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Introduction Pnm
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lJI{IT
186
t
Basic Concepts and Issues on
Human Bevelopment
*
Brenda B, Corpuz, Ph,D,
-200
-224
;239
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254
263
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-101
NTRoDUCnoN
Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be.
The caterpillar is meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full grown
herb, bush or tree; and a human baby into a mature person, the person
'\vho is fully alive, the glory of God" in the words of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our
biology class. We have seen it to be a fantastic process. So
wonderftrl a process that we can't hetp but experience a feeling of awe
for the Power or the Force or the Principle (theists call this Power or
Force or Principle (God)) behind all these.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings.
What was this organism then? What will this organism be?
A number of researches on human development have been
conducted. A lot of theories on human development have been
forwarded. Researches on human development continue as existing
theories get corrected, complemented or replaced. Up to the present
several issues on human development are uffesolved and so the search
for
F
I
explanations continue.
In this Unit, you will be acq[ninted with
human development as a
with each developmen-
pnocess, the developmental'tasks that come along
tal stage and relevant issues that are raised about human
development.
child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Difierent Life stages
MoDuLE
I
Human Development: Meaning,
Concepts and Approaches
-
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
Q mmr
After li
$oup,
answer
l.
'
Whr
adol
hyp,
hum
2.
3.
ffi
4.
As you read this textbook and do tlre activity in your small groups,
you are undergoing the process of development. What principles govern
this development proven? What do experts say about development?
These are the concerns of this Module.
Wil
grad
5.
Do
devr
adul
o,
A
tNTRoDucrloN
Will
rate.
CHAttENGT
In this introductory Module, you are challenged to:
o define human development in your own words.
. draw some principles of human development.
o distinguish two approaches to human developmenL
Wiil
ofl
IBSTRA
Meaning of
Human
begins at con
includes gro'
positive or
ne
Some major
ffi&ACrrvrTY
1. Here are picures of Naschielle and Kenn. Each one is a bundle of
possibilities. Describe what they were before birth (their point of
origin) and who they will possibly be after birth unto adulthood.
What will they possibly become? Expound on your answers.
Here
l.
an
Develop
developr
then wal
the trunl
and fin
infancy,
with
ph'
gradually
neck, sh
caudal p
By'
relatively
effective
ment (Sa
Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts andApproaches
Q mmvss
After listening to the predictions given by each member of
the
group, answer the following questions:
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child,
adolescent and adult Naschielle and Kenn may become and
hypothesized on who they once wre you were"referring to
human development. What then is development?
Will there be any,thing cornmon in the pattem of development
of Naschielle and Kenn? If yes, what?
Will there be differences in their development, e.g. pace or
rat-e of development? What and why?
Will the process of development take place very fast or
gradually? Expound on your answer.
Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to
develop even in adulthood? Or will they stop developing in
adulthood?
'I
groups,
govern
t?
lgstRAfirou
Meaning of human development
Human development is the pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues through the life span. Development
includes growth and decline. This means that development can be
positive or negative (Santrock. 2002).
Some major principles
of human development
Here are some major principles of human development:
1.
of
point of
Development
is relatively orderly.
(http://www.cdipage.com/
development.htm) Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit, crawl
then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the of
the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands
and fingers. This
is the proximodistal
pattern. During
infancy, the greatest groMh always occurs at the top - the headwith physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example,
neck, shoulders. middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalocaudal pattern.
By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make
relatively accurate and useful predictions about learners and design
effective instructional strategies based on our knowledge of development (Santrock,2002)
Child and Adolescent.Development: Looking at Leamers at Diftrent Life $ages
2.
While lhe patlern of development is likely to be similar, the
outcomes oJ developmerutal processes and the rate of develop-
ment are likely to vary among individuals. (http:ll
www.cdipage.com/development.htm) - What were shared in the
small group discussion on what Naschielle and Kenn may become
were premised on many o'i'fs". Meaning if they come from a good
home with loving and caring parents they may develop into warm
and responsible children, adolescents and adults. If they come from
a deprived environnient, they may develop into carefree and irresponsible adolescents and adults.
3.
4.
Naschielle may develop faster and more favorably than Kenn
due to differences in heredity and environment. Since heredity and
environment are different for different people, it seems obvious that
individuals will encounter factors that make them different from
other individuals. As a resulq we can expect individual diferences in
developmental characteristics and variation in the ages when people
will experience events that will influence their development.
Development takes place gradually, (http://www.cdipage.com/
development.htm) Naschielle and-Klnn won't develop into pimply
teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In
fact, that's the way of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly.
The seed does not germinate ovemight. While some changes occur
in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years
for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics.
Development as a process is complex because it is the
product of hiological, cogiritive and
socioemotional
processes (Santrock, 2002),
Biological processes involve changes in the individual's physical nature. The brains of Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will
gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal changes
when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline
as they approach late adulthood. All these show the biological
in development.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's
processes
thought, intelligence, and language. Naschielle and Kenn develop
from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two
words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing
their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw.in every flag ceremony
to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot,
playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these
reflect
th
Sor
relationsh
personalit
smile u
and eve
what the
a fine la
of
facto
up
end
reflect
th
Th'
inextrici
separate
developn
and |'.las
father ar
on their
consequ
revert to
so forth
process
'
TWo approa
If
you
from birth to
in late old agt
if you believe
as it does dur
i
What
t
Baltes (Santro
following char
l.
Deve
devel
2.
Devt
biolor
3.
Deve
the
4.
ll
Der',
being
Part
', the
l*elop(http://
in the
become
a
fro
good
warm
csne from
inespon-
tran Kenn
I
Unit 1 Module
1
-
Human Developmeht: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.
Sosieemotional processes include changes in the individual's
relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality. As babies, Naschielle and Kenn responded with a sweet
smile when affectionately touched and frowned when displeased
and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do
what they wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into
a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad
of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may
end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All these
reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development.
and
These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are
ious that
tfrom.
inextricably intertwined. While these p,rocesses are studied
separately, the effect of one process or factor on a person's
m
people
development
.com/
irno pimply
one. In
pa1 of
deve-
lc it is the
fuemotional
ilidual's physibp. They will
nonal changes
rscular decline
rhe biological
not isolated from the other processes. tf Kenn
and ]rlaschielle were undemourished and troubled by the thought of
father and mother about to separate, they could not concentrate
on their studies and consequently would fail and repeat. As a
conseq.uence, they may lose face and drop out of school,
revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and
so forth. See how a biological process, affects the cognitive
process which in turn, affects the socioemotional process.
Two approaches to human development
If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change
Eorn birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline
h late old age, your appf,oach to development is traditional. In contrasl
if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place
as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective? Paul
Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the
frllowing characteristios:
l.
r individual's
2.
to
3.
flag ceremony
rcr or a pilot,
lem. All these
Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No
developmental stage dominates development.
Kenn develop
ords, the two
memorizing
is
Development is multidimensional. Development consists of
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.
4.
Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout
the life-span.
Development
is contextual. Individuals are changing
beings in a changing world.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Life Stages
5.
Development involves growth, maintenance and regula-
10.
regulation are three (3) goals
of human development. The goals of individuals vary among
developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle
and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back
stagei while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.
tion.
Principles of chitd development and learning that inform practice
Below are the principles of child development and leaming which
are the bases of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early
childhood program for children from birth through age 8, which were
stated in the position paper of the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (2009). They affirm the principles of human
development and characteristics of life-span development approach we
just discussed. Find out which one is a re-statement of the principles of
human development.
l. All the domains of development and leaming-phy'sical,
social
and emotional, and cognitive-are importang and they are closely
interrelated. Children's development and leaming in one domain
influence and are influenced by what takes place in other
domains.
Many aspects of children's learning and development follow
well documented sequences, with later abilities, skills, and
J.
4.
5.
knowledge building on those already acquired.
Development and leaming proceed at varying. rates from child
to child, as well as at uneven rates across different areas of
a child's individual functioning.
Development and leaming result from a dynamic and continuous interaction of biological maturation and experience.
Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and
delayed, on a child's development and leaming; and optimal
periods exist for certain types of development and leaming to
tencr
il.
7.
8.
9.
Dev
chall
masl
pracl
t2. chik
learn
thesr
devel
This cou
adolescent, wh
will be occupi
significance is
ment that inch:
hood? You can
ybu relate to
students, to ol
education stak
continuous prc
$nrrucr
[.
"Growth
il
a. What d
2.
Define de'
developme
State the :
perspectiv(
teachingJe
as you te:
occur.
Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or representational capacities.
Children develop best when they have secure, consistent rela'
tionships with responsive adults and opportunities for positive
relationships with peers.
Development and learning occur in and are ipfluenced by
multiple social and cultural contexts.
Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world
around them, children learn in a variety of ways; a wide
range of teaching strategies and interactions are effective in
supporting all these kinds of leaming.
Play
well
Growth, maintenance and
4.
Research I
developme
a. Illustratr
b. How d
pnrximo
pencils
than th
practice
develop
l
t
t
Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Danelopment: ilteaning, Concepts and Approacfies
I
I
p regulal goals
[t
pv among
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as
well as for promoting language, cognition, and social compe-
ll.
hdr middle
I dre back
lcr stage.
tsng which
P; in early
:hich were
of
human
poach we
linciples of
iial,
social
' are closely
sre domain
ce
in
other
Development and learning advance when children are
challenged to achieve at a level just beyond their current
mastery, and also when they have many opportunities to
practice newly acquired skills.
12. Children's experiences shape their motivation and approaches to
learning, such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in tum,
these dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and
p practice
I Education
tence.
development.
This course is focused on the development of the child and the
&lescent, who are your clientele in basic education. Necessarily, you
rfll be occupied only with the child and adolescent. So then, of what
ipificance is your understanding of life-span development, a developurt ffrat includes the entire human lift cycle from conception to adultbod? You can apply what you will leam about life-span development as
yin relate to yourself, to your fellow teachers, to parents of ydur
sdents, to other colleagues in the teaching profession and to other
oducation stakeholders. It is inspiring to note that development is a
rent follow
skills, and
cuttinuous process.
from child
nt areas of
{SmrucATroil
*Growth is an evidenpe of life."
a. What does this
rrd continu-
Define development in your own words. Translate the meaning of
development in Filipino and iri your local dialect.
State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span
perspective. Give at least one application of each principle in the
teachingJeaming process. What have these principles to do with you
as you teach learners?
nc€.
rulative and
md optimal
leaming to
self-regula-
sistent rela'
for
positive
iluenced by
I
the world
rys; a wide
effective in
mean?
+
Research further
development.
on the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of
a. Illustrate both patterns by a drawing or diagram.
b. How do you app.ly your knowledge of cephalocaudal and
proximodisal pattems of development in your teaching? Hint The
pencils of pre-K, Kindergartners and Grade t pupils are bigger
than those of pupils in the higher Grade levels. Does this
practice have something to do with proximodistal patterns of
development?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
5.
Interpret the following quotations
F
in relation to
human
4.
Two
appn
development:
a. "Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some
other men, no other man." (Murray, H.A. & C. Kluckhohn)
b. "Man is an unfinished'project. He is always in the process of
l--
becoming."
6.
In the light of researches on human developmen! which of the
approaches is closer to the truth traditional or lifespan? Why?
trvo
lDevelopment
o
7. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the
characteristics of human development from
acceptable? Explain your answer.
a life-span
perspective
/
\:
rr
[\lil
BIG IDTAS
Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in
this chapter.
Meaning
of
Four principles of human development and ttreir educational implications.
Educationat lmplication
a.
L
lDevelopmental
of studv
5.
Characteri
perspecti
b.
c.
d.
3.
I
I
human development
Principle
@
I
Patterns
of
development
a. The direction of groMh following the cephalocaudal pattern
from
to , the
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal paffern is
from
to the
Part
human
F
{
I
Unit 1 Module
1
-
Human Developinent Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
Two approaches to human development
Ibaditional vs. Life-span Approach
some
ohn)
ress of
itre
trvo
Danelopment during childhood
hy?
are the
Epective
[helopment during adulthood
pnted in
lbelopmental stage/s as focus
d
strdy
implica-
Characteristics
perspective.
of human development from a life-span
Child and Adolescent Developrnent Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
MREtLt(
Guide Ques
l.
You are a
other livi
evidence
developinl
ln , one sentence, "write the principlb on human'development
expressed in this Venn diagram.
6.
.'
7.
Discuss the meaning of the quotations written beneath the
these Unit and Module. Relate the quotation to your life.
title of
.:,,
-
*__tu
-
-'---
RISEARCH
Research and reid any'research on human development' Give an
abstract of the research by stating the:
l.) problem
2.) methods
3.) findings
4.) conclusions
lifelong.
process, there are things that hold true to
6.Developmtint is predictable because
it follows an orderly
process.
7. Development is unidimensional.
8.
Development takes place in a vacuum.
process on development is
isolated from the effect of cognitive and socioemotional
9.The effect of biological
processes.
As he stood
school, she t
;
Mrs. Thompst
hb did not p,
messy and tt
could be un,
would actualt
At the schoo
Put a y' check before a correct statement and an I before a
wrong one. [f you put l, explain whY.
l.Development is a pattern of change.
2. Development is either growth or decline.
3.From both traditional and life-span perspectives'development is
5. Individuals develop uniformly.
tea<
Read anc
fantastic
Teddy en
pen,. making
popers.
q- ffsI YouR ultDtRsTAttDtt{G
4.ln the development
all people.
As a
looked at het
Howbver, tht
slumped in h
'
,':^'t
2.
review each
However, u'hr
Teddyb
first
ready laugh.
isajoytob
on excellent
because his r
a struggle. I
been hard o'
show much i
steps aren't
withdrawn a
have many
fi
Pa(
I
Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts andApproaches
&REttECroN
Gukle Questions:
Ii
lopment
title of
Give
atr
You are a bundle of possibilities. You are meant to develop like any
other living thing or else you will rut. Remember "Growth is an
evidence of life." If you are alive, then you must be growing and
developing. Are you on your way to development?
As a teacher, you are a facilitator of the development of learners.
Read and reflect on how one great teacher played a role in the
fantastic development of a child. Here is a true-to-life story of
Teddy emailed to me by a a dear friend.
ls lp stood in front of her 5't' grade class on the very fir* day of
rlnol, she told the children an untruth. Like most teachers, she
bked at her students and said that she loved them all the same.
Hov?ver, that was impossible. Because there in the front row,
fuiped in his seat, was a little boy named kddy Stoddard.
Ifrs Thompson had watched kddy the year before and noticed that
b
did not play well with the other children, that his clothes wdre
rcssy and that he constantly needed a both. In addition, Teddy
could be unpleasant. It got to the point where Mrs. Thompson
wuld actually take delight in making his papers with a broad red
pn, making bold Xb and then putting a big "F" ot the top of his
FWTS.
It
before a
the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to
t*'iew each child's past records and she put Teddyb off until last.
Ho*,ever, when she reviewed his file, she was in for a surprise.
Teddy's
pment is
d true to
orderly
ment is
motional
first grade teacher wrote, 'Teddy is a bright child with
a
rcady laugh. He does his work neatly and has good manners... He
is a joy to be around...'His second grade teacher wrote, 'kddy is
sr excellent student, well liked by his classmates but he is troubled
bcause his mother has a terminal illness and life at home must be
a struggle. His third grade teacher wrote, 'His motherb death has
ben hard on him. He tries to do his best but his father doesn't
dpw much interest, and his home life will soon affect him if some
geps aren'l taken. Teddy's fourth grade teacher wrote, 'Teddy is
vithdrawn and doesn't show much interest in school. He doesn't
lruve many friends and he sometimes sleeps in 'class.'
Par
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and she was usktmed
of herself. She felt even worse when her students brouglot her
Christmas presents wropped in beautiful ribbons anel brigi',i pilpet',
except for kddyls. llis present was clumsily wrapped in the heavy,
brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs Thompson took
pains to open it in the middle of the other presents. Some of the
children started to laugh when she found a rhinestone brdcelet with
some of the stones missing, ond a bottle thot was one-quarter full
of perfume... But she stifled the children's laughter when
she
exclaimed how pretty the bracelet was, putting it on, and dabbing
some of the perfume on her wrist. Teddy Stoddard stayed after
school that day just long enough to soy, 'Mrs. Thompson, you
smelled just like my Mom used to.'
After the children, she cried for at least an hour. On that very day,
she quit teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. Initead, she began
to teach children. Mrs. Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy.
As she worked with him, his mind seemed to come alive. The more
she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By the end of the
yean kddy had become one of the smartest children in the class
and, despite her lie that she would love all the children the .tame,
Teddy became one of her 'teacher' pets..
A year later she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling
her that she was the best teacher he ever had in his v,hole life.
by befare she got another note from kddy. I{e then
wrote that he had finished high schobl, third in his class, and she
was still the best tea'cher he ever had in his life.
Six years went
got another lette4 saying that while things
had been tough at times, he'd stayed in school, had stuck with it,
and would soon graduate from college with the highest of honors.
He gssured Mr,s. Thompson that she was still the best ant{ favorite
teacher he had ever had in his whole life.
Four. years after that, she
four years passed and yet another letter cqme. This time he
explained that after he got his bachelor s degree, he decided to' g:a
a little .further. The letter explained that she was still the best and
.favorite teacher he ever had. But now his name was a little
Then
longer... The letter u,as signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, M.D.
The story does not end there. You see there was yet another letter
that spring. kddy said he had met this girl and was going to be
married. He explained that his father died a couple of years ogo
ond he was v'o
wedding in the
the groom. Of
wore that brac(
over, she mad'
remembered his
They hugged
,
Thompson's eat
Thank you so't
that
I
Mrs.
could
mt
Thompson
'You have it a
could make a
wu.'
(For you that do
Des Moines that
Writi
down
Part
9,::;itt']'l(d
giit her
J
Ddper,
I
leavy,
bn took
I
o-f the
I
Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development:.Meaning, Concepts andApproaches
and he was wondering f Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit at the
wedding in the place that was usually reserved for the mother of
the groom. Of course, Mrs. Thompson did. And guess what? She
wore that bracelet, the one .with several rhinestones missing. Morgover, she made sure she was wearing the perfurne that Teddy
remembered his mother wearing on their last christmas togethen
,let with
ner full
ben she
dabbing
rci aJier
on. you
They hugged each other and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs.
Thompson's eor, 'Thank you, Mrs. Thornpson for believing in me.
Thank you so -much for making me feel important a:nd showing me
that I could make a dffirence.'
en'
Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said,
'You have it all wrong. You were the one who taught me that I
could make a dffirence. I didn't know how to teach until I mer
day,
e began
o Teddy.
he more
I
o.f the
he class
P
Some,
relling
t
,e
!
ife.
Iie
then
attd
she
le rhings
';: ith il,
' honors.
.:uvorite
time
he
zci to go
be.st o.nd
i; little
).
er
letter
ag to be
TQrS AgO
w.t.'
(For you that don't know, Teddy stoddard is the doctor
Des Moines that has the Stoddard Cancer Wing,)
Writd down your reflections.
at rowa Methodist
in
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
rllroDulE
2
The Stages of Development and
Developmental Tasks
ffiffii 0.,'
Study tt
pictures, then
l. Do the
2.
3.
Symboli
for the
If you
you lik
group.
(HAtI.tNGT
In this Module you are challenged
to:
o define developmental tasks in your own words.
o identify developmental stages of learners in different curriculum
year levels.
o describe the developmental tasks in each stage.
o state for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role
G
+
as a facilitator of learning.
W
TNTRoDUCTToN
For every developmental stage, there is ari expected developmental
task. What
happens when the expected developmental tasks are not
achieved at the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help
children achieve these developmental tasks?
Soro
Pre.natal perir
Referring
following questi,
"How ./i't
and gyov, and
what v,ill it bt
born is on a
t
Part
nt and
brpuz,
I
Unit 1 Module 2 -The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
ffiffiACTI,TTY
Ph.D.
Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of
pictures, then answer the following questions.
l. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands
for the developmental task for each stage.
3. lf you were given a chance, which developmental stage would
you like to be in? Why? Share your, answers with your small
group.
curriculum
7-8
mt vour
role
Sour<:e
:
h.! tp
WeekHuman Emhryo
:
lwwta)rtn^e hmd. cttnt,l ba
ht.i
slideshow.conteption
br elopmental
asks are not
can you help
Sow'ce: Santrock, J.W'. Lfe-Span Development, &th
Editbn, 2002.
Pre-natal period
Referring to pre-natal developrnent, Santrock (2002) asked the
following questions sr-rccintly':
"Hov, .fiont .so sintple u beginning tlo endles.s .fbrms develop
and grow and mutura'? W'hut u,u.s this organism, u,hal is it now, and
whot u,ill it become'? Birth's./i"agile moment arrive,s, when the newborn is on a thtre,vhold hetween two u,orlds."
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Photos by Socrates Paclibar and Peter Mauris Dicang
Photos by Glori
Infancy (from birth to 2 years)
A,s newborn.\, we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried,
kickecl, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We slept a lot and
occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles was not
entirely clear. We crau,led and then we walked, a .journey of a
thousand miles beginning with a single step. ...Sometimes we
conformed, sometimes others conformed to us. Our development was
a conlinuous creation o.f complex forms, and our helpless kind
demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two
halves: "me qnd not me." And we juggled the need to curb our
own u,ill with becoming what we could will freely. (Santrock,.2002)
Early.Childh
In early
four years ot
our lives so
grasped yet.
mythologies
took wings. 7
small
world
people. When
be confused rt
Part
I
uhit
1 Module 2
-
The stages of Development and Developmentat rasks
Hnotos by Gloria
Photos
Gtoria C. Oldham,
eldham, Lovelyn
Lovelyn and Socrates paclibar
i. Ilb
cried,
,t a lot and
iles was not
turney of a
netimes we
'opment was
ipless kind
'se into two
lo curb our
tock, .2402)
Early.Childhood (3 to 5 years)
In early childhootl, our greatest untold poem was being only
years
old.^ We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in
four
our lives so busy, bu.sy becoming sdmething we had not quite
grasped yet- who knew.our thoughts, which worked up into small
mythologies all our own. our thoughts and images and drawings
took wings. The blossoms qf our heart, no wind courd touch. our
small world widened as u,e discovered new refuges and new
people. When u,e said "1" we mednt something totally unique, not to
be confused with any other." (Santrock; 2002)
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages
Adolescence
"In no o
for us. We c
Photos
Socrates Paclibar and
Nicolas
Middte and Late Childhood (6-12 years)
"In middle and late childhood, we were on a dffirent plane,
belonging to a generation and a feeling properly our own. It is the
wisdom of human development that at no other time we ane mone
ready to learn than at the end of early childhood's period of
expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understond.
Our parents continued to cradle our lives but our growth was
also being shaped by successive choirs of friends. We did not
think much about the ./uture or the past, but enjoyed the present."
(Except .for a .fev' words, the paragraph is taken from Santrock,
2002)
the zodiac'. .ll'
tried on one
We v,anted on
up the prftit
;
found
that .fir
dance. In out
acquainted u'it
confined to o
fragile
cable
generation v,a
two but lastin
roots, the otht
Part
I unit 1 Modure 2 -
Photos by socrates and Lovelyn
I
plane,
the
b is
?
mone
riod of
brstand.
tth was
did not
|esent."
tntrock,
c.
The stages of Deveropment and Deveropmentar
rasks
paclibar and Emma A. Nicolas
Adolescence (13-18 years)
"In no order of' thing.s u,as adorescence, the simpre time
of tife
for us. we clothed our.s,erves u,ith rainbows and went ,brave es
the zodiac',.flashing ./iom onc encr o.f the v,orrd to
the other we
tried on one .fhce ctfier onother, .vearching
./br a face of our own.
we wanted our parent.s ro uncrerstand us and hoped they
wourd
u! the privilege qf unclerstanding rhem. Wi *rntia to give
fty but
found that .firsl we had to learn to- stand and walk and climb and
dance. In our most pimply antl awkv,ard moments
we became
acquainted u'ith .sex. we prayed
at
adurt games but were
.furiousry
confined to ct society o/' our ou)n peers. ou, geniration
was the
fragile cable b), u'hic,h the besr antl the ,ori, of our parents,
generation was tran,tmitted to rhe pre.sent. In the end,
there were
lwo but lasting bcque.st.s,ur parenrs courd reave us one
being
roots, the other u,ing,s. (Santrock, 2002)
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
by L. Ruth
Lovelyn C.
and Emma A. Nicolas
Early adulthood (19-29 years)
Early aclulthoocl is a time for work and a time for
Uiddle adul
In mi,idi
love,
sometime,s leaving little time .for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and committing to a more stable life
toke longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are
and wonder if it isn't enough .iust to be. Our dreams continue and
our thoughts ore bold but at. some point we become more pragTtatic.
Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives - at times angels
o.f light, at other times o.f' torment. And we possibly will never
know lhe ktve o.f our porents until we become parents ourselves.
(Santrock, 2002).
:!B- Fot'sctntc
*"
fri
neeti lr, ,i
coutltura,
agc. titore tint
mie.
howa.,'ct
rpec'ial .fltr.',
discipline oi
ryed adults v
,an-r ili ti r;:;,
"S*rtrror'k. lttr
Part I unit 1 Modure 2 - The stages of Development and Developmental rasks
Photos by Soc
time for love,
tme of us, findnorc stable life
gs v,ho we are
s continue and
more pragmatic.
at times angels
blv will never
rents ourselves.
& Lovelyn
Paclibar,
L. Ruth c. Taylor, Lilian Marie c.
Dicang
Mirldle adulthood (30-60 years)
In midtlle ad,rlthood uthat ute hav,e been forms what we will
be. I;or sonte o.f- u,s. midtlla age is such a fogg place, a time when
we neecl lo di.;c'over v'hut v,e are running .from and to and why.
we compare ou, li.fb v'ilh v,hat vts 1t6vts5J to make it. In middle
age, tnora tintc.ttrclchc,s he.fitre us and some evaluations have to be
made, hov,ever reluctanrlv. A,s rhe young/old polarity greets us with a
special .f'orce. y,e neetl to .join the daring of youth with the
discipline o.f-age in u v,o)t rhar does justice to both. As middleaged uclttlt,\ y,a (,ot11(: to ,sen,\e that thc generations of living things
pass in tt .shrtrr v'ltilc rrntl lika runnar,s hand on the torch o.f li.fe.
(,\untn,r'k. )0())t
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Quruus
l.
How n
these
giw
s
b
Havigh
l. ird
2. mi
3.d
4. ea
5. mi
6. ld
L Whd
"r
3.
What
t
,t
Dma
5.
m€nt
0
Refer
t
the
ne:
HaYidt
ts. CarPio,
uarpto, ulona
Photos by Rodel B.
Nicolas
Lovelyrr \,.
u. ulonam, Lovelyn
Tdurrucrr
Paclibar,
Late adulthood (61 years and above)
"The rht,thnt and nteaning of human development eventually
wencl their t4taj) lo lute odulthood, when each of us stands alone at
the heart o./'the etrrth antl "suddenly it is evening"' We shed the
leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the
truth. We learn that tife is lived forward but understood baclanard.
We trace the connection between the end and the beginning of life
and try to .figure out v,hat this whole show is about before it is
ot)er. (Jltintarelv t4'e come to knout thal we are what survives of us'
(Sanrrock, 2002).
Part
I
Unit t Modub 2 - Tlre $ages of Darebpnpnt and Dewlopnental Taslc
Q mlrYsrs
l.
How many developmental stages were described? How
these stages compare
given below?
to
do
Havighurst's. develop;nental stages
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:
l. infancy and earlf childhood (0-5 years),
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
3.
4.
r, Emma A.
t eventually
nds alone at
ll e shed the
dov'n to the
,d backward.
nning of life
be,fore
it
is
rvives of us.
middle childhood (6-12 years),
adoleicence (13-18 years),
.
early adulthood (19-29 years),
middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
later maturiry (61+).
What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?
What .task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplistrment of the lower level developmental tasks?
Refer to Havighurt's Developmental Tasks given in the table on
the next page. Match the descriptions given by Santrock. Ar€
Havighurst and Santrock saying the same things?
tD
0
cl
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t-,,
q)
a
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o
c)
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o
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Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life SCages
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Concept of
ln each
of eVery indir
that 'oarises al
which leads t
urthappine
(Havighurst, I
to
Developmer
The eig
with Havighu
not include pr
hood while S
developmental
The develo
Let's d,
Prenatal
and compare
l.
dous gr,
brain at
Infancy
Adolesc,
tral the,
ness s*,i
Middle
school ;
arithme
larger t
self-suf/,
bnd soc
Early cl
are the
ginning
depende
2.
3.
4.
5.
of age)
height t
ment o.
breasts,
the voit
Part
I
Unit 'l Motture 2
-
The stages or Deveropment and Deveropmentar rasks
o msmACTtoN
A
Concept of developmental tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected
of every individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental ask as one
that "arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievemdrrt of
which leads to happiness and success with rater tasks while failure teads
to unhappiness, social disapprovar, and difficulty with later tasks.,'
(Havighurst, 1972).
Developmental stages
The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Sanhock are the same
with Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did
not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These
developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.
The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let's describe the developmental tasks as described by santrock
and compare them to those listed by Havighurq! himself.
l. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with
brain and behavioral capabilities. .
2.
3.
1.
,.
Infancy (from birth to lB-24 months) - A time of extreme
dependence on adults. Many psychorogicar activities are just be-
ginning ' language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor cooidination
'and
social learning.
Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade I) These
are the preschool years. young children learn to become more
self-sufficient and to care .foi themserves, deve'lop school readiness skills and .spend many hours in play with peers.
Middte and lare chitdhood (6 -ll years of age, the elementary'
school years) - The fundamentat skitts of reidtng, writing aid
arithmetic are mostered. The chird is formally ixposed io the
larger u,orld and its cuhure. Achievement becomes'a more central theme of the childb world and self-control increases.
Adolescence - (10 - 12 years of age ending up to Ig-22 years
o! ,Sr) Begins with rapid physical changes-- dramatic gains in
height and weight, changes in body coitour, ond the Zevelopmgnt o.f sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the
byeasts, development-of pubic and .facial hair aid deepening of
the voice. Pur.suit of independence and identity are promiieni.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Thought is more logical, absffact and idealistic. More time is
spent outside of the family.
#3-Ar
High sch
Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting thruugh
the 30s) - It ls a time of establishing personal and economic
independence,'career development, selecting a mote, learning to
live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and
rearing children.
Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) - It is a time o!
exponding personal and social involvement and rcsponsibility; of
assisting the next generation in becoming comrytent and mature
individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
Allow
sma
a. Come
develop
career
b.Doar
Late adulthood (60s atnd above) It is a time for adjustment to
decreasing strength and health, l.ife review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social rules.
and de
use tl
in the
c. Sing a
$,nrnrcArrc]r
l. Answer this question with a learning partner. What are the
implications of these developmental asks to your role as a facilitaLet's pay panicular ittention to the stages that
correspond to schooling - early childhood, middle and late
childhood and adolescence.
Discuss t
lesson. I
tor of learning?
Early Childhood - What are preschool teachers
supposed to do with preschoolers? Help them develop readiness for
school and not to be too academic in teaching approach. They
ought to give much time for preschoolers to play. Or perhapo help
preschoolers' develop school ftadiness by inEgrating children's games
in school activities.
Let's do #1.
#2
-
l-
BIG IDT
Complete
Developn
f
Middle and L,ate childhood
Elementary school teachers ought
iH
Show tl
inclusive
to help their pupils
by
and deve
Part
I time is
=
I-
I
Unit 1 Module 2 - The Stages of Development and Developmental Tag<s
Adolescence
High school teachers ought to help their students by
i thruugh
*onomic
tztng to
sily and
I time of
bility: oI
d
e
maturc
development.
b- Do a multimedia presentation of the outstanding characteristics
and developmental tasks of each developmental stage. you may
use the text of Santrock found under each collage of pictures
in the ACTIVITY PHASE of this lesson.
c. Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage.
Itment to
Dnt, and
are the
e facilitahges that
and late
a
F
teachers
dirrcss for
L
rch. They
ilaps help
n's games
Discuss the meaning of the quotation beneath the
lcsson. Relate it to the stages of development,
ue
title of
the
DEAS
Complete this unfinished sentence.
Developmental tasks
A
w
to do each of the following:
a- Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of
|ion in a
I
-AJlow small groups
are
Show the developmental stages by means of a diagram
inclusive of the ages. write also the outstanding bharacteristic trait
and developmental task of each developmental stage.
child and Adolescent Development: Loqking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
rnE
Tesr voun UnoeRsramtxc
I.
Put
(t)
a
check
(r/)
beside those statements that are correct and an
bebide those that are wrong.
If
your answer is an
l,
explain why.
,
l.
2.
Developmental tasks are only for the
human development.
stages
of
Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier
stage also means failure for the leamer to master the
developmental task in the next stage.
Preschool age colresponds
4.
first 3
f l#l cn
tc 1or r
lEb
iE dt
to early childhood stage.
Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
.'.
5.
Teenage
6.
Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during
early childhood.
7.
Play is a great need of children in middle olildhood.
8.
Preparing children for school readiness is the major
concem of middle childhood.
is middle childhood.
tlrig
dhd
rdst
rrr
Part
[rect and an
sr is an I,
I
Unit 1 Module 2 - The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
MRIruEc,olr
l. Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood
days.
Were you able to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early,
middle, late childhood and adolescence. What facilitated your acquisi-
tions of the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections:
t 3 stages of
in an earlier
!o master the
nd
stage.
gage.
concern during
lc childhood.
ss is the major
2.
Having mastered the developmental tasks of early'childhood middle
and late childhood and adolescence, reflect on what you should do as
a teacher to facilitate your students' acquisition of these developmental
tasks. Write down your reflections.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
(discon
moDuffi 3
our
lssues on Human Development
-
de'
acacia
butterfl
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
3. Stabilit
stabili
experir
d i ffer
develo;
RePort
debate
ttTNGE
lesson you are challenged to take an informed stand/position
the three (3) issues on development.
kr this
on
@, mmv
After
e'
teacher facilitl
W
TNTRoDUCTToN
LWhor
you
Each of us has his/trer own informal way of looking at our own
and other people'-s development. These paradigms of human development
while obviously lacking in scholastic vigoq provide us with a conceptual
framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come
up with their own models of human development. Back up by solid
research, they take stand on issues on human development.
c1
nature
2. Who
I
argun
benryex
3. Who
more
ffi&ACTrvril
(This is supposed to be assigned at least more than one week
before the scheduled debate)
Small group Debate
Divide the class into 3 small groups. Let the groups choose their
topic for debate. Here are the topics and issues:
l.
Nature versus Nurture - Which has a more significant influence
on human development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an
individual's biological inheritance. Nurnre refers to environmental
experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity - Does development involve
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes
o ngsml
A
The iss
sparked anin
to do well il
society's 'mas
reason molt
,
in old
age? |
For children r
poor schoolir
,remove the ',
(Santrock, 20r
Part
I
Unit 1 Module 3
- lssues
on.Human Developrnnt
it
(discontinuity). To make
more concrete, here is a question: Is
our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into an
acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a
butterfly?
,rent
wuz,
Ph.D.
3. Stability vs.
Change
*
Is devetopment be$ described as involving
stability or as involving c.hange? Are we what our first
experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone
different from who 'we were at: an r"rlirr 'point in
,..--:
Report to the whole class what transpired in your small group
debates.
hd/position
Q nunrYsrs
After every small group presentation to the whole class, the
Eacher facilitates the whole class discussion and asks the following:
l.
Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional r€asons
you can give in favor of nature/nurture? Who are neither for
nature nor nurture? Why?
2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional
arguments do defend continuity/discontinuity? Who are in
at our own
bvelopment
t conceptual
have come
by solid
p
between continuity and discontinuity? \Vhy?
3. Who claims stability is more.correct than change? Change
more corect than stability?
r one
week
choose their
nt
influence
refers to an
tvironmental
ent involve
rct changes
'is
o agsmAcTrou
I
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have
ryarked animated debate among developmentalists. Are girls less likely
m do well in math because of their 'feminine' nature or because of
siety's 'masculine' bias? How extensively can the elderly be trained to
tulson more effectively? How much, if at all, does our memory decline
h old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduge the decline?
For children who experienced a world of povea.),, neglect by parents, and
poor schooling in childhood, can enriched experiences in adolescence
.trmove the 'deficits' that they encountered earlier in their development
(Srrnock, 2002)?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Based on the presentations, each one has his4rer own explanations
for his/her stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer?
Up to this time. the debate continues. Researches are on-going. But let
me tell you that most life-span developmentalists recognize that extreme
positions on these issues are unwise. Development is not all nature or
all nurture. not all continuity or discontinuity and not all stability or all
change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and
nunure, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our
life-span development. ... The key to development is the interaction of
nature and nufture rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted
by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of "both-and" not
"either-or". Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson
and the message gets crystal clear.
cannot do
how they
by creatir
heredity, e
conceptior
quality an
tions, and
.
Do not lose
tion. At the
parents
development of tl
part.
2. Do the
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a
person even to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no pierson (Scan and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock,
s
Psycholog
a group a
3. Discuss I
"The frigh
2002). Heredity and environment operate together -or cooperate and
interact - to produce a person's intelligence, temperament, height,
weight... ability to read and so on.
parents, pr
4. Here is
lf
heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater
influence or contribution, heredity or environment? The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive. So we can't say
50% is a contribution of heredity and 50o/o of environment. Neither is it
correct to say that full genetic expression happens once, around conception or birth" after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to
see how far it gets us. Cenes produce proteins throughout the life span,
in many different environments. Or they don't produce these proteins,
depending on lrow harsh or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock,
should
,
Months S
2010 Issu
the
.
follor
Does t
individr
'
a
.
persc
Read tl
highli$
on
2002).
stal
PERNfu
experir
answer,
@nmrrcAilolr
Let's find out where you can apply what you learned from
discussion of these developmental issues.
l.
How the Fi
a
Convinced of the interactive influence of heredity and environment on the development of children, prepare for a powerpoint
presentation for parents to show them how crucial their role is
in the development of their children. Remember that heredity
is already fixed. Their children have been born and they have
passed on these inherited traits at conception and that they
What makes
be anxious, over
to heart
'
attacks,
There's
a lir
way we are beca
of our childhood
lifestyle choices
But there's
r
Pad
I
Unit 'l Module 3
- lssues on Human
Development
I
cannot do anything anymore to change them. So concentrate on
how they can contibute to their children's favorable developr.nent
by creating the environment conducive to development. Like
herediry environment is complex. It includes nutrition as early as
conception, parenting, family dynamics, schooling, neighborhood
quality and biological encounters such as viruses, birth complications, and even biological events in cells.
I
t erplanations
[*rt answer?
prng. But let
lOrd extreme
.ll
nature or
pbiliry or all
L nature and
rrterize our
fuaaion of
Bl
as quoted
hdh-and" not
of this
lesson
mssary for
lhout environ-
a
I b1' Santrock,
noperate and
ment, height,
has a greater
hive contriburre can't say
t
Neither is it
round concepr the world to
t the life span,
these proteins,
are. (Sanffock,
Do not lose sight of the objective of your powerpoint presentation. At the end of your powerpoint presentation, the
parents should go home very much convinced of their role in the
development of their children and get very much inspired to do their
part.
2. Do the same presentation (in # l) to a class in General
Psychology where they discuss the nature-nurture debate or to
a group of student teachers.
3. Discuss the implications of this statement:
"The frightening part about heredity and environment is that.we,
parents, provide both."
4. Here is an intere5ting article titled "How the First Nine
Months Shape the Rest of Your Life" from the October 4,
2010 Issue of Time Magaziits. Read, analyze then answer
the following questions:
. Does the article agree that heredity, ehvironment and
individual's choice are the factors that contribute to what
.
a person may become? Read that paragraph that tells so.
Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus. your attention on the
highlighted word, PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue
on stability versus change issue on p.3l.Does the word
PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first
experiences have made of us (stability)? Explain your
answer.
earned from a
fy- and environ-
r a powerpoint
il their role is
r that
heredity
and they have
and that they
How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to
be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone
to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?
There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We aie the
way we are becausq it's in our genes. We tul1l out the way we do because
of our childhood experiences. Or our health aRd well-being stem from the
lifestyle choices we make as adults.
