278-80, 282, 287-90,
293, 295-96, 298-99, 300-01, 304-05,
307-08, 310-12, 316-17, 319, 320-23,
325, 328, 330-31, 333
Philo of Byblos 259
Philodemus 121, 181, 189, 196, 228,
273, 298
Philolaus 37
Philostratus 1 5 3 , 2 5 6 , 2 8 4 , 3 2 8
Pindar 126,202
Plato 13, 18, 26, 28-30, 32, 34, 51, 53,
59, 102, 105, 108, 113, 116-19, 126,
133-34, 142, 147, 150, 160, 163, 170,
173-75, 177, 180-82, 185-90, 193-95,
197-98, 207, 214, 228, 232-35, 239,
249-50, 253, 255-56, 259, 262, 265,
274, 280, 282, 286, 88, 299-300, 306,
309
Plautus 163, 307
Pliny the Elder 122, 163, 261, 325
Pliny the Younger 138
Plotinus 26, 28, 42, 101, 185, 187, 189,
195, 198, 207, 251-52, 262
Plutarch 40, 42, 44, 46, 52, 105, 113,
116-17, 120, 138, 141, 148-49, 163,
170, 173-74, 181, 186-87, 193, 207,
232, 239, 250, 256, 271, 274, 278, 280,
287, 290, 305-06, 308, 321-22, 325,
329
Pollux 287
Polybius 102, 110, 146, 150, 189, 240,
242, 277, 307, 321
Pompeius Tragus 220, 328
Porphyry 102, 239-40
Posidonius 19, 180, 186, 197, 233, 254,
273, 305, 307, 328
Praxagoras 117
Proclus 19, 41, 185, 188
Prodicus 193
Propertius 264
Ps-Apollodorus 265
Ps-Aristotle 108, 154, 170, 173-74,
179-80, 182, 185, 242, 245, 252, 307,
309
Ps-Callisthenes 150, 208, 257
Ps-Clement 121
Ps-Demosthenes 105
Ps-Diogenes 279
Ps-Dionysius 42
Ps-Dioscorides 289
Ps-Eupolemus 267, 271
AUTHORS
Ps-Heraclitus 279-80,321
Ps-Longinus 288
Ps-Lucian 284
Ps-Plato 166, 177, 181, 205, 207, 264,
286
Ps-Plutarch 53, 189, 239, 285
Ptolemy 274
Pythagoras 288
Rufus, Quintus Curtius
Rutilius 155
239
Sallustius 174
Seneca 30-31, 41, 44, 102, 116-18,
128, 137, 140-42, 148-49, 154-55,
163, 166, 177, 189, 207, 253, 264, 266,
273-74, 278, 287, 307, 321
Sextus Empiricus 166, 170, 185, 198,
217, 241, 252, 287
Sextus Pomponius 154
Silius Italicus 138
Sophocles 105, 150, 202, 234, 263-64,
280, 288
Stasinos 165
Statius 264
Stesichorus 318
Sthenidas of Lokri 63
Strabo 1 1 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 7 2 - 7 3 , 3 2 5
Straton 117
Suetonius 288
Tacitus 163, 259, 279, 282, 328
Tatian 40
Taurus 26-27
Terence 135, 163, 307
Tertullian 17, 41, 163, 213, 239, 274
Theocritus 113, 135, 250, 263
Theodoret 166
Theognis 102-03
Theognostus 69
Theophilus 40, 102, 121
Theophrastus 226, 292
Thucydides 1 5 2 , 2 3 2 , 2 4 0
Tibullus 261
Timaeus Locrus 181, 207
Timaeus of Tauromenium 261
Timon of Phlius 305
Varro 272
Vettius Valens 1 1 8 , 2 7 4 , 2 8 7 - 8 8 , 3 0 5
Virgil 103, 138, 147, 149, 154, 163,
165, 264, 267, 274, 291, 294, 304, 319
Xenophon 104, 106, 119, 133, 148,
154, 193-94, 234-35, 252-53, 265, 288
Xenophanes of Colophon 104, 187
Zeno
43, 51, 176, 194
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Aaron, his robe represents the
cosmos 8
Abraham 214
accumulatio 20
accumulation of epithets 16
adulterer 134
Aeschylean compounds 15
agamoi 274
Ahriman, attack on Ohrmazd 122;
confounding of 149; poisons
earth 110
Ahuna Vairya 178
Ahura Mazda 222
Aidn 178,257
Alchasaios 188
allegorical exegesis 36
Alexander Janneus 21, 118
Alexandria, riots in 38 CE 23
Alexandrian Jews, civic rights 24
alliteration 16
anachoresis 25, 309
analogy 252-53
anamnesis 29
anapausis 126, 195-96
anaphora 11, 16, 212
anesis 300
angel food 8,297-98
angelic hosts 33, 147
animal deities 245
Antinous 277
antithesis 6, 8, 16, 20
Apion, charges Jews with human
sacrifice 240
apocalyptic vision 23
apocalypticizing dyptich 21
apoios hyle 325
aporroia 184-86, 332
Aqht 100
Archetypal Torah 43
archetypes, heavenly 205
aretalogies, Hellenistic 212
argos logos 54
Aristobulus, identifies Wisdom with
Logos 37
Aristotle, Protrepticus
18-19
Artificer 172, 176, 191, 194, 249-50,
252, 258, 264, 318
artist, ambition of 269
assonance 16
ati 47-48
Athena 317-18
atrophoi 274
Augustus 5, 21-22, 24
Aula Isiaca 37
authentes 240
Azariah dei Rossi 17
barrenness 131
bastards, will not reach maturity 132
Battle of Gods and Giants 255
Bayazid of Bistam 53
beginning, end and middle 172-74
Benjamin of Tudela 216
Berenice II 277
bethels 259
Bhagavad Gita 254
biothanati 274
Boukoloi 239
Bounteous Immortals 222
bronze serpent 8
Cain 213
Canaan, justification of Israelite conquest
of 6 1 , 2 3 8
Canaanites, their seed evil 241, 243-44
cannibalism 7, 240
cardinal virtues 194
carpe diem 118
Castor and Pollux 263
Chance 116
chastisement, brief 127
cheese analogy 164
chiasmus 15
children, witnesses to parents'
adultery 131,134-35
Choice of Heracles 194
Christ's passion 119
citizenship, Greek 329
civic rights 24
Claudius 24
clay figurines 285
Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus 205
comparatio compendiaria
120
condign fate 9 , 5 8 , 323-24
338
SUBJECTS
conscience 61, 307
cosmic order, champions righteous 8
cosmological and teleological proofs 33
cosmos as a temple 205
covenant 62
creation ex nihilo 38-39, 331
creation, refashioning of 9
Cynics 44