But there's another powerful source of influence you may not have
NT
\,.-.
t$
Child and Adobscent Development: Looking at Learners at Difrerent LiE Stages
life as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb;
the pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to during gestation;
your mother's health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you all these factors shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this
considered: your
day.
This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal orjgins,
whose pioneers assefi that the nine months of gestation constitute the most
consequential period of our lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, ririnel
influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as
the heart, liver and pancreas. ln the literature on the subject, which has
exploded over the past l0 years, you can find references to lhe fetal
origins of canceL cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension,
diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins
research, scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions
influence not only our physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intigued when I first heard
about fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply
into the field, I had a more personal motivdion: I was, newly pregant. If it
was true that my actions over the next nine months would affect my
offspring for *re rest of his life, I needed to know more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the
niessage that what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor's
appointments, sees it in the pregrrancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don't drink
that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for
feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog full of guilt and devoid of
pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.
But the scientists I met weren't full sf dire warnings but of the excitement of discovery - and the hope thal their discoveries would make a positive differenge. Research on fetal orlgins is'prompting a revolutionary shift
in thinking about where human 4ualities come from and when they begin
to develop. lt's turning pregDancy inlo a scientific frontier: the National
tnstitutes of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will
examine its subjects before they're'born. And it makes the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health
scourses like obesity and heart disease
-;:::
,,
#;;::r2::;:*r,rf;,
Yo
As far
correct
as
and
conect statemen
I, explain why.
l.
I
(
2.
(
3.
I
I
I
w
RESTAR(
l.
Read tl
Hanis (
2. State in
book.
3. a. Wat
H
b.
In
*de
and
DO
201
exF
4. Read o
Mrr,rrc
l.
ilIS
:-, . BIG
q,rilsr
IDEAS
Rela
Reflr
you
l.
With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity
change-stability controversies, the wiser stand is
and
.
becc
envil
here
decir
orfi
Part
k
womb;
i gestation;
:it you -
q-
fisr
I
Unil 1 Module 3 - lssues on Human Derlebpnrnt
YouR uNDtRsrA]tDt]tG
Er to this
As far as our discussiens are concerned, which statement is
correct and which one is wrong? Put a check (t/) before thb
il
conoct statement and mark
l, explain why.
orjgins,
r 6e most
rirg, ririne)
rs
2.
pcrtension,
ril-origins
J.
conditions
B, tempera-
effect my
kring
d
the
doctoris
don't drink
brgivan for
il devoid of
'tre
*e
i.1
1_1"
'
l.
R,ead
b a promisrblic-health
the published book The Nurture Assumption, by Judith
2. State in not more than 2
paragraphs the thesis
of Judith Harris
book.
3. a. Watch "Lonely Only" in your YouTube. Only Children:
b.
they begin
!
What has been experienced in the earlier stages of
development can no longer be changed.
From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later
experiences are the key determinants of a person's
Harris (1998).
funary shift
National
greater influence on human
RISIARCH
excite-
that will
you mark a statement
development.
a posi-
ie
If
developmdnt than environment.
*tich has
) the fetal
first heard
the lwong one.
l. Heredity exerts a
such as
ue deeply
lErt. If it
I
Debunking the Myhs About Single Children.
In 1896 Granville Stanley Hall describbd only children as
*petted'l, 'humol€d", *indulged",
"deficient on the social side",
and "spoiled". Today, many consider this a MYTH-WHAI
DO YOU THINK?
For related articles, refer to TIME Magazine, July 19,
2010 issue. State in not more than l0 sentences the position
expressed in the YouTube and in the* Time Magazine.
4. Read on Fetal Origin.
cfore birth.
tnr 4, 2010
MRErLtcrtol{
l.
ntinuity and
,
Relate what you leamed here to your personal development.
Reflect on your own personal development. What has helped
you become the person that you are' now? Is what you have
become a product of the mere interaction of heredity and
environment? Or is what you have become a product of 'both
heredity and environment interacting and what you have
decidpd or determined yourself to become? (Self-determination
ot' freedom is a third factor). Write your reflections.
Child and Adolesent Development l-mking at Leamers at Diflgrent Life Stages
rUloDuH
4
Research in Child and Adolescent
Deuelopment
-
Maria Rita D, Lucas, Ph.D,
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph,D.
-
I l. Resean
I tallyint
I
-I +. Resean
I
valid
I
r
I s. Teactx
Loo*,
I ' rather
I aassnc
I 6. Thert
CHATTENGE
In this Module
.
challenge yourself to:
explain the basic principles of research.
demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers
and producers of developmental research.
read researches on child and adolescent development and make
simple research abstracts out of researches read.
ffi
lNTRoDucItoN
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
b""uu
z.
"ond,
stude
rived
g.
"ond,
stude
q. "ond,
ttis
thet
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This Module
is not intended to be a substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you got or will'still get in the Research
,@ nnl
course.
the right si
side. The t
to the righ
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented
about the development of the child and the adolescent are products of
research. It might interest you to know how these concepts/theories
were arrived at. Or after having been exposed to a number of
researches cited in this Course, hopefully, you may be so inspired that
you, too, would like to start conducting researches on you own or join a
goup for researh.
Sharc
will
proce
answers.
o
t'
lssr
You
ACIIVIil
about rese
Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each
statement? Put a check mark y' to indicate your answer.
Statement
is only for those who plan to take
master's degree or doctorate degrees.
2. Research is easy to do.
1.
Research
Yes
No
tive regan
out of res
All
a product
to leam a
appropriat
decisions
Part
bscent
I
Unit I Module 4
- Reseamfi
in Child andAdolescent
Statement
ffi.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires
ffi
4.
W)2,
Ph.D.
G#"11#iiiA,+S
5.
re4'.8t;F:iii,w,
ru';#;/ffin
ffiifl::rl1;Ss
E&
1 ..:.:liriiljiliilllLli:
El:-rl:irr.J:iit.+iiili
I-B l'4:::i+l}i$jiili
Yes
Oantqrnent
No
and
tallying the responses.
Research with one or two rcspondents is not a
valid research.
Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are expected to use existing research
rather than conduct their own research in the
classroom.
6.'
There is no need to go into research
because a
conducted.
lot of
researches have already been
7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research. It is not their task to
, consumers
conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications
t and make
to
conduct research.
9. It is not worth
conducting research considering
the time and money it requires.
his
Module
l It is simb Research
is presented
products of
pts/theories
number of
nspired that
m or join a
Q nnnlsrs
Share your answers among classmates. The teacher will designate
the right side of the room as the "Yes" side and the left as the 'No"
side. The teacher will read each statement and the students Will move
to the right or left side of the room based on their answers. Teacher
will process each question by encouraging students to explain their
answers.
o lrstRACTroN
I
r with each
r.
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude
about research. As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard for research. Best practices in education are usually borne
utt of research. Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book is, in one way or another,
e product of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers
b leam about child and adolescent development. When conducted in an
apropriate and accurate manner, it becomes a strong basis for making
&cisions about the things you will do as an efflective teacher.
Child and Adolescent Developqr6nt Lookiry at Leamers.afDifierent Lih Stages
Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research
Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important know-
ledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of leamers and their
families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most
authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to come up
with informed debision on what to teach and how to teach. This
involves decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective
teaching-learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can
help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our
teaching with the developmental levels of our leamers.
Teachers as Researchers
of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us leam how to
conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the
research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent
The . conduct
development.
The Scientific Method
One important principle in research is adherence to'the scientific
method, since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such,
researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5
steps of the sciehtific method. They are as follows:
f
.
identifo and define the problem
2. determinL the hypothesis
3. collect and analyze data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the:original hypothesis
Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first
step. This is followed by stating a tentative answer to the research
froblem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is also referred to as an
"educated guess". How correct is your "educated guess" or "hypothesis"? If you research problem is concerned with determining the
cause of an effect or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyze
data derived from an experiment. This is true with experimental
research. However, if your research problem is concemed wittr describing
data and chaiacteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are
studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive
research. After analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.
Compan
if your origiru
jibes with yot
ciginal hypo
llct your ori$
I
Research Dr
Researr
integrity pn
adolescent de
important th
data-gatherir
are
given u
Part
I
Unit I Module 4
- Resoarcfi
in Child and Adolescent Developrncnt
to your original hypothbsis to find out
if your original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis
jibes with your finding and conclusion, afTirm your hypothesis. If your
ciginal hypothesis does not jibe with your finding and conclusions, reCompare your conclusions
I
knowtheir
nd
tre
most
GOme up
eh. This
lxt
your original hypothesis.
'cffective
F. lt
rd
r
can
fit our
o
disser-
how to
r
and the
ilolescent
Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of quality and
integrity provide us with valuable information about child and
rdolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is
important that you know various research designs and different
deta-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some
at given and described
Research Desiqn
scientific
l.
Case Study
As such,
pve us 5
below:
Descrlption
An in-depth look
at an individual.
Strenqths,
information
about an
individual's fiars,
hopes, tantaiiei,
traumatic
experiences,
upbringing, family
relationships,
health, and
anything that
helps a
psychologist
i the first
understand that
research
person's development (Santrock,
to as an
r
"hyporining the
d
2002).
fVeaknesses
Need to exercise caution
when generalizing
from the informatlon; the subject
of a case study
is unique, with a
genetic make-up
and experiences
no one else
shares; involves
judgements of
unknown reliability,
in that usually no
check is made to
see if other
psychologists
agree with
other observa-
analyze
erimental
tions (Santrock,
describing
2002t.
r you are
lescriptive
rclusions.
2. Conelational
Study
A research design
that determines
associations
Useful because
the more strongly
two events are
Because
correlational
research does
Life Stages
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different
kctrl
correlated, the
not involve the
more we can
predict one from
the other.
manipulation of
factors, it is not a
dependable way
to isolate
cause
(Kantowitz, et al,
2oot cited bv
3.
Experime.ntal
A
research design
that determines
cause-and-effect
relationships.
The experimental
method involves
manipulating one
variable to determine
changes in one
variable cause
changes in another
variable. This
method relies on
controlled methods,
if
The only true
reliable method
of establishing
Experimental
research is
limited to what
cause and
is observable,
effect.
testable and
manipulable.
Failure to achieve
randomisation may
limit the extent to
which the studY
sample is rePresentative of the
parent population
random assignment
and, with
of variables to test
a hypothesis.
of the findings of
the
it,
study.
Experimentation
rlrlsfia
with humans is
subject to a
number of external
influences that
may dilute the
study results
(Donnan, 2000).
A furtrer
limitalion of
experimental research
is that subjects
maY
change their
behaviour or resPond
in a specific
manner
simply because of
awareness
of being observed
-
f' bsect
Part
I
Unit I Module 4
- Research
in Child and Adolescent Development
-.
I
Dhe
I
bnof
Hawthome effect
I
(Haughey, 1994;
lsnotal
Ie way
! cause
z,dal,
Edby
, 2002).
Clifford, 1997).
I
I
I
4. Naturalistic
I
Observation
ental
I
settings.'
ls
I
dle,
I
l wtrat
I
This does not involve
any intervention or
I
ildl
5le.
volves
I
to
e study
b reprerof the
ppulation
hit,
nbility
ndings
II
of
I
natural setting.
termine the exact
cause of a behavior
and the experimenter
cannot conbol oubide
variables.
ial environment. fhis
type of research is
I
I
I
often utilizqd in situa-
I
tions where conduct-
ing lab research
I
is
unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would un-
I
I
duly affect
the
subjecfs behavior,
nans
I
studies and follows
I
through
is
toa
5. Longltudinal
of externall
that
the
sulb
ute
r, 2000).
hilation
of
This research design
a
single
group over a period of
time. The same indi-
I
Allows them to record
and monitor developmenhl trends
I
0r
lsr
may
-
subjects drop out
they move, get sick,
lose interest,
more.
I
cific manner
rcause
ssl
of
ooserveo
I
because
I
I
I
I
I
those
remain may be
similar to
who
dis-
those
who drop out.
6. Cross-sectional
A research strategy
in
Allows them to record
It gives no informaton
which individuals of dif-
and monitor develop-
about how individuals
The researcher does not
change or
ferent ages
-
etc.
Subjects can bias the
I
o, ,.spono
and tim+consurning.
the
study lasts, the more
viduals a're studied
over a period of time,
usually several years
I
They are expensive
The longer
research l
Seds
,
indude he fact Srat it
can be difficult to d+
naturalistic observation
observing
I
ntd
is hat it allows the researcter to directly observe the subject in a
subjects in their natu-
entation
es
The disadvantages of
This technique in-
ntion may I
extent
.One of the advantages
of tris type of research
manipulation on the
part of he researdrer.
I
*ni.r.
o
A researfi despn hat
focuses on children's
experiences in nafural
pared
at
are
com-
one time.
mental trends.
about tre
stability of their char-
chitd and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages
individuals to grow up
or become
7.
Sequen$al
This is
the
combined
and
cross-sectional
longitudinal approaches
io learn
span
about life-
development
(Schaie, 1993 cited
by Satrock, 2002).
This starts with a
older.
Allows them to record
and monitor developmental trends. lt provides information that
is
It is complex,
expen-
sive, and time -consuming.
impossible to obtain
DlteCathering
from cross-sectional or
longitudinal approaches
alone (Santrock, 2002).
Deta€dhedq
Tcchnlque
cross-sectional study
that
1. Observatirn
includes individu-
als of different ages. A
number of months or
years after the initial
assessment , the same
Physiologk=
individuals are tested
again{his
is
he
Ileasures
longi-
tudinal aspect of the
.design. At this later
time,
1 $andardize(
a new group of
subjects is assessed at
TesG
each grade level.
Aclion Research
Action research is a
reflective process of
progressive problemsolving led by individuals working with ohers
in teams or as part of
Appropriate in
create changes & gain
information
free encyclopedia).
ln he mntext of
teach-
ing, action researches
on
pro-
cesses and outcome of
a "community of prac- the strategies
tlce' to improve the (Hunt 1987).
way they address issues and solve problems (Wikipedia, the
a par-
ticular setting when the
purpose of study is "to
used"
Uses different methods,
can get the best out of
the different methods
ernployed, if done well.
Typically takes place
in one organisation
time and muld not be
interpreted within different organisations in
the same way.
Therefore, research
findings are
hard
to
(impossible)
generalise.
lf research pailcipanB
do not feel they unStakeholders are in- derstand and 'own' he
everyday 'difference'.
das$room praetice.
,
a
Qwsfbnndrr
only at a particular
of teachers stem from cluded throughout and research proiect, this
their own questions so researchers are could lead to a potenabout and reflections more likely to make a tial conflict of interest
on their
I ftrvhrs
between
the
re-
searcher and those
in the
organisation, but also
participating
between
the
re-
searcher with some
participants, on the
i.
trb*smry
ecmb
Part
Research Design
I
Unit I Module 4
-
Description
Research in Child and Adolescent Dewlopmed
Strengths
Weaknesses
one hand and other
members of tn orga
nization, on the,otpr.
rnflex,
expenarrd time -con-
D
Deta-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering
Technlque'
1. Observation
Def
in
ition/Descri ption
Observations can be made in either laboratories dr materialistic settings. ln naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed in the real world like classrooms, home in
neighborhood.
2.
Physiological
Measures
Certain indicators of children's development such
as, arnong others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized
Tests
cdly takes
Place
ne organisation
r at a particular
ad could not be
4. lnterviews
rpeted within dif-
Gathering
rt
uganisations in
same way.
refore, research
lings are hard
to
of data may be conducted through a
questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail,
printed
in person, or
on-line.
lnformation is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every participant is Bsked the same questions in the same manner. lt entails asking participants
for information in some structured format.
possible)
eralise.
xeadr
and
Questionnaires
These are prepared tests that assess individuals' performance in different domains. These tests are administered
in a consistent manner.
lnvolve aSking the participants to provide information
about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire
given by the researcher.
particiPanb
not feel they un-
lard and'own'he
nrch proiect, this
I lead to a potenconflict of interest
reen the
re-
rcher and thoSe
ticipating iir the
rrrsation, but also
ween the
re-
lrcher with some
ticipants, on the
5. Life-History
Records
Thesp are records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and activities. They often involve a
combination of data records on education, work, family,
and residence. These include public records or historical
documents or interviews with respondent.
chikt antt Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers
are subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics
that govems the behavior of teachers, there also exist gthical standards
that guide the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as
reminders that as researchers, we shguld strive to protect the subjects of
our study and to maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these
ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:
l. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research
Assoc
iation
Impact of
Research
and nothing. t
Evidence sugg
l. teach
rnorc
mone
Pine
2.
http //www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About-AERA/
Ethical Standards for Research with Children - Society for
Research in Child Development (USA) http://www.srcd.org/
index.php?optionrcom-content&ask:view&idd8&ltemid:
3.
Standards
Researc
h
of
pa*ic
more
classr
Eth icaLStandard s/Eth ical Standards.pdf
' 2.
Te
II0
the American Psychological Association Conceming
http ://www. lcsc.edu/po I icy/Po I icy/ I . I I 2a.PDF
3. teach
leami
(Millr
4.
engal
and
edtrct
and
We invite you to read and reflect on them.
Common among the three standards given above are the following
considerations for researches conducted with young children and other
vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:
l. Research proced'ures must never harm children, physically or
psychologically.
2.
3.
4.
Children and their families have the right to full information
about the research in which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must be
based on what is called""informed consent." There must be
informed consent procedures with"research participants.
Children's questions about the research should be answered in a
truthful manner and'in ways that children can understand.
Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication.
There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through
research with children should remain confidential. Researchers
should not disclose personal information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and discussions.
5. teach
and
conn
2007
Teacher
shift from thir
to something
Part
I
Unit I Module 4
- Resebrctr
in Child andAdolescent Development
lcsearchers
of Ethics
Impact of Teachers' Research Involvement on Teachers
Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain
and nothing. to lose when they. get involved in the research process.
d
Evidence suggests that:
r
standards
ds serve
r
l.
teachers who have been involved in resqarch may become
more rcflective, more cnitical ard analytical in their teaching, and
more open and committed to professional development (Oja &
Pine 1989; Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007).
2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers become
more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the
as
srbjects of
fls of these
ring:
rch
ERA/
classroom.
Society for
3.
teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong
leaming, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation
(Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
4.
engaging
yw.srcd.org/
riFll0
in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking
and reconstructing what it means to be'a teacher or teacher
educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children
and students.
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers
and prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently
connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb
r Conceming
[rc following
en and other
I
2007).
Association
physically or
I
information
ncluding pospate must be
rere must be
ants.
urswered in a
r understand.
nmunication.
ained through
[- Researchers
rity of partici-
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a
from thinking about teacher research as something done ,o teachers
D something done Dy teachers (T.r-ichner 1999; Lampert 2000).
*ift
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages
t
UniUModule
.
.
.
The class may be divided into groups. Except this Module on
Research. divide the Modules in this book among the groups. Go
over the Modules of the Unit assigned to your group and look
for statements of research findings. If the research design
and the data-gathering techniques were not identified, identify to the best of your ability what must have been used
in the researches. The Table below can make your task easier.
Statement of
Research Finding
Resear
.ppcars a
@,nnrucArlon
l.
A
Page
Research
Design Used
.
Tde
Resear
Date
c
hfiodr
. lrledror
. Findirtr
. Conclu
. Referer
Data-
gathering
'technique
The firs
qtncfun. n
r icue dgt i
*vrt to $c
Ed Tlrc rne
*"*ed in t
fqcd. Ttrc
L curclusion
Fift proble
ft findings ar
t Su$' and
t Absrract.
irr,+ bibliog
ryt
Srrf th€
r clild and
lb
using t
-rrch
metl
L
A
Pert
I
Research Abstract
-
Unil I Module 4 - Research in Chitd and Adoies@nt Devetoprnent
A
appears at the beginning
.
. lltle
. Researcher/s
. Date of Research
bdule on
ponps. Go
iand look
I design
bd, idencen used
sk
research abstract
of the article. It
is a brief summary that
has the following parts:
. Intnrduction
. Methods
. Findings/Results of the Study
. Conclusions and Recommendations
. References
easier.
Data-
pthering
:chnique
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further
oglanation. The introduction, as the title implies, inffoduces the problem
c issue that is being studied. It includes a concise review of research
rlevant to the topic, theoretical ties, and one or more hypotheses to be
t!!ed. The method section consists of a clear description of the subjects
aaluated in the study, the measures used and the procedures that were
Sllowed. The results section reports the analysis of the data collected.
Tlr conclusions and recommendations state the author/s' answers to the
gecific problems of the studv and suggestions on next steps based on
te findings and conclusions of the study. Methods, Findings/Results of
lhc Study and conclusions and Recommendations constitute ihe nody of
rlc Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These
hclude bibliographic information for each source cited in the research
rport.
Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/researches
child and adolescent development. select one research abstract
tlen using the matrix given below, write the problem, the
crcarch methodology, the findings and conclusions.
r
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leame6 at Diflerent Lile stages
rI
L Ard
?.Fa
uhin
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3,
Then
Whic
dep€t
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Tea
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SE
h
Part
€
I
Unit I Module 4
- Research
in Child and Adolescent Development
sre DEAS
l.
L
Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
For research on child and adolescent development to serve its
ultimate purpose, researchers must be governed by ethical
principles.
3.
There are various research designs and data-gathering techniques.
Which research design and data-gathering technique to use
depends on the nature of the research problem and objective/s of
the research.
4-
Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct
research and are consumers or end users
knowledge when
they utilize research findings to improve insffuction.
of
5.
Research has a transformative effect on teachers' self-understanding and on their classroom practice. It enables teachers to
develop a better understanding qf themselves, their classrooms,
and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.
Conclusions
SYNAPSE STRTNGTHTNTRS
research
You may want to replicate a research that you came across
with in your readings of research abstracts (APPLICATION # 2
above). Or you may want to research on a research problem
you consider to be relevant and significant. Have it checked by
your teacher. With your'teacher as resedrch adviser, conduct a
research on the approved problem. Your teacher may set aside
a day or two for the research presentation by group. The
research groups may take turn serving as panel of reactors
during the research presentation. For evaluation, you may use the
Scoring Rubric below for the research paper and the Research
Presentation Rubric for your presentation.
I
Chird and Adolescent Dev€lopment: Looking at L'€arners at Difierent Life stages
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Research in Child and Adolescent tlerolopment
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ChildandAdolescentDevelopment:LookingatLearnersatDifferentLifeStages
iloDUr
MRErrcrtoN
It is said that because teachers are overloaded with work,
they
usually frown on the conduct of research. Reflect on the
of tiris attitude. What can be done to prevent this? Write your
consequences
reflections here.
Ja*rnr
Ar 6e
.
.
ea
explain
draw ir
mHrRr
Fnud's v
fi. IIe can b
J his very int
I
develop
re cmsideret
fus)- Freud':
;Ap*dory. Hx
tLrricts and d
de of whic
ACTI'
Recall a r
decision. I
vas abouq
1un
decisi
rlltoDulE
t
work, theY
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
5
-
Maria Rita D. Lucas, ph,D,
consequences
P Write your
CHATI.TNGE
At the end of ttris Module, the
'
.
ffi
students are expected to:
explain Freud's views about child and adolescent development.
draw implications of Freud's theory to education.
tNrRoDucTroN
Freud's views about human development are more than a century
He can be considered the most well known psychologist becausl
of his very interesting theory about the uncons.iour una-also about
sexual development. Although a lot of his views were criticized and
some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Freud's theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds
of other
theorists and thus became the starting point of many other theories,
notable of which is Erikson's psychosocial theory in Module 7.
old.
ffi&Anrvril
l.
Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a
decision. Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the decision
was about, the factors that were involved and how you arrived at
your decision
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
Q
nuatYsls
What tactors int'luenced you in making your decision?
Which of the following did you consider most in rnaking your
decision: what will make you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or
practical, or what you' believed was the most moral thing to do?
Elaborate on your answer.
Jltrd'r
S
Freud
u-of p
pclnscxr
Frrd
e
p
&g ttr r
errn'dS
f,rLTh
pcific
cr
?
-ific
f reds ar
rer *ill
J. j
I'
ABSTRAfi toN /GEN ERAtlzATtoN
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many
psychologists present different views'about how personality develops. As
mentioned. Frer-rd presents a very interesting theory about personality. its
components ancl development. Read on and hopefully it will also
somehow lead yolr to understand more your own personality.
As you read through F'reud's, theory, fill out the graphic organizer
below to hightight the important concepts:
Onl
EdL D
frrrig). 1
r
Oral
Pr
airiies"
'l
r grmg€r
-G- thar
rr*
i
or
tfcndent
fr
(
trarld
-iqis and
.{rrl
*eqre
in
Dg rtd
the
lirogt'notrs:ottc.
.'l spec'ilic urctt
thut bet'onrs thc
./bcus ol pleusure
neecls.-l.his nta.t:
hc thc motilh.
-'ra
unus and thc
genilctls.
l:i.rttt i rtn.
./i'om
qddrc
llas
u
I t
s
./oilure to
lhe nee ds
sat is.f1'
of a purticular
psrchosexual
st{tgc.
-rs
hlen or
qI tre lrcs ntr
&moc
d persona
a
r
Pbni
lb EEnbh.
d.s bo_tr
ffirg tre
,qF bqs
r
rs their ft
- drir fi
Part
I
i
ling your
trficial or
g to
do?
:d. Many
velops. As
onality. its
*ill also
:
organizer
I
Unit I lrlodule 5
- Freud's
psychoanaly.tic Theory
Freud's Stages qf Psychosexual Development
Frbud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, als6 probably the most controversial. His theory of
psychosexual development includes five distinct stages. Accordini to
Freud, a person goei through the sequence of*hcsl n* .tug;r:inJ
along the way therb are needs to be met. whether these needs are met
or'noq determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality
or not. Th,e theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified
specific erogenous zones for each stage ol development. These are
spgcific "pleasure ar€as" that beoome &Oal poins'for the particular stage.
lf needs are not met along the area" a iixation occurs. As an adutt, the
person will'now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months); The erogenous zone is the
mouth. 'During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an oral Fixation
or oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus on oral
activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is, have
a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her naits, or use curse
words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become too
dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. on the
other hand, they ,may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive .in relating with people
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The chitd,s focus.of
pleasure in this stage is .the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society's expectations, particularly the
child needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that
parents, the
between one year and a half to three years the child's favorite word
might be "No!". Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may
choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. tn terms
of personality. fixation during this stage can result in being anal
retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and controli-or rnal
expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is
the gertitals. During the preschool age, children becornd interested in what
makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen
fondling their genitals. Freud's studies led him to bblieve that during this
stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys- then
see their father as a rival for her mother's affection. Boys may fear
that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration
childandAdolescentDevelopment:LookingatLeamersatDifferentLifeStages
anxiety. These feelings comprise what Fretrd 1all1d..9:Oiq"^ComPlext
In Greek Mytholog!, oedipus unintentionally killed his father
and
rnarried his mother Jocasta.
also have a similar
Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may
towards their father'
e*perience, develtping unconscious sexual attraction
This is what is ,.f.ir.d to as the Electra Complex'
AccordingtoFreud',outoffearofcastratiollandduetothe
of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with
their father' tlre boys
therrirathei than fight them. By identifying with
and
strong competition
Iharacteristics and identify themselves as males
';^r"uiin.
at this Stage
sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
*p,",., their
and avoidance) and
could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging
psychoanalysts'
weak or confused sexual identity according to
that
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)' It's during. this stage
of
acquisition
focus is the
sexual urges remai'i r.brJt*0. The children's
;;;
physicat"andacademicskills..Boysusuallyrelatemorewithboysand
girls with girls during this stage'
psychosexual
Genital Stage (puberty onwards)' The fifth stage.of
developmentbeginsatthestartofpubertywlrensexualurgesareonce
againawak.n"d.lntheearlierStages,adolescentsfbcustheirsexual
pleasure centered on the
uiges towards the opposite sex peers, with the
genitals.
Freud's PersonalitY ComPonents
Freuddescribedthepersonalitystructuresashavin$threecompoeach person' the first to
nents, the id, the ego ani the superego' For
.*..g. is the id, iollowed by the ego, and last to develop is the
superego.
graphic
While reading about the three components, use the
them'.
questions about
organizer below to Put Your notes and
The id.
a vital role i
baby's essel
principle. lt
needs. So u
consideratior
For example
baby will cr
the child is
attention. th(
Nothin
needs. It is
others. Just
no regard o
id wants sor
The
t
preschooler.
begins to e
aware that
knows that
later" so it
such. it is t
help the id
ttre situatior
Part
r
I
Unit
I
Module 5
-
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
Complex.
; father and
ie a similar
l their father.
I due to
the
irientify with
her. the boys
rs males and
L
at this
stage
rcidance) and
sts.
One's
Personality
is
stage that
acquisition of
rith boys and
ps1'chosexual
rqes are once
; their sexual
ntered on the
three compofirst to
evelop is the
rn. the
l
the graphic
fiem.
The id. Freud says thar, a child is bom with the id. The id plays
r riml role in one's personality because as a baby, it works so that the
bebl's essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasurb
pinciple. It lbcuses on irnmediate gratification or satisfaction of its
-eds. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
eonsideratiorr for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation.
F'or exanrple, a baby is hungry. It's id wants food or mirk... so the
bb1' will cry. when the child needs ro be changed, the id cries. when
fre child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cord, or just wants
&ntion, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own
rceds. lt is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of
odrers. Just see how babies cry any time of day and night! Absolutely
rc regard of whether momrny is tired or daddy is sleeping. when the
il
it
it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the biby turns into a toddler and then into a
wants sornething,
wants
peschooler, lre/she relates more with the environment, -the ego slowly
begins to emerge. Tlre ego operates using the reatity principle. It is
auare that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it
tnorvs that being irnpulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences
hter. so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
sch. it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it f'unctions to
help the id nreet its needs. it always takes into account the reality of
tre
situation.
Child and Adolescsnt Dovelopm€nt Loolfirg
*
Laamers at Dlfferent Life Stages
The superego.:.Near the end of,'the preschool years, or the end
of the phatlic stage, the superego deve.lops. The superego embodies a
person,s morat aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers
and other persons who exeft influence irnpa( to,be good or moqaL
on
The superego is likened to conscience bec.rtuse it exerts influence
what one considers right and wrong.
The Three Components and Personali$ Adjustment
Freud said that .a well-adjusted person is qne who has stnong egp'
who can help satisfi the needs of the id without ^goi18 against the
lo,gi;alt
superego *trlt. ma-intaining the person's sense of what. i.s
thu
ts'do..all
ego
for.the
practicai and real. Of coursi it is not easy
ego'
and strike a balance. lf the id exerts too much power over the
takes
pleasure-seeking
the person becomes too impulsive and
-behavior
or., on.', life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego
harsh
so strong that the ego is overpowered. The-person becomes so
person's best effort
and judgmental to himself and others' actions. The
to be gioO may still fall short of the superego's sxpectations.
by
The ability of a leamer to be well-adjusted is largely influenced
parens
his
how the leamer was brought up. His exporiences about how
things he
the
do
to
allowed
met his needs, the extent io which'he was
wrong, all
wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right and
that a
figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment
is
individual
;;; Jff .a.e.' Freui believed that the personality of, an
LI
il
r
J"r
Eq
rl
cl
uir
frilrt
#
rhl
formed early during the childhood years'
**tfi:1"::rHflr.
Freud said that mosr what we so through in
our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not
of what
available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most
Complex
Electra
influence us is our unconscious, The Oedipus dnd
out of
mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious,
these
while
our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused.
complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking,
feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways'
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is
a very
stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises
onlyare
small part of who we are so that, in Qur everyday life, we
most of
aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality;
what we are is hidden and out of reach'
Frc
Part
F
the end
rnbodies a
L teachers
or moral"
puence on
5E0ng ego,
gainst the
is logical,
do all that
r the ego,
rvior takes
I
Unit I Module 5
- Freud's Psychoanalytic
Theory
The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconrious. This is the part of us that we can reach if .prompted, but is
not in our active cdnscious. Its right below the surface, but still
lridden" somewhat unless we search for it. lnformation such as our
tslephone number, some childhood memories, or the hame of your best
ctrildhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of
the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of
the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath
the water's surface.
The water, rnay represent all that we are not aware of, have not
experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities,
referred to as the noncoriscious.
! supenego
s so harsh
test effort
Eurenced by
his
parents
r things he
wrong, all
rcnt that a
ndividual is
Conscious
Preconscious
Superego
Ego*
I.{onconsciotrs
through in
hin are not
st of
r
what
Complex
ous. out
[hile
of
these
ir thinking,
*Note:
tware
rises
e
a
of
is
Ego is freefloating
in all three levels.
very
are only
U; most of
Freud's Conception of the Human Psyche
(The Iceberg Metaphor)
Ctrild and Adole,cent Dsvqld,pment: Lookirtg at Learners at Different Life Stages
Sur4KArtoN
l.
will
2.
Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to
formutate his theories. Among the many case studies, five really
stood out is bases of his cdncepts and ideas. Do further ryaling
of these case studies and write a reaction paper on one of these
case studies focusing on how he explained the personality
development of the individuals in the case studies.
From your intemet search engine, just type Freud's case studies. lt
be easy to find a pdf file which you can readily download.
Notp Freud's ideas about hypnosis, free association and interpretatiOn
of dreams. Do you think his ideas are still useful today? Explain
your views.
ffi
i.ffiryr RESEAR(
iwe
. Read a re
matrix below.
Part
ed to
ireally
bading
I these
mality
m
RESIARCH
Read
I
Unit I Module 5
- Freud's Psychoanalyti;Tlrory
couutfiror
a research that is related to
Freud's Theory.
Fill out the
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
@
sYNAPst sTRENGTHENERs
MREFrEcrx
Visit the Library of Congress
in Washington DC, through itd virtual
museum. Visit the walls that contain very interesting pictUres, documents
and information about the most controversial psychologist of all time,
Sigmund Freud!
You won't need a passport, just follow these steps:
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Go to www.loc.gov
Click "Exhibitions"
Click "View all exhibits"
Go to "Sigmund Freud: Conflict and .Culture"
Seat back and enjoy the virtual tour! The pictures and writeups are so interesting!!!!
As in any visit to a museum, it would be good to take some
notes. Make notes of the following and add your own ideas and
comments as well...
Describe Freud's family background. Describe the composition of
his family. What do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this
family?
Part
I
Unit t Module 5
- Freud's
Psychoanalytic Th€ory
&RrFucTroN
From the Module
on Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory t
leamed that...
Child and Adolescent.Development Looking al Leamers at Ditferent Life Stages
tt,rorluH 6
dropped
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Development
-
Liza
I
agat
times mo
Maria Rita D, Lucas, Ph.D.
appeared
Q annlsls
l. On situatio
lQ-peso bills?
On situation
does this say
CHAttTNGE
In this Module,
o
.
o
challenge yourself to:
describe Piaget's stages
in your own
words.
conduct a simple Piagetian Tiask interview with children.
match learning activities to the leamers' cognitive stage.
W
On situation
dropping the
rilTRoDufiro*
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a
classic in the field of educational psychology. This theory fueled
other researches and theories of development and learning. Its
focus is on how individuals consffuct knowledge.
$nnsrnAcn
The children
ages and so also
They were in diffe
has influenced the
As you read throug
r
AfiIVITY
Read the situations below. The class may choose
each of ttre situation before analysis is done.
to
dramatize
1. It's Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving "aguinaldo" to the
children. Three year-old Karen did not want to receive the one
hundred peso bill and instead preferred to receive four 20 peso
bills. Her ten year-old cousins were telling her it's better to get
the one hundred bill, but they failed to convince her.
Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their
stuffed animals. They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and I
dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters and says, "Good
thing you're sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or
morp bears?" Tria and Enzo says, "stuffed animals." Riel says,
"Bears"
3.
While eating on her high chair, seven-month old I i7a accidentally
development of.chi
ing this understand
For sixty ye
development. His n
individuals as they
tasks were later kt
Piaget called
logy'' because he u
organisrns. Piaget w
in philosophy. Knc
heories and researc
came'up with $e r
Piaget exainin
--T
Part
I
Unit I Mo<lule 6
-
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
dropped her spoon on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up.
Liza again drops her new spoon, and she does this several
times more on purpose. Mommy didn't like it at all but Lizir
appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.
Q nrunlsrs
L On situation l:
Why do you think did Karen prOfer the
2g-peso bills?
2.
On situation 2: Why do you think Riel answered "Bears?" What
to answer the question?
does this say about how she thought
3.
On situation 3: Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy
dropping the spoons?
The children in thb situations presented above were of different
ages and so also should apparent differences in the way they thought.
They were in different stages of cognitive development. Perhaps no one
has influenied the field of cognitive development more than Jean Piaget.
As you read through this Module you will come to understand cognitive
development of .children and adolescents and also identifo ways
ing this understanding in the teaching learners.
of
apply-
For sixty years, Jean. Piaget conducted research on cognitive
development. His research method involved observing a small number of
individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These
tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was interested in how knowledge de.veloped in human
organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a background
in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his
theories and research of child development. Out of his researches, liaget
came up with the staseq of cognitive development.
Piaget exainined the implications of his theory not only to'aspects
Ghild and Adolescent Development Looking at.L€arnets at bifferent Life Stages
of cognition but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory
has bien applied widely to teaching and curriculum design specially in
the preschool and elementary curricula.
Piaget's Stages o
Stage 1. Sens
birth to i
reflexive
Basic Cognitive ConcePts
Schema. Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive
structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an .individual's way to understand or create mqning
about a thing or experience. lt is like the mind has a filing cabinet. and
each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an
experience qith. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time,
he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a
tail. It barks. It's furry. The child then "puts this description of a dog
o'on
file" in his mind. When he sees another similar dog,'he "pulls" out
the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal; and says.
"four legs, tail, barks, furry.... That's a dog!"
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into
an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema' If the
child sees ariother dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make
sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a differentlooking dog) into his schema of a dog.
AccOmmodation. This is the process of creating a new schema.
lf the same child now sees another animal that looks a linle bit like a
dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a
dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog' Its bark is
funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That'S not a funny looking dog.
That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now
create a new Schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his
filiirg cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural
need to understand how the world works and to find order, structure,
and predictability in their life. EQuitibration is achieving proper balance
between'assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not
match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive struct{rres, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert
effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium
nized in
'
stage, ter
environm,
Object p
that an o
is attains
Module I
Stage 2. Pre-(
from abo
the presc
nature. A
sentations
to the us
ing
Symbolic
events. A
drawing.
understoor
Symbolic
7 years. I
from a gl
tends the
At
arounr
drink fror
or a
telel
play with
can do a
ttprops".
princess b
once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense,
Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of
leaming like Bruner and VYgotskY.
focuses r
ment thn
and the '
.
Egocentri
his. point
same poir
others. Yo
for his nu
funderstanr
daddy.
Part
I
Unit I Module 6 -.Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Developrnenl
Piagetrs Stages of Cognitive Developtnent
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from,
birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes mere organized in his movement and activity, The term sensori-motot
focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to leam about tiimself
and the world. ln working with children in the sensori-motor
stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating
environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the rhitd to know'
that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability
is attained in the sensory motor stage. (Please refer to Unit 2,
Module 13 for more notes.)
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers
from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding io
the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mehtal representations and is able to pretend, the child is noW ever closer
to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
.
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and
events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A
drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real obiect like a real MRT ffain.
Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to
7 years. Riel, a two-y€ar old may pretend that she is drinking
from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass.
At around four years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to
drink from an empty glass. tums the glass into a rocket ship
or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend'
play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six,
can do a whole ninia turtle routine without any costume nor
"props". Tria, who is 7 can pretend to host an elaborate
princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see
his. point of view and to assume that everycine also has his
same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy yho buys a toy truck
for his mother's birthday. Or a three year old girl who cannot
i^rnderstand why her cousins call her daddy "uncle" and not
daddy.
Child andAdolescant Oevelopment Looking at Leamsrsiat Different Llfe Etages
Centration. This ref€rs to the'tendency of the child to only
focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects. For example, when a ch'ild is presented with two
identical glasses with the same amount of water. the child will
say they hale the same amount of water. However, once
water from one.of the glasses is. transferred to an obviously
taller rbut narrower glass, the child might say that there is
mqre water in the taller glass. The child only focused or
'teptered" only one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller
glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass
is flso narrower. The child only centered on the height of the
glass and_ excluded the width in determining the amount of
water in the glass.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability o
'reverse their .thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5,
but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to anribute human
like, traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at nigtn
the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, "Mr. Sun
is asleep."
Transductive reasoning. fhis refers to the pre-operational
child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A
causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy
comes home everyday around six o' clock in the evening.
when asked why it is already night, the child will say.
"because my mom is already home." (For more notes on the
cognipive development of the toddleq refer to Unit 2.)
Stage 3. Cpncrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized
by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms
of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages
between,,8-ll years or the elementary school years. The
concrete,,operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentbring. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects and situations. No longer is
the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete
obiects and situations.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations. the
child can now follow that certain operations can be done in
reverse..For example, they can already comprehend the commutative propefty of addition. and that subtraction is the reverse
of additior
shaped intc
clay.
Conservati
of objects
even if the
opment of
the concret
amount of
same as \Y
The childre
being a pn
r
server.
Seriation.
in a
l
series
size.
Stage 4. Formal
operations (
becomes mr
and can hyg
ins
Hypothetk:
different'hy
data in ordr
be done in
can now dq
Analogical I
tionship in o
down possib
The individr
analogy.
to.._-.
lf
I
The
in the contir
what contine
thought and
vidual can
r
reasoning.
Deductive R
applying a gr
example, all
,tures. Greenli
has cold tem
Pa(l.Unit lModille 6 - Piaget's Stages
of Cognitive Development
of addition. They can also
shaped into
understand that a ball of clay
a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of
clay.
Conserryation. This is the ability to know thai cenain properties
of ob.iects like ntrmber. mass. volume. or area do not change
even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability of decentering and also reversibility,
the concrete operational child can now iudge rightly that the
amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the
same as when.the water was in the shorter but wider glass.
The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually
being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker antJ then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things
in a series based on one dimension such as weight. volume or
size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal
operations covering ages between 12 and l5 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems
and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the fotto*ins
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with
different'hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or .iudgment. This can
be done in thL absence of concrete objects. The individuals
can now deal with "What if' questions.
Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to nanow
down possible answers in another similar situdtion or problem.
The individual in the formal operations stage can make an
analogy. lf United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is
to_. The individual will reason that sincb''the UK is found
in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in
what continent? Then Asia is his answsn'Through reflective
thought and even in. the absence of concrete ob.iects. the individual can now understand relationships and do analogical
reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a pafticular instance or situation. For
example, all countries near the north pole have cold tempera,tures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland
has cold temperature..
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking al Learners at Different Life Stages
From Piaget's findings and comprehensive theory, we
can
derive the following principles:
t. Children will provide di.fferent explanations of reality at different
stages of cognitive development.
2.
Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or
situations that engage leamers and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and aocomodation).
3.
Learning materials and activities should involve the apprppriate
level of motor or mental operations foi a child of given age;
avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their
Chararacter
Description
Father
currrent cqgnitive capabilities.
4.
Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.
@"amrrcATron
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family
members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be
from. a story you have read or a movie or "telenovela" that you
watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the characters
to
Piaget's sages
of cognitive
development.
Title of Story/Movie:
Write a brief summary of the story:
Mother
Part
I
Unit I Module 6
-
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
71
Piagetian Connection
Chararacter
Description
Father
What is his. stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this.
stage. (What he thought of, how he'thought, his reactions and
attitudes)
Mother
What is her stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this
stage. (what he thought of, how he thought, his reactions and
attitudes)
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Ufe Stages
Childrcn
What is his i/her stage of ooghitive'development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this stage.
(what he thought of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)
Other Character
Pan I Unrt I Module 6
-
Praget',s Stages ot Cognitive Development
71
3.
Characters
What is his/her stage of cognitlve development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say heishe is in
this stage. (what he thought of, how he thought. his
reactions
and
attitudes)
Ctild and Adolescott Oaotopmam t-oouU dteamsrs at Difierent Lile Stages
ffi
sYNAPsE sIRtNGIHENtRs
MRffrcror
Organize a talk show. Four students volunteer (or will be assigned
by teacher) to act as Piaget. Sturdent I will be interrogated on Stage 1
of Piaget; student 2, on stage 2; student 3, on stage 3; and student 4,
on stage 4. The students acting as Piaget should master the s[ages
assigned to them to enable them to answer question from classmates.
The students should use the pronoun YOU when they ask the
question and the four students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I
when they answer the questions.
RESTARCH
Read a research that
matrix below.
is related to Piaget's theory. Fill out
the
From the nl
Pan I Unit I Module 6 - Piaget's Stages of cognitive
De)Eihaot
&RtrHc,oN
From the module on Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development,
that
...
I
leamed
Child and Adolescent D€velopment Looking at ['6amel3 at Different Life Stages
rlltoDulE
7
f
Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory
of Development
-
Iudicate hov
using the followin
0 : never i
I = occasic
Marla Rlta D, Lucac, Ph,D,
2 = fairly
i
c
3-veryol
2. I feel the
3. I arn fillec
CHAII.ENGE
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
. explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about.
. write a short story of your life using Erikson's stages as frame-
.
ffi
work.
suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson's theory can be
useful for you as a future teacher.
t\TRoDucTroir
Autonor
(Infanc1
_
__7.
Erik Erikson's Stage Theory of Development Ouestionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona ochse and cornelis plug,s
self-report questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with
Erikson's first 5 stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make
the stages personally relevant to you.
After I
h
made a n
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly
regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving
learning'and trials which help us to grow. Erikson's enlightening theory
guides us and helps to tell us why.
ffi&A.rrvril
6. When pe,
thing I dr
10. When
.Stage
_ll.
3:
I
d
Initiativ
I am pre;
want.
_14. I feel wh
what I
ha
Part
I
Unit I Module 7
- Erikson's
Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Iudicate how o,ften each o.f these statemen'ts applies lo you by
using the following scale:
0 : never applies to you
I = occasionally or seldom applies to you
Read the
instructions at the
2 = fairly often applies to you
end before putting
3 : very often applies to you
scores here,
Stage
l:
Trust Versus Mistrust
(Infancy and Early Childhood)
_1. I feel pessimistic
about the future
Score
of
humarrkind.
2. I feel the world's maior problems can be solved.
3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
4. People can be trusted.
_5. I feel optimistic
about my future.
Total Score Stage I
2:
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
(Infanryand Childhood)
_ 6. Wherr people try to persuade me to do something I don't want to, I refuse.
Ihave made a decision, I feel I have
_].After
made a mistake.
Stage
Score
_ 8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
_9.1 worry that my friends will find fault with me.
10. When
Stage
I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score in Stage
2
3:
_l
Initiative Versus Guilt
flnfancv and Childhood)
L I am prepared to take a risk to get what
Score
I
want..
_12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing
something.
_13.
Iam confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
_14. I feel what happens to me is tlre result of
_15.
what I have done.
When I have difficulty in getting sometlrirrg
risht. I give up.
Total
Score
in
Stage 3
rl
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
4: Industry Versus Inferiority
Stage
Score
(Infancy and Childhood)
_16.
_17.1
18.
Scores for each
reflecting greater stn
l.
When people look at something
I have done,
I feel embarrassed.
get
a
great deal
of
2.
pleasure from working.
really like to do in life.
I would
difficult because I feel
fail.
competent.
Total
-20.1feel
Score
Responses
to iten
and l0 to assess
3. Answers to 12 an
14 to measure ini'
4. Answers to 16, I
20 to calculate in,
5. Responses to 2l r
obtain a measure
6. Answers to 26,28
I feel too incompetent to do what I'would
_19. I avoid doing something
The response to
and then added to
obtain a trust sco
in Stage 4
intirnacy.
& Plq
theory of personality dcvt
Copyright @ 1986 by thc
(Source: Ochse, R.,
Stage
5: Identity Versus ldentity Diffusion
Score
(Adolescence)
Plot your
21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
_22. I feel certain
about what
I
shor,rld do
with
I ANALYSIS
rny
life.
23. My worth is recognized by others.
_24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
_25.1 am unsure as to lrow people feel about me.
Total
Score
Shame and Doubt
in Stage 5
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation
Score
@arlyAdulthood)
26. I feel that no one lras ever knowrr tlre real me.
_21. I have a feeling of complete
with
"togetherness:'
someone.
28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become committed to marriage for life.
29. I share mv private thoushts with someone.
30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total
Score
in Stage 6
Scoring:
Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson's statements about each stage
:
I
Partl Unitl ModuleT-Erikson's
Psycho-SocialTheoryof Development
Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 15, with high scores
ting greater strength on a particular personality dimension.
Tlre response to item I should be reversed (0 = 3, 1 :2,2 :1, 3 = 0)
and then added to the numbefu given in response to items 2, 3, 4, and 5 to
obtain a trust score.
7. Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to items 6
and l0 to assess autonomy.
13, and
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items
l4 to measure initiative.
{. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and
20 to calculate industry.
5. Responses to 2l and 25 must be reversed and added to 22,24, and 25 to
obtain a measure of identity.
5. Answers to 26,28, and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give
l.
intirnacy.
& Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation ofthe validity of Erikson's
ttrcory of personality. development. Jodrnal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1240'1252.
Copyright O 1986 by the American Psychotogy Association.)
(Source: Oclise, R..
A1{ALYSlS
Plot your score for each stage. Encircle your score for each stage
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners al Different Life Stages
What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?
Have these scores. in mind as you read about Erikson's stages and see
how the stages can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding
others as well.
Erik Erikson lirst
published his eight
stage lheory ol
human develop-
menl in his 1950
book, Childhood
and Society.
The stages were
included in the
chapter entitled
The Eight Ages of
Man'. He
expanded and
relined his theory
in later books and
revisions, mainly:
ldentity and the
Life Cycle (1959);
lnsight and
Besponsibility
(1964); The Life
Cycle Completed:
A Review (1982,
revised 1996 by
Joan Erikson); and
Vital lnvolvement
in Old Age (1989).
Joan Erikson
expounded on a
'ninth' stage after
Erik's death. This
is lound in her
1996 revisions to
The Lile Cycle
Completed: A
Review.
and
f, nssrnAcTroN /cENIRALTZATToN
A
lntroduction to the I Stages:
Erikson's 'psychosocial' term is derived from the two source words namely psychological (or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain,
personality, etc) and social (external relationships and environment),
both at the heart of Erikson's theory. Occasionally you'll see the term
extended to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to life, as in
biological.
Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But
Erikson extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social
aspects into Freud's biological and sexually-oriented theory.
J. It's also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps
aided by his own journey through the 'psychosocial crisis' stages
model that underpinned his work.
Like.other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and welldesigned. The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and
analysis of personality and behaviour, and also for understanding and
for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can help
the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time
understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own
and his students' personality and behavior.
Erikson's eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is
very accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several
different perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality
and behavior develops in people. As such Erikson's theory is useful
for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing
with conflict, and generally for understanding self and orhers.
Various terms are used to describe Erikson's model, for example
Erikson's biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to
biological, which in this context means life); Erikson's human develop
ment cycle or life cycle, and variations of these. All refer to the same
eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson's most distinct work
!
and remarkable model.
7.
The epigene
says that v,e
personalities
in part deter
previous stal
petal opens u
through its gt
order of dete
out of order.
Erikson,s the,
believed that
stages. The th
pafiicularly on
and result into
8. Each stage inv
forces. A helpl
'contrary dispo:
stage and its ir
for the first-list
'dystonic' for dr
signify the opp
forces or dispos
9. If a stage is n
psychosocial s
stages of our Ii,
'achieving' a h
dispositions thar
I0. On the other har
tations and mali
ment. A malignr
the positive and
a p6rson who ca
and involves toc
such as a persor
I I. The crisis stages
lap and mingle
stages. It,s a br
formula which re
12, Erikson was kee
'overlapping,. Cr
fingers, not like
suddenly rvake u1
don't happen in
mixed-together an
r
r
13.
Eriksorr also
en
'generativity, in
h
Unit
1.
Tordr
d
dle
fe.
as
eud.
nd
and
u-<sion
anding
It ;an
s3:ne
rt
his
moielrom
,r)
ls
ntnS.
he
is.
for
e
bio
man de
rto&e
drstimr
E,
I
Module 7
- Erikson's Psycho-Social
Theory of Development
The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, "This principle
says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our
personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is
in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the
previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each
pelal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order which nature,
through its genetics, has cletermined. If we interfere in the natural
order of devel.opment by pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower."
Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and
believed that the earlier stages served as a foundation for the later
stages. The theory highlighted the influence of one's environment,
particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon the next
and result into one's personality.
Eaclr stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional
forces. A helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing.forces is
'contrary dispositions'. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life
stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the words 'syntonic'
for the first-listed 'positive' disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and
'dystonic' for the second-listed 'negative' disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To
signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between each pair of
forces or dispositions, Erikson conn€cted them with the word oversus'.
I lf a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or
psychosocial strength which will help us through the rest of the
stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves
'achieving' a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing
dispositions that represent each crisis.
ilO. On the other hand, if we don't do so well. we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two, It involves too little of
the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as
a pi:rson who can't trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad
and involves too much .of the positive and too little of the negative,
such as a person who trusts too much.
t. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overIap and mingle from one Stage to the next and to the preceding
stages. It's a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical
formula which replicates precisely across all people and situations.
Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
'overlapping'. Crisis stages connect with each other like inter-laced
tingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don't
suddenly wake up one morning and be in a new life stage. Changes
don't happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated,
mixed-together and organic.
Erikson also emphasized the significance of 'mutuality' and
'generativity' in his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamcrs at Different Life Stages
the effect of generations on each other, especially among families, and
particularly between parents and children and grandchildren. Everyone
potentially affects everyone else's experiences as they pass through
the different crisis stages. Generativity, actually a named disposition
within one of the crisis stages (Generativity v Stagnation, stage
seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best
interests of children - one's own children, and in a way everyone
else's children - the next generation, and all following generations.
over the eightstages. As you read, enioy fttl'
ing up the concept map we mede, found at the beginning of each sfage.
This will help you remember the important terms in each stage and how
fhese ferms are interrelated. Use fhe side mngins to write your thoughts
ahout fhe sfage and how they connect to your own life now and as a
Now you are ready to
go
future teacher.
The Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development:
Too m
oo much
there the minut,
maladaptive ter
Overly trusting,
mean them harm
an explanation o
course, is the chi
They will develo;
depression, paran
Virtue
If the propet
hope, the strong
will work out we
in the first stage
a moment for the
have to be perfec
here immediately,
they will work or
through disappoin
life.
Stage Two
Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and
a half of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust
without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary
caregivers, like the parents can give thd baby a sense of familiarity,
consistency, and continuity, thgn the baby will develop the feeling that the
world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the
parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it,
if other interests cause both parents tq turn away from the infant's needs
to satisfu their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or
she wilI be apprehensive and suspicious around people.
adaptat!on/illalignancy
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be
perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the child, who are
Mal
Psych0social Crisis
The second stagr
three or four yehrs ol
minimizing shame and
now a toddler, to expto
develop a sense of a
discourage the child.
People often advise
ne
Part
I
Unit I Module 7
- Erikson's
Psycho-Social Theory of Development
there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the
maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment:
Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would
mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command to find
an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of
course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side.
They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by
depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of
hope, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they
will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well
in the first stage is when the child isn't overly upset by the need to wait
a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs: Mom or Dad doesn't
have to be perfect; I trust them enough to believe that, if they can't be
here immediately, they will be here soon; things miy be tough now, but
they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
through disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of
life.
Srge Two
Too much
Too much
Psychosocial Crisis
rd
Ist
'I}
D.
[E
fie
iL
i'ds
or
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to
dtree or four yehrs old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
minimizing slrame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child,
now a toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will
develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents shor.rld not
discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required.
People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage,'and
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
the advice is good. This way, the child will develop botlr self-control and
self-esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop
instead a sense of slrame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on
any attempt to explore and be independent, tlre child will soon give up
with the belief that he/she cannot and shorrld not act on lris/her orryn. We
should keep in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at the
tocldler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt
lris or her abilities.
Shge Thrce
There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you
give children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to
help children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also
give them the irnpression that they are rrot good for much. If you aren't
patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your
child will never leanr to tie them, and will assume that this is too difficult
to
learn!
Maldaptation/Malignancy
Nevertheless, a little "shame and doubt" is rrot only inevitable, but
beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson
calls impulsiveness. a:sort of shameless willfulness that leads you. in later
childhood and even adulthood, fo jump into things witlrout proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too muclr shame and doubt,
which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as- if their entire being rides on everything they do,
and so everything mustrbe done perfectly. Following all the rulei precisely
keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs.
Many of you know lrow it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt
yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with your own children may
help them avoid your path. And give yourself a little slack, too!
Virtue
Psychosocial Cris
Stage three i
or six. The task
means a positive
bilities, learning
initiative by encot
and encourage fa
play, not for for
before,
of
imagini
hitiative is the a
But if childt
can be responsib
watch down the
intentions." It w
round and down
thing... well, sht
what's going to
to her! She can
as well. The cap
Erikson is,
I
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and
doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of
the most adrnirable - and frustrating - things about two- and three-yearolds is tlreir deterrnirration. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve
that "can do" attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are
much better off as adults.
Oedipal experien<
involves the relur
to the opposite
t
encourage the ch
this process is c
feel guilty about
Pail
I
Unit I Module 7
-
Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Shge Thrce
oo much
Psychosocial Crisls
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five
or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative
means a positive response to the world's challenges, taking on responsi-
bilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage
initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept
and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for
play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never
before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn't a reality right now
laitiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, .then they
can be responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my
watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no "evil
intentions." tt was just a. matter of a shiny object going round and
round and down. What fun! But if my five year old does the same
thing... well, she should know what's going to happen to the watch,
what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what's going to,happen
to her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel guilty
as well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and a's such, he includes the
Oedipal experience in this stage. From his perspective, the Oedipal crisis
involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness
to the opposite sgx parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to
encourage the child to "grow up -- you're not a baby anymore!" But if
this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to
feel guilty about his or her feelings.
Child and Adolescent Developrnent: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Maladaptation/Mal ignancy
I
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is
six to twelve. The
avoiding an excessiv,
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency
Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling
or be "without mercy". The ruthless person takes the initiative alright.
'school
or romance or
They have their plans, whether it's a matter of
politics or career. It's just.that they don't care who they step on to
ichieve their goals. The goals are the only things that matters, and guilty
feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of
ruthlessness is so.ciopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the
ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much
guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try
things because "nothing ventured, nothing lost" and, particularly, nothing to
feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a
project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
nation" and dedicatt
skills their society
sphere at work now
by teachers and pe,
They all contribute.
must accept, Childr
conceiving a plan, b
success, whether it
Virtue
games. Four-year-old
understanding of thr
A good balance leads to.the psychosocial strength of purpose. A
of purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet
sense
many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes, through
imagination and initiative. I think an evbn better word for this virtue
would have been courage, the capacity for action despite a clear
understanding of your limitations and past failings.
Stage Four
t
social.
A
good way tr
stage and one in t
course of tlre game.
unless it is by thror
on the other hand, i
sacred, and is more
come to its require
lf
the child is
or rejecting peers. I
sense of inferiority
Erikson mentions, a
lf a child believes d
how haid yoLJ try. t
ilaladaptation/Mal
i
Too much
oo much
,
i
gnr
Too much indu:
virtuosity. We see tl
the ones that paren
without allowing the
without a life: child
of all sorts. We all
it's all that stands ir
Much more con
all of us who suffer
about. If at first yo
didn't do well in ma
another math class.
we never try out for
developed social ski
I
never go out in pub
Part
I
Unit I illodule 7
- Erkson's
Pgydro-Social Theory of Development
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the
child is from about
six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry while
avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. clrildren must "tame the imagination" and dedicate themselves to education and to learning the social
skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social
sphere at work now: The parents and other family members are joined
by teaclrers and peers and other members of he comrnunity at rargei
They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers
must accept. children must learn that there is pleasure not only irr
conceivirrg a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or
social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third
stage and one in tlre fourth stage is to look at the way they play
games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague
understarrdirrg of the rules, may change them several times during the
course of the game, and be very unlikely to actuallyt finish the game,
unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seventyear-old,
on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers thern pretty much
sacred, and is more like-ly to get upset if the game is not allowed to
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harslr teaclrers
or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a
sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority,
Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism; and,other,,f.orms of discrimination.
lf a child believes that success is related to who you are rather than to
Ialadaptation/Mal
i
g
nancy
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow
virtuosity. we see this in children who aren't allowed to "be children,"
the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of competence.
without allowing the development of broader interests. These are the kids
without a life: child actors, child atlrletes, child musicians, child prodigies
of all sorts. we all admire their industry, but if we look a tittle closer.
it's all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Muclr more common is the malignancy called inertia. Tlris includes
all of us who suffer from the "inferiority complexes" Alfred Adler talked
about. If at first you don't succeed, don't ever try again! Many of us
didn't do well in mathematics, for example, so we'd die before we took
another matlr class. Others were hurniliated instead in the gym class, so
we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball. Others never
developed social skills -- tlre most important skills of all - and so we
never go out in public. We become inert.
Child and Adolescent Developmentl Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Virtue
happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and
inferiority -- that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to
keep us sensibly humble..Then we have the virtue called competency.
A
Stage Five
'oo much
Too much
Psychosocial Crisis
Maladaptation
Malignancy
Psychosocial Crisis
five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around
I 8 or 20 years old. Thg task during adolescence is to achieve ego
tconfusion.
It was adolescence that interested
identity and avoid role
he saw here were the bases
patterns
the
Erikson first and most, and
for his thinking about all the other stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to
the resi of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life
and yourself and mold il intb a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we
should have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's
respect, one with good adult role models and open lines of communicaStage
tion.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child.
In primitive and traditignal societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to
leave the village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some
symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be
required to go through certain tests Of endurance, symbolic ceremonies'
or educational events. In one way or anothet the distinction between the
powerless, but irre
responsible time of
Without these
an uncertainty abou
lescent is confronte
fering from an ider
our society ask is i
One of Erikso
psychosocial mora
you have money, g(
Quit school and g
break, smell the ror
"success" as fast a
time to figure out
Oglala Lakota, perl
There is such
so involved in a pz
there is no room l,
dency fanaticism. I
lescents are, of cou
to see things in bla
them and promote
rights to disagree.
The lack of idr
to the malignant ter
They reject their n
they reject their nq
groups that go agai
militaristic organiz
divorced Jhemselve
They may become
they may withdraw
"bad" or being "no
If you success
Erikson called fidr
societies standards
inconsistencies. We
talking about acce;
community. you \\
fidelity means that
that will allow you
Part
I
Unit
I
Module 7
- Erikson's
Fsycho-Social Theory of Development
powerless, but irresponsible, time of chil'dhood and the powerful and
responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.
without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning
an uncertainfy about one's place in society and the world. when an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an identity crisis, In fact, a common question adolescents in
our society ask is a straight-forward question of identity: "who am I?"
one of Erikson's suggestions for adolescence in our society is the
psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little "time out." If
you have money, go to Europe. If you iion't, bum around the phirippines.
Quit school and get a job. Quit your job and go to school. Take a
break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. we tend to want to get to
"success" as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the
time to figLrre out what success means to us. A little like the young
Oglala Lakota. perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is suclr a thing as too much "ego identify," where a person is
so involved in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that
there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency
to see things in black-and-white. These people will gather others around
them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without regard to others'
rights to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers
to the malignant tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject.
They reject their membership in the world of adults and, even more,
they reject their rreed for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to
groups that go against the norms to form their identity: religious cults,
militaristic organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have
divorced .themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society.
They may becorne involved in destructive activities- drugs, or arcohol-or
they rnay witlrdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being
"bad" or being "nobody" is better than not knowing who you are!
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the viitue
Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by
societies standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness and
inconsistencies. we are not talking about blind loyalty, and we are not
talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if you love your
community. you will want to see it become the best it can be. But
fidelity rneans that you have found a place in that community, a place
that will allow you to contribute.
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learnere at Different Life Stages
Tho malignancy
isolate oneself from
certain hatefulness in
Stage Six
Virtue
Too much
oo much
If you successful
you for the rest of y
calls love. Love, in I
aside differences and
includes not only thr
between friends and tl
as well.
$age Seven
Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made'it this far, you are in the stage of young
adulthood, which lasts from about l8 to about 30. The ages in the adult
stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and p€ople may differ
dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed
to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and
as a participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you
are, you no longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as many adolescents do'
Tlre "fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of
immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always obvious. Many people today
are always putting off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married (or
have a family, or get involved in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon
as.... If you've been engaged for the last ten years, what's holding you
Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage
back?
it, but it would includt
Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore. A
teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through
"couple-hood." Who am I? I'm her boyfriend. The young adult relationship
should be a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something
larger than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when we frown on a
relationship between a young adult and a teenager: We see the potential
for manipulation of the younger,'member of the party by the older.
raisins children. For m
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly
to the tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any
depth to your intimacy., This can be true of your relationsh'ips with friends
and neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers.
between the niiddle tw
the proper balance of
1
Generativity is ar
the next generation and
"selfish" than the intin
lovers or friends, is a I
generativity. the indir i<
love he gives to his cl
"return on their investn
them as very good par
Although the
ma-
raising children, there
i
Part
I
Unit I Module 7
- Erikson's
Psycho-Sociat Theory of Development
The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to
kolate oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop a
certain hatefulness in compensation for one's loneliness.
Srtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with
1ou for the rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson
cells love. Love, in the context of his..theory means being able to put
tide differences and antagonisms through "Jnutuality of devotion." It
hcludes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love
Letrveen friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot
rs well.
trge
Seven
rutlf,
r&rf
Too much
titu
oo much
osGa
ad
!'a
i&.
xrdry"
d(c
ttu
soor
hychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to
but it would include the period during which we are actively involved in
oiting children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere
hween the middle twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate
tb proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
L
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for
tie next generation and all future gerrerations. As such, it is considerably less
-:elfish" than the intirnacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between
ht'ers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mr:tual. With
lEnerativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the
b,r'e he gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a
tetum on their investment" from their children; If they do, we don't think of
&em as very good parents!
Although the ma.jority of people practice generativity by having and
aising children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teach-
.
ChiE and Adolescent Derrelopment Looking at Leemers at Difierent Life Stages
ing writing invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally
contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well
Stage Eight
to be needed."
that old
"need
anything, in fact, that satisfies
-Stagnation,
on the other hand, is seff-absorption, caring for no:one. The
stagnant person stops to.be a produqtive member
of
society.
l
il
al ad
aptat io nl il
a lig na
ncy
It ii perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any "stagnation" in
our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension
illustrates the problem: Some people try to be so generative that they no
longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who
is overextended no longer contributes well. I'm sure we all know
someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is devoied to so many causes,
or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no longer
have time for any of them!
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity.
generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer
little
Too
partici-pating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call 'the
meahing of life" is a matter of how we participate and whai we
contribute.
This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women
take a look at their lives and ask that big, bad question "what am I doing
all this for?" Notice the question carefully: Because their focus is on
themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In
their panic at getting olddt and not having experienced or accomplished
what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to
recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant examples:
They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some
"hip" new clothes, and start hanging around singles' bars. Of course, they
seldom find what they are looking foq because they are looking for the
wrong thing!
Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you' will have a capacity for
will serve you through the rest of your life.
caring that
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage. r
or less delicately as
the kids have gone, :
,
protest and say
it
onl;
effect of our youth-\
avoiding any acknowk
stage is a good thing
retarded your developl
The task is to
d
despair. This stage, v
detachment from socie
our culture. Some ret
their duties as parents
no longer requested or
Then there is a
longer does everythir
dramatic menopause.
occasion." Then thert
diabetes. heart problen
cancers. There come
before * the flu. for
illnesses come conce
spouse dies. It is, of
Faced with all this. it
r
In response to thi
Part
I
Unit I Module
7:
Eriksoh's Psycho-Social Theory of Developmsnt
Stage Eight
Too much
oo much
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage. referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity.
or less delicately as old age. begins sometime around retirement, after
the kids have gone, say somewlrere around 60. Some older folks will
protest and say it only starts wlren you feel old and so on. but that's an
effect of our youth-worshipping culture, whiclr has even old people
avoiding any acknowledgement of age. ln Eriksorr's theory. reaching this
stage is a good thing, and.not reaching it suggests that earlier problems
retarded your development!
The task is to develop ego integrity witlr a minimal amount of
despair. This stage, seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a
detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in
our culture. Some retire from jobs they've held tbr years: others find
their duties as parents coming to a.close; most find that their input is
no longer requested or required.
Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as tlre body no
longer does everythirrg it used to. Women go through a sometimes
dramatic menopause. Men often find they can no longer "rise to the
occasion," Then there are the illnesses of old age, such as arthritis,
diabetes. heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and prostate
cancers. There come fears about things that one was never afraid of
before - the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the
illnesses corne concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One's
spouse dies. lt is, of course, certain that you. too. will have your turn.
Faced with all this. it might seern like everyone would feel despair.
In response to this despair, some older people become
preoccupied
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
with the past. After all, that's where things were better. Some become
preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret
that (unlike some in the previous stage) they really don't have the time
or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become
depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developirig the patterns
of senility with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby
coming to terms with the end of life. lf you are able to look back and
accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it,
as beirrg necessary, then you needn't fear death. Although most of you
are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by
considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes, some of
them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistake.s, you
wouldn't be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you
had played it safe and made very few mistakes, your life would not
have been as rich 'as is.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption.
This is what happens when. a person "presumes" ego integrity without
actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas and views
of the young. The maligrrant tendency is called disdain, by which
Erikson means a contempt of life, one's own or anyone'sl The person
becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death witho.ut fear has the strength
Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children. because "healthy
children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death." He suggests that a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly
wise, but I would like to suggest that you understand "gifted" in as
broad a fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very
modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their wise words,
but by their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by-their
"generosity of spirit."
SnrrrKAnot
l.
Write your ou
ment as framr
you (most pro
parents and o
baby books ar
questionnaire
stage.
Unit I Modub
T
- Eritsont
Psycho.Social Jheory of Development
$mnKAnoN
l.
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to
you (most probably, stages I -5 or 6). Ask information from your
parents and other significant persons in your life. Look at old
baby books and photo albums. Also, include the results of your
questionnaire in the activity section. Write a narrative for each
stage.
Child and Adolescenl Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
@ sYilAPst slntilcrnEiltRs
l.
Read the bok, Healing the Eight Stages of Llfe by Dennis Linn,
Mathew Linn and Sheila Fabricant-Linn. This is a classic book
that uses the Eriksonian stages for personal healing. A lot of people
have been changed by this book. Have a reflection diary to write
your thoughts and insighti about each stage.
2.
Read on Erikson's ideas about the work he did with the Sioux
lndians and his research on Gandhi.
ffi;#
ii**18
RESEARCH C
Read a rcss
matix
below.
Unit I i,lodul6
,,
7- Erilconl
Pqrcho-SocialTheory ol Development
*i
,qI.
{ RESEARCH CO}INECTIOII
#r
Read a research that
is
related
to Erikson's theory. Fill out
matrix below.
Research Methodology
Sourcr: (bibllographlcal entry fomat)
ttre
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
RTTLTCilOII
monulE
I
From the Module on Erikson's Stages of Psycho-social Theory
learned......
of
I
Development
CHAI.TTNGE
In this Module,
.
.
explain the su
analyze a pe
. responses to tr
. cite how the d
work as teach
Wil{TRoDUc
Individuals, wt
need to make moral
use moral reasoning
studying the develop
tlreory on the finding
ment. Our abilrty to
ability to understand
.ffi&^cTrvrTY
Read the moral dilem
Ryan, 17, has b
this concert of rock
ftom going as the co
The band is notoriou
somehow manages to
Ryan agreed not to
concert, Nic, 15-yea
what appeared to be
Ryan's bag. Nic exa
Part
nrorluH
I
I
Unit
I
ModuleS-Kohlberg's Stagesof Moral Development
Kohlherg's Stages of Moral Development
-
Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D,
(HALI.TNGE
In this Module,
.
.
challenge yourself to:
explain the stages of moral development.
analyze a person's level of moral reasoning based on his
. responses to moral dilemmas.
. cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your
work as teacher later on.
,Ykeffi
Yfi%
INTRoDUCTIoN
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they
need to make moral decisions, exercise their own ability to
use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in
studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his
theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive develop
ment. Our ability.to choose right from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand and reason logically.
Lgwrenca
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was such
ffi&ACTrvrTY
Read the moral dilemma below.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for
this concert of rock band. His parents have discouraged him
from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy crowd.
The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who
somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during the concert.
Ryan agreed not to watch anymore. But a day before the
concert, Nic, l5-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a corner of
what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of
Ryan's bag. Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a
an interesting, il not intriguing
person. He was born
weallhy, but chose to be
sailor and began to be
interested in moral reasoning.
He helped smuggle Jews
through a British blockade in
Palestine during World War ll.
Kohlberg is known for his
theory of moral development
which which was influenced
by Piaget and Dewey's
lheories. He believed that
people progressed in their
ability to reason morally
through six stages, with
three levels largely by
social interaction.
;T
:..
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
ticket. l,ooking at Ryan's bag, Nib also found an extra shirt and 2 sticks
of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert after atl. That
night, Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a
classmate's house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he
told Nic of his plan to go to the concert. Nic didn't say anyhing, but
he found it difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to telt their
parents
or
not.
l. lf ypu were Nic, what would you do?
2.
Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you
considered in deciding what to do?
trouble and
hi.
"No. bec
decision not t(
Stage6-"Yes,I
want to be lru
"NO, becr
I-f he trusted n
soy anYthing. "
In what level
dilemma
fall?
reasoning in this
Refl
mor
As you contint
about the different l
Examine the answers you gave. Compare it with the responses
provided below. In which of these responses is your answer most similar?
Stoge I - "Yes I will tell our parents. Because if they found out
later that I knew, for sure they will get ongry and most likely
punish me."
No, I will not tell because Ryon will make my life dfficult and also punish me for telling. "
Stoge 2 - "Yes. I will tell my parents because they will reward me
for it. I will subtly ask for that new I Pod that I'm wishing to
have."
I will not tell. Rydn 'will surely grant me o lot of
not
telling. He'll not also squeal on me."
favors for
Stage 3 - "Yes. I will tell so my parents will think I qm such an
"No.
honest boy.
No I wtll not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool
brcther!"
Stage 4 - "Yes I will tell because we should follow the rules that
our parents soy.
No. because it's been our rule to keep eqch others'
secrets. "
Stage 5 - "Yes. I wil.l tett because"he might be hurt or get in
pmsrnAcrcr
Lawrence Kol
the groundwork for
lopment. Like Piagt
through their experie
such as justice, rigl
the development of
Piaget, and found c
longer and occurred
If Piaget desi
the cognitive develo
(Kohlberg dilemma
module was writtet
wrote his dilemma
individuals in his n
to judge whethet
interested in analyzi
From his n
reasoning grouped
significant change
penion.
Patt
I
Unit
I
Modulq 8
- Kohlbcq's
Stagcs of Moral DevelQrlont
trouble and his welfare is top most priority.
"No. because he 'is big enough to question my parents
decision not to let him go."
Stage 6 - "Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I
want to be true to what I bqlieve in.
"NO, because I believe brothers watch out for each othen
If he trusted me with this, I should stay true to him and not
say onything. "
In what level of moral development did your response to the
dilemma fall? Reflect about what this indicates about your moral
reasoning
in this moral dilemma.
As you continue to read this Module, you will get to know more
about the different levels of moral reasoning espoused by Kohlberg.
$ msrnAfi rcil /cElt tRAuzATtolt
Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget's work, and set
the groundwork for the present debate within psycholory on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking
through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts
such as justice, rights, equality and hirman welfare. Kohlberg followed
the development of moral judgment and extended ,the ages covered by
Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity took
longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to Ieam about
tlre cognitive development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas
(Kohlberg dilemmas). The case you read in the Activity part of this
module was written for this module but was based on how Kohlberg
wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the
individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim
to judge whether the responses were right or wrong. He was
interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral
reasoning grouped into three major levels. Each level represents a
significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the
person.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six
Level
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/result of the act, not
on the whether the act itself is
$nrnrcATtot
l. Identify the
stages:
Stage
Description
I
Punishment/Obedience. One is
motivated by fear of punishment.
He
will act in order to
following:
avoid
punishmgnt.
good or bad.
2
2.
Mutual Benefit. One is motivated
to act by the benefit that one may
obtain later. You scratch my back, I'll
scratch yours.
Conventional
Moral reasoning is based on the
or "norms" of society.
This may include approval of
others, law and order.
J
conventions
Post-conventional
Moral reasoning is baseU on enduring or consistent principles. It
is not just recognizing the law,
but the principles behind the law.
4
5
I.
Social Approval. One is motivated
by what others expect in behavior good boy, good girl. The person
acts because he/she values how he/
she will appear to others. He/she
gives importance on what people will
think or say.
Law and Order. One is motivated
to act in order to uphold law and
order. The person will follow the
law because it is the law.
Social Contract. Laws that
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
are
wrong can be changed. One will
act based on social justice and the
8.
common good.
6
9.
Universal Principles. This is associated with the development of one's
conscience. Having a det of standards that drives one to possess
moral responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of cons.equences
to oneself. Examples of persons are
Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King,
Jr.
10.
Part
Lunit
$nnrrrcAnolt
l. Identify the stage of
I
Module 8
- Kohlberg's
Stages of Moral Development
moral development shown
in
the
following:
l. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so
that they will think she is kind and will like her to
be their friend.
2.
Ricky does everything to get passing grades
his Mom will take his play station away if
because
he gets bad
-r.
4.
grades.
A civic action group protests the use of pills
for
family planning, saying that although the govemment
allows this, it is actually murder because the'pills
are abortifacient (causes abortion).
Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test
because Hannah agreed to let her copy during their
sibika test.
5.
6.
Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the
canteen so that people will praise her honesty and
think she's such a nice girl.
John decides to return the wallet he found in the
canteen because he believqs it's the right thing to
do.
7.
8.
9.
Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she
likes to follow the school rules and regulations.
A jeepney driver looks if there's a policeman around
before he u-turns in a no u-tum spot.
Liza volunteers to tutor children at-risk children in
her community for free so they will learn to love
school and stay in school.
10.
Little Riel behaves so well to get a star
from her
teacher.
stamp.
Child and Adolescenl Dwelopment Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
ffi
1.
2.
sYlrAPsE STRTNGTHTNERs
Read the Moral Dilemma Discussion guide found
MRtFucTrolr
in
(http://
tigger.uic.edu/-lnucci/IVloralBVpractices/practice3lindtext.htrnl). Try out
these guidelines with a moral dilemma.
of Eliot Turiel @omain Theory) and Carol
Glligan Moral Reasoning and Gender). Relate ttrem with Kohlberg's
Research on the views
Theory.
f
t+i RESEARCH (ON}ITCTION
,$:#*
Read a research that is related to Kohlber'g Theory.
marix
below.
Research Methodology
Source; (bibliographical entry format)
Fill out the
From
leamed...
Part
I
Unit
I
Module 8
- Kohlberg's
Stages of Moral Development
ffiRttucTtoN
From this module
leamed...
of
Kohlberg's Stages
of Moral
Develo.pment,
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
i
I
moDuLE
I
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
-
llaria nila D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Q mnrYsrs
l. Form
l-4.
2.
CHAtttl{GT
Lev Vygotsky
was born in
Russia in 1896.
His work began
when he was
studying learning
and developmenl
lo improve his
own teaching.
ln his liletime, he
wrote on
language,
thought,
psychology of
art, learning and
development, and
educating
students with
special needs.
Vygotsky's
ideas about
language, culture,
and cognitive
development
W
f msrnAcno
rNrRoDUCnoN
The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction
. He believed that
a yery important role in cognitive
ividual development could not be undentood without looking into tlrc
ial and cultural context within which development happens.
is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance grven by
the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. I*arn more about
it as you do the activity. Read on!
ACIIVIil
skill
that you wanted to learn and
eventually learned well, through the help of another person.