Dame Wisdom 34
dark haze (aer) 306
Death, covenant with 4, 111, 113;
destined for 61; invitation of 60;
worthy of 58; decree of Canopus
277
deification of Alexander and the
Diadochi 271
dekameniaios
163
Delian Apollo 241
descents into Hades 304
determinism, in Ben Sira 48-50; in
Greek philosophy 51-55; in
Qumran 50; in rabbinic thought 56
Deus sive natura 226
devil's envy 121-22; cause of
death 113; echo of Zoroastrian
teaching 121-22
diabolos 121
diatribe 13, 15, 20, 304;
Hellenistic 114
digression 247
Dihle, A. 240
Dike 105
Dionysian blood revel 237
Dionysus-Zagreus 239
Divine Mind 42
double creation theory 38
double judgment 33
double polyptoton 263
doxology 333
dualistic anthropology 126
dynastic cult 22
early death 5
Ebla tablets 215
Eclecticism 33
Egypt, despoiling of 219-20; human
sacrifice in 239
Egyptian animal worship 231-32, 248
Egyptian Song of the Harper 115, 118
Egyptians and Canaanites, symbols for
hated Alexandrians and Romans 45
Egyptians, more blameworthy than
Sodomites 9; tormented with own
abominations 7
elements, transposed 9, 330; worship
of 248,250
elevation to heaven 5
emanation 33, 38, 40, 68
embryo 164
emphatic pronoun haute 212
empty illusions 273
envy, has no place in the divine
choir 160
Epicurean 114, 121
episkope 128
Epistle to the Hebrews 9
epitasis 300
Esther, Greek 24
eternal creation 40
etiological 275
etymological play on words 266
Euhemeristic 270
eunuch 132
eusebeia 44
eustatheia 160
evil 108
exempla 212
exhortatory discourse 3, 18
external goods 167
eyphyia 198
feminine substantives 170
Final Judgment 125
Five Cities 210,214
Flaccus, A. Avillius 23-24
Focke, F. 13-14
formless matter 6-7, 33, 38, 230, 233
Four nights 315
free will, absolute 51, 54, 56;
relative 5 1 , 5 2 - 5 4 , 5 7
friends of God 6, 42, 184, 188
Gabirol, Ibn 254
Gaius 'Caligula* 3, 23, 37
Gedaliah ben Joseph ibn Yabya 17
God, addressed as 'Father' 265; arms
himself with his own attributes
148-49; created world by means of
Wisdom 38, 201; did not make death
107; hardens and disciplines those he
loves 128; hardens the heart 47-48;
his love for all 231, 235; mercy
toward Canaanites a model for
Israel 7; mysteries of 112; source of
Wisdom 172; not direct cause of
evil 108; responsibility for human
sin 46; uses creation as a
weapon 149
grace 58
Grimm, C 12
Hadrian 277
hegemonikon 29
Heimarmene
52-53, 55
Hekhaloth 222
SUBJECTS
Heilsgeschichte 211
holy land 238
holy spirit, driven away by evil
homeopathic magic 295
Homeric question 12
homoiosis theo 44
homoioteleuton
16
Houbigant, Charles F. 12
Hu and Sia 34
hymn, Hellenistic 69
hyperbaton 15
hypostasis 34
103
Ialdabaoth 122
incarnation, cyclic 188
inclusio 9
idolatry 3, 61; in time of Serug 272;
origins of 7, 269-71; source of every
moral corruption 7; will ultimately
disappear 43
idols, animation of 259-60, 262
Ikhwan As-Safa 254
imaginary adversary 20
immortality 124-25, 127, 130, 192,
199; astral 128
infanticide 7
infants, sing God's praises 222-23
interchange of sex roles 269
Isaianic Exaltation Tradition 146
Isis and Sarapis 37
Isis Aretalogy 37, 159, 163, 169, 177,
183, 187, 193, 195-96, 202, 266
isokola 20
isokdlia 16
Israelites, give light of Law to world 8;
receive a taste of their enemies'
punishments 6
Jacob 217
Jerome 15
Jewish worship 282
Joseph 218
just man, child of the Lord 112; joins
angelic hosts 147; vindication
of 144; will obtain royalty 145
kenodoksia 273
khrafstra 33, 290
kingship tracts 242
kinship (syngeneia) with God
klimaks 248
kratesis 22, 153
197
laographia 24, 329
Larcher, C. 25-26
lazy argument 54
life, as a debt to be paid back 286-87;
as a festival 288; brief and
339
troublesome 115
litotes 16
Logos 299, 320; all powerful 317;
aspect of God 319; Divine 8, 38, 43,
185, 195; emanations of 332; in
Aristobulus 37; in Plutarch and
Atticus 40; leaping forth 8, 318;
Philos' doctrine of 194;
protreptikos
18
Lot's wife 216
Maat 35, 103
m Maccabees 24, 63
magical knowledge 176
man, God's administrator 201; his
complete dependence on
God 208-09; origin due to
chance 111, 116
Mani-Codex
164, 187-88, 199
manna 297, 299, 332
manufactured idols 248
Mastema 272, 318-19, 324
measure for measure 6, 11, 227, 245,
311
measure, number and weight 230, 234
menstrual blood 164
meontic freedom 52
Mesaru and Kettu 35
metalleuei 141
Metatron, teaches babies who died in
infancy 275
metempsychosis 28
meteorites 260
Middle Platonism 3, 26, 28-29, 33-34,
39-40, 53-54, 64
Middle Stoa 3 8 , 4 1 , 43-44
might is right 114
mimema 203
miracles 331
misanthropic customs 328
misoksenia 327-28
Moloch, sacrifices to 239
Moses 36,219
mother earth, misuse of 165
Muratori Canon 6
murmuring motif 105
musical modes 330
myrionymos
179
mysteries 120, 159-60
mystery cult of Dionysus 215
mystery terminology 238
mystical experience 42, 62
mystical union 62
myth of Er 26
Nabmanides 17