1. As a child, recall a
When Vygot
teacher who used
question and answ
thinking and prac'
together with his ir
to recognize socia
cognitive developn
Theory of
(like swimming, riding a bike, playrng the piano, skating, etc.
Vygotsky wor
between the 192(
views about cognil
the preceding mo
compare with Vyg
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?
Watch a video
'
about his
theory at http://
3. Who taught or assisted
Devel,
Pinget and Vygot
major inlluences
in psychology
and education
,"".."......".'"-:.\
scaffolding?
Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development.
Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill
have become
loday.
What facton
Did the pr
In this module, challenge yourself to
. Explain why Vygotsky's theory is called "Socio-cultural" theory
o
.
grouy
you?
Piaget
More individual
Believed that thr
universal stages
development
Did not give
Describe how you went about leaming the skill. Describe what
steps or actions the person did in order to help you learn.
language
mu
--
----,3
t
Lile
Difierent
llamers at
Stag
Part
I
Unit
I
Module 9
-
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
wn 'j4'-
llaia bups of three members each. Share your
answers
the environment influeneed you to learn
Derson who taught
? If yes, How?
rqlEt"Stl:.
ce11ed
or assisted you make use of
"Soci
#-:iT:t*::m;*
ilf,
.r._Fky was
a young boy he was educated under a
*-J L
tcd*Ygo'-.kv':jl::1"1"Jir*l-'1i131111'.J.":?:.::nll::::l:o-:::-:,Y^':,T:::
deveruP";-rr approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
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ice higher levels of understanding. This experience,
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two
interaction
=H"-*"..",T':I'##-::'ql'Lil*:I,'l*:::i'*"i*;:':::"?::
terest
pproPflat?
T-kamer
11*
-rfrh, Read on!
literature and his work as
teacher, led him
central factors in
and lanuuase as
:nt. His theory became"known as the Socio-Cultural
pment.
ky
:d on his theory around the same time as Piaget in
ila
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wourd be easier now to see how his views
ocr"r*r
561*"u'n*T
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are
;ognitive
pmphasis on
More social in focus
Did not propose stages but
emphasized on cultural factors
in cognitive development
Stressed
the role of language
in cognitive development
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
i
I
i
firroDULE
I
I
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
-
ilaila
Bita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Q aualsts
l.
Form grou
t-4.
2.
What factor
3.
Did the
CHATTT}IGT
In this module, challenge yourself to
o Explain why Vygosky's theory is called "Socio-cultural" theory
.
.
Lev Vygotsky
was born in
Russia
in
1896.
His work began
when he was
studying learning
and development
lo improve his
own teaching.
ln his lifetime, he
wrote on
language,
thought,
psychology ol
art, learning and
development, and
educaling
students with
special needs.
Vygotsky's
ideas about
language, culture,
and cognilive
development
have become
scaffoldingl
Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development.
Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill
ffi
l*rRoDucrro*
The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction
plays a very important role in cognitive development. He believed that
individual development could not be understood without looking into tlre
social and cultural context within which development happens.
is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance grven by
the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. I-eam more about
it as you do the activity. Read on!
Afitvtil
1. As a child, recall a
skill
that you wanted to learn and
eventually learned well, through the help of another person.
(ike swimming, riding a bike, playrng the piano, skating, etc.
major influences
2. What made you
pnmrnAcn(
When Vygo
teacher who used
question and ansv
thinking and pra<
together with his
to recognize socir
cognitive developr
Theory of
Devel
Piaget and Vygc
in psychology
and education
today.
p
interested
Vygotsky wo
between the 192
views about cogni
the preceding m(
compare with $1
to learn the skill?
Piage
Watch a video
'
More individual
Believed that th
about his
theory at http://
3. Who taught or assisted
you?
universal stages
development
Did not give
Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what
steps or actions the person did in order to help you learn.
language
mr
Part
Q
l.
I
Unit
I
Module 9
-
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
annlsls
2.
Form groups of three members each. Share your answers in
t-4.
What factors in the environment influeneed ybu to leam the skill?
3.
Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of
I. nosrnAcTrou /cE
N
tRAu zAno
N
When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a
teacher who used the Socratic method. This method was a systematic
question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience.
together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher. led him
to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive developrnent. His theory became'known as the Socio-Cultural
Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in
between the 1920'and 30's but they had clear differences in their
views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already.in
the preceding module, it would be easier now to see how his views
compare with Vygotsky's.
Vygotsky
Piaget
More individual in focus
Believed that there are
universal stages of cognitive
More, social in focus
Did not propose stages but
development
emphasized on cultural factors
in cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis on
Stressed
language
in cognitive development
the role of language
Ghild and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
i
of Proximal
Social Interaction. Piaget's theory was more individual, while
Vygotsky was more social. Piaget's work on Piagetian's tasks focused
heavily on how an individual's cognitive development became evident
through the individual's own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the
other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed
to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social
ehvironment or the community takes on a major role in one's
of competency. We
However, with the
(MKO), competent
perform at a higher
development.
the child can accom
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through
participation in social activities, making the social context of learning
crucial. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners' environment all
contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist give directions and
provide feedback to the leamer. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and
collaborate and enrich the leaming experience.
guidance of another
development. The
knowledgeable adult
peer can assist the <
Cultural factors. $gotsky believed in the crucial role that culture
of children. Piaget believed that as
child
the
develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of
cognitive development that allows him to move from simple explorations
with senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other
hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would
give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education, how
children are trained edrly in life all can contribute to the cognitive
development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door foi learners to acquire
knowledge thbt others atready have. Learners can use language to
know and understand the world and solve problems. Language seryes a
social function but it also has an important individual function. lt helps
the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to
themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, "Gagawin la
itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport
(holding two long blocks)." For $gotsky, this "talking-to-oneself is an
indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will
eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of
cannot accomPlish ir
played on the cognitive development
self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning.
Children learn best through hands-on activities than when listening
passively. Leaming by doing is even made more fruitful when children
interact witfu knowledgeable adults and peers.
Tnne
When a child
a
immediately proficien
page.
The support or
about doing the tas
doing shortcuts for d
container and putting
scaffolding. Scafloldi
ttre adult or peer so
the zone of proxima
inch or two, and tt
continue to unzip
container lid just a
scaffolding. Leading
straw through the tt
1
The exampleE
can allow the child
in such a way thal
1
skill levels and th
proficient, able to
initially do without
called scaffold an
appropriately can
ziccomplish the task
Paft
T,one
of Proximal
I
Unit
I
Module 9
-
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be
at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level
of competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development.
However, with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can
perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what
the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the
guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal
development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a
knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced
peer can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next
immediately proficient
page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not
about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about
doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food
container and putting straw in the child's tetrapack juice for him is not
scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by
the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to
the zone of proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an
inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag still so that the child can
continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food
container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is
scaffolding. Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the
straw through the tetra pack hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance
can allow the child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold
in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner's current
skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more
proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not
initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is
called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when done
appropriately can pake a learner confident and eventually he can
dccomplish the task without any need for assistance.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
MRtFLtc,oN
From the module on Vygotslry's Socio-cultural thedry,
TllIODUTE
I
learned that...
cHAu.tl{Gt
In this Module, clu
.
.
.
describe
Model.
ea
identiff frc
developmen
use the bir
factors that
ffiNrRoDU
Explain why?
Bronfenbrenr
showing the differe
development. It poi
that shape every in
neighborhood, the o
*-&ACIrvril
Read the follor
ask your parents
fc
graphic organizer
be-
Answer the foll
l. When I wz
2.
As a chil4
When I wa
show _
When I wa
Pan
rl,roDurE
l{l
I
Unit
I
Module
l0-
Bronfenbrenneds Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
-
Maria Rita D, Lucas,.Ph.D.
CHAI.ttNGt
kr this Module,
.
challenge yourself to:
describe each
of the layers of
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological
Model.
.
identify factors in one's own life that exerted influence on one's
development.
.
use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the
factors that affect a child and adolescent development.
INIRODUCIION
with a simple yet useful paradigm
showing the different factors that exert influence on dn individual's
development. It points out the ever widenin! spheres of influence
that shape every individual, from his/her immediate family to the
Bronfenbrenner came up
neighborhood, the country, even the world!
B*Ei S*
ffiffiACTrvril
"looking BacK'
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also
ask your parents for some information. Write your answers on the
graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
l. When I was 5 years old, my parents
2.
As a child, my unforgettable playmates
3.
When
were
I
was in elementary,
I
was growing up, we went to church in
I regularly
watched the television
show
4.
When
r
t
t
Child and Adolescent Developmsnt: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
5. I cannot forget my teacher who
pmsrmarox
6.
When
7.
When
8.
As a child,
9.
The most serious challenge our family experienced was
10.
The
I was growing up, I was away from
Bronfenbrenner't
theory presents child
systems that compris
layers of environmer
child. Each layer is
"bioecological" points
as a key factor in on
I was in high school, I was close to
I
can recall this big news about
t
most important thing that
school was
I leamed from my elementary
Through the ch
between his immediat
landscape fuels and s
one layer will ripple t
ment then, we must
environment, but alsr
Q nrarYsrs
Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle
it
well.
where
Bronfenbrenner's
B
belongs.
The microsyst
child. It comprises s
includes structures su
such, the microsystem
tions that d-Afrna has
have strong and nurfir
his/her needs met? I
directions - both awal
that the child is affect
these people are also
deep afflection for her
and keep the bab.v-
mother feelings of wa
mother. The qhild is r
however, the child al
Bronfenbrenner calls I
they occur among all
what Erikson termed
Bronfenbrenne
structures within a
layers. At the micro
bi-directional influer
Part
I
Unit
I
Module 10
-
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
?,mstmcnt
c
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems
theory presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child's environment. It describes multipart
layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the
child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
"bioecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts
as a key factor in one's development.
Through the child's growing and developing body and the interplay
between his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any
one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as
well.
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Vlodel: Structure of Environment
The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the
child. It cornprises structures which the child directly interacts with. It
includes structures such as one's family, school and neighborhood. As
and interacsuch, the microsystem covers the most
immedi
tions that d-cliild hasln his/her
have strong and nufturing relationships with the parents and family? Are
his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happens in two
directions - both away from the child and toward the child. This means
that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and in tum
these people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother's
deep affection for her child moves her to answer to'the baby's needs
and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby's smiles and coos bring the
mother feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good
mother. The qhild is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents,
however, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent.
Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows how
they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to
what Erikson termed as "mutuality" in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner"s theory looks into the interaction of
structures within a layer and interactions of structures between
layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these
bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers still
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
influence the structures of the miscrosystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between
the structures of the child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem
will include the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or
the parent and health services or the community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in
which the child does not function directly. This includes the city govemment, the workplace, and the mass media. The structures in this layer
may influence the child's development by somehow affecting sorne
structure in the child's microsystem. This includes the circumstances of
the parents' work like the location, schedules. We see a change in the
children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center.
That was seen in that burger chain commetcial where the mom and the
children meet up at the fastfood for breakfast just before the children go
to school and the mom going home from work in a call centdr. The
child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he is
likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it
interacts with the child's own system
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in
the child's environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values,
customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one's macrosystem
permeates all the interactions in the other layers and reaches the
individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most of the
young people are expected to be more independent.by the time they end
their teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are
expected to support or at least want to support their children for a
longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see even married children
still living with their parents. ln China and also in other parts of the
world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose
challenges for girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in
beliefs and customs, children from different parts of the world experience
different child-rearing practices and therefore differences in
development as well.
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time
as it relates to a child's environments. This involves "patt€ms
stability
"of
and change" in the child's life. This involves whether the child's day is
characterized by an orderly predictable pattern, or whether the child is
sub.iected to sudden changes in routine. W,e can also look into the
pace of the c:hild's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This
system can affect or influerqco the child.externally, like the timing of
other siblings coming or the tirning of parental separation or even death.
Effect can also be
within the dbveloping
As children get old
changes. The childn
and decide to what
affect them.
No longer
Nanr
The long debart
for centuries, there
impact on child devel
is, is it heredity or er
More and .more r€sea
his environment plal
Devblopment theories
extent to which they
The ecological
of the child's environ
develops, the interp
becomes more comple
meantime, while the r
and mature. This bic
d ifferent c ircumsknce:
r
the child as he or
sequence
of
The Role of
s
g
natural.
Schools
Bronfenbrenner
childhood program
unpredictability
of
deyelopment."
c
in
fan,
Resea
constant mutual interac
their development. Acr
strips in the imrnediate
tre tools to explore od
the affirmations that sh
important adulQ relatir
These deficiencies sl
anti-social behavior: lar
direction."
Bronfenbrenner's
treir very important
ro
Pail
I
Unit
I
Module 10
- Bronfenbrenner's Ecological
Theory
Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes that occur
within the dbveloping child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls.
As children get older, they may react differently to environmenlal
changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope
and decide to what extent they will allow changes around them to
affect them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not
for centuries, there was a long drawn debate.on which had more
impact on child development, nature or nufture. Another way of putting it
is, is it heredity or environment that influences child development more.
More and .more rcsearch now point out that both a child's biology and
his environment play a role in the child's groMh and development.
Devblopment theories now stress on the role played by each and the
extent to which they interact in ongoing development. (See Module 3).
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context
of the child's environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child
develops, the interplay within the layers of environment systems
becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of the systems happeni
meantime, while the child's physical and cognitive structures also grow
and mature. This bioecological theory helps us determine how the
different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect
the child as he or she goes through the more or else predictable
sequence of natural. growth and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
the
publicly-funded early
childhood program in the US. He concluded that "the'instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child's
deyelopment." Researches tell us that absence or lack of children's
constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on
their development. According to the bioecological theory "if the relationships in the imrnediate microsystem break down, the child will not have
the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for
the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other
important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places.
These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as
anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide selfBronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start,
direction."
)'
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teacherS of
their very important role. lf there is a lack of support. care and affec-
*t
.t*
t
r{L
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leainerc at Different Life Stages
tion from the home, if there is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child's life, what can the school, the teachers in particular
do? This theory helps teachers look into every child's environmental
systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and needs
of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can
contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to suppoft and not
replace the relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, "the
primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense
of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be
fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child's
influence."
to replace the lack in the
such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an
Schools and teachers' crucial role is not
home
if
environment that welcomes and nuftures families. Bronfenbrenner also
stressed that society should value work done on behalf of children at all
levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family,
mentors, work supervisors, legislators.
$mnrrcATur
Lookihg at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module,
describe how these people or circumstances have influenced your
attitudes, behavior and habits.
From the graphic organizer that you filled out it is clear that there
were people situations and circumstances that shape who you are now.
Even the things happening in the govemment or even in America like
the 9-ll terrorist attack could have influenced your own circumstances
and therefore your own development as a unique person. As a future
teacher we can see our students from this perspective in mind. Every
child had different people, different situations and circumstances that
influehced his/her growth and development.
As you read through Bronfenbrenner's model you will see the
widening systems,that affect child and adolescent development.
RESEARCH
Read a res
Fill out the nianix
Part
I
Unit
I
Modub 10-Bronbnbrenne/s Ecological Theory
RTSIARCH CO}INTCIIO}I
Read a research or
Fill out the mhtix below.
study related
to Bronfenbrenner's
theory.
Development of the Learners
at Yarious $tages
UI\IIT
P*nrll
ffi&ACTrvrw
Group I. Read
groups of not more
Pre-ftatal Period
1
questions:
* Erenda B, Carpuz, Fh,D,
2. Do you agre
mere 'blob o
Share your e
Pre-natal Development
rrlroDulE 11
-
1. What are yo
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
Life Before Bir
The der
fficHnu.ENGE
]aisffil
At the end of this Module, you are expected to:
fface the course qf the pre-natal developmental
.
process that you
.
.
went through.
explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an
anti-abortion stand.
W
ffi
TNTRoDUCTToN
All the developmental
theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt
on the developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned
with what development went on before birth. To make the description of
human development complete, it may be good to understand the beginnings of the child aqd the adolescent. In Unit 1, Module 1 you met
Naschielle and Kenn. You were asked what they were before they have
become what and who they are at present. This is the concern of this
Unit and Module - pre-natal or antenatal development.
120
Surc e : http : //www. mccl. o rg/
Document.Doc?id=159
Part
ll
Unit 1 Module'11
- Pre-Natal
Development
ffi"&ACTrvrTY
Group I. Read the article "Life Before Birth" then form into small
groups of not more than six and share your answers to the following
questions:
1. What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?
2. Do you agree that that which is developing in the womb is a
mere 'blob of tissue' or 'uterine contents' as abortionists claim?
Share your explanation.
Life Before Birth
The development of the unborn child
The development bf human life
in the womb was once a mystery,
but science and medicine have
changed that. Abortion advocates
still try to dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by speaking
of the child as "a blob of tissue"
or "uterine contents. " Bltt ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and
other advances in obstetrics are
shattering the btob-of-tissue myth.
Dr. Paul Rochuell, a New York
physician, made these profound
observations after his amazing
encounter with a tiny unborn baby
boy: "Eleven years ago while I was
giving an anesthetic for a ruptured
ectopic pregnancy (at two months
gestation), I was handed what I
believe was the smallest living
human ever seen. The embryo sac
was intact and transparent. Within
the sac was e tiny human male
Sourc e : http : //www. mc cl.
Document.Doc?id=159
o
rg/
swimming extremely vigorously in the
amniotic fluid, while attached to the
wall by the umbilical cord.
Child and Adolescent Dovolopment L@king at L€smor8 at Different Life Stages
This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering
finger.s, .feet and toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and
the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the
fingers. "The baby was extremely alive and swam about the sac
approximately one time per second, with a natural swimmer's stroke.
This tiny human did not look at all like the photos and drawings
and models of 'embryos' which I have seen, nor did it look like a
few embryos I have heen able to observe since then, obviously
because this one was alive!
"When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its
life and took on the appearance o.f what is accepted as the
appearance of an embryo at this stage (blunl'extremities, elc.)
Q
Here are
qr
facilitates.)
l.
Is it more re€
the mother's '
2. What are pro
is a living hu
3. Has any reali
on abortion?
4. What are thr
"It is my opinion that if the lqwmakers and people realize that
this very vigorous life is present, it is possible that abortion would
found more objectionable than euthanasia."
The. point at which Dr. Roclmtell witnessed thi.s unborn baby eight weelcs after conception - is during the period that. a majority
of abortionists describe as most desirable for performing an
nnawsls
developing
en
be
abortion'
source: http://wwwmccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159
i.
Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink
alcoholic drinks, not to take in any medication without doctor's
advice? Share your answers with your small group.
2. Why did countries including the Philippines strongly
protest
against China regarding impofted children's toys which were found
to have high lead component?
ffmsrmogil
Human life begins
That which is i
being. An unborn br
from one of eightee
conception the zygotr
life.
Human life be1
all that we
The fact that you ha'
the fact that you u'i
the moment of conce
ment is nutrition.
I remember th,
Scream'i The mother
in her third month
scalpel into th wom
clearly in that film.
screaming for help a
That's why the film r
means that the develc
a conglomeration of
have and
Based on thex
supposed to be the s
tunatel,y, however, wi
Part ll. Unit 1 Module
11
-
Pre-Natal Development
Q annlss
Here are questions for further discussion.
(Teacher
']rI,
rrd
t1 ?
:
facilitates.)
',*
I
l.
Is it more reasonable to believe that that which is developing in
the mother's womb is a human being?
2. What are proofs that which is developing in the mbther's womb
is a living human being?
3. Has any realization from today's discussion changed your stand
on abortion? Explain your answer.
4. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the
developing embryo
l,
f
/ fetus?
ABSfRAOt0il
Human life begins at conception
That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human
being. An unborn baby of eight (8) webks is not essentially different
from one of eighteen (18) weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From
conception the zygote, the embryo and the fetus are undeniably human
life.
Human life begins from the.moment of conception. All-that we
all that we are have been there at the moment of conception!
The fact that you hav brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and
the fact that you will turn bald at age 50 have been there already at
tte moment of conception. What were ad.ded in the process of development is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw. "The Silent
kteam". The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion
in her third rnonth of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his
scalpel into th wornan's womb to crush the head of the fetus, very
clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her mouth open like he was
screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist.
That's why the film was given the title "The Silent Scream", This only
means that the developing being in the womb is a human being not just
a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
have and
Based on these facts,
it
is wrong to do abortion. The womb i[
supposed to be the safest of all places for huiman development. Unforl
tunatel"y, however, with the scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!
,.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
The devqlopment that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a mother's womb is truly a human being.
The Stages of -Pre-natal Development
It may be good to watch the video on High Tech Photographs of
Fatal Development/Pro-life Anti-Abortion Video at YouTube before you
read these notes on stage of pre-natal development.
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods-germinat,
embryonic
l.
and
fetal.
Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) - This
includes the a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division
and c) and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
The following are the details of development during this period:
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization-the male (sperm) and
ft.al.
(egg) chromosome unite
b) 36 hours-the fertilized ovum, zygote,'divides into two Q);
2
cells
c) 48 hours (2days) - 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact
of 16-32 cells
e) 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-128 cells
0 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in
ball
the
-
to the wall of uterus
h) ll-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and
becomes implanted 'in it (implantation)
ln the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as
inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the
inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops
later into the embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that dedays
blastocyst attaches
velops also during the germinal period" later provides nutrition and support
for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, lTth ed., 2004).
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) - In this
stage, the name of the mass cells. zygote, beoome embryo. The
following developments take place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life-support systems for the embryo
c) organs appear
sensory receptors ((
mesoderm is the mi
muscular, excretory
formation during t
called organogenesi
As the threr
for the
systems
systems are the pla
placenta is a life-suy
tissues in which smi
intertwine but do no
one vein that conne
or an'envelope tha
embryo floats. All tl
fertilized egg and nt
3. Fetal perbd
uterus
g) 0-l
As the zygote
of cells are formed.
develops into the di
cells is divided intr
ectoderm is the out,
and develop
details of th
2N2):
a) 3
months
weighs at
arms and
head; the
distinguisl
and lower
or
female.
b) 4 months
and weigl
lower part
and leg n
c) 5
months
weighs cl,
toenails) I
develop and
d) 6
months
wpighs or
fgrmed; fi
Part
ll
Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Development
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers
of cells are formed. The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells,
develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of
cells is divided into two parts - the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The
ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system.
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory skeletal,
muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ
formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is
called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support
systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These life-support
systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the 'amnion. The
placenta is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of
tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring
intertwine but do not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and
one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag
or an'envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing
embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from the
fertilized egg and not from the mother's body.
3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) -
Growth
and development continue dramatically during this period. The
details of the developmental process are as follows (Santrock,
204):
a) 3 months after
-
fetus is about 3 inches long and
weighs about I ounce; fetus has become active, moves its
arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its
head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be
distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands,
and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified as male
or
conception
female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long
and weighs 4 to 7 ounces; gromh spuft occurs in the body's
lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother. feels arm
and leg. movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conception - fetus'is about 12 inches long;
weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails,
toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and
wpighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids ard completely
fgrmed; fine layer of head covers the head; grasping reflex is
rt
lr
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
present and irregular rnovements occur.
Fetal
mothers.
fi
e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long
and weighs 3 pounds
l) 8 and 9 months after conception - fetus grows longer and
gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital
(birth) defects. A teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It coines
from the Greek word "tera" which means "monster".
I
I
i
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:
l) Prescription and nonprescription drugs - These include prescription
as well as non-prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a
prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of harmful
nonpreicription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.
Remember the thalidornide tragedy in 196l? Many pregnant
women took in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their
morni4g sickness that gave rise to several deforrned babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is
associated with reduced birthweight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired
motor development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
irnpaired - inforrnation processing (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by
Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by
Santrock. 2002)
2.) Psychoactive drugs - These includ'e nicotine, caffeine and illegal
drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
Researches found that pregnant women who drank more
caffeinated coflee were more likely to have preterm deliveries
and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi. et at, 1999
quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol
heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial
deforrnities and defective limbs. face and heart (Santrock. 2002).
Most of these children are below average in intelligence and
some are mentally retarded (Olson. 2000 and Burgess. 1996
quoted by Santrock, 2002).
lower birthrr
et al, 2000
On th,
than avera
premature
s
after birth.
curriculum/r
3)
Environmen
X-rays, ent
exposure t0
Reseat
among the
tion in the
Santrock. .
developing
being the f
not yet kr
Resea
monoxide,
to high
do
ildren's
Santrock. I
children's tr
Prolor
tubs raises
ch
endangers
interfere wi
fetal death
of tirne (Sa
4) Other mat,
syphilis, ge
age, (too e
Arub
pre-natal ar
affected inl
retardation.
2002).
SYPhi
damages in
Pail
ll
Unit
I
Module 11 - Pre.Natal Developornl
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking
mothers. There are also higher incidences of pieterm births and
lower binhweights among children with smoking mothers (Wang,
et al. 2000 quoted by Santrock,2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller
than average size babies with more incidence of toxemia,
premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging
after birth. and. breech deliveries. (http://www.yale.edu/.vnhti/
cunicu lum/unitV I 980/5/80.05.03.x.hrn l#fl
3)
Environmental hazards
- These include radiation in jobsites and
X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged
to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher
among the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the
developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time
being the first several weeks after conception when women do
not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002).
Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead caused defects in animals exposed
to high doses. For instance, early exposure to lead affects
children's mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by
Santrock. 2002). Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the
children's toys with high lead content manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot
tubs raises the mothers' body temperature creating fever that
endangers the fetus. The high temperature due to fever may
interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even
fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods
of tirne (Santrock, 2002).
4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles),
syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress,
age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
A rubella (Cerman measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000
pre-natal and neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than 20.000
affected infants were born with malformations. including mental
retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems (Santrock,
exposure
2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These
damages include eye lesions, which can cause bli'ndness, and skin
rChild and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
at birth, other problems
involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can
lesions. When syphilis is present
sperm that
cancer.
develop.
About one+hird of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth
canal die: another one-fourth become brain-damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways; l) during gestation
across the placenta, 2) during delivery through contact with maternal
blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum (after birth) through breast-feeding.
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that
increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia
later in life. (familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20lthe-effects-of-stress-during-preg.,
As in the cr
their offsprin
SnrrurcAflor{
l.
Croup Project
As a
riculum/unitV I 980/5/80.05.03.x.htm l#f)
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce
the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and
spinal cord, called the 'neural tube'. A baby with spina bifida, the most
common neural tube defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The
exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of
paralysis and sometimes mental retardation. (http://www.squidoo.com/
folicacidpregnant)
for numerical
abnormalities increase. ftttp:fen.witipeOia.
As maternal age
increases,
the risks
chromosomal
)
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double
that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.
A.baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother an under
age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40,
the probabiliry is slightly over I in 100, and by age 50 it is almost I in
10. The risk is also higher before age 18. (Santrock.2002)
5) Paternal factors - Fathers'exposure to lead,
radiation,
certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in
n
cooperating sch
'ln this st
n4ncU)
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and
stress needs to be conducted for more conclusive findings.
It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may
result to inadequate growth in the fetus. .... If a fetus does not receive
enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An
extremely deprived fetus may have 20%o fewer brain cells than normal.
If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain
may be as much as 60Yo smaller than that of the normal child. (Vore,
David. Prenatal Nutrition and Postnatal Intellectual Development, MenillPalmer Quarterly, 1973, 19:253-260 cited in http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/cur-
gror
shop for the
pre-natal devel
ensure normal
fetus.
Come up
presentation by
what have yor
availability of I
human pre-nata
for "a picture i
2.
Pretend you art
is concentrating
that you are a
other pro-aborti
that has alread
on pre-natal de,
Panll
sperm that lead
to
Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Development
miscarriage or diseases such as childhood
cancer.
As in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place
their offspring at risk for certain defects. (Santrock, 20A2)
SnrrrrcAilolr
l.
Group Project
As a group, you are asked to give a one day seminar-workshop for the mothers and fathers of children enrolled in your
cooperating school.
'ln this seminar for mothers and fathers, teach them how
pre-natal development takes.place and what they should do to
ensure normal and healthy development of the embryo and tlae
fetus.
Come up with training modules, complete with materials for
presentation by the use of powerpoint or OHP or Manila paper or
what have you. In the preparation of materials, consider the
availability of facilities in schools. Look for a pictorial timeline of
human pre-natal development. This serves as an expellent material
for "a picture is worth a thousand words."
2.
Pretend you are "Junior", 4 months old in the womb. Your Mother
is concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her
that you are a human being developing contrary to what she and
other pro-abortionists are t[inking. Describe to her the development
that has already taken place in 4 months. Reflect what you leamed
on pre-natal development in this Module.
'tl
t' $
llt
Child and Adolesoent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
I
'$
i
:'
il
sra DrAs
I
Concept
l.
Concept
Related
Processes/Ideas
The Course of
The Germinal
Prenatal
Period
Development
Characteristics/Desc ri ptions
. lt is divided into 3 stages - germi.
.
i
ir
i;l
,t
rf
il
3
The Embryonic
nal, embryonic and fetal periods.
The geiminal period is the period of
prenatal development that takes
place in the first 2 weeks after
Hazards to
conception.
Development
This period includes the ff.:
a) creation of the zygote,
b) continued cell division and
c) the attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall.
The embryonic period is the period
of prenatal development that occurs
2 to 8 weeks after conception.
In the embryonic stage, the name
of the mass cells, zygote, becomes
embryo.
The following developments take
Period
place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life -support systems for
c)
the
embryo - the placenta, umbilical
cord and amnion-develop and
organs systems appear (organogenesis).
The
Fetal
Teratology
.
Period
.
This period lasts frorn about 2 months
after conception until 9 months when
the infant is born.
CroMh and development continue
their dramatic course and organ
systems mature to the point at which
life can be sustained outside of the
womb.
Prenatal
z
unrt 1 Module
Pre-Natal Development
13
Concept
Teratology
Related
Processes/Ideas
Meaning of
Characteristics/Descriptions
.
teratology
.
Hazards to
Prescription and
Prenatal
non-prescription
Developmen{
drugs
.
pregnant mothers has a negative
effect on the.developing fetus as
proven by the thalidomide tragedy in
.
.
Psychoactive
Drugs
This is the field of study that investi
gates the causes of congenital
(birth; defects.
That which causes birth defects is
called teratogen.
Thalidomide when taken in by
the
1960s.
Prescription drugs that can be harminclude antibiotics.
Diet pills, aspirin and coffee are
examples of non-prescription drugs
that can be harmful.
Researches found that pregnant
wornen who drank more caffeinated
coffee were rnore likely to have
preterm deliveries and newborns with
lower birthweight compared to their
ful
counterparts who
did not drink
caffeinated coffee.
Heavy drinking by pregnant women
results to the so-called fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster
of abnormalities that appears in the
children of mothers who drink alcohol
heavily during pregnancy. These
abnormalities include facial deformities
and defective limbs. face and heart.
Most of these children are below average in intelligence . and some are
rnentally retarded.
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher
among srnoking mothers. There are
also higher incidences of preterm
births and lower birthweights among
children with smoking mothers.
On the average. maternal heroin
il'rj
(;nlld and
Development: LOOXrng aI Learners at Different Life Stages
132
Concept
Related
Processes/Ideas
C ha
racteristics/Descriptions
Concept
addicts deliver smaller than average
size babies with more incidence of
toxemia, premature separation of pla-centao
retained placenta, hemorrhaging
after birth, and breech deliveries.
These incJude radiation in jobsites
and X-rays, environmental pollutants,
toxic wastes,and prolonged exposure
to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
Research found that chromosomal
abnormalities are higher among the
offspring of fathers exposed to high
levels of radiation in their occupa-
Environmental
Hazards
tions.
X-rays also can affect the developing
embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several
weeks after conception when women
do not yet know that they are
pregnant.
Researchers found that toxic wastes
such as carbon monoxide, mercury
and lead caused defects in animals
exposed to high doses. For instance,
early exposure to lead affects
children's mental development.
of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the
Prolonged exposure
mothers' body temperature creating fe-
ver that endangers the fetus. The high
temperature due to fever may interfere
with cell division and may cause birth
defects or even fetal death if the
fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged
periods
Other maternal
factors
.
of time.
Rubella (German measles) can be
harmful.
Paft
Concept
ll
Unit
Related
Processes/Ideas
1
Module
C ha
11
-
Pre-Natal Developmeht
racteristics/I)escriptions
i*
Syphilis, genital herpes and AIDS arc
other teratogens.
A developing fetus depends entirely
on its mother for nutrition.
lt
is
recognized that matemal malnutrition
during pregnancy may result to inad-
equate growth of the fetus. If a
fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is
seriously hampered.
One aspect of matemal nutrition that
has emerged is folic acid. Lack of
folic acid in the mother's diet leads
to a birth defect of the brain and the
spinal cord.
High anxiety and stress in the mother
are linked with with less than optimal
prenatal and birth outcomes.
TWo matemal age periods can lead to
problems before the offspring's
development: adolescence and 30 or
older.
Paternal factors
.
.
Paternal factors that can adversely
affect prenatal development include
exposure to lead, radiation, certain
pesticides and petrochemicals.
Older fathers also may place their
offspring at risk for certain defects
(Santrock, 2002).
-d
c
;I
ft
{
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
I
Test Your
Understanding
RTSEARCH
t
t
l.
1.
Here are the 3 stages of pre:natal development. Label ttrem.
Read at least
each research
i
I
by st
a.) problem
b.) research m
c.) findings
d.) conclusions
e.) recommend
i;
I
f.)
2.
Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given
graphic organizer.
reference
ffinrruorcil
l.
Read and reflect
<
The hean
fertilization,
a.
binh!
At 6
wer
movements. Tbt
At eight
in adults are
,
structures!
The chiW
fingerprints hc
So
Write down yo
,
Look at yourself. )
at your lips, your
normally. Did
it
evr
Write down your r
Partll Unitl llodule 1f -PrpffiGiffie@mont--
RTSEARff
Read at least 2 rcsearches on causes
by stating the:
a.) problem
of birth
defects. Summarize
each research
b.) research method
c.) findings
d.) conclusions and
e.) recommendation
f.)
reference
ffinrrunrcil
1. Read and reflect on these lines:
The hearrbeat is observed three weela and one day after
fertilization, and the heart will beat 54 million times before
binh!
At 6
weeks the embryo begins making spontaneous
movements. Tbuch his mouth and he will withdraw his head.
At eight weelcs, 90Vo of the anatomical structures found
in adults are present - that's 4000 distinct anatomical
structures!
The child has unique fingerprints at I0 weelcs
fingerprints he or she keeps throughout lde.
S ource
:
-
the same
htE : /r1tww.p rie stsforlife.o rg/columns/doamentlaspxid=2 go
Write down your reflection.
2. Imk at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are
at your lips, Your mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe
normally. Did it ever occur to you that it could have been ottrenrise?
Write down your reflections here.
tJl\IIT
7
Infancy and Toddlerhood
-- Brenda B, Corpuz, Ph,D,
fifloDu rE
12
:x,;f:Ji:l:topment
of tnfants
tt.
lt
Source: Santruck. J.W. L
fficHAtttNGt
This Module challenges you to:
.
.
W
trace the physical development that you have gone through as
infants and toddlers.
Guide Questions
t
draw implications of these principles and processes to parenting
and caregiving.
tilTRoDUCTroN
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We
shall continue to trace the developmental process by following the
infant or the baby who is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The
period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in
tum, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first
two years of life.
ffi&AcTrvrTY
Take a leaming partner and together study the Figure on the next
in the sizes of the human body parts
page. Look closely at the changes
as a person grows.
136
ffi, nuntYsts
L
What do y
other parts
2.
Does physi
the side tc
Explain yo
#
T'
nasrnAcTror
Cephalocaudal an
As you learn
the posftratal growd
more than the bod
the development oI
hfants learn to use
pattern occurs in tl
eyes and the brain
The proximo
to birth when the
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module
1
2
-
Physical Development of lnfants and Toddlers
,'
iS
,F
l,
t
l'rr,
trl-{
Source: Santrock. J.W. Lifu-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002.
ffi nualYsrs
Guide Questions
1.
What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the
other parts of the body as a person grows older?
2.
Does physical development begin from the top or below? from
the side to the center?
Explain your answer.
r
&
lgstRACTroN
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
As you leamed in Unit 1, Module 1, the cephalocaudal trend is
the posfiratal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows
more than the body. This cephalocaudal frend of growth that applies to
the development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth.
krfants leam to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same
pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the head - the
eyes and the brain - grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months
to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards.
child and Adolescent Devalopment: Looking at Lebmers at Different Life stages
I
i
This also applies in the first months after birth as shown in the earlier
maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms, followed by that
of the hands and fingers. when referring to motor developmeni, the
proximodistal. trend refers to the development of motor skills from the
center of the body outrvard.
revealed thr
environmer
reared in s
'enriched' a
neuronal c<
activity. Sur
Height and Weight
who live
changes in
o
It's normal.for nqwbom babies to drop 5 to l0 percent of their
body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to
the baby's adjustment to neonatal feeding. once they adjust to
sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
o Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies
through the first six months. After six months, breastfed babies
usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
. In general, an infant's length increases by about 30 percent in
the first five months.
o A baby's weight usually triples during the first year but slows
down in the second year of life.
o Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants
progress along n natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
' Among the most dramatic ihanges in the brain in the first two
years of life are the spreading cOnnections of dendrites to each
other. Remember neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses? you
discussed them in your General psychology class. (you may
wish to review on them.)
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are
covered and insulated by layers of fat celts, begins prenatally and.
continues after birth. The process of myelination or myelinization
increases the speed at which information travers through the nervous
system.
' At birth, the newbom's brain is abgat 25 percent of its adult
'o
weight. By the second birthdry, the brain is about 75o/o
adult weight.
of its
Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more
connections between neurons than it can possibly ube. The brain
eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock,
2002). The infant's brain is literally waiting for expdriences to
determine how connections are made.
o d
study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig
in
1969
ir
Depressed brair
a depressed en
Motor developme
Along this aq
from reflexes, to
gT
Reflexes
.
The newborn
automatic, and
opportunity to
generally subs
matures.
.
'
There are ma
reflexes that b
Sucking ReIk
touches the ror
ing reflex whi
breast. The sur
may need to s
Rooting Reflr
infant's cheek i
head in the di
feeding.
Qripping Relle
palm. The stn
support their er
Curling Refler
the infant res
sole of a bab
spreadlng out t
Startle/Moro
l
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 12
- Physical
Dwelopment of lnfants and Toddlers
revealed that the brains of rats that greW up in the enriched
environment developed better than the brains of the animals
reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of the
'enriched' animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more
neuronal connections and had higher levels of neurochemical
activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants
who live in impoverished environments ean produce positive
changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who gew up in
a depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock. 2002).
Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin
from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
.
The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course
automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before they have'the
oppoftunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will
generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and
matures.
.
'
There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common
reflexes that babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something
touches the roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or
breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they
may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an
infant's cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turnipg his or her
head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for
feeding.
Qripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their
palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can
support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked,
the infant respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer
sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by
spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants witl respond to sudden sdunds. or
I
i
Child and Adolescent Developrnent: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their
will usually cry when startled and proceed
Fine Motor Skills
to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle
or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will
respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being
muscles controlling
movements
t
I
f
t
J
ii
:,
ij
heads back. Most infants
stroked.
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t
i
I
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated. in
infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the
child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while
the opposite limbs will curl. (http://www.mamashealth.com/child/
inreflex.asp)
t
Gross Motor Skills
Study the Figure below. See how you developed in your gross
motor skills.
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness
dramatic changes in the infant's flrst year of life. This dramatic motor
development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to
being able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk
away from parent.
Fine motor sk
these skills allows
drawing and buttoni
The ability to
precise eye-hand cor
becomes more refin
show only crude sl
wrist movements, h
finger.
Sensory and Perq
The newbom
hiVher senses of vi
she advances physi
develop.
What are
sor
perceptions? Can
.
n
The
newbor
normal adult
and by the I
an adult. (&
.