natural beauty, admiration for 251
natural elements, worship of 248
340
SUBJECTS
natural law 153
Neopythagoreans 38-39
new creation 325
Noah 214
nomoi empsychoi 43
Octavian 22
Ohrmazd 174, 179
oikeidsis 44
"opening the mouth"
Orphic 216
262
paradigmatic forms 38, 40, 59
parallelism 20
parallelismus membrorum
13
paranomasia 16
paratactic style 20
Pascal 55
periodic style 15
personified abstractions 20
pessimism 115
Pfeiffer, R. H. 18
philanthrdpia 43-45, 181
philanthropos 43, 61
philosophical terminology 13
Platonic dualism 26
Platonic 'Forms' 255
pillar of salt 216
Plotinus, defense of statues 262
pneuma 300
pneumatic motion 189
poly ony mos 179
powers of God 320
premature death 137
primitivists 263
Primordial Light 37
proper names, avoidance of 139
proselytism 62
Ps-Aristeas, mild criticism of heathen
cults 3
psychic pneuma 29
psychological terror 303
Ptolemies 21-22
Ptolemy III Euergetes 277
Pygmalion 283
rabbinic parallels 62
Re-Atum 34
repentance 231, 235, 243
resurrection 13
riddling speech 139
Royal Road of Wisdom 154
Sandalfon 319
sebasma 22, 279
sebasteum 22
sacrificial death 125
self-preservation 108
servant song (Isa 52:12) 120
seven antitheses 227
seven righteous heroes 211
sexual pleasure 165
shadow-sketching 283
ships, negative attitude to 264
Sibylline Oracle III 63
Sibylline V, outburst against Rome 25
Simon Magus 318
skeleton, put on table 118
skiagraphos 282
Sodom, apple of 216
Sodomites 9
Solomon, author of Wisd identifies
himself with 5; chooses wisdom 169;
magical knowledge of 176; sought to
make Wisdom his bride 6; quoted by
Aristobulus 36
sophia, effluence of God's glory 332;
God's instrument of creation 177; in
Aristotle 154
Sophia 37, 317; an eternal
emanation 34, 28, 40; central figure
in Wisdom 34, 59; in Gnostic
Cosmogonies 106; makes a
leap 318; of the Valentinians 68;
personified by Aristides as
Athena 194; soul as a proper abode
for 60
sorites 5, 16, 154
Soul, as God's temple 102; descent
of 27; extinction of 117; fall of 28;
its vision of true being 30-31; Jewish
attitude to 28; maleficent 40;
natural claim to immortality 30;
bipartition and tripartition of 29;
preexistence of 26, 32, 198; weighed
down by body 206-07
statuettes 286
Stoic-Cynic diatribe 69
Stoicising Platonism 33
story of the Righteous Man 146
structural analysis 201
suffering just 21
sword of the Cherubim 318
sword of Dardanus 318
symbolic images 194
synkrisis 6, 11, 227
talion 129,232,304
Teachings of Silvanus 69
teleological and cosmological
arguments 60, 173, 253
temple, heavenly 204
ten-month foetus 163
ten-part 'comparisons' contrasting God
and man 227
TesLXll
101
SUBJECTS
Test.Levi, influence on Wisd 217
theme words 16
threskeia 278
Tiberius Caesar 163
Tiberius Julius Alexander 24
tolma 28
tonos 33, 190, 300
Torah, as natural law 153; obligation to
spread its teachings to Gentiles 311
translation 140
transmigration 188
true age not measured
chronologically 137-38, 142
true temple is the universe itself 321
twenty-one attributes 6
Virtue's Agon 134
Virtue, self-sufficient for happiness 168
Wessely, N. H. 17
wicked, annihilation of 146; Azazel's
portion 114
Wisd, author's purpose in
writing 63-64; Christ's passion
prophesied in 119; critique of
idolatry 248-80; divided into three
parts 4; Egyptian provenance 25;
freedom and determinism 46-58;
Hebrew original of 17; its adaptation
of Iris aretalogies 37; its universalism
and particularism 43-45; manuscripts
and versions 64-66; philosophical
sophistication 4; relationship to
Philo 59-62; relationship to rabbinic
literature and Jewish Hellenistic
literature 62-63; words first attested
in 22; status and influence 66-69;
terminus post quern for its
composition 23; 'theme' words
in 16; unrestrained attack on
341
Egyptian theriolatry 3; vocabulary
of 15
Wisdom, Archetypal Torah 43; brings
salvation 6; chooser of God's
work 191; direct bearer of
revelation 43; disappointed, myth
of 103; Divine 43; easily
found 151; enters into holy
souls 184; exhortation to 5; fairer
than sun 184, 189; fivefold metaphor
describing her essence 184; God's
companion 6; God sole source of 6;
God's throne-companion 200, 202;
her mysteries revealed 159; her 21
attributes 178, 180, 182; holds world
together 99, 104; immanent and
transcendent 43; in Ben Sira 35-36;
intimacy with God 191, 194; mirror
of God's power 187; pervades all
things yet inseparable from God 38;
philanthrdpos or humane 43;
preexistent 37; present at world's
creation 6; represents entire range of
natural science 42, 172; saving power
in history 6; her summons 106;
synonymous with Divine
Providence 43
uncaused motion 52
unity of Man 43
universal aspects of Jewish particularism
312
untimely grief 7, 273
Zeller, E. 21
Zimmerman, F. 17
?IZ 322
Zodiac 321
Zoroastrian 33, 107, 122, 290
I N D E X OF SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Gen
Exod
1:2 304,325
1:9 325
1:11-13 325
1:14 250
1:16 250
1:20 326
1:24 326
1:26 261
1:26,28 201
2:7 163,287
3:19 287
4:26 272
6:9 132
11:1 214
11:7,9 214
14:15 315
15:14 315
15:16 222
17:1 214
18:6 142
18:16 324
19:26 2 1 6 , 2 1 7
24:40 226
27:41-45 217
28:100 217
31:34 217
31:38# 217
32:240 217
32:29b 217
34:30 217
37:370 218
40:15 218
43:31-34 329
45:17 329
45:17-20 329
47:7 115
48:22 320
3:14 249
4:10 221-22
4:22-23 317
5:2 324
5:3 221-22
6:6 315
7:11 305
8:3 326
8:14 305
(Exod)
8:16 326
8:160 227
8:22 316
9:40 227
9:15 234
9:23 128
9:24 298-99
9:260 227
10:1 47
10:2 245
10:17 295
10:22 304
10:23 227
11:2 220
11:4 315
11:5 317
11:8 310
12:7 227
12:22 316
12:29 314,317, 319
12:31 317
12:33 310, 324
12:35-36 220
12:39 316
12:42 315
12:46 316
13:15 315
13:18 221-22
13:21 310
13:21/ 220
14:19 325
14:20 329
15:18 256
16:4 127
16:8 106
16:9-13 282
16:14 299
16:21 300
17:8-16 227
19:18 185
21:230 233
23:13 280
23:28 45
23:29 241
25:6 321
28:4 321
SCRIPTURAL
(Exod)
(Deut)
28:17-21 322
28:36-38 322
32:11 188
32:13 321
34:6 281
34:9 281
Lev
Num
Deut
REFERENCES
10:1 320
16:13 185
18:21 239
20:2-5 239
23:43 227
24:18# 233
3:13 319
5:14 106
9:18 325
11:10-32 282
12:8 106
14:18 281
16:47-50 320
17:5-10 106
17:6-15 319
17:12 320
21:5 106
21:8-9 295
21:9 294
25:3 238
31:1-12 227
33:3-4 317
1:17 153
2:23 242
4:16 261
4:28 259
6:16 101
8:2-5 229
8:3 298,300
8:5 229
8:15 227
8:16 127
9:29 281
12:8 205
12:28 205
12:31 239
14:1 281
18:10 2 3 9 , 2 7 2
19:3 257
19:21 233
23:1-2 132
23:8 324
23:17 239
27:15 267
29:3 194
30:6 48
30:15 108
32:3 179
32:10# 227
32:32 215
32:39 296
Josh
4:2 280
23:13 267
Judg
2:3 267
2:29 241
3:19-21 318
5:20 149
8:27 267
Ruth
3:8
146
I Sam
2:6 296
2:7 153
2:10 152
2:25 47
3:79 108
21:15 150
25:29 125
HSam
22:15 150
24:1 47
I Kings
2:17 146
3:11 168
3:13 169
4:33 175-76
5:14 101
10:23-24 101
11:31 47
12:15 48
14:8 110
14:27 186
22:9 142
22:20 48
H Kings
1:10 148
17:9 320
17:15 249
17:17 102
18:7 320
23:10 239
24:15 320
I Chron
12:33 101
21:1 47, 121
21:15 203
21:16 319
28:12 204
29:11-12 153
29:15 202
29:17 101
343
344
SCRIPTURAL
HChron
1:12 169
3:1 203
18:14 226
20:7 188
22:7 188
23:11 148
25:20 48
30:21 316
35:15 316
Ezra
7:11
228
Neh
9:14
227
Esther
Job
8:13 280
8:15 148
3B:4 228
8E:16 317
1-2 121
4:9 234
4:19 207
5:8 153
7:9 118
7:9-10 115
8:5 301
8:13-14 148
9:12 241
9:19 241
10:10 164
10:19 116
10:20 115
10:22 304
12:23 324
14:1-2 115
15:70 34
20:29 104
21:5 195
21:14 214
26:6 108
28:9 227
28:12-14 159
28:120 34
28:150 168
28:21-23 159
28:22 108
28:25 234
29:7-11 195
31:13-15 153
32-37 127
34:19 153
34:21-23 104
35:16 249
38:17 296
38:31 208
40:4 195
41:2 242
41:10-13 234
REFERENCES
Ps
1:4 148
2:4 143
2:8 152
2:10 100,152
6:2 320
8:6-8 201
9:14 296
10:16 129
11:4 132
16:7 104
16:8 220
18:7 132
18:16 234
22:9 120
22:28 152
26:2 127
27:1 304
33:6 201
35:5 148
35:7 220
42:3 205
45:7-8 100
47:7 320
49:2 152
49:20 106
51:13 102
58:4 56
56:8 301
62:1 301
62:10 249
62:12-13 235
63:1 147
65:10 128
66:10 128
68:7 316
68:27 223
73:21 104
75:8 153,242
76:20 227
77:160 327
77:19 106, 327
77:20 266
77:34 301
78:18 101
78:25 298
78:26-29 282
82:6 108
84:3 102
84:11 142
85:5 281
86:16 202
87:13 301
88:12 308
90:1 220
94:9 104
95:8-9 101
99:5 281
101:7 154
SCRIPTURAL
(Prov)
(Ps)
104:4 176
104:39 220
105:28 259
105:36 267
105:37 220
105:38 310
105:40 282
105:42 315
106:37-38 239
107:6 227
107:18 296
107:20 296
107:22-30 266
108:32 333
111:6 242
112:6 133, 195
114:4 325
114:8 227
115:4 259
115:40 289
115:17 308
116:16 202
118:15-16 317
119:72 168
121:6 311
134:17 261
135:150 289
136:15 314
139:4 104
139:70 104
139:13-16 165
144:7 205
144:8 281
145:8-9 235
150:6 288
Prov
345
REFERENCES
1:3 194
1:7 129
1:9 35
1:200 34
1:26 143
1:28 103
3:11 127
3:140 168
3:16 169
4:9 133
4:26 208
5:1 152
6:22 35, 169
7:4 192
7:9 134
8 106
8:10 168
8:17 102
8:22 193,205
8:220 34
8:27 204
8:30 176, 194, 202
8:34 154
10:6 273
10:7 133
10:25 160
11:30 132
13:5 146
14:31 153
15:11 108
16:16 168
17:3 128
17:5 153
20:27 288
22:17 152
23:16 104
23:25 265
24:12 287
24:17 236
25:18 138
30:2-4 206
30:4 208
30:18-19 147
30:32 195
Eccles
Song of
Songs
Isa
2:10 119
2:16 118
2:22-23 115
3:15 107
3:19 165
3:22 119
5:1 105
6:10 235
8:4 241
9:5 118
9:7 118
9:9 119
11:9 118-19
12:5 126
12:7 287
8:6-7
150
1:3 128
1:10 152
2 311
2:18 273
5:18 106
6:3 104,222
6:10 48
7:12 101
10:3 128
11:2 102
11:4 234
11:9 186
13:8 146
14:9-11 308
346
SCRIPTURAL
(Isa)
REFERENCES
(Isa)
17:13 148
18 308
22:4 126
22:13 118
23:17 128
25:7 110
27:1 294
28:15 113
28:20 147
29:6 128
29:10 48
29:15 304
32:17 126
35:6 223
38:3 205
38:10 296
38:18-19 308
39:7 132
40:12 234
40:13-14 206,304
40:15 235
40:18,19 261
40:19-20 261
40:22 322
41:4 235
41:7 261
41:8 188
41:16 150
42:1-6 311
42:6 312
42:8 279
43:2 150
43:6 203
43:16 266
44:9 249
44:9-10 261
44:9-20 260
44:16 261