Infants look
an experimr
Santrock, 20(
at patterns s
color or bri
"pattem perc
the first few
face, as mot
Can newborns hear'
The sense
birth of the
mother's h,
mother's voi
you to listo
Infants' sen
adult which
a nEwhm
Source: Santrock. l.W. life-Span Development,
\th Edition, 2002.
'
Part
2
Unit
2
Module 12
- PhFical
Oevelopment of lnfant3 and Toddlers
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the smatl
muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of
these skills allows one to be'able to complete tasks such as writing,
drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve
precise eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping
becomes more refined during the first two years of life. lnitially, infants
show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show
wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of the thumb and forefinger.
Sensory and Perceptual Development
The newborn senses the world into which he/she is.bom through
hiVher senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. ldeally, as he/
she advances physically his/her sensory and perceptual abilities also
develop.
What are some research findings regarding newborns' visual
perceptions? Can newborns see?
.
The newborn's vision is about l0 to 30 times lower than
normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision becomes better
and by the first binhday, the infant's vision approximates that of
an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002)
lnfants look at different things for different lengths of time. ln
an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by
Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants prefened to look
at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than at
color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that
.
"paftem perception has an innate basis" (Santrock, 2002\. Among
the first few things that babies leam to recognize .is their motheCs
face, as mother feeds and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
.
.
The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the
birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his/her
mother's heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the
mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have been for
you to listen to your mother's lullaby.
Infants' sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than' those of
adult which means that stimulus must be louder to\be heard by
a nqybgm than by an adult.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
il
'l'
t
I
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i
Can newborns differentiate odors?
. In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young
infants rarho were breastfed showed a clear preference for
smelling their mother's breast pad when they were 6 days old.
This preference did not show when the babies were only two
days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience
to recognize their mother's breast pad odor."
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
. They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of
cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than prior to
the surgery (Thddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock,2002).
. Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on
motor development, you learned that a newbom automatically
sucks an.object placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek
makes the newborn tum his/her head toward the side that was
touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newboms distinguish the different tastes?
.
.
.
In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies
made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour,
and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by
Santrogk, 2002).
When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term
fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present
before
birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are
infants capable of intermodal perception?
. Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and
integrate information about two or more sensory modalities such
as vision and hearing.
. In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was
.
found out that as early as at 3 ll2 months old, infants looked
more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer
at their father when they also heard his voice.
This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect
information coming through various modes gets sharpened
considerably through experience.
SnrntcAn(
Come up w
various aspects of
pattems, height an
refer to the Questi
ment Standards in
of each milestone
l SIi
tI:
!l
; BIG
IDTAS
Fill this Tabl
Physical
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 12
- Physical
Developrnent of lnfants and Toddlers
SnrrucAnon
Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the
various aspects of physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal
pattems, height and weight during infancy and toddlerhood). For details,
refer to the Questionnaire on the Philippine Early Leaming and Development Standards in the Research phase of this Module. Cite irnplication/s
of each milestone to parenting.
i, nllrl
\::.] . BIG IDEAS
r1
Fill this Table with the Big ldeas learned from this Module.
Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Concept
Processes/Related Ideas
Cephalocaudal and
Cephalocaudal
Proximodistal Pattems
Pnrximodisal
Height and weight
Nature of change/s
The Brain
Dendrites and myelination
Motor development
Reflexes
Gross motor skills
Fine motor skills
Sensory and perceptual
Msion
development
Hearing
Touch and pain
Thste
Smell
lntermodal perception
Characteristics/
Descriptions
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamerc at Difierent Life Stages
\
)
f;
t'
I
T
:
!
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!
I
MOTOR SKILLS DE\
..
ilt
'
RESTARCH
Standards 1: The chitd s
muscle groups.
o
The class shall be organized to:
l. conduct a research with mothers or babysitters on the status of
the development of their babies and toddlers. Find out the status
of babies and toddlers' physical development by the use of the
list of what infants and toddlers can do physically. This list is
based on the Philippines Eaily Learning and Development
Standards (ELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council
now merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development
.
2.
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
Council.
Present reseatch findings
in
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
l,
lr
this book.
What lnfants and Toddlers Can Do Physically?
Domain: Physical Health, Well.Being and Motor Development
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standards
1:
The child'demonstrales adequate growth (weight, height, head
circumference).
Standards
2:
The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily acfivlfres.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Starfles to loud sounds
Visually follows a moving object from side to side
Visually follows a moving object up and down
Reacts to pain by crlng
Withdraws or cries when in mntact with something hot
Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact witlr something cold
Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/sh6 tastes something
delicious
Reacts by making a face/ frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes something he/she does
not like
7 - 12 months
,o
o
o
o
o
Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice
Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul
3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.
Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.9., chairs, large boxes)
Walks without tiring easily
13 - 18 months
o Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
o Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19 - 24 months
o Sustains physical activity (e.9., dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least 3-5
mhutes
Sits with support
Starting to crawl
Sits alone steadlr
Creeps or crauds
sl
Stands witrout
Stands from a sifl
sb
Squats from a
Stands from a $a
Bends over
ecil1
bs
t
Stands from a
Walks sideways
Walks with one
h
s4
Walks witrout
Walks backwards
Walks up the
Walks down
std
he s
Jumps in place
Climbs onto a
sb
Kicks a ball but wi
fhrows a ball hrt
Throws a ball hrt
fluns without bipp
Maintdins balance
assistance
Standards
o
o
Rolls over
Bounces when h
13 - 18 months
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Holds head stea
Moves arms and
7 - 12 months
class.
Your research and research presentation will be graded with the
use of the Scoring Rubrics given in Part I, Unit
Module 4 of
t,
Based on your e
performed by a r
'
Moves with music
Can move body to
Can move body h
19 -24 months
o
o
o
o
o
.Walks up the
stah
Walks down the st
Kicks a ballwitr cr
Throws a ballwitr
Throws a ball witr
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 12 - Physical Develppment of lnfants and Toddlers
MOTOR SKTLLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKTLLS)
L
Standards 1'. the chitd shols confrol and coordination of body movements involving large
muscle groups
o
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
Holds head steadily
Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
Rolls over
Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
Sits witr support
Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Sits alone steadily without support
Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
Stands without support
Stands from a sitting position without any help
Squats from a standing position with ease
Stands from a standing position with ease
Bends over easily without falling
Stands
fom a bent position without falling
Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or fumiture (cruises)
Walks with one hand held
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Walks without support
Walks backwards
Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
Jumps in place
Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.9., bed, adult chair or bangko, etc.)
Kicks a ball but with litUe mntrol of direction
Throws a ball but with little confol of direction
Throws a ball but with little conbol of speed
Runs without tripping or falling
Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without
assistance
o
o
r
Moves with music when he hebrs it
Can move body to imitate familiar animals
Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 -24 months
o
o
o
o
o
.Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
Kicks a ball with mntrol of direction
Throws a ball with control of direction
Throws a ball with control of speed
'.,"{
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
i
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it
:(
t'
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t
t
1
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l
ili
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it
t
o
o
o
o
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELoPMENT (FINE, MOTOR SKILLS)
'sfandards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
o
o
o
o
o
o
Hands open most of the time
Brings both hands together toulards dangling objecUtoy
Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects
Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface
Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
o
o
Pulls toys by the string
Bangs 2large.blocks together
Picks up objectswith thumb ahd index fingers
Grasps and transfers objecti from hand to hand
Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference established)
by a child on the specified
o
o
o
o
o
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
r
o
Helps hold cup for drinking
Chews solid foods well
Feeds self with finger foods
Scoops with a spoon with sPillage
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Feeds self with assistance
Feeds self using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage
Feeds self using spoon with spillage
No longer drinks fom feeding bottle
Drinks from cup unassisted
Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs
Pulls down gartered Short pants/underpants or panties
Removesshoes/sandnls
lnforms caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be brought to comffi
fOOm
i
Repeats sounds
Says
prr
meaningfulx
Uses animal sound
Uses environmentd
for thunder)
Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle
Holds a feeding bottle by himself
Makes gurgling; co
7 - 12 months
The child yarticipates in basic personal care routines.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
changed
i
Uses gestures (e.g
'.
7 - 12 months
Brushes teeth afte
Washes and dries
0 - 6 months
Colors with strokes going out of the lines
Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is being
Goes to the desrg
washing
: The chitd is i
Based on your exper
Scribblesspontaneously
Begins to take complementary or semi-solid,foods by the end oJ 6 months
pants
Standards 1
Unscrews lids
Unwraps candy/food
Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped around pencil)
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)
o
o
o
Goes to the desg
Goes to the des(y
LANGUAGE (EXPRESI
Puts small oblects in/out of container
Standards 1
Removes socks
lnforms caregiva
o
o
19 - 24 months
o
Gets drink for sefr
Removes loose s
o
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
o
Washes.and drie
Washes and drie
19 - 24 months
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
Takes a bath wi0r
Brushes teeth afr
13 - 18 months
o Speaks in single u,o
o Says "yes" and,no,
o Uses words accomp
. . Responds to simole
19 - 24 months
o Uses pronouns
o Uses possessive prc
o Says what he/she wz
o Attempts to converse
PRE.READING AND PRI
$ardards
I
1.1
: The .child is
Based on your
a child on the
experia
specifiedpgt
7 - 12 months
E
o
Able to match 2 ident
- 24 months
o
o
Matches identicaloge
Matches identical prctt
Part
o
o
o
o
ll
Unit
2
Module 12
- Physical
Development of lnfants and Toddlers
Takes a bath with assistance
Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
Washes and dries hands under adult supervision
Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
lnforms caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to the comfort room
Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants
Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils his/her
o
Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help with wiping and
Gets drink for self unassisted
Removes loose sando
Removes socks
pants
o
o
washing
Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision
Washes and dries face under adult supervision
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards 1 : The child is able to use words and gestures lo express hrs fhoughts and feelings.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
.
o
Makes gurgling; cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
Uses gestures (e.9., stretching his/her atms, pointing).to indicate what hE /she wants
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
o
Repeats sounds produced by others
Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
Uses animal sounds to identifo animals (e.9., meow-meow for cat)
Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g., boom
for thunder)
13 - 18 months
o Speaks in single words
o Says "yes" and "no" appropriately
o Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
. . Responds to simple questions with single words
19 - 24 months
o Uses pronouns
o Uses possessive pronouns
o Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
o Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE.READ|Nc AND PRE.MATH (MATCHtNG)
Standards 1 .1 '. The .child is able to match identicat objects, colorg shapes, symOo/s.
Based on your experience, are these indicators geneially observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specifiedpge?
7 - 12 months
o
Able to match 2 identical objects (e.9., 2 spoons, 2 balls)
19 - 24 months
o
o
Matches identical objects
Matches identical pictures
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
flIODULT
MRffuctolr
l.
Having leamed the physical development of infants and toddlers,
a future panent or as caregiver of childrne, reflect on:
. what you should do more often for infants and toddlers
as
ffi.HAL'ENGE
In this Module,
.
.
.
2.
trace your
draw implir
what you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and
!Fhl*.aa
development.
ffifr%
Reflect on the quotation below the title of this Module.
yor
rNTRoDt"
Cognitive dev
a baby thinks. Th
exploration skills. E
remembering learnir
ffi&ACTrvm
You
will
be
assigned a task to
For Group I
Jacqueline, th
children's obs
summary outlir
Don't forget to
in the next act
Laurent, Lucienne, i
The following
children's cognitive
Iifted from Santrock
MoDuLE
13
Cognitive Development of lnfants
and Toddlers
-
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
fficHALr.rNGr
In this Module, you are challenged to:
.
.
trace your own cognitive development as infants and toddlers.
draw implications of cognitive development concepts to parenting.
ry,ffi
rNTRoDucTroN
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way
a baby thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and
exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention,
remembering leaming to talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.
ffi&AnrvrTY
You will be divided into four groups. Each group
assigned a task to do.
For Group
will be
I - Group I Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and
Jacqueline, three children of Piaget whom he observed for
children's observation. After reading and re-reading, make a
summary outline of the behaviors of the three children separately.
Don't forget to indicate the age of each child. This can help you
in the next activity.
Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline
The following provide a glimpse of Piaget's observations of his
children's cognitive development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These are
lifted from Santrock QmD.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
. At 21 days of age, Laurent .finds his thumb after three
\,,
I'
tl
(
f
.
q
ir
t;
ilrt
For Group Il
the following q
them.
!i
,"
then picks
ronge of n
attempts; once he .finds his thumb, prolonged sucking
begins. But, when he is placed on his back, he doesn't
know how to coordinate the movdment of his arms with that
of his mouth; his hands draw back, even when his lips seek
.
During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less important to Laurent because of new visual and auditory
interests. But, when he cries, his thumb goes to the rescue.
Toward the end, Lucienne's thrusts her .feet at the doll and
makes it move. Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot
for a second, then kicks at the doll again. She has no
visual control of her foot because her movements are the
same whether she only looks ot the doll or it is placed
over her head. By contrast, she does have tactile control of
her foot; when she tries to kick the doll and misses, she
slows her foot movements to improve her aim.
At I1 months, while .seated, Jacqueline shakes a littte bell.
She then pauses abruptly so she can delicately place the
bell in .front of her right foot; then she kicks the bell hard.
Unable to recapture the bell, she pyasps a ball and ploces it
in the same location where the bell was. She gives the ball
a firm kick.
At I year, 2 months, Jacqueline holds in her hands an
object that is new to her: a round, .flat box that she turns
over and shakes; then she rubs it agoinst her crib. She
lets it go and tries to pick it up again. She succeeds only
in touching it with her index .finger, being unable to fully
reach and grasp it. She keep.s trying to grasp it and
presses to the edge o.f her crib. She makes the box tilt up,
but it nonetheless .falls again. ,lacqueline shows an interest
in this result and studies the .fallen box.
At I year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door
with a blade o.f grass in each had. She stretches her right
hand tow'ard the doorknob but detects that she cannot turn
it without letting go o.f the grass, so she puts the grass on
the floor, opens the door, picks up the grass again, and
then enters. But, u,hen she wants to leave the room, things
get complicated. She put.s the gra.ss on the .floor and gtrasps
the doorknob. Then She perceives that, hv pulling the door
tro*ard her she simultaneously chase.t away the gross that
she had placefl betweeri the door and the threshold. She
l. Do your rt
two years c
2.
At what ag
with your s
For Group
I.
I
Based on y
sisters/nieces
of an
infant
2. It is said th
this so? Giv
Q mmvss
For Group I
l.
There are four
:
- the sensorimot
the formal open
2, Module 6
<
sensorimotor sta
'toddler's cognitir
Here are thr
stage (Santrock,
Sensorimotor st
The sensot
cognitive devel
understanding ol
(such as seeing e
gain knowledge c
on it. An infant I
to the beginning
Piaget divided th
Part
ll
tJnit
2
Module 13
- Gognitive
Development of lnfants and Toddlers
then picks up the grass and place,e
range of movemeit.
For Group
it
out o.f the door,s
II - With your small group, share your answers to
the following questions:
L Do your remember anything about yourself when you were
two years old?
2.
At what age were your first memories? Share those memories
with your small group.
For Group
l.
III
- As a group,
answer the following:
Based on your observations or experiences with your others/
sisters/nieces/nephews, as a group trace the language development
of an infant until he/she grows into a toddler.
Z. It is said that children
leam language faster than adults. Why is
this so? Give your hypothesis.
Q
numvsls
For Group I
l.
There are four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget
- the sensorimotor, the preoperational, the concrete operational and
the formal operational stage. These were discussed in Part I, Unit
2, Module 6 of this book. This Module will focus on the
sensorimotor stage, Piaget's stage that covers the infant and the
'toddler's cognitive development.
Here are the
6
substages
of the sensorimotor
developmental
stage (Santrock, 2002):
Sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of
cognitive development. "ln this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the. world by coordinating sensory experiences
(such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants
gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform
on it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at binh
to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:
chilcl and Adolescent ueve opment: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
152
Sub-Stage
I
Simple ReJlexes
Description
Age
Birth-6
weeks
Sub-Stage
Coordination of sensation and action
through reflexive behaviors.. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget:
sucking of objects in the ntouth,
following moving or interesting objects
with the eyes, and closing of the hand
when aR o5fect makes contact with
the palm (palmar grasp). Over the first
six weeks of life, these reflexes begin
to
become voluntary actions; for
example, the palmar reflex becomes
intentional grasping. (Remember the
other reflexes discussed in Module
t2?)
2 First habits and primary 6
weeks-4
circular reactions phase
months
3 Secondary circular
4-8 months
reactions phase
Coordination of sensation and trvo
types of schemes: habits (reflex) and
primary circular reactions. Primary
reaction because the action is focused
on the infant's body. Circular reaction
because it is a repetition of an action
that initially occurred by chance. As an
example of this type of reaction, infants might repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also
at this phase, passive reactions, caused
by classical or operant conditioning,
can begin. Infants tend to repeat interesting sensations.
Development
of habits. Infants
become
more object-oriented. mbving beyond
self-preoccupation repeat actions that
bring interesting or pleasurable results.
This stage is associated primarily with
the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three
new abilities oocur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object,
secondary circular reactions, and differentiations betwe'en ends and means.
4 Coordination o
reactions stage
secondary circula
tary ctrc
reactions, novelty.
and curiosity
Part
2
Unit
2
ltlodukg 13
- Cognitive
Development of lnfants ano Toddlers
15i
Sub-Stage
Age
Description
At this stage, infants will intentionally
grasp the air in the direction of a
desired object, often to the amusement
of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions,or the repetition of an
action involving an external object
begin; for exarnple, moving a switch to
turn on a light repeatedly. This means
that a secondary action is focused on
an ob.iect outside the body of an
infant. The differentiation between
means and ends also occurs. This is
perhaps one of the most important
stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn
4 Coordination of
8-12 months
reactions stage
secondary circular
of
logic.
Coordination of vision and touchhand-eye coordination; of schemes
and intentionality. This stage is associated primarily with the development of
logic and the coordinati.on between
means and ends. This is an extremely
imporlant stage of development, holding
what Piaget calls the "first 'proper
intelligence. Also. this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation, the delib-
erate planning
of
steps
to
meet .an
objective. The action is directed
5
Tbrtiary circular
reaclions, novelty,
and curiosity
l2-t 8
months
towards a goal.
Infants become intrigued by the many
properties of ob.iects and by the many
things they can make happen to
objects; they experiment with new
behavior. This stage is associated
primarily with the discovery of new
means to meet goals. Piaget describes
the child at this .iuncture as the "young
scientist." conducting pseudo-experi-
ments
to discover new metho$ of
meeting
challenges.
i
Dlfrerent Life Stages
GhiE ano Adolescent gh,Glopmsd: Looldltg et Lcamers at
154
stage
Description
Age
Sub-Stage
6 Internalization of
Schemes (lnvention
of
months
New Means Through
Mental Combination
(lS-24 tnonths)
they are n<
that langual
with the
beginnings of insight. or true creativity. This marks the passage into the
associated PrimarilY
preoperational stage.
I Euidrn". of an internal representaI tional system. Symbolizing the prob
I lem-sotving. sequence before actually
I responding.
Sensorimotor sta
. An analysit
Piaget's cog
from refler
nated activ
orientation l
ing object
to one tha
involve mu
separate from
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both
that
the self and permanent. Object permanence is the understanding
or
heard'
seen'
be
objects continue to exist even when-thty cannot
touched. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piageto/o27s-theory-of-cognitivedeve lopment#Sensori motor-stage)
.
Determinethe-substageofsensorimotordevelopmentthatwas
demonstratedbyeach't.ito.Dothiswithalearningpartner.Widr
yout
your
your teach", u. facilitator, you will share and defend
answem with the whole class'
tions are
.
developmental stage.
around and,
again. Cradu
.
R. Colinkoff
Secondary ci
recreating evr
their own
For GrouP 3- Language DeveloPment
Do atl toddlers learn language at the same pace?
2,Aretheretoddlersthatengageintelegraphicspeechimmt
two'wot
diatelv without passing through one-word stage and
diately
Primary circ
body, wheru
environment
circular reacl
But she doe
Guide Questions:
l.
Circular rear
P ar
At first, b1,
For Group 2 'Learning and Remembering
aninfantdoesnotrememberanythingduringinfancy?
2. Is it safe to say that memory begins at age three?
a,
(Pasek,\
erved
3.Basedonyourexperienceswithchildren'shareobserved
motor
behaviors that illusirate any of the substages of sensorimotot
l.Basedontheexperiencesshared,isitmorecorrecttosayttu
intentionali
that is pur
Piaget's sut
behavior to
2. co back to Piaget's children - Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacquelinc'
Guide Questions:
lar
3. Do infants
lnfants develoP the abilitY to use
primitive symbols and form enduring
mental representations. This stage is
t8-24
in
b<
kickiirg their
.
Tertiary circ
months. is w
Iittle differen
Part
stage
in
2
Unit
2
Modub 13
- Cognitive
Development of lnfants and Toddlers
language development?
3. Do infants have an innate capacity to learn language?
Even if
they are not taught a language, can infants and toddlers learn
that language?
*msrnAcnon
f=
Sensorimotor stage
An analysis of the 6
substages of the sensorimotor stage of
Piaget's cognitive development shows that development begins
from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants evolves in
orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is action-based
to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not
involve much of coordination of schemes to one involving
intentionality, novelty and curiosity and fi'om a thinking
that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic onei
Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive
behavior to the world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to repeat an event that the baby likes.
Circular reactions serve as the building blocks for intelligence
(Pasek) P and Golinkofl R, 2003).
Prirnary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own
body, whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the
environment including others. Here is an example of a primary
circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth.
But she doesn't know how to do it again. She waves her hand
around and, after many attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it
again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will (Pasek, K and
R. Golinkoff, 2003).
circular
actions that involve
old babies observe outside of
their own bodies, such as making their mobile crib shake by
kickitrg their legs (Pasek, K and R.Golinkofl 2003).
Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately l0 to l8
months. is when a baby does things over and over again, just a
little differently each time. e.g. When a baby seems.to enjoy
Secondary
reactions are repetitive
recreating events which 4-10 month
,,1
{
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
dropping the spoon over and over again in many different
ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events.
Piaget described the baby at this stage as "the scientist" When
parents don't understand their child's behavior, they see this act
as abu$ive and get frustrated.
-
.
From dropping the spoon many times in many.different ways,
the baby discovers a pattern "objects fall down --- not up".
They create the patterns with their repetitive actions and then
evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers (Pasek, K and
R. Golinkoff, 2003).
.
Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the
infant?s most important accomplishments, according to Piaget."
Object pelrnanence is the understanding that objects continue to
exist even when the objects are not immediately perceptible
through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of the sense
of object permanence, the principle that applies is "out of sight,
out of mind".
There are some criticisms of Piaget's theory on cognitive development. One crilicism from other developmental theorists is his fundamental
assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of
discontinuous spurts across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many
theorists (e.g.'Brainerd, 1978) believe that cognitive devetopment occurs
as a continuous process rather than in discontinuous stages of development. Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants supporl the
view that Piaget underestimated young infants' cognitive ability. Further-.
morc, Piaget's methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact
that he simply observed his three children and a few others which
were limited only to European children.
Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
have recalled their
back as age 2 year
be recalled from as
I have vivid
remember the deat
Before age 3, I har
his arms after he
fever in my grandn
Language Develol
From'day one
linguistic environmer
clearly have rema*
early age (Marcus.
1999 cited by Sten
Within the fin
the following stages
l. Cooing, wh
2.
Babbling, v
to most
pe(
speakers frc
3.
One-word
vowels and
Sternberg,
r
2
4. TWo-word
5. Basic adult
r
with contint
The infant ut
more, and soon aftr
utterances termed
I
Yes! Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning have been proven to apply to infants. We'll ask you to research on
researches that prove this.
mands. Usually, the
child observes (e.g.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall
100 words (Siegler.
events
that happened when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we
can remember little or nothing that has happened to. us before the age
of about 5 years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many
memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories usually
involve memories of significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death
of a parent; Fivush and Hammond, I99l). For example, some adults
By 18 months
Iimited at this poir
the meaning of wo
ideas for which a n
for any kind of four
is called overexten
'
Gradually betv
Part
ll
Unit
2 todule
13
-
Gogniiive Development of lnfants and Toddh.s
have recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far
back as age 2 years, and the death of a parent or a family move may
be recalled from as far back as age 3 years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).
I
have vivid memories of my childhood as early as age 3. I
remember the deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a row.
Before age 3, I have a vivid picture of my father carrying me home in
his arms after he was informed that I was chilling due to very high
fever in my grandmother's house.
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their
linguistic environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants
clearly have remarkably acute language learning abilities even from.an
early age (Marcus, Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton,1999; Pinker, 1997,
1999 cited by Sternberg, Rpbert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through
the following stages in producing language (Stemberg, 2003):
l. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
2.
Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vbwel sounds;
to most people's ears, the babbling of infants growing up among
speakers from diffbrent language groups sounds very similar
3.
One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the
vowels and the consonants they utilize (lngram, 1999 cited by
Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence dtructure (present by about age 4 years)
with continuing vocabulary acquisition
The infant utters his /her first word- followed by one or two
more, and soon after, yet a few more. The infant uses these one-word
utterances termed holophrases-to convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words are nouns describing familiar objects that the
child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada)
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to
100 words (Siegler, 1986). Because the young child's vocabulary is very
limited at this point in the development process, the child overextends
the meaning of words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things and
ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example the general term
for any kind of four-legged anirnal may be "doggie". In linguistics this
is called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combi-
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
ning single words to produce two-word utterances. These two-word or
three-word utterances w.ith rudimentary syntax but with articles and
prepositions missing are referred to as telegraphic speech.
r',,
I
tr
Ir
t.
It
l.
t
i'
t.
[,
Fr
I
t;
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300
words at about 2 years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years
of age. At about 4 years, incredibly children acquire the foundations of
adult syntax and language structure (Sternberg, 2003).
It is clear that nq toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one
capable of telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language comes in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling,
to one-word utterances, to two- or three-word utterances or even more
but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic speech.
Snrrucmr
l.
child care
2.
I
I
iil
I'i
t
left side of their brains for language sounds and the right side for
expression emotion.... we all speak out from the right side of our
mouths....Babies babble out from the right side of their mouths.
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the
brain while the left side of the body is controlled by the right side of
the brain (connections in the brain are contralateral or crossed). Babies
use the right side of their mouths for babbling, rhen babbling is a
language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
Several psyt
challenged ir
cognitive gn
wise:
On the
stimulation
units used tr
i
sounds. Scie
the neonatal
attention de
and softener
the environn
and R. Golir
fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth college in Hanover, New
Hampshire and her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded
that "by 5 months of age, babies are already specializing by using the
,
cific activiti
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972). noted linguist, claims that humans
have an innate language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a
"metaphc-ical organ that is responsible for language rearning. Just as a
hea.t is designed to pump blood this language acquisition device is
preprogrammefl to leam language, whatever the language community children find themselves in."
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured
to be ready to acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack
for acquiring an implicit understanding of the many rures of language
structure, as well as for applying those rules to new vocabulary and new
contexts. This may partly explain why children are said to leam language
i
Arganize a
roles of exp
and languag
cussants. Al
serve as m(
What are
What i
may want t
references ir
3.
You have k
those that h
2? What do
your future
4.
Language le
Studies shor
to children
i
guage envin
you give to
ments? You
Part
ll
unit 2 Module 1 3 - cognitive Development of lnfants and roddlers
S.mrurcATnu
organize a talk show. Three of your classmates who will play the
roles of experts in sensorimotor development, memery development
and language development during infancy wiil serve as panel of discussants. After each expert has delivered his/her piece one will
serve as moderator. A question that should not be forgotten is:
what are some applications of these concepts /theories in
child care and parenting?
Several psychologists claim that babies need to be stimulated and
challenged in order to grow and develop on a cognitive revel. Spe-
cific activities, practiced on a regular basis, stimulate an infant's
cognitive growth. However, the following experiment proves otherwise:
on the increasingly prevalent cultural assumption that more
stimulation is better and that it is never too early to start, feonatal
units used to be filled with bright lights and soothing but stimulating
sounds. Scientists later found, however, that the sounds and lights of
the neonatal care units were actually contributing io problems of
attention deficit and hyperactivity. So now the units are darkened
and softened to'resemble the dark and muffled place, the womb,
the environment thlt nature had intended for these babies (K.pasek
and R. Colinkofi 2003).
What is your stand on the issue of brain stimulation? you
may want to review "pruning" of the brain discussed in several
references including intemet to arrive at more informed stand.
You have learned that past events recalled as earry as two are
those that had personal significance. Does this appry even after age
2? What do you think? If you think yes, what does this imply to
your future teaching?
Language leaming
Studies show that when parents, .teachers and caregivers talk more
to children and ask any questions, they create more stimulating language environments for their children. what recommendations can
you give to parents for them to provide stimulating language environments? You may want do do some further research on this.
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
nate langua
humans see
ri tW'l
:,.,
[)'
BIG IDIAS
language.
rflr
l.
i.l
The infant's and the toddler's development fall under the sensorimostage of Piaget's cognitive developmont theory.
tor developmental
,t
Chaiacterize each substage.
i
Substages
I
of Piaget's Sensorimotor
I/
at'
RISEARCH
The class
Stage
Characteristics
fteir
*'ill
babies and toc
krfant and toddler.
Simple Reflexes
2 First habits and primary
circular
reactions phase
behaviors of what i
Ptrilippine Early Lez
b fte Child and S
3 Secondary circular reactions phase
C-ae and Developn
4 Coordination of secondary circular
enough work
reaclions stdge
5 krtiary circular
fusical
developmen
to
do
With the assist
reactions, novelty,
and curiosity
6 Internatization of Schemes(Invention
of Nefr Meitns Through Mental
Combinotion (18-24 months)
methodology. Condu
md toddlers using
refer to Unit I. Par
What lnfants and
I
DOMAIN: LANGUAGE,
7
Object permonence
UNGUAGE (RECEPTT\
Based on your experiat
We do not have the ability to recall events that happened
when we were very young. This is called infantile amnesia.
Many psychologists believe that people remember experiences
beginning age 3. Some, however, remember significant events at
age 2.
I
I
ll
rl
Within the first years of life, development in the production of
language include the following stages
Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel
sounds; to most people's ears, the babbling of infants
growing up among speakers from different language groups
sounds very similar
One-word utterances, these utterances are limited in both the
vowels and the consonants they utilize
Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
Noted lingu
linzuist Noam Chomsky claims that humans have an in-
by a child on the specil
0'6 months
o Watches primary
7 - 12 months
o
o
Understands'Nt
Points to family r
13 - 18 months
o
i
Points to 5 body
Follows one-step
19 - 24 months
o
Points,to 5 name
IANGUAGE (EXPRESS
Sandards
1:
The chil
tse/rngs.
Based on your ex
a child on
performed by
0 - 6 months
o
o
Makes gurgling,
Uses gestures (e
Part
2
Unit
2
Module 13
- Cognitive
Development of lnfants and Toddlers
nate language acquisition device (LAD). This means that we,
humans seem to be biologically primed to be ready to .acquire
language.
.iw r nrsrARCH
1,.
will
be grouped for another research with parents on
their babies and toddlers, this time on the cognitive development of the
infant and toddler. Make use of the cognitive list of standards and
behaviors of what infants and toddlers can do cognitively based on the
Philippine Early Leaming and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated
by the Child and Welfare Council now merged with the Early Childhood
Care and Development Council. Those who were assigned research on
physical development may no longer included in the grouping. They have
enough work to do for the research on physical development.
With the assistance of your mentor, formulate the research problem,
methodology. Conduct a research on the cognitive development of infants
and toddlers using the questionnaire on page 164. For Scoring Rubrics
refer to Unit I" Part I, Module 4.
The class
What lnfants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively?
DOMAIN: LANGUAGE, PRE.READING AND PRE.MATH
LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfofmed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
e Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
7 - 12 months
o Understands "No"
o Points to family member when asked to do so
13 - 18 months
o Points to 5 body parts on himiherself when asked to do so
o Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
19 - 24 morithd
o Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
{t'
i
ss
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards
1. The child is able to use words and gestures
fo express his
thoiughts and
feelings.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o
o
Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
Uses gestures (e.9., sketching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what he /she wants
t
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
o
),
ll,
t
13
Repeats sounds produced by others
Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.9., meow-meow for cat)
Llses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g., boom
for thunder)
- 18 months
o
o
o
o
Speaks in single words
Says "yes" and "no'appropriately
Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
b
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
o
Responds
simple questions with single words
Resists intenupt
HIGHER.ORI
Standards 1. The child
quantity, seriation, etc
categorized in his/ her
,
Based on your
t
a child u
o
o
Experiments
wtU
he
dire
Looks in
7 - 12 months
o
o
Looks for partid
Looks for
mmpl
Standards 1.1: The child is able to-match identicaloblects, colors, shapes, symbo/s.
Based on your experience, 6re these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
7 - 12
19 - 24 months
o
o
months
Matchesidenticalobjects
PRE.READTNG AND PRE.MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)
The child
is
to recite the alphabet and numbrs in
abte
sequence.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
Counts ftom 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
The child is able
to
sustain aftention and modulate his activity at age-
expected levels.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o
Lodks steadily at novel stimuli (e.9., rattle, dangling toy)
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
Can tell which is
Can tellwhich is
Can
Based on your
eq
by a child on the specrfie
o
Acts on an obje
7 - 12 months
Uses an object
I
19 - 24 months
ATTENTION AND ACT'VITY LEVEL
:
Can tell which is
Sfandards 7:Thechild
o
Domain: Cognitive Development
Standards 1
Hands over 1 d
0- 6 months
19 - 24 months
o
Can tell whethet
tellwhidt is
HIGHER.ORDERED
(CAUSE- EFFECT R
Matches identical pictures
1.2:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Able to match 2 identical objects (e,9,, 2 spoons, 2 balls)
Standards
,
0 - 6 months
Uses pronouns
Uses possessive pronouns
Says what he/she wants wittrout accompanying this with gestures
Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
19 - 24 months
4
rl
May be distracte
13 - 18 months
o
!
o
o
performed by
PRE.READTNG AND PRE-MATH (MATCHTNG)
I
13 - 18 months
Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.9., pulling apart)
Looks with interest at picture books
Able to sit through an entire meal witrout fussing
o
o
o
o
Asks "Why?'qu
Understands re
Understands rei
play matches)
Knows where to
MEMORY (MEMOR
Standards
1:Thechid
Based on your
eq
by a child on the specifie
0 - 6 months
o
Child reacts, like
does not live in
Part
2
Unit
2
Module 13
-
Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers
13 - 18 months
o
o
May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
Resists interruption while engaged in play
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)
Standards 1'. The child deve/ops baslc concepfs pertaining to oblect constancy, space, time,
quantity, seriation, etc. and uses fhese as lhe basrs for understanding how mateials are
categorized in his/ her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicatois generally observed on and/or
a child on the specified age?
performed by
0 - 6 months
o
o
Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting thein in his mouth
Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7 - 12 months
o
o
Looks for partially hidden objects
Looks for completely hidden obiects
13 - 18 months
o
o
Can tell whether something is hot or cold
Hands over 1 object when asked
',9 - 24 months
o
o
o
o
Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES
(cAUSE. EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 7 : The child is able to understand the cause -effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators gene:'ally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0- 6 months
o
Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.9., shakes rattle)
7 - 12 months
o
Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.9., spoon to reach an object
)
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
Asks "Why?" questions
Uhderstands reasons behind daily practices (e.9., washing hands before meals)
Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.9., why one must not
play
o
matches)
(
Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)
1 : The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has been to.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
Standards
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o
Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several ttmes but who
does not live in his/her home
"',
rI
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
13 - 18 months
o
)
Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of afamiliar place besides his/her home
19 - 24 months
o
n
I
Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before'
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT.BASED KNOWLEDGE:
SEMANTTC MEMORY)
r
I
t
o
o
o
Examines prop
Looks with ints
Able to sit
o
o
19 - 24 months
Sfandards 1 :The chih
May be diskad
Resists
interul
quantity, t
Memorizes some gestures of actron songs
mateials
Standards
1:
of events (i.e., reasons why these happen)
evaluating fhe facts presented to him.
The child is able to follow the logic
bl
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABTL|TTES (PLANNtNG AND ORGANTZTNG)
Standards 1 ; The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity. Eased on your
experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or peiormed by a
child on the specified.age?
19 - 24 months
HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (CREAT|VE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or conceptg or new associallons
between ex.stlng ideas or concepts.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
a child on the specified age?
Based on your ex
by a child on the specifir
0 - 6 months
.
o
Experiments wil
Looks in the din
7 - 12 months
o
o
Looks for partia
Looks for comfl
13 - 18 months
o
o
Can tell whetre
Hands over 1 o
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
o
Can tellwhidr h
Can tell which
is
Can tell which
is
Can tellwhidr h
performed by
HIGHER.ORDERED
19 - 24 months
(CAUSE. EFFECT
o
r
o
Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.9., blocks, clay,
sand, paper)
Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.9., pretends empty milk can is a drum)
Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as house)
Based on your
0- 6 months
Acts on an otrier
I
What infants and toddlers can do Cognitively?
I
Domain: Cognitive Development
19 - 24 months
Standards 1 : The child is able to susfaln attention and modulate his activity at agecxpected
/ercls.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
e4
by a child on the specrfie
o
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Rl
Standards 1:Thechitd
7 - 12 months
rl
I[
Hums a recognizable'tune
and draw accurate conclusbn
jlr
thrcx.
13 - 18 months
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (LoG|CAL REASONTNG)
i
Looks steadily
HIGHER.ORDERED
o
o
I
o
7 - 12 months
: The child is abte fo sfore verbatinformation in short and tong -term memory.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
Standards 1
I
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
Uses an object
Asks "Why?"
t
qx
Understands rea
Understands rea
play matches)
Knows where to
MEMORY (MEMORY
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 13
-
Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers
0 - 6 months
o
Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.9., raftle, dangling toy)
7 - 12 months
o
o
o
Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.9., pulling apart)
Looks with interest at picture books
Able to sit through an entire med wittout fussing
13 - 18 months
o
o
May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
Resists intenuption while engaged in play
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)
Sfandards 1 :The child devetops basic concepfs pertaining to obied constancy, space, time,
quanti$, seiation, etc. and uses liese as fhe bass for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
.
o
Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or pufting them in his mouth
Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7 - 12 months
o
o
Looks for partially hidden objects
Looks for completely hidden objects
13 - 18 months
o
o
Can tell whether something is hot or cold
Hands over 1 object when asked
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
o
Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES
(cAUSE- EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 1 : The child is able to understand fhe cause 'effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0- 6 months
o
Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.9., Shakes rattle)
7 - 12 months
o
Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.9., spoon to reach an object
)
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
Asks "Why?" questions
Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.9., washing hands before meals)
Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.9., why one must not
play matches)
o
Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)
rf
,t
*
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
slandards 7 : The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has been
i
b.
f,
)A
fll
rl
MRffroro*
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfonnert
by a child on the specified age?
Go back to the
this Module. Rel
0 - 6 months
o
*
I
I
Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several times but
who does not live in his/her home
13 - 18 months
!
o
i
Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her home
19 - 24 months
I
t
Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before
i
{
h
t
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT .BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTTC
MEMORY)
h,
Standards 1 : The child is able lo store verbal information in short and long -term memory.
lfl
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
+
19 - 24 months
o
o
Hums a recognizable tune
, Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (LOGICAL REASONTNG)
Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why these
happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfonnert
by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (PLANNING AND ORGANTZING)
Standards
I
:
The child is able to plan and organize
a
simpte, familiar activity.
Based on your experiencb, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILtTtES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The chitd is able to generate new ideas or cotncepts:, or neyy associafbns
between existing r'deas or concepts.
t'
tl
,,i
rll
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
o
o
o
Enjoys conskucting objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g., blocks, clay,
sand, paper)
Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.9., pretends empty milk can is a drum
Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as
house)
L
What struck ,
infants and todd
development of
reflections here.
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module
1
3
-
Cognitive D,ewlopment of lnfants and Toddlers
ffinnECTlor{
Go back to the quotation from Kahlil Gibran beneath the title of
this Module. Reflect on it.
What struck you most
in the cognitive
development of
infants and toddlers? Remember cognitive development includes
development of memory and acquisition of language. Write your
reflections here.
*
I
I
child and Adolescent Developmen[ tooking at Leamels at Different Life stages
I!l
||rorlulr 14
Socio-emotional Development of
lnfants and Toddlers
-
i1,
Brenda B. Corpuz, ph.D,
Pat
If a child lives wt
If a child lives wt
If a child lives wt
But...