44:17 261
44:20 287
45:9 49
48:13 235
49:1-6 120
49:2 318
49:6 312
49:7 146
49:10 311
51:10 266
52:12 120
52:13 120
52:13# 146
53:1 120
53:2 120
53:6 147
53:7 120
54:7 228
54:7-8 127
54:17 226
55:6 102
55:8 206
55:9 208
56:3-5 132
57:2 126
57:6 119
57:17 127
58:8 205
59:2 102
59:7 126
59:16 120, 148
59:17 148
60:19-21 189
62:3 148
63:10 102
63:11 219
63:11-14 219
63:13 325
63:15 265
63:16 120
64:7 120
65:13 227
Jer
1:5 56
1:6 249
2:10 227
2:5 249
2:19 143
3:19 278
3:22 281
6:14 279
7:9 280
8:19 249
10:3 260
10:4 261
10:10 281
10:15 128,249
11:20 104
12:1 226
12:2 104
12:10 147
13:25 119
14:13 249
15:18 189
16:19 273
17:11 104
17:12 204-05
18:6 48
23:24 104
24:9 147
27:39 305
27:44 242
29:13-14 102
31:30-33 48
32:35 239
32:39-40 48
39:17 249
SCRIPTURAL
Ezek
Dan
Hosea
Joel
1:14 186
8:16 301
11:5 105
16:20 240
16:21 239
16:44 129
18:4 235
18:12 119
18:32 235
20:6,15 278
20:31 239
20:32-44 48
20:38 213
23:37 239
28:7 150
30:11 150
30:13 273
33:11 107,235
36:16-30 48
2:21 152, 194
2:46 278
4:32 241
6:27 194
7:22 128
11:33 129
11:35 128
12:2-3 147
12:3 128
12:4 159
12:10 128
2:16 227
2:23 154
4:2 280
4:9 105
6:4 235
7:13 106
11:1 317
11:10 227
12:5 217
12:14 227
13:3 118,148, 235
13:40 227
1:3
2:5
3:1
154
128
186
Amos
2:3 100
5:22 128
7:9 239
Obad
16
18
Micah
116
128
4 312
4:14 100
5:12 273
347
REFERENCES
Nah
1:6
2:4
Hab
3:11
150
Zech
2:16
9:14
10:3
12:6
12:10
13:2
13:9
238
150
128
128
186
273
128
Mai
1:2
3:3
3:15
4:1
4:2
242
128
188
128
101
128
147
IEsd
3:3 115
8:79 250
II Esd
8:59 154
16:13 150
Tobit
2:9(B) 115
3:4 147
6:8 320
13:2 296
13:4 265
13:13 312
13:28 298
14:15 333
Judith
8:14 208
8:18 282
11:16 146
15:13 119, 134
16:6 267
16:14 242
Wisd
1:1 15,216
1:3 271
1:4 1 5 , 2 0
1:6 20, 4 3 , 6 1
1:7 60
1:8 1 5 , 2 0
1:11 61
1:14 60, 282
1:16 5 8 , 6 0
2:6-9 15
2:10-11 5 8 , 6 1
2:13,16 216
2:22 216
2:23 19, 29
2:24 5 8 , 6 1
3:1 60
3:2 241
3:5 58, 61
348
SCRIPTURAL
REFERENCES
(Wisd)
(Wisd)
3:7-9 31
3:9 21
3:12 58,61
3:15 15
3:16 34
3:24 58, 61
4:2 61
4:8 60
4:10 20,212
4:11 29
4:12 29
5:5 60
5:5 317
5:10-12 20
5:10-21 14
5:16 216
5:17-19 216
5:17-23 60
6:1 21,100
6:1-11 20
6:9 58,61
6:12 18,19,59,102
6:12-16 41
6:12-24 34
6:13 58,61
6:14 41,60
6:14-15 42,58,61
6:15 18
6:16 58, 61, 113
6:17 42,58,60,61, 155
6:17-20 16,69
6:21 63
6:22 216
6:23 41,60
6:24 19,63
7:1-5 64
7:3 32
7:7-11 61
7:7-14 34
7:8-10 19
7:10 20
7:12 69
7:13 60
7:16 42, 60
7:17-21 42,60
7:19 32
7:20 62
7:21 62, 159
7:22-23 20
7:23 19, 43,61-62,317
7:23-24 41
7:24 60
7:25-26 59,68-69
7:25-27 19
7:27 41,43
7:28 41
7:29 59
8:1 60,281
8:1,3 60
8:2 59
8:3 41
8:3,16 60
8:4 19,59
8:6 249
8:7 18,42,61
8:8 42
8:9 41
8:10 18
8:16 18,41,62
8:17 41,60
8:18 18,41-42,58,61
8:19 61
8:19-20 25,58,61
8:21 58,61,216
9:1-2 59
9:4 41, 58, 61,317
9:5 64
9:6 58,60-61
9:8 19,255
9:9 41,59,255
9:10 41,317
9:13 15,58,61
9:13-18 61
9:15 19,26,107
9:17 58,60-61,317
9:17-18 58,61
9:22 32
10 20
10:2 201
10:3 239
10:7 62
10:17 61
11:1 226
11:1-2 226
11:17 60,69
11:20 60, 105
11:21 69,242
11:23 34
12:3-18 61
12:12 69
12:16 34,282
12:19 14,43,61
12:21 321
12:22 127
12:27 15,281
13:1 247
13:1-9 60
13:2 246
13:6-10 247
13:9 257
13:11-15 15
13:17 32
13:17-19 247,282
14:2 42
SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
(Wisd)
14:3 216
14:5 32
14:6 257
14:13-14 43
14:16 256
14:16-20 21
14:17 21
14:18-20 247
14:23 239
14:25 20
15:3 32
15:14 119,247
15:16 286
15:17 247
16:3 127
16:5 127
16:5-7 62
16:11 127
16:13 32
16:20 332
16:24 60
16:25 3 2 , 2 3 4
16:28 62
17:2 119
17:11 61
17:12 32
17:14 282
17:17-19 15
17:21 308
18:4 4 3 , 6 2 , 2 1 6 , 2 5 6 - 5 7
18:13 216
18:15 20
18:20 300
18:21 331
18:23 32
18:24 6 2 , 6 9
19:1 294
19:4 61
19:6 330-31
19:8 148
19:10-12 331
19:11 316
19:13-14 61
19:18 60
19:21 298
BenSira
1:1-10 206
1:3 208
1:4 35
1:9 35, 186
1:11 134
1:13 120
1:14-15 48
1:28 101
1:29 104
2:1-5 127
2:5 128
(Ben
Sira)
2:15 155
3:28 49
4:5 241
4:10 265
4:18 159
5:12 195
6:27 199
6:28 195
6:31 134, 150,205
7:36 120
9:14 256
10:4,8 152
11:22 49
13 35
14:20 159
15:2 35, 153, 192
15:5 195
15:6 134
15:8 49
15:10 226
15:11 106,235
15:11-17 50
15:14 105
16:1-3 133
16:7 267
16:11 242
16:15 47
16:17 104
16:26-28 48
17:1 163
17:2-4 201
17:7 49
17:19 104
17:19-20 104
18:1-7 206
18:4,6 208
18:11-13 35, 235
18:30 292
20:30-31 170
23:1 265
23:1,4 120
23:6 292
23:18 134
23:18-20 104
23:25 35, 132
24:3 185
24:3-4 221
24:3-12 36
24:4 311
24:4-5 103
24:5-6 190
24:8-10 204
24:9 35
24:23 36
24:28 208
24:28-29 206
349
350
SCRIPTURAL
(Ben
Sira)
26:2 142
31:16 220
33:1 153
33:2 241
33:10-15 49
35(32):23 155
36:8 241
36:16a 154
38:1 49
39:2-3 194
39:5 301
39:28 176
39:28-31 149
40:1 49, 166
40:9 126
41:3 49
41:5 129
42:18-20 104
43:7 250
43:9 251
43:11 251
44-50 212
44:4 105
44:8-15 133
44:9 148
44:16 139-40, 159
48:12 119
51:10 265
51:130 192
51:14 120
51:26 35, 153
51:30 333
IBaruch
Ep.Jer.