If a cfuild lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi,
If a child lives wi,
If a cl1ild lives wit
those about hi
If a child lives witt
in which to lit
llith what is your
lr.
Fi
id
lfl
In this Module,
'
'
ffi
nunrvss
Q
challenge
yourself
to:
describe the socio-emotional development prooesses that you went
through as an infant and toddler.
I.
the socio+
2.
'state
the implications of research findings on infants, and
todhlers' socio-emotional deveropment to parenting and child care.
adjuir
children?
a
rnrRoDucrrou
ments and social skills.
From what
well
J.
'simply put, socio-emotional
development has something to do with
the development of a person's ability to master one,s emotions and the
ability to relate to others. It necessarily includes temperament, attach-
Based on I
Statd in a
socio-emoti
$ nosrnncirox
The Fofmative Yea
Much has been
ffi&A.rrvw
in human
Read Nolte's poem then answer the ff. questions:
1. Do you agree with D. Nolte's poem?
why, parents and oth
play a significant role
2.
[hich line of the poem is most meaningful to you? Explain.
Children l*arn What'They Live
If a child lives with criticism, he leams to condemn...
If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight...
If a child lives with fear; lu learns to be apprehensive...
developme
As the poem ..
kind of hpme and scl
determines to a very
ctrildren.
Let us discuss tl
wtrolesome socio-emot
Part
If a child
If a child
If a child
ll
Unit
2
Module.14
- Socio-emotional
Development of lnfants and Toddlers
lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for. himself...
lives wi.th ridicule, he learns to be shy...
lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt...
,'*
I
But...
If
If
If
If
a cfuitd lives with tolerance, he learns 7o be patient...
a child lives with encouragement, he learns tb be con/ident...
a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative...
a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love...
If a chitd lives with honesty, he learns what truth'is...
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice...
If a cl1ild lives with security, he leorns to hove faith in himself and
those about him...
If a child lives with friendliness,
he learns the world is a nice place
in which to live.
Wh
what is your child living?
Dorothy L.Nolte, Trained Family Counselor
Q
nunlsrs
l.
Based on Nolte's poem, which plays a very important role in
the socio-emotional development of children?
2.
From what kind of home environment do chilfen who are
well adjusted most probably come? What about maladjusted
children?
3.
:
State in a sentence what the poem is saying about a child's
socio-emotional development.
fr
nssrnncinr
^"
The Fotmative Years
}u
Much has been said about the impoftance of the first three years
in human development. They are so-called the formative years that is
why, parents and other caregivers at this stage of human development
play a significant role in the developm6nt of infants and toddlers.
As the poem "Children Leam What They Live" expresses, the
kind of hpme and school environment that parents and teachers produce
determines to a very great extent the quality of the development of
children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something
wholesome socio-emotional development of children.
to do with
the
iil
I
t
*
I
I
Chitd and Adolescent
t cucloptnfit Looking at tcamers at Different Life Stages
Pan
Attachment
.
h
l,t
!
i
.
l,'
F'
i,i
m
.
.
For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs .to establish an enduring emofional bond characterized by a tendency to seek
and maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during
stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of attachment.
According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory the
beginnings of attachment occur within the first 6 months of a
baby's life with a variety of built-in Signals that baby uses to keep
her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother's
eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develo;is in her
degree of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at
them than at any stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what
Bob Greene must have experienced. (See quote below the title of
this Module).
The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is
a lot of responsive interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and
RGolinkofr 2003). Babies thrive on social interaction when it is in
response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know when
they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's
response to the baby is important.
Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek
and R. Golinkoff,.(2003) in their book "Einstein Never Used
Classcards"
o
Childrrn who have good attachment relationships as infants make
better adjustments in a number of areas in future life. But remember, having a good attachment in infancy gives you a
great start but can't carry you through life. You have to be
treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are to
develop favorably.
lnfants attach to more than one caregiver and they are
developing emotional relationships with muttiple caregivers at
once.
Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours
per week, the family contributes more to child's social and cognitive well-being than does the child care arangement. Parents
matter and children are attached to parents even when children
are in child care.
anr
working w
Temperament
l.
Another factor
temperament
that people di
reactions, acti
regulate their
baby expressel
responds emot
his individual
2.
Researcheis T
perament cate
Infant-Toddler
These include:
are giien below:
What is absolutely cenffal to babiesl emotional well-being is not
so much feeding but the consistent involvemenl of caregivers.
Being fed by your mother is not what attached you to her. It
is consistent, close nurturing that matters in early relationships.
Parents
'
.
'
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Activi0
Mood
Thresh
Rhyftn
Intensil
Approa
Distrag
Adaptaj
Persistt
To determint
tions:
Activity
levr
thrash about a lot
stage, they must t
The mood,
Although securety
low-key mood and
Child's
thrcx
They becomt
more comfortr
The rhythmir
a fairly reguk
times, urinate
Part
o
ll
Unit
2
Module 14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and Toddlerg
Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by
working with them and by serving as their models.
,,t
tU
Temperament
l.
Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is
temperament. Temperament is a word that "captures the ways
that people differ, even at birth, in such things as their emotional
reactions, activity level, atteqtion span, persistence, and.ability to
regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R. Golinkofi 2003). Every
baby expresses personality traits we call temryramenf. How a child
responds emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of
his individual temperament.
2.
Researcheis Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different tem-
perament categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing
Infant-Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
'
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
o
.
Activity level
Mood
Threshold for distress
Rhythmicity
lntensity of response
Approach-Withdrawal
Distractibility
Adapability
Persistence
To determine a child's temperament, make the following observations:
Activity level.. Sorne babies are placid or inactive. Other babies
thrash about a lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this
stage, they must be watched carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful.
Although securely attached emotionally to their teachers, others have a
low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive.
They become upset very easily when stressed. Other babies can
more comfortably wait when they need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children.- Some babies get hungry or sleepy on
a fairly regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying
times, urinate or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Par
get hungry at different times. They are hard to put on a "schedule."
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold
for distress has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act
cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or
howl with despair when they are stressed. They shriek with delight
and re.spond with high energy when reacting to happy or challenging situations.
Approach to new'situations. Some infants are very cautious.
They are wary and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a new settiqg. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new play possibilities with
zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can conoentrate on a toy regardless of
surrounding bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or
difficult situations with distress, byrt recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after a very long period.
Child's attention span. Sbme children have a long attention span.
They continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit
from one activity to another.
. Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists . Alexander
Thomas and Stella Chess studied babies' temperament and
clustered temperaments 'into 3 basic types : l) the casy child;
2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow-to-warm -up child and
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The
"easy child" easily readily bstablishes regular routines, is
generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences. The
"difficult child" is irregular in d4ily routines, is slow to accept
new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to
new things while the "slow-to warm-up-child" shows mild,
low-key reactions to environmental changes, is negative in mood.
and adjusts slowly to new experiences
.
Children wt
description dor
and remorse.
recognize the
evaluated aga
200.3)
r
It
is.
not then
have done sor
other tirnes wi
bad babies. It
standard in mir
'The
development
Here are the
development and so
Early infancy (birt
It is not clear
.
adults, using ad
pose their own
sions.
.
-
Between six an
panied by othe
cooing and mor
smiles and inter
As. infants becor
-in;response to
i
they. see
a toy I
at around threr
.
The Emergence of the Moral Self
e I sense of .morality presupposes awareness of the existence of
moral standards and the ability to evaluate oneself against standards
Once children can recognize themselves as entities, they become
capable of self-evaluation and self-description against a set of standards. In the research conducted by Professor Deborah Stipek and
her colleagues at the University of Califomia. Los Angeles. (Pasek
K and R. Golinkoffl about 50% of the 19- to- 24 month olds and
80 % of the l
are capable o1
have a sense
development be
incongruity. Thr
deviate from the
caregiver playin
actions with othr
Later infancy mont
.
During the last
disgust,'and ang
Anger, often ex;
I
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module
1
4
- Socio-emotional
Development of lnfants' and Toddlers
80 Yo of the 25-to-29-months old and almost all 30-to-40-month-olds
are capable of self-evaluation. These age groups of babies therefore
have a sense of morality.
Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and selfdescription don't have the capacity to experience a sense of shame
and remorse. Moral behavior cannot occur when cl;rildren do not
recognize themselves as social beings whose behavior can be
evaluated against some standard." (P?[sek, K and R. Colinkoff,
2003)
It
is. not then surprising why some babies show their parents they
have done something wrong sometimes even with laughter or at
other times with no particular emotion. It is not because they are
bad babies. It is simply because they are not yet able to hold a
standard in mind and evaluate situations in terms of these standards.
The development of emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddley's emotional
development and social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)
. It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or
if
adults, using adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
.
Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by oth'er pleasure-indicative actions and sounds, including
'. cooing and mouthing. This social smile occurs in response to adult
smiles and interactfons.
As infants bqcome more aware of their environment, smiling occurs
-in;rcsponse to a *iaer variety of contexts. They may smile when
they, see a toy they have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins
at around three or.'four months, requires a level of cognitive
developmenl because it demonstrates that the child can recognize
incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that
deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a
caregiver playing peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter promotes social development.
Later infancy months (7-12)
. During the last half of the first yeaq infants begin expressing feaq
disgust, and anger because of the maturation of cognitive abllities.
Anger, often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed
{
*
x
-i
Part ll
Child and Adolescent Developmenf Loolting at Learners at Different Life Stages
h,
I'rr
I
lLr
1iil
,
by infants. Although some infants respond to distressing events with
sadness, anger is more common.
Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to
compare an unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear responses in infants. One of the
most commpn is the presence of an adult stranger, a fear that
begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this
stage is called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months
old may cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an
unfamiliar place.
of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this
is significant in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social
codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their
emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with diflerent
Socialization
;
lr
i,
h{,
hi
process
types
of emotional
I
lrr
II
i,
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or
embarrassment. and pride. These emotions mature in all children and
adults contribute to their development.
:'l
'i
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are
leaming to verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is
during early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional
.rl
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate
.tj
If they are uncomfortable they may be able to
f,
tl
I
I
i
i
i
i
i
I
I
.
Empathy, a
appears in tc
empathy reqr,
stand that od
take the
pen
position of a
Erikson's Psychosor
The first two :
development) apply at
they are discussed
be
Hope: Trust
vs
.
.
Psychosocial
Vftue: Hope
The first stage
needs being met by
especially ihe mother
relative understanding
their interaction witl
warmth, regularity, ar
world will be one of
environment and to m
rcsult. According to Er
is to learn whether ol
regularly satisfi basic
comfoft, and affection.
and reliable. tf they a
instead leams mistrustable, and possibly danl
Will: Autonomy
self-regulation skills.
{t
soothing language to
behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social
referencing. Infants begin to recognize the emotions of others, and
use this infoirnation when reacting to novel situations and people. As
infants explore their world, they generally rely on the emotional
expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety
or appropriateness of a particular endeavor.
ln
emotional state. Sp
their emotiorral states.
communicate this state by crying, but have little hope of alleviating the
discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate
their emotions with the emergence of language providing an important tool
to assist in this.process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in
itself has a regulatory effect in that it ehables children to communicate
their feelings to a person capable of helping them manage their
.
.
.
Psychosocial C
Main Question
on others?"
Mrtue: Will
As the child
gair
abilities, they begin to r
a strong base of securil
their will. The parer
Part
ll
Unit
2
Mo<tule 14
- Socio+motional
Development of lnfantg and Todcllers
emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using
soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
. Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also
appears in toddlerhood, usually by age wo. The development of
empathy requires that children rcad others' emotional cues, under.
stand that other people are entities distinct from themselves, and
take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the
position of another). (Source: http://psychologydrank.org)
+
,;
Eriksoh's Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial
development) apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why
they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to
.
.
I
year)
Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infant's basic
needs being met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents,
especially ihe mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child's
relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and
their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the
world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure
environment and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will
result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy
is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers,
regularly satisfr basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food,
comfoft, and affection, an infant leams trust- that others are dependable
and reliable. tf they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant
instead leams mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredicr
able, and possibly dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
.
.
.
(Toddlers,
Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame
Main Question: "Can
on others?"
I
&
2 to 3
years)
Doubt
do things myself or must
I always
rely
Mrtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor
abilities, they begin to explore their sunoundings. The parents still provide
a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to asseft
their will. The parents' patience and encouragement help foster
*
-t
rf
t
t
I
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at
tcamer
at Difierent Life Stages
Par
in tlre child. Highly resfictive par€nts, however, are more likely
to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new
autonomy
)L,
r;
all
challenges.
'
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobirity, toddrers
become capable of satisfring some of their own needs. They begin to
feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathrooin. If
caregivers encourage. self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of
autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many problerns on their own.
But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to ret children
perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at
self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their
ability to handle problems (en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erikson's- stages-of-
I
t,i
T
psychosocia I deve lopment-)
I
Hl
h
$nrnrcArnr
l.
2.
3.
ir
,
$
i,
$
"The hand that rocks the cradle rocks the world." How does this
relate to an infant's and toddle/s development?
Compose your own version of Nolte's "Children Leam What They
Live". Rap it or sing it."
(This should be assigned in advance.) S Observe the
interaction of an adult caregiver (parbnt, grandparent, Day care
worker) with:
a) an infant
b) a toddler
Don't let them know that you are observing them. In other words,
observe them unobtrusively. Record what the adult. says or does and
what the infant and.the toddler do in return
Interpret your observations in the context of Erikson's psychosocial theory (particularly trust vs. mistrust and autonomy vs. shame and
doubt) of human development. Be sure that the ones you observe do
not know that you are observing them.
For your Observation Notes, follow this format:
Toddler and Adulr
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 14
- Socio-emotional Development
of lnfants ano loddlers
I
ln
My Observations
Baby and Adult Caregiver
Toddler and Adult Caregiver
My
Interpretations
in the context of
Erikson's theory
i
I
I
t
I
Part
I
Cries in different
r
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Differont Life Stages
4. Guide Questions for Ideal Parenting and Caregiving
You must have experienced babysitting or serving as one at
Determine if your child care was is ideal:
t
hr
f
'r'
0 - 6 months
o
o
present.
How ideal are you as a parent or caregiver? Try to answer these
guide questions to find out. Rate yourself from I to 4, I as the
lowest and 4 as the highest.
:
i
l.
I
I
I
l
t
ir
I
[,,
Hi
n
I
t
I
f;
2.
3.
4.
j.
7.
Are you generally in good spirits and encouraging when
ins with the child?
Do you smile often at the child?
Do you hug the child, pat the child on the back or hold
the child's hand?
Do you comfort the child?
Do your repeat the child's words, comment on what the
child says or tries to say and answer the child's questigls?
Do you encourage the child to talk or communicate by
asking questions that the child gan answer easily, such.as
"yes" or "no" questions, or asking about a family member
Do you talk in other ways, such as praising or sncouraging; teaching by having the child repeat phrases or naming
shapes; singing songs; and telling stories?
t
i
I
4
I
i; ,
a*
RESEARff
The class will be organized to research on the socio-emotional
development of babies and toddlers using the list of standards and
behaviors lifted from the Philippine Early Learning and Development
Standards (PELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now
merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development Council.
Schedule time for research presentation in class. Use the scoring
rubrics presented in Part l, Unit l, Module 4 for the research and.
research presentation.
What Infants and Toddlers can do socio-emotionally?
Domain: Social and Emotional Development
suB.DoMA|N: EMOTIONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)
Standards 1.1.'. The chrld expresses different basrb erno0ons'
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per'
formed by a child on the specified age?
u1
o
Smiles or laughs
o
Amuses self by si
her)
and forth)
o
o
o
o
I
I
I
Shows excitemen
the face lighting
Amuses self by si
Hkes playing witt
Enjoys going to
t
Shows fear and h
7 - 12 months
o
Has a favorite toy
13 - 18 months
o
.
o
Smiles/laughs wtr
Cries when sad,
r
Shows varying de
Standards 1.2 : The clt
folbws schedules as mel
0 - 6 months
o
o
13 -
.
Stops crying dmo
Eventually gets
ur
{8 months
o
Able to stop an
ur
out to street)
.
o
Can calm down
o
Can follow simple
19 - 24 months
o
o
Can wait his/her t
Shows ability to o
removed
o
o
Shows ability to o
when asked by p
Tries to control hl
Standards 1,3
: The fi,
pride, guilt)
7 - 12 months
o
Smiles or claps
hr
open)
13 - 18 months
o
o
Recognizes and x
envy, jealousy
Willdo somehirg
19 - 24 months
o
o
Shows interest in
Says "sorry" wher
Part
ll
Unit
2
Module 14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and Toddlers
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g., hungry, sleepy, wet)
shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the entire body and
the face lighting up
smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g., caregiver singing to him/
he0
i4
.;
Amuses self by simple repetitive musde movemenF without objects (e.g., rolling back
and forth)
Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements witr objects (e.g., shaking, rattle)
fikes playing with water
Enjoys going to the park
Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7 - 12 months
o
Has a favorite toy
13 - 18 months
o
.
o
Smiles/laughs when happy or amused
Cries when sad, angry or scared
Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions
: The child demonstrates ability to self-regulate feetings/emotions and
follows schedules as wel/ as ru/es and regulations.
Standards 1.2
0 - 6 months
o
o
Stops crying almost immediately when need is met
Eventually gets used to an irritating experience (e.9., honking hom) and calms down
13 - 18 months
o
Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so (e.g., going
out to street)
o
o
Can calm down or stop tantruming with help from adults
Can follow simple rules
19 - 24 months
o
o
Can wait his/hef turn
Shtiws ability to contain his/her expression of anger or frustration when source is
removed
o
o
shows ability to contain one's expression of anger or frustration in a public place
when asked by parenU caregiver
Tries to conkol his tears when in pain or scared
Standards 1.3
:
The child comprehends and displays seff-appmial emotions (shame,
pride, guift).
7 - 12 months
o
13 - 18 months
o
Recognizes and is able to label self appraisal emotions such as shame, pride, guilt,
envy, jealousy
Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.9., doing a task properly, singing, etc.)
19 - 24 months
o
o
i
smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g., closeopen)
o
t
Shows interest in doing things that are his /her own creation
Says 'sorry" when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone
t
",1
i
Pa
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
o
o
o
o
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVIW TO OTHER'S EMOTIONS)
Standards 1 : The child is receptive to the different emotions of other peopte and shows
empathy.
'
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
a child on the specified age?
performed by
o
Can mimic peoples facial expressions
Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people's emotions (e.g', does
not laugh at someone who is crYing)
19 - 24 months
o ldentfies feelings in others
o ' shows respect for rights and properties of others (e.9., asks permission,
Standards 1 '. The clt
Based on your expeie
by a child on the spc
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
does not
deliberately destroy others' things)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (EMERGING SENSE OF SELF)
The chitd expresses knowtedge of self and basic roles of people
1
:
Standards
her
in
his/
immediate environment,
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the sPecified age?
o
o
o
lj
I
il,
ldentifies self in the mirror or photograph via patting or pointing to hisfter image
o
o
o
o
ldentifies what part of his/her body hurts by pointing to this
Refers to self by first or nickname
o
o
May hug/kiss
u
Shows or share
Asks to play wiU
Talks to oher dt
.Shows preferen
Standards 1 :
Iip
Based on your e
performed by a child on I
respectful and polite
0-
ldentifies self by first and last name
ldentifies what part of his/her body hurts by naming this
significant adults and children in his/her
life.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
6 months
o
o
o
o
Looks for caregiver during times of distress or discomfort
shows dishess (e.g., inability to eat or sleep, crying) if primary caregiver is absent
13 - 18 months
ls affectionate towards primary caregivers and other family members
Goes to primary caregivers for help
Will look at adult
Listens to verba[
Coos or smiles
v
Plays peek-a-bo
7 - 12 months
o
Hugs, pats,
kisx
13 - 18 months
o
o
0 - 6 months
o
o
Plays cooperath
Asks for what he/she needs without hesitation
Expresses dislike or disagreement (e.9,, no, ayaw) but in a manner that remains
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (FORMING ATTACHMENTS)
Standards 1 : The child forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and other
o
o
Engages in plal
Plays with otrer
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAI
Calls family members by their name/role (mama, papa, ate, kuya)
19 - 24 months
.
o
c
19 - 24 months
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
o
Looks at oher
Displays amuse
13-fSmonths
Explores own body (e.g., observes hands and toes), often smiles and vocalizes
Looks at self in the mirror
Responds to own name by turning to look or reaching to be picked up when called
7 - 12 months
Plays with toys
Smiles in respor
7 - 12 months
0 - 5 months
o
o
o
Eventually mov
or adults, but m
SUB-DOMAllr
13 - 18 months
o
Hugs or cuddle
Enjoys playing
19 - 24 months
7 - 12 months
r
ls comfortable i
May play alone
o
o
Friendly with stre
Asks adults (otrr
indicate what he
Willingly does wtr
Appropriately usr
kiss)
Part
o
o
o
o
ll
Unit
2
Module
'14
-
Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and ToddleG
ls comfortable in the company of strangers if primary caregiver is present
May play alone but likes to be near familiar adults or siblings
Hugs or cuddles toys
Enjoys playing regularly with significant adults and children
19 - 24 months
o
Eventually moves away from primary caregiver when playing with unfamiliar children
or adults, but may look occasionally in his/her direction
SUB.DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN)
Standards 1 . The child plays and has positive interactions with other children.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or peiormed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o
o
o
o
Plays with toys by himself (e.g , mouths, examines, swipes toys)
Smrles in response to the facial expressions of other children
Looks at other children with interest; watches them play
Displays amusement interacting with other children (e.9., cooing, flailing arms and legs)
7 - 12 months
o
o
Engages in play alongside but not necessarily with other children (i.e., parallel play)
Plays with other children (i.e., interactive play)
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
Plays cooperatively wrth other children
May hug/kiss or hold hands with other children
Shows or shares food, books, and toys with other children
Asks to play with other children or invites them to play with him/her
19 - 24 months
o
o
Talks to other children, asks them questions
Shows preference for some children and interacts more
wih them
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH ADULTS)
Standards 1 '. The child has posiflve relations and interactions with adufts.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-
6 months
o
o
o
o
Will look at adulls faces and make eye-to-eye contact
Listens to verbalizations by adult
Coos or smiles when talked to by a familiar adult
Plays peek-a-boo interactively with others
7 - 12 months
o
Hugs, pats, kisses "familia/' persons
13 - 18 months
o
o
o
o
Friendly with strangers but initially may show slight anxiety or shyness
Asks adults (other than primary caregiver or adult family members) for help or to
indicate what he /she wants or needs
Willingly does what familiar adults ask him/her to do
Appropriately uses cultural gestures of greeting without prompting (e.9., mano/bless,
kiss)
(,
Child and Adolesccnt Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Pad ll
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (PAKIKIRAMDAM-SENSITIVITY)
Standards 1
:
The child takes socla/ cues frcm the environment and adlusts his behavior
a&oNingly.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observet on and/or
a child on the specified age?
performed by
M
l.
Based on stori
about your fin
home environm
has it affected
2.
One theme of
tive. True, in
0 - 6 months
o ls shy or more quiet with strangers
o Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or oblects
13 - 18 months
o Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
. Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around
.
him/her
19 - 24 months
.
lf he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until 'caregiver is able to attend to
him
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPREGIATING DlvERSlrY)
Standards 1
: The child recognizes and respecfs similaritie{ and differences
in
'
people, language, cufture.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per'
formed by a child on the specified age?
Able to differentiate between boys and girls Sub-domain: Social (Pakikiramdam-Sensitivity)
: The child takes socia/ cues from the,bnvironrnent and adlusts hrs behavior
Standards 1
accordingly.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
13 - 18
o
o
ls shy or more quiet with strangers
Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
months
t
Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around
him/her
19 - 24 months
o
lf he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is able to attend to
hlm
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSIW)
Standards 1 : The child recognizes and respecfs similarities and
differences
in
people,
language, cufture.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
o
Treats house help or those less fortunate with respect (e.9., talking to them in a polite
manner)
horrendous cin
later stages a
challenges ear
weren't held o
connecting w
www.leamingrl:
Do you believe
19 - 24 months
o
o
RtEtcTIo
cite concrete er
if it can be!
Part
M
l.
ll
unit 2 Module
14
- socioemotional Dsvelopment of hfants and roddlers
RE*ECT,N
Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents
about your first three years in the world, reflect on the kind of
home environment you have had as an infant and as a child? How
has it affecied you?
.
2.
.
'
one theme of Erikson's basic philosophy is that fairure is cumulative. True, in many cases an individual who has to dear with
horrendous circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate
later stages as easily as someone who didn't have as many
challenges early on. For example, we know that orphans who
weren't held or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time
connecting with others when they become adults. (http:ll
www.leamingplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson,htm )
Do you believe that there are exceptions? Reflect and, if you can,
cite concrete examples. Don't forget to give yourself as an example
if it can be!
,l
T
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Part
Unit Summory
Age
Milestones of Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional development
Process of the Infant and the Toddler
The socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers is from
intra- and interpersonal relations. Intrapersonal relation is the development
of self, emotion and gender identity while interper$onal relation has
something to do with the development of attachments., friendship and
peer-relations. Study the details of intra- and interpersonal relations in the
9 months
to
l2
months
Table below:
I
Milestones
to
From the start, babies eagerly explore their world-and that includes
themselves and other people.
Babies spend
yeor
2
ybors
a lot of 'time.getting to know t'heir own
bodies. They:
birth
to
3 months
o
o
o
o
Infants are interested in other people and learn to recognize
mary caregivers. Most infants:
. can be comforted by a familiar adult
.
o
o
o
3
respond positive.ly to touch
interact best when in an alert state
tive
months
months
6 monlhs
lo
9 months
o
.
o
.
or in an inactive and
|ri-
atten-
state
benefit from short, frequent interactions more than long. infrequent ones
smile and show pleasure in response to social stimulation
Babies are more likely
to
6
suck their own fingers
observe their own hands
look at the place on the body that is being touched
begin to realize she is a separate person from others and learn
how body parts, like armS and legs, are attached
to initiate social
interaction. They begin to:
play peek-a-boo
pay attention to own name
smile spontaneously
laugh aloud
Babies show a wider emotional range and stronger preferences fot
familiar people. Most can:
. express seveml clearly differentiated emotions
. distinguish friends from strangers
. respond actively to language and gestures
. show displeasure at the loss of a toy
2
yeors
l0
3
yeors
a
a
a
a
Part ll
nrt
Socio-emotional Development oi lnlants and Iodcllers
185
Milestones
Age
9
months
lo
l2
I
months
yeor
lo
2
yeors
As they near age one, imitation and self-regulation gain importance. Most babies can:
.
.
.
.
.
feed themselves finger foods ''
hold a cup with two hands and drink with assistance
hold out arms and legs while being dressed
mimic simple actions
show anxiety when separated from primary caregiver
Children become more aware of themselves and their ability to
make things happen. They express a wider range of emotions and are more likely to initiate interaction with other
people. At this stage, most children:
. recognize themselves in pictures or the mirror and smile or
make faces at themselves
. show intense feelings for parents and show affection for
other familiar people
. play by themselves and initiate their own play
. express negative feelings
. show pride and pleasure at new accomplishmgnts
. imitate adult behaviors in play
. show a strong sense of self through asserdiveness,
directing others
. begin'to be helpful. such as by helping to put things away
Children begin to experience themselves as more powerflul, cre-
ative o'doers." They explore everything, show
2
yeors
lo
3
yeors
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
'
a
,}
stronger sense of self and expand their range of self-help
skills. Self-regulation is a big challenge. TWo-year-olds are
likely to:
show awareness of gender identity
indicate toileting needs
help to dress and undress themselves
be assertive about their preferences and say no to adult
I
f
requests
begin self-evaluation and develop notions of themselves as
good, bad, attractive, etc.
show awareness of their own feelings and those of
others, and talk about feelings
experience rapid mood shifts and show increased fearfulness
(for example. fear of the dark, or certain objects)
display aggressive feelings and behaviors
Sourc
e
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UI{IT 3
A day at the z
Early Childhood
(The Preschooler)
-- llaria
I
MoDUTE
15
Rita D, Lucas, Ph,D,
Preschoolers' Physical
Development
-
Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
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11
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fficrlruilct
At the end of this Module,
.
.
.
challenge yourself to:
'children's
describe preschool
physical growth,
identifr the different gross and fine motor skills.
draw implications of these concept's on physieal development on
teaching preschoolers
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tNTRoDUCilo}t
The preschooler years is commonly known as "the years before
formal schooling begins." it roughiy covers 3.5 years of age. Although
it is known as the years beforg formal school, it is by no way less
important than the grade school years. The preschool years is very
important as it lays foundation to later development. At thjs stage,
preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones. As srch, pre-service
teachers who might be interested to teach and care for preschoolers
need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an intentional and
effective teacher.
This Module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses
on the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression,
proper nutrition and sleep, and what teachers and caregivers should do
to maximize the preschoolers' development.
'eMACrrvrTY
of
Examine the pictures bolow. Think about the physical characteristics
preschoolers. Put a caption 'for the pictures.
Pictures
Part ll Unit 3 Module
A day at the zoo playground...
Pictures 1 arici
'15
-
Preschooler's Physical Development
(photos by Teacher
Lot Zamora)
2
Pictures 3 and
4
Pictures 5 and
6
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Q
malsrs
From the
characteristics
of
cap
pn
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
Pictures
@
11
-
Preschooler's Physical Development
Pictures
12
mawsrs
From the captions you wrote for the pictures, what physical
characteristics of preschoolers came out? Write them below.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
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From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschoolers'
physical dev6lopment. They love to move. They enjoy being active.
They are also interested to work with their fingers, like with blocks.
They have a more balanced stance than toddlers. Read on and you will
learn more about the typical physical development of preschoolers, the
important concerns and issues, and how teachers and caregivers can
help maximize the preschoolers' groMh and development.
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
l. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers' physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.
age.
4.
Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the groMh
and development of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive. classrooms can
thrive well with the appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
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By the time
or what
place. The perman,
are also developing
habits of good dent
deciduous,
Gross and Fine
I!
Gross motor
the large muscles.
locomotor, non-loco
those that involve
running, climbing,
Non-locomotor on
bending, stretching
that involve projec
r
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early
;
t}t
fully" than the todr
years at around 5
require balance like
Significant Changes in Physical Growth
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is
much slower in pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3
years of age, preschoolers move, from the remaining baby-like features
of the toddler, toward a more slender appearance of a child. The
trunk, arms and legs become longer.
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is
evenly distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level,
about the chest level. This is why they have difficulty doing sudden
movements without falling down. Preschoolers on the other hand, have
their center of gravity at a lower level. right about near the belly button.
This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler.
The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a
more steady bearing. They no longer 'otoddle", that wobbly way that
toddlers walk. This also allows the preschooler to move more o'success-
bouncing, catching
a
Preschoolers
i
highest around threr
older.
Preschoolen
activities which wi
physical activity he
muscles, and joints,
delay hypertension, r
capacity for leaming
Fine motor
r
the smaller muscles
of the skills includec
things, holding and
skills like using thr
combing and brushir
Different
envi
motor skills. For ex
tions technology in
children proficient
gaming console lik
children use their fin
sticks, cans and bor
finger paint.
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
-
Preschooler's Physical Development
fully" than the toddler. Some say that the later part of the preschooler
years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin learning skills that
require balance like riding a bike or skating.
By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary or
deciduous, or what are also called "baby or milk" teeth are already in
place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age six
are also developing. The preschooler years ard therefore a time to instill
habits of good dental hygiene.
Gross and Fine Motor Development '
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skillS that involve
the large muscles. These gross motor skills are categorized into three:
locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are
those that involve going from one place to another, like walking,
running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging.
Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like
bending, stretching, tuming and swaying. Manipulative skills are those
that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking,
bouncing, catching
and
dribbling.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is
highest around three and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets
older. Preschoolers should be provided with a variety of appropriate
activitiss which will allow them to use their large muscles. Regular
physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy bones,
muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or
delay hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase
capacity for leaming.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use
the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully, Some
of the skills included here are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening
things, holding and using a writing implement. lt also involves self-help
skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping,
combing and brushing.
Different environments provide different experiences with fine
motor skills. For example the availability of information and communications technology in largely urban areas makes younger and younger
children proficient in keyboarding and manipulation of the mouse or
gaming console like the Play Station Portable (PSP). While other
children use their fine motor skills in digging in soil, making toys out of
sticks, cans and bottle caps. Still others, enjoy clay, play dough, and
finger paint.
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Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold
pencil
with their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use
a
scissors, do stringing and threading activities. They can also do self-help
skills like eating and dressing up independently. Significant progress in fine
motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if they are aptly
supported and appropriate activities are provided for them.
Handedness;
or the preference of the use of one hand over
the
age. Earlier than this,
other, is usually established around 4 years of
preschoolers can be observed to do tasks using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the crayon from left to
right and back again while working on a coloring activity.
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Preschoolers' Artistic Development
H
At the hean of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and
make other forms of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor
l{
activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and
came up with the sfages of dmwing in early childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lirrcs
which later become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn.
The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this
stage.
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations (This also becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At this point adults may be able to recognize the
drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the same names to their
drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head
with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial features
are included.
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted.
Children usually draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may
include houses, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially, they may
appear floating in air but eventually drawings appear to follow a ground
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line.
.
Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of
drawing would surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same
drawing maybe a hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of early
drawing. One wonders if the supply of scratch papers, crayons and pens
will ever be enough. Adults should remember to have a neat supply of
these or they will find the preschoolers' drawings on the fumiture and
walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of
the fine motors skills irwolved.
Also import
tions or drawings
tive skills. Childr
understand themse
Preschoolers'
Nut
The kind of
his physical grov
status is the res
checked against tt
having too much
our country, we ci
food and those
preschoolers who
the Nutrition mont
Each year a ther
while govemment
noodles aim to ad
It is import
and sleep. Presch,
day. It is when th
physical and'cogri
the dream state
released. Blood
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preschoolers regain
activity is also
atu
A
Quick Look at
This bulleted
Physical Domain
Development Stan
study commissione
This is now
a
Development Coun
Gross Motor
.
.
Hops I to
Skips (wit[
., Jumps and
. Stands on
. Throws a
I
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
- Preschooler's Physical
Development
Also important to remember is that the preschoolers' representations or drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children's drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they
understand themselves and the world around them.
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Preschoolers' Nutrition and Sleep
The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on
his physical growth and development. The preschooler's nutritional
status is the result of what nutrients he or she actually takes in
checked against the nutritional requirement for his her age. Obviously,
having too much or too little both have their negative effects. Here in
our country, we can see the extreme of preschoolers not having enough
food and those on the other end of the extreme where we find
preschoolers who are not just ov6i weight but obese. The celebration of
the Nutrition month every July is aimed at advocating for proper nutrition.
Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good nutritional habits
while govemment programs on giving out fortified bread, milk and even
noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest
and sleep. Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each
day. It is when they are asleep that vital biological processes that affect
physical and cognitive development take place. During sleep, especially in
the dream state (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are
released. Blood supply to the ;muscles are Iikewise increased helping
preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain
activity is also attained.
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Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do: (physical skills)
This bulleted list of preschoolers' physical skills is lifted from the
Physical Domain component of the Philippine Early Learning and
Development Standards (ELDS). This set of standards was based on a
study commissioned by UNICEF and the Child Welfare Council (CWC)
This is now adopted for use by the Early Childhood Care and
Development Council.
Gross Motor: 36-48 months
. Hops I to 3 steps on preferred foot
. Skips (with altemating feet)
. Jumps and turns
. Stands on one leg without lalling for at least 5 seconds
. Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
I
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child and Adolescent Developnrent: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages
. Throws a ball overhead with control of speed
. Kicks a ball with control of speed
and share the follow
Lesia Oesterreich.
Development and Fi
Fine-motor Skills:
36-48 Months
.
.
.
.
.
.
Consistently tums pages of a picture or story book one page at
a time, looking at pictures with interest
For all preschoolers:
and walkir
Purposefully copies diagonal lines
Purposefully bisects a cross
Provide th
Purposefully copies a square
Purposefully copies a triangle
Cuts with scissors following a line
large balls
c.
49-60 months
. Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes
. Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs,
etc.) without prompts
'. Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
Colors with strokes staying within the lines
classroom
opp
Allow
area or
e.
months
foods, suq
3-year-olds
49-60 months
. Feeds self using fingers without spillage
. Prepares own food
. Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
. Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement
' Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
. Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
. Takes a bath independently without having to be told
in
the Growth and Development of
s(
course exl
Ensure tha
routine for
Model gor
fruits, vegt
. Pours from pitcher without spitlage
. Feeds self using spoon without spillage
. Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
. Puts on socks independently
The Role of caregivers
Have bala
beams an
Montessor
Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills)
3648
Engage pn
a.
the
Preschooler
optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced
by the supportive caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a
stimulating environment and appropriate activities.for the children. If
you have fi"iends and relatives who are responsible for preschoolers, read
g.
Encourage
h.
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large buttc
Play ball. !
different si
Show chil,
waddle lik
j.
Encourage
k.
children ar
but simpll
Provide a
Create coll
newsprint.
like wire a
to mix difl
4
year-olds
l.
EncoUrage
Pretend to
m. set up an
crawling.
n.
stepping
str
Encourage
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
- Preschooler's
Physical Development
and share the following tips: (This collection includes those suggested by
Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human
Development and Family Studies, Iowa State University)
it,
For all preschoolers:
a.
Engage preschool children
in simple
games that involve running
and walking.
b.
Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft
large balls and bean bags.
c.
.
d.
e.
f.
Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance
beams and lines on the classroom floor or playground.
Montessori schools have blue or red lines on their preschool
classroom floors.
Allow oppoftunities
for rough and tumble play like in a grassy
area or soft mats. Keen observation and monitoring is, of
course expected to keep them safe from iniury.
Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a
routine for bed time is ideal.
Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more
fruits, vegetables, water and fresh juices, rather than processed
foods, sugary snacks and sodas.
3-year-olds
g.
'h.
i.
j
k.
4
Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing
large buttons or old beads to string on a shoe lace.
Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of
different sizes.
Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird.,
waddle like'a duck, slither like a snake, and run like a deer.
Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking "what"
children are drarving. Three-year-olds may not know or care,
but simply enioy the process of drawing.
Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough.
Create collages from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and
newsprint. Encourage children to experiment with new media
like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yam. Teach children
to mix different colors with paint.
year-olds
l.
m.
n.
EncoUrage physical development. Play follow the leader.
Pretend to walk like various animals.
Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as
crawling, climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across
stepping stones.
Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.
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Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
5
year-olds
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Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing
"Follow the Leader" with skipping. galloping, and hopping. Skip
or .iump rope to music, teach folk dances and games, provide
a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted rope
suspended from a sturdy frame.
Teach sack-walking and "twist-em," "statue," or "freeze,,
games to provide an outlet for their drive for physical activity.
Play games that can teach right and left directions, like
"Hokey-Pokey.," "Looby-Loo," and "Simon Says."
Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them
cut out coupons.
RESEARCH
CO}IIIT(IIOil
Read a research that is related to one of tlie big ideas on the
physical development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.
Research Methodology
Source: (bibliographical entry format)
ffi,aPucATlot
l. Make your
2.
preschoole
pictures. D
them do.
Examine th
Identify
thr
appropriate
may. surf tl
teachers or
Part ll Unrt 3 Module 15
S?;,
-
Preschooler's Physical Development
arrttcATtoN
t
l. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of
preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their
pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw
them do.
2. Examine the skills found in the physical domain of the ELDS.
Identify the skills in a parlicular sub age group and put an
appropriate activity that can help develop the each skill. You
may surf the net fbr suggested activities, interview preschool
teachers or simply be creative yourselfl
Physical Domain Skill
Proposed Activity
ir
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Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
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sYNAPsr STRTNcTHENTRs
on the recommended food guide for preschoolers or young
children. Interview a mother about what her preschooler eats in a
week. Write down the types of food and compare it with the
recommended food guide.
Surf tlre net. Make a collection of gross motor and fine motor
activities for preschoolers that caregivers and teachers can use to
suppoft their development.