II Mace
1:7 238
1:26 114
3:29 173,251
4:11 181
4:38 233
5:10 233
6:4 280
6:12 127
6:23 119
7:16,19 107
7:22,23 165
7:33 127
7:36 127
7:37 102
8:36 222
9:7 119
11:13 182
13:8 233
14:6 160
14:9 265
14:15,34 333
14:34 222
14:38 102
15:28 115
15:30 102
15:320 233
17:15 134
I E Mace
2:3 119
2:4 267
2:30-33 240
2:31,33 196
3:5 196
3:15 181
3:23 169
3:26 160
4:21 173, 265
5:12 173
5:21 115
5:51 296
6:2 235
6:3 265
6:11 249
6:28 160,317
6:33 146
6:36 3
7:9 102,333
7:20 277
7:23 333
IV Mace
1:16-17 43, 153
1:18 194
2:15 273
2:21 201
3:10 227
4:13 234
4:13,21 105
5:23 194
2:16 132
3:24 322
3:26 267
3:29 103
3:29-37 206
27 259,261
500 273
59 260
59-63 248
Bel and 27
the
Snake
I Mace
REFERENCES
279
1:15 102
2:7 126
2:37 101
4:43 280
5:54 196
13:32 148
SCRIPTURAL
(IV Mace)
REFERENCES
351
(John)
5:25 43, 153
6:25 102
7:11 320
7:19 32
8:19 273
9:9 105
9:22 121
9:24 265
11:11 147
12:11 152
12:13 173
12:14 142
13:17 32
13:19 265
14:14 232
14:20 214
15:17 282
15:28-29 214
15:31 267
16:7 163
16:25 32
17:5 128
17:14 217
17:16 134
17:18 133
17:19 148
18:22 280
18:23 127
18:24 333
Matt
2:20 219
6:33 169
7:2 233
7:13 108
13:43 128
15:19 280
16:18 189
19:28 128
20:18 120
27:43 120
27:54 147
Mark
4:19 257
7:21 280
14:36 265
15:39 147
Luke
1:41 223
12:20 287
12:33 170
12:36 115
12:48 153
16:22 32
John
1:5 189
1:9 312
1:10 190
1:14
3:12
3:14
3:20
14:14
15:14
17:3
17:12
19:11
180
208
295
120
155
188
282
108
152
Acts
5:30 267
7:59 168
10:25 324
10:38 119
17:23 279
17:26-27 254
19:35 259
23:15 324
26:5 278
28:11 263
Rom
1:20 249
1:21 249
1:26 280
1:29-31 280
2:4-5 235
4:17 235
5:3 155
7:14 102
8:14-15 265
8:28 235
8:28-30 113-14
8:29 155
9:20 49,241
9:21 286
9:22 108
10:14 155
11:33 304
12:9 150
12:19 241
13:1 152
13:2 149
15:6 222
I Cor
1:30 257
2:6 257
3:16 102
3:19 257
6:2 128
9:25 134
10:9-10 105
13:12 187
15:32 118
15:34 249
15:47 163
15:51 121
16:1 152
352
SCRIPTURAL
HCor
REFERENCES
2:6 129
5:1 207
6:6 150
6:7 149
7:4 146
7:10 150
12:30 106
15:53 121
(Heb)
Gal
2:9 160
3:13 267
4:6 265
4:9 199
5:19-21 280
James
Eph
1:19 173
4:27 241
6:5 101
6:14-17 149
6:17 318
I Peter
Philip
1:28 108
2:15 250
IThess
2:16 294
5:8 149
I Tim
II Tim
Heb
1:9-10 280
6:9 108
2:4 147
1:2
1:3
2:18
4:12
8:2
8:5
9:11
257
69,187, 299
261
318
203,205
204
205
9:12 217
11 212
11:3 2 0 1 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 7
11:10 249
12:13-14 283
12:17 241
13:7 120
H Peter
Rev
1:8 101
1:17 283
2:23 188
3:17 150
5:17 324
1:4
1:6
2:1
5:4
5:10
153
127
106
153
127
2:1 108
3 108
3:7 108
3:10 173
16 108
1:16 318
2:16 318
2:23 104
6:8 113
7:15 132
13:11 120
19:15 318
20:4 128
20:14 113
30:14 110
INDEX OF P S E U D E P I G R A P H A ,
QUMRAN, A N D R A B B I N I C
LITERATURE
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
A p o c Abraham
Apoc. Moses
Ascension
of Isaiah
Assumption
of Moses
II Bar
m Bar
5 261
9, 10 188
17 139, 179
22 114
23 46, 113,
122
29-30 24
16
18:4
35:3
7:15
8:18
9:28
123
121
265
222
222
222
12:11-12
127
4:2-6 204
13:11 165
14:8-9 206
14:17 201
14:18 202
17:1 138
17:3 107
19:8 107
21:4 201
23:4 107
23:5 198
29:8 332
30:4-5 146
42:7 114
48:36 103
48:40 311
51:5 146
51:5-13 147
51:10 128
59:2 311
63:10 238
84:8 238
4:8 121
4:9 163
4:17 280
8:5 105-106
9:7
13:4
I Enoch
2
5:7
123
105-106
175
21, 113,
129
5:8 31
7:1 238
7:5 267
8:3 176
10:9 132
14:16-20 204
15:4 164, 175
18:1-5 175
22
125
26
204
27:3 146
37:3-4 159
38:4 128
39:76 128
41:30 175
41:8 49, 149
42:2 103
43:2 234
44:5 103
48:9 128
49:1 186
49:3 102
51:3 159
60:12-22 175
61:5 121
62:3 146
62:5-9 317
63:1-11 146
65:9 189
67:1 49
69:11 107
72-82 175
76:1-14 175
84:3 202
90:28-29 204
91:4 101
91-104 63
93:11-14 206
94:10 143
354
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
(I Enoch)
H Enoch
IV Ezra
AND QUMRAN
97:3-6 146
98:4 107
99:9 317
99:14 137
100:10-13 149
102-105 125
102:5 32
102:6-7 126
102:6-11 115
102:11 116
103:2 120, 159
103:3-4 32
103:9 107
104:2 128
104:2,6 147
104:6 32
104:7 107
104:12 121,159
108:9 127
108:15 146
LITERATURE
8:44 201
8:53 113
8:60 107
9:17 129
10:57 113,235
14:20 311
15:11-12 329
16:62 288
Joseph and Asen
Jubilees (Jub)
23:45 198
24:2 255
25:3 201
25:4 204
(A)30:8 201
30:10 255
(A)30:12 201
31
123
31:3-6 121
40:2-3 208
48:5 255
49:2 127
51:5 255
52:2 106
(A) 58:3 201
61:5 105
63:2 105
65:1,6 255
66:7 128
1:19 298
3:9 257
3:14 188
4
206
4:11 208
4:36-37 234
5:10 103
6:38 201
6:54 201
6:58 317
7
125
7:20-24 311
7:36 146
7:81-87 146
7:97 128
7:116 46
8:41 257
LAB
Odes Solomon
ParJer.
Prayer of
Azariah
5-6 317
6:6 120
12:2 225
12:16 181
13:10 120
1:23 48
2:2 175
2:8 175
4:17 159
4:24 159
4:31-32 233
5:12 48
7:22 267
7:23 102
8:8-11 238
9:14-15 238
10:29-34 238
11:40 272
12:4 201
12:17 253
19:9 188
23:31 32
30:20-21 188
32:1 217
37-38 217
48:12 324
48:14 233,315
48:18 220
49:2 318
49:6 316
6
214
12:1-3 189
12:3 48
18:5 175
19:10 238
22:7 324
43:5 233
44:10 233
45:3 233
6:7 186
5:32 126
6:6 207
12 188
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
PsSol
Ps-Aristeas
Ps-Phocylides
AND
QUMRAN
LITERATURE
222
3:721-723
277
3:746 332
3:761-764
241
3:787 189
5:162-178 25
3:5
5:6
107
49, 114,
234
10:1-2 127
13:4-10 127
13:9 229
18:4 317
8 273
24 119
56 252
95 316
96 321
133 104
134 249,263
134-137 270
138 231, 249
140 317
146-148 119
158 296
161 43, 153
169 196, 231
187-294 64
188 235
190 181
192 235
205 181
206-208 242
210 104
212 110
219,224 152
249 181
253-254 242
257 162
261 160
262-263 162
266 173
280 133-134
282 162
105-8
106
131
178
32
287
214
135
Sir Or Frag
Test. Abraham A
Test. Abraham B
Test. Job
Test. Orpheus
1:152 182
1:285 163
2:177 182
2:245 188
2:256 280
3:20 201
3:25 163
3:29 249
3:108-113 271
3:184 324
3:267 238
3:589 261
3:708-709
1:3-4 104
1:5 236
1:24 147
1:26 141
1:37 249
3:13 201
3:15 206
3:34 187
3:46-49 332
9:6 201
11
163
15, 16 188
16 187
9:8
137
8:19-23 208
33:5 238
3
4-5
9
27-32
33-34
41-42
311
255
108
140
319
140
6:5-6
32
Test.XII
TestAsher
TestBenjamin
TestGad
Sib Or
355
4:1 134
5:5 127
8:2-3 280
3:3 106
5:10 233
TestJoseph
1:4
2:3
2:6
3:6
TestJudah
20:5
TestLevi
218
311
127, 333
154, 301
104
1:10 217
3:4-6 204
5:1-2 204, 211
6:11 217,294
356
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
(TestLevi)
Test.Naphtali
TestReuben
AND Q U M R A N
134, 149,
217, 321
8:10 134,217
9:3 217
13:1 101,217
13:7 169
13:9 15 6
14:4 217,311
17:2 217
17:8 280
19:1-3 217
LITERATURE
4:2
4:3
4:6
146
307
102,271
TestSimeon
5:3
102, 271
TestZebulun
6:1
264
Test Sol
18:2
222
Test Solomon D
1:2
163
8:2
2:2 199
2:2-7 49
2:3 234
2:4 100,286
3:4 280
2:5
3:1
4:1
VitaAdae
12-17
33
121
123
Words of Ahiqar
94-95
35
289
310
101
Didache
5:1
280
Barnabus
6:7
7:9
119
147
QUMRAN
1QH
1:9-11 175
1:10 235
1:12 175
1:14 201
1:21 49
1:28 173
2:13 50
3:19-23 31
3:22-23 114
3:23 49
4:27 159
4:29 49
4:31 209
5:15-15 128
6
235
7:27 159
9:24 134
10:2-5 50
11:9 159
11:9-14 31
11:10 50
11:11-12 14
15:10 50
15:12-21 50
15:22 168
7:5 50
10:5 50
13:12 114
lQapGen
lQpH
1QS
CD
1QM
1:1
114
20:20
5:4
176
128
1:7 50
3:150 50
3:18 128,201
3:24 114
4:7-8 134
4:18 128
4:24 114
5:1 50
6:13 50
9:18 50
9:23-24 51
10:6-7 175
11
50
11:7-8 114
11:18 241
26
128
2:11
7:21
114,235
128
RABBINIC LITERATURE
Tannaite Midrashim
Mekilta De-Rabbi
Ishmael (Mek.)
Pisha on Exod
12:12; 12:29
319
13:4 56,315,
317
12:11 and
15:17 188
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
(Pisfca on Exod)
Beshallafe on Exod
Shirta
Shirta on Exod
Wayassa*
Wayassa'
on Exod
Bafrodesh
Bafcodesh
on Exod
MRS on Exod
12:30 276
13:2 113
13:17 324
13:31 310
14:9 324
14:10 320
14:20 329
14:25 229,327
14:26 314
14:30 221
1 223
2 329
3 45
4 233
8 227
15:2 221
Midrash Tannaim
on Deut
Mishnah (M.)
Aboth
A.Z.
Ben
23:15
357
154
1.1 154
3.15 56
3.21 155
4.19 236
5.1 201
1.3
4.7
52
153
267
282
3.9
333
Rosh Hashanah
3.8
295
299
Sanh.
4.5
8.5
213
140
16:21 300
17:5 320
Sotah
1.7-9 233
9.15 154
5.41
6 272
10 229
5.65, 100 on Exod
20:2 311
20:3
261
6:2
13:18
13:21
14:10
15:11
315
222
310-311
320
228
4
108
Sifre Num.
83
89
115
139
310
299
188
125
Midrash Tannaim
LITERATURE
MoedKatan
Sifra, Bebukkdtai
Sifre Deut.
AND QUMRAN
10 128
37 204
43 272
96 281
171 271
218 140
306 179
308 282
342 333
352 188
20 and 195
272
Suk.
Tosefta (Tosef.)
A.Z.
Ber.
Sotah
Palestinian
Talmud (PT)
Ber.
Erubin
Hag.
Horayot
Mak.
Meg.
Nid.
Peah
Pesabim
Sanh.
Shab.
Sotah
Ta'anith
Babylonian
Talmud (BT)
A.Z.
5.4
301
5.2
7.13
3-4
4.2
4.17
6.4
10.1
283
188
233
310
121
222
161
4.5 203,204
3, end, 21C
126
2.2, 77d 233
3.1 319
2.6, 31d 235
3.4,73b 127
1.3,49b 164
1.1, 15d 169
4.1, 30d 126
5.5 317
1.1 174
2.1 319
6.9, 8d 132
5.4, 20a 223
1.1 315
2b
312
358
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
(A.Z.)
Arakhin
Baba Batra
Ber.
Erubin
Hag.
Hulin
Ketubot
Kid.
Meg.
Menabot
Nedarim
Nid.
Pesafcim
Rosh Hashanah
Sanh.
Shab.
AND QUMRAN
3b 143,275
5a 198
20b 154-155
35b 127
32b 282
10a 154
16a 113
123a 320
9b 301
17a 134, 148
17b 161
18b 106
28b 160
31b 46
33a 282
54a 216
61a 104
62b 203
18b 213
54a 288
12b 198,204,
212
13b 319
91b 179
92a 161
13b 272
31a 103
32b 138
10b 236
14a 101
25a 272
29a 204
53b 188
39b 204
13b 198
31a 164-165
38a 164
54a 204
117a 316
24b 283
39a 185,208
59b 121
64a 282
72a 140
82a 272
91a 220
93b 132
94b 204
97b 161
105a 46
113b 161
17b 272
23b 310
42a 321
63b 322
113b 45
118b 272
152b 125
LITERATURE
Sotah
Suk.
Ta'an.
Yeb.
Yoma
Minor Tractates
ARN
Kalian
Midrash Rabba
BR Th-Alb
BR
9b
11a
14a
30b
45b
52b
14a
23b
24b
62a
78b
80b
69b
75a
75b
86b
121
233
45
223
161
212
161
265
161
198
132
164
242, 282
295, 299
298
235
1 121
14 287
B33 155
B43 188
2 275
487 310
1.1 176
1.2 242
1.4 204
2.3 272
3.8 114
8.2 155
8.7 198
9.5 108
9.11 233
18.6 121
19.7 103
20.11 213
21.5 213
22.9 46
24.6 213
25.1 140
30.6 132
31.12 267
32.3 153
34.8 214
35, end 169
38.6 214
45.4 131
49.18 161
51.4 215-216
51.5 216
54.22 131
56.14 238
68.9 185
69.7 204
84.18 46
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
ShR
ShR on Exod
ShR 25.3 on Exod
WayyikR.
NumR.
SHSR
SHSR on Song
of Songs
Tanfcuma (Tanb.)
Bereshit
WayyeSeb
Bo
Hukat
Nisavim
Pekude
Shophetim
BuberonGen
Buber, Beha'alot
Buber, Beshallab
Buber, BO 5
Buber, Kedoshim
Buber, Ki Tavo
Buber, Naso
Buber, Noah
Buber, Wayyera
Midrash
Yelamdenu
on Exod
PRK
1.36
1.41
5.12
9.11
11.4
12.4
12.6
13.4
14.2
14.3
15.4
23.9
32.1
44.1
22:24
16:4
11.9
18.3
18.5
23.3
23.12
27.4
32.4
32.6
34.3
12.12
1.1.9
3:10
AND
321
228
129
228
292
319, 331
298
324
304,308
304
321
223
107
321
287
299
127
108
228
272
134
108
140
126
148
204
154, 169
QUMRAN
LITERATURE
PRK, Suppl.
Pes. R.
Mid. Teh.
Mid. Mishle
Mid. Mishle
onProv
PRE
Mishnat R.
Eliezer
Midrash Hagadol
Midrash Hagadol
on Gen
Midrash Hagadol
on Exod
Seder Olam R.
Targumim
PS-Jonathan
on Exod
185
11
213
4 56
796
311
45
295
3
198
3
198
12
287
6:9 132
29a
185
34
298
21a
304
22a
314
1
129
3
101
6
134
9
143
19
204
28
143
49a
242
11:4 314
7.12 311
16.9 281
28 146
127 276
PS-Jonathan
on Lev
Yerush.
on Gen
Yerush.
on Exod
359
2.8 236
14, 59a 169
48 107
98ab 204
2.6 143
8.5 223
30.1 204
76.3 238
31:10 287
5:18
13
22
25
42, end
192
121
213
216
221
19 228
7.24 228
4:9
46
12:30 276
1 214
2:23 228
12:37 310-11
14:9 324
18:12
272
3:22
18:17
48:22
213
188
320
12:29 318
12:42 315
14:24 327
15:2 223
16:21 301
Yerush.
onNum
17:12
320
Yerush.
onPs
78:25
298
Yerush. and
PS-Jonathan
onNum
Post-Talmudic
Pene David
21:6
54a
295
228
KEY TO THE TEXT
Chapter
1
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
11
Verses
1-15
16
1-24
1-12
13-19
1-6
7-20
1-23
1-21
22-25
1-6
7-14
15-22a
22b-24
25-30
1
2-16
17-21
1-6
7-12
13-18
1-14
15-21
1-14
Section
I
II
n
in
IV
IV
V
VI
VII
VUI
DC
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
Chapter
Verses
Section
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
17
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
15-26
1-2
3-18
19-22
23-27
1-9
10-19
1-11
12-31
1-6
7-13
14-19
1-4
5-14
15-29
1-21
1-4
5-25
1-9
10-12
13-17
18-21
22
XXII
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
XXVH
XXVII
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXIII
XXXIV
XXXV
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX
XL
XLI