Research
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
* Preschooler's Physical Development
From this Module on the Physical Development of Preschoolers,
that...
Explain why?
I leamed
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Cognitive Development
MoDUTE
16
of
ls
3.
Preschoorers
-
Ma. Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
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6.
In this Module, you arg challenged to:
. describe the cognitive developmbnt that takes place among
h,
.
Ch
tha
preschoolers.
.
Ch
7.
apply concepts on preschoolers' cognitive
development in preschool teaching and in child care.
take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching
Ch
the
on
8.
Jun
por
practices.
9.
TWTNTRoDUCTToN
Mil
yor
con
Someone once wrote in his journal: "Childhood is a world of
miracle and wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in lighq out of. darkness,
utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of childhood is when things
cease to astonish us. when the world seems familiar, when one has
got used to existence, one has become an adult."
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you remember how you were as a preschooler? What
do you remember most as a preschooler? What did you enjoy doing?
.
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Form
small
questions below. Gi
experiences as yor
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Which ite
2. Which iter
.
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Below are behaviors
or
remarks from children. your early
childhood experiences may help you arrive at the correct answer. put
a check (r') on the item that is TRUE of preschoolers and an I on
the itern that does NOT apply to preschoolers.
l.
2.
"Someone switched on the thunder,"
a child remarked.
Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father
who is on the other side of the phone inquiring if Mom
Answering
views or assumpti
You were also onct
about the world ar
surely understand
learn about how
contribute to the pr
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
)-
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Q
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
is around.
"That tree pushed the leaf off and it fell down,"
says a child.
A child is presented with two identical beakers each
filled to the same level with liquid. The child is
asked if these beakers have the same amount and she
says YES. The liquid from one beaker is poured into a
third beaker, which is taller and thinner than the first
two. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid in
the tall, thin beaker is equal to that which remains in
one of the original beakers. The child says YES.
Child asks a series of 'owhy" questions.
Child is strongly influenced by the features'of the task
that stand out, such as the flashy, attractive clown.
Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of
the task such as directions for solving a problem and not
on the prominent clown, for instance.
Jun does not realize that the juice in 'each glass can be
poured back into the juice box from which it came.
Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his
younger sister. Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike
concludes that he made his younger sister got sick.
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Form small groups of 5 to 6. Compare your answers to the
questions below. Give reasons for your answers. Bring in your childhood
experiences as you share your answers. Try to arrive at a consensus.
l.
Which item/s is/are TRUE of preschool children?
2. Which item/s is/are NOT TRUE of preschool children?
:
;
Answering the items above made you think about your own
views or assumptions about the preschoolers' cognitive development.
You were also once in that world of bursting curiosity wanting to know
about the world around you. Read through the module and you will
surely understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You will also
learn about how as a future teacher or parent, you can best
contribute to the preschoolers' cognitive development.
*
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Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
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beakers.
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Preschoolers' Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
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All the behaviors and the remarks above except ltems #4 and
are true of preschool children. They are considered immature
aspects or limitations of preschool children's preoperational thought
according to Piaget.
#7
'
thinner
beaker. T
the prescl
or on
There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought,
namely, symbolic substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic
stage, preschool children show progress in their cognitive abilities by
being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic
increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive
substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a
litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates
their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still
show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.
Items # I (Someone switched on the thunder.) and # 3 (That tree
pushed the leaf off and it fell down.), for example, indicate
limitation on preschool children's symbolic thought process.
The remarks indicate that preschool children believe that
inanimate objects have 'lifelike' qualities and are capable of
action. This is referred to as animism (Santrock, 2002).
Preschool children who use animism fail to distinguish the
appropriate occasions for using human and nonhuman
perspectives. However, the fact that they attribute the falling
of the leaf and the thunder to a "cause" proves
only on
width of
be taken
mension:
children's
propert)'
changed
(Santroclq
*Child asks
t
hi
a
children
gence of
in figurin
asking qt
coupled
Items # 6 and
attention.
influenced
that
the flash1
preschool children realize that events have causes, although the
perceived causes are not correct
Item # 2, "Child silently nods on the telephone as to answer his
Father who is on the other side of phone inquiring if Mom is
around", is another limitation in preschool children's symbolic
thought. Piaget calls this egocentrism, the inability to distinguish
between one's own perspective and someone else's
perspective (Santrock, 2002). The child thinks that his father
can see him .iust as he can see himself.
Item # 4, should apply to preschool children had the child
answered NO when asked if the amount of liquid in the tall,
thin beaker was equal to that which remained in the original
cel
exclusion
Because
strikingly
and
mor€
task perfor
two
wraF
other
wi'
prominent
Item
.
#8
(Chil(
be poured
cates irner
failure to
more dire
state of th
will realizr
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolec
beakers. Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive
thought process. The amount of liquid that was ffansferred to
the third beaker which was taller but thinner than the original
beaker remains unchanged. However, preschool children are
drawn to only to the height of the liquid when seen in the
thinner an taller beaker and fail to consider the width of the
beaker. This'is a clear evidence of centration, one limitation of
the preschool child's preoperational thought. which is the focusing
or on centering of one's attention on one characteristic to the
exclusion of others (Santrock, 2002). In this case, the focus is
only on the height of the beaker to the exclusion of the
width of the beaker which is clearly another factor that should
be taken into consideration. This is also referred to as unidimensional thought. This is also an evidence of preschool
children's lack of conservation, .the awareness that the basic
property of a.n object or a substance is conserved (is not
changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed.
'
(Santrock, 2002).
"Child asks a series of "why" questions (ltem # 5). Preschool
children ask a barrage'of questions. These signal the emergence of the preschool children's interest in reasoning and
in figuring out why things are the way they are. Their
asking questions is a function of their unsatiable curiosity
coupled with the dramatic increase in language.
Items # 6 and # 7 have something to do with preschool children's
attention. Between items # 6 and #7, item # 6 (... strongly
influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such as
the flashy, attractive clown) applies to preschool children.
Because the preschool child pays more attention to the
strikingly conspicuous peripherals, they miss the more relevant
and more . important features needed in problem solving or in
task performance. This is obviously manifested when between
two wrapped gifts, one with a big, colorful ribbon and the
other without, a preschool child chooses the one with a
prominent ribbon.
J
Item
,
does not reatize that the juice in each glass can
be poured back into the juice box from which it came.) indicates irreversibility, Piaget's term for a preoperational child's
failure to understand that an operation can go in two or
more directions. Once .lun can imagine restoring the original
state of the water by pouring it back into the other glass, he
will realize that the amount of water in both glasses must be
# 8 (Child
,.|
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
the same. Unfortunately, however, in his developmental stage
he is not yet capable of reversible thinking. He is ngt yet
capable of working backwards.
li
,I
t,
I
ir
# 9 (Mike did not like to
share a piece of cake with his
younger sister. Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike concludes
that he made his younger sister got sick,) shows that preschool children do not use deductive or inductive reasoning;
instead they jump from one particular to another and see
cause where none exists. This is transductive reasoning.
While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as
you have seen in the Activiry they are making significant advancements
in their cognitive abilities like the acquisition of symbolic thought. Symbolic
thought is shown in preschool children's ability to mentally represent an
object that is not present. They do not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an object, person, or event in order to think about it. Johann
asks his Mom about the girafle they saw in the zoo five months ago.
Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or people have
properties other than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his
one-foot ruler is a saw while he pretends to saw a piece of wood.
Item
Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing
when, for instance, children pretend that one thing represents another
such as a wooden block used as a microphone in a magic sing and
when they pretend to be dog Bantay while in a sociodramatic play. tn
reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events in a story
and that letters represent sounds used in language.
Brain Connections in the Preschool
q
Because
i
lr
h;
l
of
in
neuroscience, brain
development of young children have been of great interest to the field
of early childhood. Brain research findings point us to more effective
ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science lessons you
had in high school or even in elementary you will remember that our
brain is composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect to
each other to function. Cell connections are what we call synapses,
.sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections. Did you know
that:
a
these
fa
l
almost countless cc
ways to leam lang
people, grow in his
art. As such, a pres
has transformed fr,or
preschooler who car
his own stories amr
his jacket all by hir
Brain research
ment. Experts havt
to environmental stir
tions (synapses) that
connections depends
by the environmenl
environment is that
'
senses (multi-sensoria
ine and breate is b
good combination ol
quality preschool pr
yes... expose...expl
exponential brain der
Just as an enr
development, strong
ments marred by fu
High le
diminished brain gr
preschoolers.
Years
fascinating developments
All
preschooler's brain
the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at bifth?!
by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be made during one's lifetime?
around 6 years of age the brain develops fer more sophisticated
thinking pattems?
emotional attachment
impulsive behavior.
ment that negatively
l
lacks the proper st
Preschools who mak
pictures instead of r
good. As future teac
providing a quality er
ment for preschooler
Language Developl
Young childrer
speech.
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
All
these facts point to the enormous potential that the
preschooler's brain has. The child's billion cells have the ability to make
almost countless connections that prepare the child for intricate pathways to leam language, acquire logical-mathematical skills, interact with
people, grow in his feelings and emotions, and even express himself in
art. As such, a preschool teacher would often observe how a child now
has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and independent
preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy "reading" a book, tell
his own stories among friends, build beautiful block structures and wear
his jacket all by himself.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment. Experts have shown specific areas of brain activity that respond
to environmental stimulation. Therefore, the brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are different for each person. The quality of these
il'
of
stimulation and expostge provided
by the environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and stimulating
environment is that which offers many experiences involving the different
think, imagsenses (multi-sensorial), and that which allows the child
connections depends on the quality
to
lne and breate is best. This envirohment can be provided for by a
good combination of a healthy and functional family environment and a
quality preschool program. What did that milk commercial say? Oh
yes... expose...explore...experience. May we add, all these lead to
exponential brain development!
Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler's brain
development, strong evidence also show that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and chaos affect the cognitive development of
preschoolers. High levels of stress hormones such as cortisol may lead to
diminished brain growth in areas needed for memory, learning and
emotional atLachment. It may also lead to anxiety and hyperactivity and
impulsive behavior. It's not only the extreme form of negative environment that negatively affects the preschooler's brain. An environment that
lacks the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage.
Preschools who make children work with. nothing but work sheets and
pictures instead of real life, hands-on experiences do more harm than
good. As future teachers, always be aware of your defining role in
providing a quality environment that will lead to optimum brain development for preschoolers.
,J
't
l'Ii
Language Development
Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead
speech.
of their
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of
tI
language increases (morphology, semantics, pragmatics).
,;
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play.
Children rapidly conclude that sounds link together to make words and
words represent ideas, people, and things. Throughout the preschool
years, children's language development becomes increasingly complex in
the four main areas: phonolog, (speech sounds), semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and pragmatics (conversation or social uses of language). As they advance in age and as they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb
the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into
sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner.
It is not uncommon to hear preschool children using "goed"
for "went", "foots" for "feet", "childs" for "children", "runned" for
"ran" an overextension of the rules. A thee-year old laughing with
delight as an abrupt summer byeeze stirred his hair and tickled his
skin, commented, "lt did winding me!" Another child said, "My father
hatches the wood", meaning his father chops the wood with a hatchet.
Many of the oddities of young children's language sound like mistakes to
adult listeners, but from the children's perspective, they are not.
In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word
order and so they form questions not by following the pattern
"subject-verb-object" order but by simply saying with a rising intonation
the sentence in the natural order such as "Mother is coming?" Likewise, preschool children tend to have difficulty with the sentence in the
passive voice. When told, "The car was pushed by a truck".
preschoolers demonstrate a car pushing a truck.
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From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool
children learn to use language successfully in social contexts
(pragmatics). With an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar.
preschool children become skilled conversationalists and often initiate
conversation.
[,.
h:,
ti
i
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Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child's languagc
development in these four areas to identifo where some children may
struggle. Children with mild to severe speech difficulties can be referred
to a specially trained professional called a speech pathologist in order to
work with the child or suggest helpful strategies for caregivers to
improve language proficiency.
Language and
nicate
Se
[gotsky belit
socidlly and
regulatory fashion
2W2).
For Piaget,
fgotsky it is an
p
ir
cognitive developmr
must use language
their own thoughts
interaction of preri
Vygotsky asx
ttreir highest cogniti
their own and that
use of scaffolding
the term Znne of l
difficult for a
chil<
guidance and assis
2002). In short, thr
skills that are in
and an upper limitT
development reache
limit is the level ol
assistance of an abl
-losely
linker
development is the
"changing support o
skilled person adjus
level" (Santrock, 20
Knowledgeable Otl
preschoolers to help
&velopment develop
Information Procs
The lnformaticr
understanding how cl
children's mental pro
ing, encoding, storing
The preschoole
The child's ability '
preschool years.
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
Language and Social Interaction
$gotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socidlly and to plan, guide, and rnonitor their behavior in a selfregulatory fashion - called inner speech or private speech (Santrock,
2W2).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for
Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full
cognitive development requires social interaction and language. Children
must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on
their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the importance of
interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve
their highest cognitive development (language development included) on
their own and that they can improve their cognitive development through
use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He introduced
the term 7.one of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too
difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the
guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock,
2002). [n short, the ZPD captures the preschool childrens' cognitive
skills that are in the process of maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit
and an upper limit.The lower limh of the ZPD is "the level of cognitive
development reached by the preschool child independently. The upper
limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002)
dlosely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language
development is the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the
"changing support over the course of a teaching session, with the more
skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance
level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled petson is also called More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding
preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language
development " development?
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory
The lnformation Processing model is another way of examining and
understanding how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes
children's mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing, and decoding data.
The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of tod<Jlers.
The child's ability to pay attention changes significantly during the
preschool years.
.:
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Child and Adolescent Developmenl: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
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But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention
is focused only on aspects that stand out at the expense of those
that are relevant to solving a problem to performing well on a task .
Preschool children recognize previously encountered information, recall old
information, and reconstruct it in the present. Try asking a preschooler
what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to preschool
after the holiday. She will be able to.
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool
years are those involving short-term memory. In short-term memory,
(STM) retain information for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no
rehearsal; which can help keep information in STM for a much longer
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to:
a) rehearsal and b) speed and efficiency of processing information.
Older children rehearse items more than younger children. On this
count, preschool children may have shorter memory span than primary
of long-term memory involves storing information about the
sequence of events during familiar situations as "scripts". Scripts help
children understand, interpret, and predict what will happen in future
Part
[:,
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F
hi
In early childl
memory becomes ir
great deal of infornu
Sometimes, however
but these inconsisten
prompts and cues. I
rate mental activities
information. Young
organization.
period (Santrock, 2002).
and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child processes information is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities.
Between the ages of 2 and 5, long-term memory also begins to
form, which is why most people cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.
I
During this age, chi
become better organ
scenarios. For example, children understand that
entering the classroom
as a class after the flag ceremony involves a specific sequence of
steps: one bell means put cross your hands right over left on your
chest, two bells mean pass quietly and follow the line until you reach
your seat. Children ages 2 through 5 also start to recognize that are
often multiple ways tO solve a problem and can brainstorm different
(though sometimes primitive) solutions.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to fbcus and
use their cognitive abilities for specific purposes. For example, children
can leam to pay attention to and memorize lists of words or facts. This
skill is obviously crucial for children starting school who need to learn
new information, retain it and produce it for tests and other academic
activities. children of this age have also developed a larger overall capacity to process information. This expanding information processing capacity allows young children to make connections between old and new
information. For Example, children can use their knowledge of the alphabet and ietter sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading words.
The Young Childn
Theory of mir
processes work (San
By the age ol
exists. They refer
preschool child says-
imply that he/she is
lmow, remember and
terms, but are used
As their repret
and solve problems
thought processes. T
set of ideas about I
ment, 2007). This d,
five. It includes aw
nition, understanding
ability to distinguish e
fantasy from reality (
How do childn
young age? Various s
experience is very iml
communication, 2) il
5) social interaction.
A Quick Look at
r
Below is a list
Philippine Early Lean
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
During this age, children's knowledge base also continues to grow and
become better organ ized. (http I lwww. m i estonece nte rs i nc.org)
ln early childhood, as information-processing increases in speed,
memory becomes increasingly longer. Young children can remember a
great deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts.
Sometimes, however, the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic,
but these inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate
prompts and cues. Rehearsal and organizing information are deliberate mental activities that can be employed to improve the processing of
information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal and
:
I
organization.
The Young Children's Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to individuals' thoughts about how mental
processes work (Santrock, 2002).
By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind
exists. They refer to needs, emotions, and mental states. When a
preschool child says, "l forgot my doll", "l want my ice cream"- these
imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such as
lmow remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional
terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world and ability to remember
and solve problems improve, children start to reflect on their own
thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind or a
set of ideas about mental activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly between the ages of three and
five. It includes awareness of one's own thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive,
ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish
fantasy from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a
young age? Various speculations and research findings suggest that social
experience is very important. Social experience includes l) early forms of
communication, 2) imitation, 3) make-believe play, 4) language, and
5)
I
social interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
A Quick Lcek at what
i
Preschoolers can Do
Below is a list of preschoolers' cognitive skills lifted from the
Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS).
I
Child and Adolesc,ent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
.
.
.
Receptive Language
Standards
1:
The
chiltl is able to understand both verbal and
non-verbol .forms of communication.
3l-36 months: 3-4 years old
. Speaks in simple sentences
. Talks about an event and is understood
3748
.
.
.
.
.
6l-71
.
months
Uses jrast tense
Uses newly leamed words appropriately in sentences
Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group
Draws and tells a story about his drawing
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Matching)
Standards l.l; The child is able to match identical objects, colors,
Prints
.
Standards
1:
Tht
his
3l - 36 montl
.
Complet
37 - 48 month
. May be
.
.
3l-36 months: 2-112 to 3 years old
. Matches identical objects with 2 attributes (e,g., color &
.
shape)
Matches identical upper case letters
Matches identical lower case letters
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
. Copies simple patterns with 2 or more attributes (e.g, color,
shape, sequence) and continues this without guidance
. Recognizes familiar logos (e.g., McDonald's, Coke, etc.)
. Recognizes signs (e.g., male & female restrooms; stop and
go; danger/poison, etc.)
. Matches identical z-to 4-letter words
. Matches identical single-digit numbers
. Matches identical 2-digit numbers
Prints r
Domain: Cognitir
Attention and Ac
shapes, symbols.
Ii!,I
Prints
reversal
.
Uses some prepositions
Uses plurals
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
.
.
months:
reversal
conversations
.
Prints r
Prints I
Prints r
.
49
Remain:
minutes
Remains
for5m
Sustains
l0 minu
Can wo
- 60 monrh
.
.
Sustains
15-20 m
Can wor
61 - 7l month
Can work c
Higher-Ordered
Standards
1:
IV
The
obje
;
l;i
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Copying Letters and Numbers)
and
H
Stantiards l.2z The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers
motr
in
sequence.
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
. Prints upper-case letters with a model with some reversals
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
. Prints complete name without model
3l - 36. montht
.
Knows
I
happened
'
Counts r
Part ll Unit 3 Module 15
-
Preschooler's Physical Development
.
'
.
Prints upper case letters with a model
Prints lower case letters with a model
Prints numbers I-5 with a model with
6l-71 months: 5-6 years old
. Prints upper case letters without a
.
with no reversals
with some reversals
some reversals
model and with no
reversals
Prints lower case letters without a model and with
no
reversals
.
Prints numbers
l-5 without a rnodel and with no
reversals
Domain: Cognitive Development
Attention and Activity Level
Standards
,,
1:
The child is able to sustain attention and modulate
his activity at age-expected levels.
36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
: Cornpletes simple tasks without prodding
37 - 48 months: 3-4 years old
.
.
.
.
.
May be distracted but re-focuses on hi,s/her own
Remains settled while leafing through a picture book for
5
Remains settled while listening to a story using picture books
for 5
minutes
Sustains attention and concentration
l0 minutes
on a tabletop activity for
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Concept Formation)
Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to
ob.ject constancy, space, time, quantity, seriation, etc.
and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
3l - 36.months:
2-112
to 3
years old
Knows the difference between a recent event and one that
a long time ago
happened
.
,,t
minutes
Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
49 - 60 months: 4-5 vears old
. Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for
15-20 minutes
. Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
61 - 71 months: 5-6 years old
Can work on a school assignment independently
.
I
Counts with one-to-one correspondence
.a{
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J
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
.
.
.
.
.
.
Understands the concept of number-quantity relations
through 5 (e.9., hands over 5 objects when asked)
from
I
Groups objects by shape
Arranges objects by length
Arranges objects according to size
Can tell in what way 2 things are the same
Can tell in what way 2 things are different
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
. Can tell which is prettier/nicer of 2 items based on his/her
criteria
. Groups pictured objects according to category
. Can tell which is'left and right on him/herself
. Understands 'omore" and "less"
. Understands the concept of conservation of matter at a rudimentary level
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
. Can tell which is the left and right of people facing him/her
.
Knows the difference between yesterday, today, and tomorrow
of number-quantity relations for l-10
of addition using finger or objects
of subtraction using fingers or objects
a
Understands the concept
a
Demonstrates concept
Demonstrates concept
a
t.
,:
[:
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cause and Effect Relationships)
Standards l: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
I
i,,
31-36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
.
!
a
Can complete a simple pattem (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes)
with occasional guidance
3748 months: 3-4 years old
. Understands reasons behind rules and practices in school
. Understands reasons behind rules and practices in the community, like those pertaining to sanitation, environmental preservation, etc.
rl
hl
'i
Memory: (Episodic Memory)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has
met,
events, and places he has been to.
3l-36 months: 2-l/2 to 3 years old
. Talks about things that happened during a particular event
that occurred some time back
Memory: (Men
Memory)
Standards
1:
Tl,
a/,
37-48 months
.
.
.
.
Repeat
Memor
Memot
Remen
49-60 months:
. Can re
.
Remen
have
6l-71
p,
months:
.
.
Can re
Can re
Higher-Ordered
Standards l: Tl
fet
clt
3l-36
.
month:
Can co
with
oc
37-48 months:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Can tel
Relates
Can ap
also fin
Knows
be subs
gents)
Can sta
Can gi,
not
Can ar1
Can co
without
49-60 months:
. Knows
position
Able to
pn
Paft ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
Memory: (Memory for Concept-Based Knowledge-Semantic
Memory)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short
and long-lerm memory.
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
a
Repeats 5- to 7-word sentences correctly
Memorizes the lyrics of a short song
Memorizes a sho'11 rhyme
a
Remembers the gist and many details of stories told or read
.
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
a
Can recite the days of the week with sorhe errors
a
Remembers lessons leamed in school even after several days
have passed
61-71 months: 5-6 years old
o
Can recite the days of the week with no errors
a
Can recite the months of the year with some errors
a
a
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Logical Reasoning)
Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e.,
reasons why these happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
3l-36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
. Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes)
with occasional guidance
3748 months: .3-4 years old
. Can tell what is silly or wrong with absurd pictured scenes
. Relates experiences in sequence or as these happened
. Can appreciate humorous stories or jokes that his/her peers
also find funny (e.g., "knock-knock" jokes)
. Knows that certain things are the same and therefore can
be substituted for each other (e.g., liquid and powdered deter-
.
.
.
.
gents)
Can state opposite relationships
Can give substantive reasons why he/she like something or
not
Can argue a point/stand logically
Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes)
without guidance
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
. Knows that certain elements remain the same even if their
positions change (e.9., 2 + 3 and 3 +2 equal 5)
Able to predict what will happen next in a story
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Can predict how a story
,1
.1,
t1
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Planning and Organizing)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
31-36 months: 2-112 to 3 years old
. Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity with adult
guidance (e.g.. eating. household chores and putting structure
i
.
l;
r1i
f
a
:,
il
lll
will end half-way through
guidance
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Creative Thought)
1:
The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts,
between existing ideas or con-
or new associations
cepts.
2-112
3l-36 months:
.
to 3 years
old
Pretends to be engaged in "grown up" activities (e.g., play'
ing office)
Pretends to be a character in a familiar story
Creates new words or names for people or objects
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
.
o
.
.
.
.
.
Can make a pun or joke
Creates some dance moves
Creates lyrics of songs using familiar melody
Pretends to be a character in his/her own made-up story
Formulates rules to implement in a game
49.60 months: 4-5 years old
. Can draw things or scenes from experience but with no
actual model or reference (i.e., from memory)
6l-71 months: 5-6 years old
. Can draw or paint things that do not exist in real life (i.e.,
H
m
37-48 montht
.
.
.
.
in activities)
Has almost everything he/she needs before starting an activity
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
. Can dress following an organized sequence
. Can bathe following an organized sequence
49-60 months: 4-5 y'ears old
. Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity without adult
Standards
nt
fantasy
or
imagination)
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cognitive Flexibility)
Standards 1: The child is able to shift to more odaptive cognitive
processing strategies in order to e.ffectively deal with
Modif
block
Explor
option
Is abk
Is ablr
and
ad
The Role of Ca
Development of
Learning ah
that parents and I
velop their cogniti'
one can do mor
preschoolers is no
schools is to prep
elementary schools
demic skills. This
negative dispositior
Two promirx
appropriate practit
National Associat
(wwwnaeyc.org) i
tional-ACEl (wwu
more about the
1
Below are
nitive skills of pn
and teachers by L
ist, Human Develc
For three year-o
l.
Speak with
ask questic
2. Add new i
flower - it'
3. Teach chilc
4. Provide bo,
Part ll Unit 3 Modrlle 16
-
Cognitive Development of preschoolers
new and unexpected conditions
in his/her environ-
ment. including problem situations.
37-48 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
.
.
.
.
Modifies actions based on new experiences (e.g., change
block structure that falls)
Explores alternative solutions to a problem and selects one
option
Is able to shift activities without much fuss
Is able to know when the topic of conversation has changed
and ad.iust accordingly
The Role of Caregivers (Parents and reachers) in the cognitive
Development
of
I
Preschoolers
Learning about how preschoblers think and learn, one will rearize
that parents and teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers develop their cognitive skills or impede them. with the best of intentions,
one can do more harm than good if the approach to teaching
preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the role of preschools is to prepare the children to pass the entrance examinations of
elementary schools, and so they "harass" the preschoolers to master academic skills. This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a
negative disposition about school and about leaming.
,1
T
t,
Two prorninent organizations that have position statemen8 about the
appropriate practices in the care and education of preschoolers are the
National Association for the Education of. Young children -NAEyc
(www.naeyc.org) and the Association for childhood Education International-ACEl (www.acei.org) Be sure to check out their websiteg to leam
more about the preschoolers.
Below are some appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of preschoolers. (adapted from a list of tips for caregivers
and teachers by Lesia oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa state University)
For three year-olds
l.
Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences,
ask questions, and listen.
2.
Add new information to your childreh's sentences. "yes that's a
flower - it's a tall, red flower and it smells so good."
Teach children to memorize first and last names.
Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to
3.
4.
I
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
5.
them. Read poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage a child to
repeat a story and discuss the ideas and events. Read titles and
point to important words on pages, packages, and street signs.
Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing .a grooery
list or note for parents. Provide paper, small notebooks, and
markers for use in dramatic play.
6.
7.
8.
Count objects of interest; for example cookies, cups, napkins, or
dolls. It is better to use objects that you can rnove one at a
time as you and the children count. Measure, and have children
help measure and count as you follow a recipe.
Explain why and how things happen with the help of a reference book. Help them do simple science activities like magnetic
attraction, freezing water, planting seeds, making a terrarium, and
flying kites on a windy day.
Provide sets - toys and other ob.iects that go together. Discuss
similarities and differences. For example, point out sequences in
For five-year-olds
l.
2.
3.
4.
I
dictate a
5.
booking.
9.
h
irt
rl
iri
Sing simple .songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or
milk can drums, rattles of mongo beans in a box, etc. Encourage
a variety of body movements and dance to music of many
kinds;. Play musical games such as "London Bridge," "Ringaround-the-Rosie," and "Farnrer in the Dell."
',j
t,,
f'
2.
I
i
3.
Say nurser) rhymes and :iingerplays together. Encourag e 4-yearolds to tell stories to younger children.
Encourage intqrest in writlng and words. Provide children with
paper and notebooks for w\$ing. Print letters and numerals on
art work, and label toy she\es with pictures and words that
describe objects.
t:
;
4.
h;
5.
6.
Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count
everything in sight, like silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk
about things being in, on, under, behind, beside, before and afteE
larger than, too far, etc.
Teach children the correct use of the telephone.
Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They
will love to water plants daily and will enioy measuring plant
groMh.
sh
Give 5-year
sequence w'i
ing the nun
swatches.
I
6.
Thke questio
7.
why. Give :
Five-year-ol
courage ther
bells, numh
For four-yea*olds
I. Read a\ud
each day and encourage children to look at books on
their owh. Provide alternati're reading material with a collection of
outdated c\upons, junk mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
Add drama
voices for
stop before
the story.
Ask 5-yearthe wall or
story and k
Ask "what
of 3? What
wolfl
Involve chi
cards, and
Encourage il
morous stori
9.
from school,
Give opporr
Teach childn
ing of a flor
and laundry
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16
-
Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
For five-year-olds
l.
2.
3.
Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different
voices for different characters. While reading a familiar story
stop before the end and ask children to add their own end to
the story.
Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on
the wall or refrigerator. You can also record the child telling the
story and let him listen to himself later.
Ask "what if' questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead
of 3? What if Little Red Riding Hood saw a rabbit instead cif a
wolf?
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Involve children in writing "thank-you" notes, holiday greeting
cards, and letters. lf a 5-year-old enjoys copying letters, let him
dictate a short message to you and copy it from your writing.
Give 5-year-olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and
sequence with real life situations such as setting the table, counting the number of turns, sorting out socks, and matching fabric
swatches. Expose them to games involving matching pairs.
Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and
why. Give answers they can understand.
Five-year-olds will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage them to count anything of interest - cups, leaves, drums,
bells, number of children absent, etc.
Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading humorous stories, riddles, and nonsense rhymes. Join them in jokes
from school, books, and TV.
Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest.
Teach children how to move their bodies to dramatize the opening of a flower, falling leaves, or rain; wiggly woffns and snakes;
and laundry blowing in the wind.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners ai Different Life Stages
play marb,
he would
SmrucAnou
When
for
Discussion
Questions
I. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler's:
,(
l
,1
i1
:t1
I
It
.
.
.
.
.
.
the headm
Albert
hatr
German
animism
sr
could not
was a da1
own specu
egocentrism
centration
lack of conservation
unless he
irreversibility
intense.
His
transductive reasoning
2. Read this excerpt from Albert Einstein's biography. Examine
Albert Einstein's preschool development in the light of cognitive
development in early childhood as discussed. How different vias
his childhood from the average childhood? (language develop
ment, Einstein's lifelong memory of that compass, parents' and
teachers' underestimation of his cognitive ability?)
In the public mind, the name Albert Einstein (1879-/955)
is synonymous with genius. His general theory of relativity
("the greatest revolution in thought since Newton"), his discovery of the fundamental principle of quantum physics, and
his other contributions to the reshaping of our knowledge of
the universe cause him to be considered "one of the greatest
physicists of all time" (Whitrow, 1967).
Yet the young Einstein, who was born in the Germatn
town of Ulm, hardly seemed destined for intellectual stardom.
He was slow in learning to walk and did not begin talking
until at least his third year. His parents feared he might be
mentally retarded. Einstein himself always insisted that he did
not try to speak until after the age of 3, skipping babbling
and going directly into sentences. Actually, his sentences may
have come a bit earlier. When his sister Ma.ja, was born
four months be-fore Albert's third birthday, Albert (who had
been promised a new baby to play with and apparently
thought it would be,a toy) reportedly asked in disappointmenL "Where are the wheels? "
Regardless of the exact timing, "Albert was certainly a
late and reluctant talker" (Brian, 1996). The reasons may
have had more to do with personality thon with cognitive development; he
he was a shy, taciturn child, whom adults thoughtt
backward and other children considered dull. He would not
:
w
awakened
and his fo
him amusr
he turned
lil'hat cont
who had :
him about
netic fiela
there must
the empQ"
around fot
at the qge
and lastin
had to be
That
late:r, whe
interest in
Albert sol
him and t
satiable ct
"a furious
that under
3. To enhancr
thinking, I
what devel
mend? Wh
not recomr
4. Critics arg
and stressfi
Pari ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
play marbles or soldiers or other games with his peers, but
he would crouch for hours, observing an ant colony.
When he started school, he did poorly in most subiects;
the headmaster predicted he would never amount to anything.
Albert hated the regimentation and rote learning stressed in
German schools: he did not have a retentive memory and
could not give clear answers to his teachers' questions. He
was a daydreamef hjs questioning mind occupied u,ith its
own speculations. He would not even try to learn anything
unless he was interested in it-and then his concentralion was
intense,
His wonrler about the workings o-f the univer.se was
awakened at the age of 4 or 5, when he was sick in bed
and his .father gave him a magnetic pocket compass to keep
him amused. The boy was astonished no matter which way
he turned the compass, the needle pointed to N (for 'north,).
What controlled its motion? He pestered his Uncle Jacob,
who had studied engineering, with questions. His uncle told
him about the earth's north and south poles and about magnetic fields, but Albert still was not satisfied. He believecl
there must be some mysterious force in what appeared to be
the empty space around the needle. He carried the compass
around for weeks, trying to
"figure out its secret. Years later,
at the Oge of 67, he wrote, "... this experience made a deep
and lasting impression upon rne. Something deeply hidden
had to be behind rhings" (Schilpp, 1970, p. 9).
That sense of wonder was reawakened several years,
later, when Uncle Jacob, noticing that Albert showed an
interest in arithmetic, introduced him to algebra and geometry.
Albert solved every problem in the books his uncle brought
him and then went searching for more. It was that same insatiable curiosity and persistence-what. Einstein himself called
"a furious impulse to understand" (Michelmore; 1962, p. 2a)that underlay his lifetime quest for scientific knowledge).
3. To enhance the preschoolers' development in his symbolic
thinking, language, attention, memory function, and metacognition,
what developmentally appropriate practices would you recommend? What developmentally inappropriate practices would you
not recommend?
4, Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented
and stressful for young children. Do you agree? Explain.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
5. Does preschool matter? Doesn't preschool rob the child of
his inetrievable childhood? Defend your stand.
6. Explain the meaning of the quote beneath
(]
the title of this
Module.
hr
t,
ijl
i,i
r.l
hr
rr ilJ,?
\]
t;
BtG IDEAS
Big Ideas about Preschoolers' Cognitive Development
l.
2.
Preschoolers engage
in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the
environment.
3.
Preschoolers' language development occurs
in four
areas:
phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
4.
Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very
important to cognitive development.
5.
6.
Preschoolers improve
Preschoolers'
in their ability in process information.
cognitive development is ntarked by the emergence
of a theory of
mind.
l'.i/
Y#"
RESIARC!|
Read a resea
cognitive developrn
Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of preschoolers
[,y
nrsrARCH coitnEcTtou
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on
cognitive development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.
Source: (bibliographical entry format)
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
@
.t
\
Fs
I'
'il
iil
i'4,4
sYNAPsE srRtNGTHElrERs
Cunently there is controversy over whether young children should
be allowed to testifo in court. Considering their memory functioning would
you favor
ir?
Itr'
1! !
')itil
l1
1l
{t
f,,r
I
ril
4t
l.
"Mind'in the Making" by Ellen Galinsky (2010) is a brilliant book
that highlights the best researches about children's cognitive
development, among others. The book discusses in seven chapters about the following seven essential life skills every child
needs:
jlll
Ir.
iJ
$r
,i,
fl
A. Focus and self-control
B. Perspective taking
C. Communicating
D.
E.
Making connections
Critical thinking
F. Taking on challenges
G Self-directed, engaged learning
The book also provides valuable and practical suggestions
about how parents and teachers can develop the skills.
Choose one from the seven skills. Read the chapter and
write a reaction paper.
I
ffrl
(rl
hi
$,
I
MRtilECTro
Pad ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
MRffHCTto*
Frorh the Module on'the Cognitive Development
that...
Explain why?
of
Preschooler,
I
leamed
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
M0DUTE
17
Socio-Em otion al Development
of the Preschooler
-
ffi@A.run
Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Observe pn
room. Take a vidr
Note the foll
l. Is there a
.takes pla
talking ab
fficHAtttNGt
2. Describe
In this Module, you are challenged to:
. explain Erikson's 'brisis" of early childhood, initiative versus guilt
. explain the development of the preschoolers' sense of self and
.
.
.
.
'
self-esteem.
discuss how children develop gender identity.
describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional
3.
Describe t
own, wod
development.
discuss the different caregiving styles and their effect on
preschoolers.
describe
how
Bring this to
significant relationships with parents, siblings and
peers affect the preschooler.
Q EunrYsrs
'WFrrNTRoDucTroN
Answer the fol
Socio-emotional development is crucial
hear
in the preschool years.
bi
tr
Were the c
were with
2.
Were there
and roles?
a lot of
parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that
preschool
attending
is more for "socialization" than for formal academic
leaming. There is wisdom in this. During the preschool years, children
leam about their ever widening environment (Remember Module 1.0 on
t;
l.
We
Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers now discover their new rotes outside
their home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate
If you obsr
they resolvr
resolve it t
with other people. A lot of very important social skills they will leam
during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These
skills can even determine the individual's later social adjustment and
consequent quality of relationships in adult life.
4.
Were the
etc) or
cl
ges
Pa,t ll unit 3 Modure 'r z - socio-Emotionar Deveropment of preschoorer
ffi,@ACTrvrTY
observe preschoolers playing in the playground or in the
room. Thke a video or shoot pictures.
class-
Note the following:
l.
Is there a conversatiort going on? Describe the conversation that
takes place among and between the children. what are they
talking about?
2.
Describe what they are playing/what the play is about
3.
Describe the children's interaction. Indicate
own, working together or
if
if
they are on their
there is conflict.
Bring this to class and share in small groups.
@
mnlYsts
Answer the following questions:
l. were the children playing on their own or arone even when they
were with others?
2.
were there some children playing together with ageed upon rules
and roles? Describe.
3. If you observed conflicts between or among children,
how were
they resolved? Did an adult intervene? Or did they manage to
resolve it by themselves?
I
4.
were the children polite? what polite words (Thank you, sorry,
etc) or gestures did you observe?
Child and Adolescent
Dewlopmeil: Looking at Learners at Djfferent Life Stages
msmAcnon /GtlrERAuzAnoN
?,
s
Preschoolers who
The observation you did provided you a glimpse of the world of
preschoolers. You were once in that world of wonder and fascination.
Read through this Module and you will surely understand more why
they manifested the social behaviors that you have observed.
Big Ideas on Preschoolerc' Socio-emotional Development
l.
2.
The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact
with
J.
4.
others.
in young children.
is shown through the stages
Environmental factors influence gender identity
Preschoolers' sobial development
of
play.
5. The care-giving styles of
parents and teachers affect the
ing a view of tlx
even "walang I
childhood years r
have to hit to hur
say and the way r
wlnerable stage.
The key thir
ness." This invol
safe and respectfi
opportunity to exF
Preschoolers will r
encouraging and sti
Self-Concept and
By the end
preschoolers' socio-emotional development.
6.
Preschoolers are interested
in building
friendships.
Preschoolerst Initiative
Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social
changes that happen during the preschool years. As discussed in
Module 7. preschoolers deal with the psychological ionflict of initiative
yersus guilt. Erikson betieved that healthy preschoolers develop'
initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to'take action and assert
themselves. They will yeam to create, invent, pretend, take risks and
engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When
parents, teachers and other adults support these attempts and provide a
stimulating environment, the preschooler's sense of initiative will grow.
On the other hand, if the adults show overprotection, extreme restriction and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guil(
they show so much energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every
place becomes a playground to explore, every single thing an interesting
piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get exasperated over this
behavior and begin to see the preschooler as "naughty" br "malaiit".
Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resortin$ to
threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler
just to esablish 'tontrol". Consequently, the child may develop excessive
guilt. Although a good amount of guilt helps in making children take
responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt hampers emotional grouttfi-
r
sense that they are
make representatior
Self-concept refers
one's abilities, strenl
mainly focuses on
emotions and attitu
(l can do it),, .,Ak<
by myself.) An in
specifically refers t<
are naturally positivt
and underestimate tl
they donit succeed r
tive
because
a lot of
of
rep
patience an
Environmental Far
Socio-emotional Dr
As the presch
become capable of
roles, gender-based
They come to form
certain things like
actions or behaviors
Consequently, they for
as being masculine or
Part ll Unit 3 Module 17
-
Socio-Emotional Development of preschooler
who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view of themselves as being "salbahe " (bad) "bobo" (dumb) or
even "walang kwenta" (worthless). This is really sad because
childhood years should be happy years. One poster says, .,you don't
have to hit to hurt." The message emphasizes that even the.things we
say and the way we deal with preschoolers can already hurt them at this
Preschoolers
vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply ,.judicious permissiveness." This involves setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers
safe and respectful of self and others, while allowing them greater
opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage in creative processes.
Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming,
encouraging and stimulating environment.
Self-Concept and the
Preschooler
:
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear
sense that they are a separate and distinct person. with their ability to
make representations, they can now think and reflect about themselves.
Self-concept refers to the way one sees himselfl, a general view about
one's abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The preschooler's self-concept
mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs,
emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, ',Kaya ko na!
(l can do it)" "Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko." (l wore my shoes all
by myself.) An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which
specifically refers to one's judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers
are naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high
and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if
they donit succeed with something. However, they may ' become negative because of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need
a lot of patience and. encouragement from adults.
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers'
Socio-emotional Development
As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they
become capable of gender typing, the process of forming gender
roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors hcqepted by society.
They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to associate
certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even
actions or behaviors as being "only for boys" or "only for girls.,,
Consequently, they form their own gender identiry the view of oneself
as being masculine or feminine.
T
Child and Adolescent Devalopmsnt Looking at Lcarncrs at Different Life Stages
Gender typing and gender identity are irtfluenced by environmental
factors such as the family, teachers, peers and the mass media. This
is where Bronfenbrenner's model comes into play. Different spheres of
influence determine. the preschooler's development of a gender schema.
Differences in parental expectations and behavior towards daughters and
sons affect gender typing and gender identity. More often, boys are
to show more emotional control and be more competitive while
girls are expected to be warrn and soft and demure. Parents also
expect their children to play with toys that are "right" for their gender.
The expectations of other people in the prechoolers' lives also influence
expected
their gender schema. This includes their relatives, teachers, classmates
and other playmates.
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the intemet
computer games also offer various images of what it means to be a boy
or girl. In the US, there is growing debate about LesbianCay-Bi-sexual-Transgender issues which is collectively known as LGBT
issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do a "balancing act"
on how to deal with these issues with children so that schools are still
able to be on the side of respect for diversity without necessarily
confusing children who are at a stage of forming their own gender
schemas.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present
notions of what boys and girls can do especially in the discussion about
occupations or community helpers.
Parten's Stages of PIay
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social
dimension. As the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates
increases. Mildred Parten, in the 1930's did a study on children's play
behavior which led to Parten's stages of play. Since then, numerous
studies have followed using these stages as framework. The stages
describe the play development of children and the gradual increase of
social interaction as they go through these stages. lt begins with the
very young child's unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel
play, associative and cooperative play. Play becomes an important venue
for the child's development of social skills like entering or joining a
play situation, taking.:tums, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working
together. Play is indeed the child's major business!
6. Cooperi
Peri ll Unlt 3 i,lodule 17
-
Socio-Emotional Development of Preschooler
Parten's Stages of Play
chlld
1. Unoccupied
appeers not to ho playi6g
directs lris attention on *rrything
that interests him. I
2. Onlooker
The child spends tirre watchfig othens
play. He may talk to them but does not
Tlrs
but
enter into play with them.
3. Solitary Play
The child spends time watching otherc
play. lle mey talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.
4.
Parallel Play
5. Associative
Play
ThE child- plays with toys simifar to thrxe
rear irim, but only plays bsside and not
with them. No interaction ta*es place.
The child plays with otfiers. 'There iS
interaction amoflg them, btrt no taslt assigni$snt, rules and organization are agreed
upon.
;
6. Cooperative
The child plays with otherE bound by
Some agfesd u,pen rules and roleg. Thu
goal is maybe to make something, pl*y {
game, or act out something.
'i
I
{
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Friendships
in
Preschool
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in
having friends. This should be encouraged in the preschool years as
friendships benefit the preschoolers development by providing stimulation,
assistance, companionship, social comparison and affection (Kostelnik,
2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice different
social roles tike being a leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and
someone who helps out and comforts. Friendships are very important
because they provide added sense of belongingness and security. In the
preschool years, parents and teachers must expose children to experiences that help them leam skills in establishing friendships, maintaining
positive relationships and resolving conflicts. Parents and teachers, when
seeing preschoolers in a "fight", should not just say "Tama na..ano ba
yan..isa pa h,o.. Tama na, friends na kayo..Say sorry na.. " Responses
like those do not foster social skills among preschoolers. Parents and
teachers need to take time and process with children how to resolve
conflicts.
Responsiven
expression of affer
caring and respectfi
communication and
will understand. X
expectations. This i
t,l
F
E
Ba
An
inteEral
part of the preschool curriculum is to teach children
the important social social skills.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the
children, Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even
other adults that'care for the child. Baumrind gave a model that
describes the different types of caregiving styles. This was based on a
longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the development of children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960's.
Decades later she identified varying degrees of demandingness and
responsiveness as determinants of four styles of caregiving. Marion
(2007) expounded on these determining factors.
Part ll Unit 3 Module 17 -Socio-Emotional Development of preschooler
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to
expression of affection and communication. It refers to how warm,
caring and respectful the adult is to the child. It involves openness in
communication and the willingness to explain things in ways that the child
will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and
expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation shategies.
Authoritative
high demandingness/
high responsiveness
Authoritarian
high demandingness/
low responsiveness
Permissive
low demandingness/
high responsiveness
Negtigent
low demandingness/
low responsiveness
Baumrind's Caregiving Styles and Their
Effects on Children
!
Authoritative
(high demandingness,
high responsiveness
. Expect behavior
appro-
priate to the age of the
child
Maintain reasonable
.
and fair limis
. Closely monitor the
activities of the child
. Warm and nurturing
. Have realistic expectations
of the child
. Makes the preschooler
feel safe and secure
. Teaches the child to
take responsibility for
hisftrer actions
:
,i
{
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
. Communicate
messages
and
in a kind, firm
consistent manner
. Discipline approach
Authontanan
high
low
demandingness,
responsiveness
.
.
.
.
focuses more on
teachine than ounishinp
Set subJectrve or
unreasonable limits
Communicate messages
Strive to have strong
psychological control
over the child
.
.
.
.
Develops good selfcontrol
Develops a realistic
view of oneself
Builds the child's
capaciw'for emoathv
.
Lead to aggressive
behavior of the child
Brings about poor self-
.
contrbl
Results
in poor self-
esteem
if
Permrssrve
.
Low demandingness, high
responsiveness
.
drawal of love, threats
Not able to teach
children a better way to
behave
Permlt the preschoolers
to regulate their own
behavior and make their
not yet ready to do so
Do not set rules or
very few if any
Do not demand good
behavior or task
accomplishment
May lack confidence in
their ability to influence
the child
.
Has difliculty controlling his/her impulses
.
.
Tends
Tends
.
Tends not
.
.
.
of
to be dependent
to be
demanding
their caregivers
to persist or
easily gives up on a
task
Does not easily follow
Maybe rebellious
.
Does not handle
frustration well
Has inadequate emo-
.
tional control
Difficulties in school
performance
managing the family
and household/ class
. Shows
caregivers
Maybe depressed or
overburdened by many
concerns like poverty,
marial problems, or
absence of support
from others
.
.
.
.
Expre
Cant
Willir
if
child experiences this
style early, the child
.
.
may have:
Accel
ACceI
Ma),
'
Ma)'
dePre:
Display of S
.
.
.
Pla),s
plays
Shor*
tempt
'
Confi
Petitir
'
Seelc
Rece
37-48 mont
.
Feels
attachment problems
delayed cognitive
development
Emerging S
delinquent behavior
ronml
o poor social and emotional skills
.
Perset
nervol
When parents' behavior is to the extreme or
undemanding,
indifferent and rejecting
action towards the child
Has little commitment to
their roles as parents/
ExPre
unsurt
and ineffective in
.
'
'
.
.
Use corporal punish-
.'Maybe disorganized
.
37-48 months (3-
Self-regulatio
they make a
when preschoolers are
.
E:
mistake
own decisions even
.
Emotional Express
he/she
ment, sarcasm, with-
.
(From the Philipp
Do not supervise
children's activities very
well and then get upset
.
A Quick Look
later in adolescence
forts,
Knol
Talks about
.
Tallc
Part ll Unit 3 Module 17
A Quick Look at What
-
Socio-Emotional Development of Preschoolet
Preschoolers Can Do
(From the Philippine Early Leaming Standards, ECCD Council. 2010)
Emotional Expression
Expression of Basic Emotions
37-48 months (3-4 years)
. Expresses what he/she likes
. Expresses what he/she dislikes
. Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sadness, worry)
he/she experiences
of feelings/emotion
Willing to try something in order to learn more even if
unsure of a successful outcome
Perseveres when faced with challenging or new tasks
Accepts brief delays in gratification
Accepts defeat well; is not a sore loser
May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or
Self-regulation
.
.
.
.
.
nervous
.
May feel sad at times but not to the point where he/she
is
depressed
Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt)
.
.
.
.
Plays
to learn a game
Plays to gain mastery of a game
Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful attempts or efforts
Confidently joins small groups especially if situation is com-
. TJ:f
from an adult or child to ,o,r. u problem
Receptivity to Others' Emotions
Receptivity to emotions and having empathy
"ssistance
37-48 months
.
Feels others' distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives, suggestions, etc.)
of Self
I(nowledge of Self and Basic Roles of
Ernerging Sense
People in his Envi-
ronrnent
Talks about parts of the body and their functions
. Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e'g.,
child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
sings, dances, is helpful, studious, etc.)
Asks
Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like
and don't like
Defends possessions
a
Can give rcasons
h
k
with determination
or justiff why he/she acted the way
a
Ii
practict
a
a
he/she
i;
Forming Attachments
. Shows preference for the company of significant adults and
children (other than the primary caregiver) over unfamiliar
adults and children
with Other Children
Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment
Participates in games with other children but plays in his
own way
ChatVconverses with other children
Takes tums and shares toys with others
Actively participates in classroom and group routines
lnteractions
.
o
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
I
i{
i"
i.
.
.
!(
;
Verbalizes feelings related to events that arise
home, and environment in a positive way
Speaks rcspectfully
appropriate titles
in classroom,
with adults using "po" and "oprol
and/or
Recognizes the importance of adult's ideas and experiences
by listening arid asking questions when they share these
Clarifies rules and routines before abiding by them
Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with
see the value
of a rule or
routine
Knows when to stop asking questions or when he is being
Cooperates
to minimize conflict or tension
Appreciating Diversity
.
From the
that parents and u
preschooler. The
teachers):
l.
Greet eac
and
2.
resp
Read stor
ings.
Develop r
Help chil
providing
"makulit"
.
The Rok
4.
Can take on another person's viewpoint
Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)
lI
n,
together a
months
or
Regard
differer
3.
Plays organized group games fairly
Interaction with Adults
3648
r
Willinr
lJ
tl
Talks
does
dtd
I
r
Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in
socio-economic status
5.
6.
Play gamr
Observe I
request, h
7. Help chilc
them won
see you a
8. Use dolls
to expres
9. Acknowle
"Nalulun
seem sad
we are at
listen and
10. Catch ch
accomplis
sayo "Got
you pack'
ways pac
11. Read stoq
12. For teactn
and gettinl
Part ll Unit 3 Module 17
.
- Socio-Emotional Development
of Preschooler
Asks questions about new/different words (dialects)
in the community
Tdks about gender differences and roles
and
practices
a
Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels, and
does not resoft to name-calling
Willing to make friends with other children and adults in
different situations and locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)
of Caregivers ii the Socio-emotional
Development of the Presclrooler
The Role
From the discussion above one can see the very important role
that parents and teachers play in the socio-emotional development of the
preschooler. The following tips are given to caregivers (parents and
teachers):
l.
Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere
respectful to each ehild.
Read storybooks that deal about friendships and different feel-
and
2.
ings.
3.
Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working
together and getting along.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by
providing opportunities for them to play in small groups.
Play games that involve social interaction and team work.
Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to
request, bargain, negotiate, and apologize.
Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving
can
them words that they can use to express how they feel.
see you are SAD about your pet, ANGRY at your sister...."
Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how
to express feelings appropriately.
"l
9.
Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say,
"Nalulungkot ka dahil hindi ka nakasama sa party. " (You
seem sad that you did not go the party). When we do this,
we are able to model to the preschooler that is is important to
listen and that having feelings, even negative ones, are okay.
I0. Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to
accomplish something. Be specific in your praise. Do not just
say, "Good job" or "Very good." Instead, say, "When I saw
you pack-away you toys, I felt really happy. Remember to always pack-away."
ll. Read storybooks that deals about friendships
12. For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together
and getting along
J
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
*,,
s16
RESIARCH CO}INECTION
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the
socio-emotional development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.
($nrnrcAno
l.
Choose a
internet
I
sr
powerpoint
use
of
pan
2. The bes c
you have I
that an arl
l.
)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Source: (bibliographical entry format)
t0.
sYilAPlll
Research
A. Biolq
B. Psych
tl'f
i
C.
D.
Cogni
E.
Social
Gendt
1
{r
I
l(
Read on
issues. G
Three" a
Research
on
introdr
ln
extr€n
styles car
mone on
Part ll Unit 3 Modulc 17-Soclo-Emotbnel Devetopmsnt of Proschoobr
{SnmrrcAnon
l. Choose a big
idea from this Module and expand it through
internet searches and downloads. Prepare a pamphlet or
powerpoint presentation or a movie (movie maker) intended for
use of parents of preschoolers.
2. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that
you have leamed fiom this Module, make a list of l0 qualities
that an authoritative preschool teacher should have:
l.
2.
3.t
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ffi
sYlrAPsE srRIltcIHINtRs
l.
Research
on the following theories on gender development:
A. Biological approach
B. Psychoanalyic approach
C. Cognitive development theory
D. Gender schema
E.
2.
3.
theory
Social cognitive theory
Read on Lesbian, Cay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT)
issues. One controversial storybook for children is "Thngo Makes
Three" a story about two male penguins starting a family.
Research on this and write an essay about your own views
on introducing LCBT to preschoolers.
ln extreme form, the authoritarian and the negligent caregiving
styles can lead to neglect and abuse of the prcschooler. Read
more on this and share with the class.
,l
J
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Ut,lIT 4
MRtFucTrolr
From the module
learned that...
on
the Socio-Emotional Development of Preschooler,
I
WSrlrTRo
Middle
ch
different changes
is the stage ben
less attention tha
the family and f
development.
Explain why?
TI,IODUI
fficnaruu
In this Mc
'
o
describ
aged cl
o
enumet
module
Physical
d
appearance, visu
undergo many
development.
and environmefll
239
U[llIT
4
rhe PrimarY schooler
-- Heidi
Grace
L, Borabo,
Ph,D,
'W*rlrrRoDU(TroN
Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many
different changes - physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This
is the stage between 6 to 12 years old. Children in this stage receive
less attention than children in infancy or early childhood. The support of
the family and friends of the child is very important during this phase of
development.
rl,roDulE 18
Physical Development of the
Primary Pupil
-
Heldi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
!rt
li
t{
ffi$o''tENGE
In this Module. challenge yourself to:
. describe the different physical characteiistics of early schoolaged children in your own words.
. enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this
module in the teaching-leaming process.
Physical development involves many different factors, height, weight,
appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children
undergo many different changes as they go through this stage of
development. This could be caused by different factors; both natural
and environmental.
,!
;
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
.:i:b S..,
ffiWACTlvlrY
at least three (3) primary school children (Grades I to 3).
Describe the physical characteristics of these children and write them
Observe
down below.
ffi
l.
anarysts
Based on tht
conclude about
primary school
Height
What are the
ready
for
r
prima
Weight
ABSTRACTIOI
Balanee
Speed
Coordination
of Movements
Part
Q
l.
ll Unit4
Modute 18
-
physical DeVelopment of the primary pupil
auarYsts
Based on the observations you have made, what can you
of children in their
conclude about the general physical characteristics
primary school years?
2.
What are the necessary skills that
ready for primary schooling?
ABSTRACTT0N
help them to be physically
/cEN ERALtZATI0N
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but
steady. During this stage, physical
development involves: (l) having
good muscle control and coordination,
(2) developing eye-hand coordination,
(3) having good personal hygiene and
(4) being aware of good
safety
habits.
Height and Weight
In this development stage,
children will have started their
elementary grades, specifically their
primary years - Grades I to 3.
This period of gradual and
steady growth will give children time
to get used to the changes in their
bodies. An average increase in
,I
ii
,l
t
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difrerent Life Stages
height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will
introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with
greater accut::l;
about 6.5 pounds a year. Most chirdren wilr
"r"**.s
have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of
the shifts in accumulation and location of their body fats. A child's legs
are longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before.
A
number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or
how much changes in the body will take place:
. genes
o food
o climate
o
o
o
exercise
medical conditions
diseases
/
illnesses
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the
best time to teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help
them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle
factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the
increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children's bones have proportionately more water and
protein-like materials and fewer. minerals than adults, ensuring adequate
catcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening bones and muscles.
more controlled b
copy simple desi
utensils correctly
Motor devel
and power.
Let us
lool
Coordinalion is a
a particular way I
more complex th
Children develop
games and sports.
num or stabllrty (
skill needed espr
During this time,
is the ability to n
one foot. Dynan
moving (Owens.
in the shortest p
change or shift t
important in mos
effort in the shor
All
these n
games and sports.
between success
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major
muscles of their bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance.
They like testing their muscle strength and skills. They enjoy doing reallife tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because
they are more attuned with everything that is happening around them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot - they run, skip, hop,
jump, tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are
already developed, they can now perform activities like catching a ball
with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can manage zippers and
buttons.
Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and
bi-manual (require the use of two hands) activities becomes easier.
Children's graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are now
Part
ll
Unit
4 Module
I8
:
Physical Development of the Primary Pupit
more controlled but are still developing. They can print their names and
copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility
and power.
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills.
Coordinatioz is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in
a particular way to bring about a particular re'sult (Strickland, 2000). The
more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.
Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when they play
games and sports. Balance is the child's ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his4rer body in different positions. Balance is a basic
skill needed especiplly in this stage, when children are very active.
During this time, children have improved balancing skills. Static balance
is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on
one foot. Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while
moving (Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance
in the shortest possible time while agility is one's ability to quickly
change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely
important in most sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum
effort in the shortest possible period.
All
these motor skills are vital in performing different activities,
games and sports. Development of these skills may spell the difference
'
between success and failure in future endeavors of the child.
I
,l
,"1
t:i
,t
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
M0DULE
19
Cognitive Development of
Primary Schoolers
-
ffi&Acrr,r
Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed,
Look at
tx
to your mind wt
Find a pa
fficHAttENGE
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o describe the characteristics of children in the concrete
operational
stage.
o
.
explain the importance of information-processing skills and how
they affect the child's cognitive development.
state the different cognitive milestones in primary-schoolers.
INTRODUCIIOiI
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive
development. According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of
ensuring balance in the relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person experiences is a continuous process of
assimilations and accommodations.Piaget described four main periods in
iognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the same at
different ages.
Drscussror Que
l.
What were tr
2.
Are there
ne
found inrigrrir
3.
With the advr
lopment is af
Part
ll
Unil
4 ltlodule 18 -
Physical Dewlopinent of th6 pdmary pupit
ffi& ACTT,TTY
look at the
semantic map below. Write down words which come
to your mind when COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned.
Find a pair and compare your answers.
COGNITTVE
DEVELOPI}IENT
Drscussror Quesnous:
l.
What were the common ideas regarding cognitive development?
2.
Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you
found intriguing?
3.
Wth the advent of the computer
age, do you think cognitive development is affected? Explain your answer?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
e
&
ABSTRACTT0N /GEN tRALTZAil0N
\
I
Jean Piaget's Concrele
Operational Stage
Concrete operation is
the third stage in Piaget's theory
of cognitive development. lt
spans from ages 7 to approximately I I years. In this developmental stage, children have
better understanding of their
thinking skills. Children begin to
think logically about concrete
events, particularly their own
experiences, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of
them still have a hard time at
problem-solving.
to Piaget, can already make
use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific
experience to a general principle. But at this stage, children have great
difficulty in using deductive logic or using a general principle to
determine the outcome of a specific event.
Concrete operational thinkers, according
.
Reversibility
\
Is Jacob
capal
Cognitive Miles
Elementar;
encounter develop
They develop cer
particular time fra
learn are in a sr
meaning they nt
numbers before t
mathematical eqr
stone that devel
upon the previor
achieved. Up un
learns new skill:
Once they reach
skills they
learn
and it usually is
of new skills.
Specifically
left from right. 1
develops rapidly.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An
example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships
between mental categories. (For example in arithmetic, 3 * 4 : 7 and 7
-4:3).
Example:
Teacher: Jacob, do you have a
.lacob:
T
Yes.
brother?
families. During I
they learn in sch
the week. They r
span is longer. T
learning letters
combinations of r
Part
ll
Unit
4
Module 19
-
Cognitive Development of primary Schoolers
Teacher:
What's his name?
Jacob:
Matthew.
Teacher:
Does Matthew have a brother?
Jacob:
Yes.
Is Jacob capable of reversibility?
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children
encounter developmental milestones.
:
I
,
They develop certain skills within a
particular time frame. The skills they
learn are in a sequential manner,
meaning they need to understand
numbers before they can perform a
mathematical equation. Each milestone that develops is dependent
upon the previous milestone they
achieved. Up until age 8, a child
learns new skills at a rapid pace.
Once they reach the age of 8, the
skills they learn start to. level off
and it usually is a steady increase
of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell
left from right. They are able to speak and express themselves
develops rapidly. In school, they share about themselves and their
families. During play, they practice using the words and language
they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of
the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention
span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. They are
learning letters and words. By six, most can read words. or
combinations
of
words.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Information-P rocessing
Skills
a
a
Several theorists argue
that like the computer, the
human mind is a system
that can process information
through the application of
logical rules and strategies.
They also believe that the
mind receives information,
performs operations to
change its form and content, stores and locates it
and generates responses
from it.
O
I
3 applicati
information prc
Give,
a
a
, APPLICAIION
l.
Study the diagram on information-processing below. Write your
insights on how you can apply the Information-Processing Theory in
prirnary-school children.
iili
L*mg*t"*rm
t\
rl
(
futsru0ry
I-hrud
*k***]
Saxr**xy
hlcm,xr:
Hkratsr
&{tirl
Fr*c6sal1g
fi*tt*\ral
{tlril
f,oft
4t
i
I
{
1
i
W*4t3*t
Sh*rt* t.*rm
T*amg.vy
1
-j.,
r*gotten
,&*,',
#rpoilt!
3.
Look for
artir
influences
of fa
of your resean
Part
ll
Unit
4
Module 19
- Cognitive
Development of primary Schoolers
2. Give. 3 applications each of Piaget's cognitive theory and that of
information processing theory in the teaching-leaming process.
a
3. Look for articles and studies,
influences
of your
either online or printed, on the
of family on cognitive development.
in class.
Share important points
research
,'I
rli
I
)
,{
tI
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
@ sYrAPsr sTRrlrcrnmrRs
Read and research more on the components
Processing Skills focused on:
of
Information -
o Attention
o Perception
o Memory Strategies among primary school children.
Summarize your rcsearch and share important points
in class.
MRffHC]
Part
ll
Unit
4
Module 19
-
Cognitive Development of Frimary Schoolers
MRETHCTION
From the module on the Cognitive Development of Primary School Children,
leamed that...
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Socio'Em oti on al
M0DULE 2(}
-
D ev el
opm ent
Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
fficnnuENGE
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged
children in this stage of development.
o discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional
$owth of the primary-schoolers
'W-rNrRoDUCrroN
The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of
man's psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a "psychosocial crisis" which arises and demands resolution before the next stage
can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson's
psychosocial stage. Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry
vs. Inferiority.
ffi@ACrrvrTY
l. Observe primary-schoolers
2.
Q nHruvsrs
Discussion Questic
during their play time (recess or lunch
l.
Wliat were
ttr,
break). Take note of their:
comes to:
o
a.
b.
communicr
c.
facial exp
behavior during play
o
communication with their peers
o
facial expressions, gestures and body language
Thke pictures of these children during playtime. Paste them below
and discuss important points and observations with your partner.
2.
behavior
d,
During the o
encountered u
Part
ll
Unit
4
Module 19
-
Cognilfue Development of Primary Schoolers
Q nnalsrs
Discussion Questions:
l.
What were the common observations among these children when it
comes to:
2.
a.
b.
behavior during play?
c.
facial expressions, gestures and body language?
communication with their peers?
i
il
During the observation, were there difficulties that the children
encountered'while they were at play?
.I
tl
t
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
c
e
msmACTroN
Primary scl
their parents, but
teract with, includ
understanding of r
can please their I
confidence in doir
things that they fi
i
Erik Erikson's Fourth
Stage
of
Psychosociul Development
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will
have to resolve in this stage. Industry refers to a child's involvement
in situations where long, patient work is demanded of them, while
inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeting of failure
when they cannot finish or master their school work.
will most likely, have begun going to school.
School experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing
school work. The encouragement of parents and caring educators helps
to build a child's sense of self-esteem, strengthening their confidence and
ability to interact positively in the world.
In this
stage, children,
School Years
In the trans
tend to become ir
social interactions
are also aware of
zess and equoliE*
people who are n
and dependabiliqv
r
NESS.
Building Frienr
.tt\\
,E{k
-lt \
Fi* * *^-*]&
Understanding the Self
One's self-concept is the
knowledge about the self, such as
beliefs regarding personality traits,
physical characteristics, abilities,
values, goals and roles. What does
the comic strip depict?
It
also involves a sense of
belonging and'acceptance, a sense
of good and a sense of being capable of doing good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not rnean that a child thinks
is better than others. It means that he likes himself, feels accepted
his family and friends and believes that he can do well.
he
by
Part
ll
Unit
4 Module
20
-
Socio-Emotional Development
Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by
their parenls, but also by the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and classmates. Children have a growing
understanding of their place in the'world. They already know that they
can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and show
confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in
things that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children
tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with
social interactions. They are not focused on themselves anymore but
are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The issues of fairzess and equality become important to them as they learn to care for
people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty
and dependability are being considered as well as responsibility and kindNESS.
Building Friendships
"lV'lrat is t FRIEND?
two bodies."
A single
soul dwelling in'
-Aristotle
Making friends is a crucial but
very important paft of children's social
and emotional growth. . As soon as
they are able to walk and talk, they
will tend to show natural inclination to
.i
.,
,l
be around other children.
rJ
Children, during this stage, most
likely belong to a peer group. Peer
groups are characterized by children
who belong approximately to the same
age group and same social economic
status. It is found along the stages of
childhood through adolescence. But for
I
fl
't
i{
il
il
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
children, until the age of seven or eight, they think of themselves more
than that others. They may play well with groups but may need some
time to play alone.
Primary school children prefer'to belong to peer groups of the
same gender. Many children will use their surroundings to observe and
mingle with other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to
make friends while others remain a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adult may perceive that
Study the sitt
you help these
lear
Dear Teacher
some
children's behavior towards other children as
antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or
kick other children when they are first introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that
children at this stage are still forming their
own world views and other children may
seem like a curiosity that they need to
explore. Parents and teachers can help
children make friends. You can consider the
following:
o
Expose the children to kid-rich environments (e.g. playgrounds, park).
o
Create a play group in your class
and let the children mingle with their
classmates.
When your children hit other children, remind them that their
behavior hurts others.
Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the
children will have greater opportunity to interact with other children.
Self-control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride irr their
ability to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their parents and teachers. This becomes a
great opportunity for parents and teachers to encourage positive emotional
responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate
behaviors.
$nnnucATro
Iamnr
isolated and
while.
She
Part
ll
Unit
4 Module 20- Socio-Emotional Development
@.arrurcATroN
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will
you help these leamers cope with their socioemotional d,ifficulties?
Dear Teacher,
I am really heart-broken. My 8-year old daughter
is feeling lonely,
isolated and friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a
while. She says that she mostly spends time alone - that she has no
friends because no one wants to pfiy with her.
She tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if things don't always
go her way and also teary. I don't know where to
turn to help her - the thought that she finds school
painful is heartbreaking.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking et Learners at Different Life Stages
Dear Teacher,
I am a really proud parent. My little boy is in primary
grade and he
is doing much better than his classmates. He sometimes becomes restless
in school - he says he knows what the teacher is talking about. Some
teachers even suspect that he is gifted. But ther'e seems to be a
problem.
ffi
sYNAPtit
Read more
children. Analyrc
the research pape
Write down
He is bossy. He always orders people around his classmates and people at home. How could I
help him be comfortable in school and lessen his bossiness?
Points
for
L
Part
ffi
ll Unit4
Module 20
-
Socio-Emotional Development
sYlrAPst sTRtNGIHtlt[Rs
Read more on the Socioemotional Development of primary school
children. Analyze the perspective of teachers on this stage by reading
the research paper on http://www.aare.edu.au/ 07 paptbru}T 322.pdt.
Write down points for discussion and share your insights in class.
Points
o
for
Discussion:
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamee at Different Life Stages
Urulr 5
MRtttECroN
B'irry,,am
xkh
From the module on socioemotional Development
Children, I leamed that...
of primary
School
TNTR0D
Does physicr
this what they cal
this after going th
This unit d'
of tt
development
T'JIODUT
mcHAtLtilG
In this Module. r
o identifr
internr<
o
discuss
successf
o
design
diate
z
sc
Urulr 5
Late Childhood
(The lntermediate
IH,'lj,.'L,
ce
L.
Borabo,
MA.Ed.
INTRODUCIION
Does physical growth slow down or speed up in late childhood? Is
this what they call the "troublsome age". You should be able to answer
this after going through this Unit.
This unit dwells on the physical, cognitive .and socio-emotional
development of the intermediate schooler.
t
rl
xf
.
-
Heidi Grace L. Boraho, MA.Ed.
i
i
PfficHALuNct
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o identify the different
physical characteristics of
interrnediate schoolers.
o
discuss ways and practices which
o
successfully developing physically.
design a simple exercise program appropriate
diate school children.
will aid children
for
in
interme-
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
WrlllIRoDUCTl0]l
The steady and gradual changes happening in chirdren at this stage,
especially with their increasing familiarity with school work and other
possible activities provide them with a greater oppoftunity to develop
their motor skill functioning.
ffi&
Q
mlalsrs
l. What initial
c
serve?
ACTT,TTY
Thke pictures of children in their late childhood (ages 9 to l2).
Make a collage and discuss the common characteristics that you have
t-\-
observed.
What activities
them to develo
MY OBSERVATIONS
Based on your
grolvth pattern
Unit
Q
l.
5
Module 21
-
Physical Developmenl of the lntermediate Pupil
arawsls
What initial characteristics of children ages 9
to
12 did
you
ob-
serve?
What activities were commonly done by these children which help
them to develop physically?
Based on your observations and readings, do boys follow a different
growth pattern compared to the girls? Explain your answer.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
c
A
priate activities r
right direction.
selves in worthu
RgstRAfiroN/GINtRAuzATroN
Physical Changes
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in
a hurry. They get so busy with
their school work, interacting with
their friends, exploring other possible activities, but this period of
physical development seems to
take on a leisurely pace.
On the average, girls are
generally as muclr as two (2)
years ahead of boys in terms of
o promote
o give tlrcr
o reduce d
This stage
fine and gross r
they are offered
Children n
they can interat
share
with
paren
that exercising
r
physical maturity. Puberry may be-
gin early. Budding breasts for
girls
- which is the initial
sign of
may also
puberty. Some girls
start wit[ their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late 13.
Many of the bodily structures like the liveq muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls and
boys. Other structures like the brain, intestines and other organs and
l
{
,,1
'il
rl
'I,'l
t
bodily systems mature at their own time, thus. affecting growth pattems.
Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and average of 2
% inches in height and an average of an inch in head circumf-erence
each year. Children at this stage have groMh spufts - sudden boost in
height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite
and food intake. Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for
the growth that occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean
body mass per inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of
development. These differences in body composition become very significant during adolescence.
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their
physical appearance. Girls. especially, rnay become concerned about their
weight and decide to eatless. Boys may become aware of their stature
and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers
must be very conscious about their dealings with these children. Appro-
$nrrucn
l.
Being heald
everyday un
Design a
to 12. Divide
Part l:
w
r()
Part 2:
E
\AI
h
st
Part 3:
C
______----
Unit
5
Module 21
-
Physical Development of the lntermediate Pupil
priate activities must be designed so that children will be guided into the
right direction. Children must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that:
o promote healthy growth
o give them a feeling of accomplishment
.
reduce the risk
of certain
diseases
This stage is also characterized by advanced development of their
fine and gross motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase as
they are offered different physical activities.
Chitdren may become more interested in physical activities where
they can interact with friends and family. Activities which they can
sharp with parents (e.g. biking, running, playing basketball) show ohildren
that exercising can be fun.
$nrrrcATrcil
l.
to
Being healthy physically greatly helps children to succeed in their
everyday undertaking in their late adulthood.
Design a simple exercise program appropriate for children ages 9
12. Divide your program into three parts:
Part
l;
Warm Up Activities:
-
May include breathing exercises and stretching
routines.
Part
2:
Exercise Proper:
-
May consist of three to four sets of exercises
which may focus on the following areas: (a) body
balance and posture, (b) endurance, (c) muscle
strength and/or (d) agility.
Part
3:
Cooling Down or Quieting Aaivity:
- Includes another set of breathing and stretching
exercises.
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
msYltAP
Title of Exercise
Part
Children
physical appeat
rpsearches in th
such as health
l: Warm Up Activities:
Summariz
o Researcl
o Findirgs
o Conclwi
Part 2: Exercise Proper:
o Recomn
o Referen
As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help
school children develop physically?
intermediate
Unit
m
5
Moduls 21
-
Physical Devulopment of the lntermcdiet€ Pupil
sYilAPsE srREltcrnrlttRs
Children in their late childhood are often concerned about their
physical appearance. They may suffer physical conditions. Read on
rcsearches in the area of physical development of intermediate schoolers
such as health issues.
Summarize one research by stating the ff. research problems:
o Research Methodolory
o Findings
o Conclusions
o Recommendations
o References
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
nnoDuU
MRtH.tc,oN
From the module on the Physical Development
Children, I leamed that...
of
Intermediate School
ffi,ru,u*o
In this Module,
.
c
examine
children.
.
discuss
ir
intermedi
.
enumeral
leaming
ryffiu
r
NrRol
Since chilr
stage are alrea
late childhood, n
ment of mental
dent.
Accordi
Piaget, concrete
thinkers can
n(
thoughts effectivt
they can only l
ceive the immed
They can appll
have learned to
Thus ttreir
with proper guid
of the communit
endeavors.
Unit
5
Module 21
-
Physical Development of the lntermediate Pupil
Development of
MoDULEnCognitive
ntermediafe Schoolers
I
-
tleidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Eil.
@cHAttE*ct
ln this Module,
a
challenge yourself to:
examine the cognitive characteristics
of
intermediate school
children.
o
discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development
intermediate school children.
a
enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the
leaming environment, leaming activities and instructional materials.
of
'W-rNTRoDucTroru
Since children in this
stage are already in their
late childhood, rapid development of mental skills is evi-
dent. According to
Jean
Piaget, concrete operational
thinkers can now organize
thoughts effectively, although,
they can only logically perceive the immediate situation.
They can apply what they
have learned to situations and events that they can manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But
proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest
with
of the community, these children can easily succeed in their
endeavors.
intellectual
Child and Adblescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
Initial Cognitive
ffi"$#ACTrvril
Intermed
ia
abilities that ttrey
Write your understanding on the statement below.
effective as comF
now more compi
solving has becor
Their abilit
thinking about r,rr
very interested in
They develop spo
even capable of
r
experiences.
Reading Develol
Children in
attack. Because
a wide vocabular
unknown words t
Stage in readin_e
and magic type (
complex reading
r
Attention
Older child
compared to your
how much is requ
children can con
especially
Q
if
thel'
Creativity
nulrYsrs
Discussion Questions:
l.
What kind
of
intelligences is being referred
to by Howard
Gardner?
2.
What intelligence do you think is the most evident in this
stage
of development?
3.
Do these intelligences vary among children in terms of age
gender?
and
Children at
is innate in childr
parents, teachers
a
Unit
5
Module 22
-
Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive
abilities that they can now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more
effective as compared during their primary years. Their school work is
now more complicated. Reading texts have become longer; problemsolving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of
thinking about what they want and how to get it. They now become
very interested in talking about the future or even their potential careers.
They develop special interest in collections, hobbies and sports. They are
even capable of understanding concepts wjthout having direct hands-on
experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word
attack. Because of the presence of previous knowledge. they now have
a wide vocabulary. which enables them to understand the meanings of.
unknown words through context clues (This is the "Reading to Learn,,
Stage in reading development.) They are no longer into the fairy tales
and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more
complex reading materials, e:g. fiction books and series books.
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span
to younger children. Their span of attention is dependent on
how much is required by the given task. In terms of school work, older
children can concentrate and focus more for longer period of hours
especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.
compared
Creativity
"CREATIVITY is not the .finding of
but making something out of it
a thing,
after it is
found."
-
James Russell Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity
is innate in children, they just need a little guidance and support from
parents, teachers and people around them. They are usually at their best
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
suf,fer
when the work is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
. encourage different responses from each child.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
fnor
Children
becoming
.
celebrate uniqueness.
.
break stereotypes.
value process over product.
Children r
real life.
Children
'
conflicts.
reduce stress and anxiety in children.
The school
support to share ideas, not only with the teacher
also with other chi.ldren.
/
parent but
minimize competition and extemal rewards.
The Impact of Media
access to media.
videos, movies, co
lies with the paren
a collective effon z
in every aspect of
Having a rol
of transition
adult to admire anr
tivation to succeed
become a very go(
stage
"klevision viewing is a highly complex, cognitive
activity during which children are actively
involved in learning."
(Anderson and Collins, 1988)
,
Teachers...
.
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started
in the 1950's. It was considered as one of the first technological
advancements in schools. The impact of the use of television and other
media like the computer has gained popularity because students are given
more opportunity to:
\
il
,t
t
i
.
.
o
.
communicate effectively
in speech and in writing
work collaboratively
use technological tools
analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for
seek out information
or skills on their own, as
needed,
to
meet
their goals
Media and Aggression
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of
media. According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following
are some of the negative results of media:
'
.
Children
will
.
must under
helP make '
abililies.
.
must creat
discoveries
achieving those goals
.
need to be
Iopment.
increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who
Unit
.
5
Module 22
-
Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers
suffer from violence.
Children may view the world as violent and mean,
of being a victim of violence.
children will desire to.see more violence in entertainment and
becoming more fearful
'
'
real life.
children will view violence as an acceptable way to
settle
conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited
access to media, not only televisions and computers, but also
videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The responsibility now
lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be"
a collective effort among the factors working together to support children
in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for chirdren at this
of transition (from childhood to adolescence). It gives children an
adult to admire and emulate. Role models also provide them with motivation to succeed. one of the most important roles of teachers is to
become a very good role model to children.
stage
Teachers...
.
need
to be an eager participant in children's growth and deve-
lopment.
'
must understand how to use the children's natural curiosity to
help make the appropriate developmental leaps in their skiils and
abilities.
.
must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and
discoveries made while chiidren remain safe.
Child and Adobsocnt Denpbpmcnt Loddng at Leamers at Difierent Lib Stages
@ sYlrAPsr
$mnrrAnon
l.
Write the definitions of the following wonds based on how you un-
Read more o
Intermediate
derstood it.
all the
a.
parts
Concrete operational thinkers
Look for the
2.
b.
"Reading to Learn" Stage (in Reading Development)
c.
Attention Span
d.
Creativity
What can teachers do to help encourage creativity in children?
Consider the following areas in the teaching - leaming process:
The Creative Teacher
Unit
@
5
Module 22
-
Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers
sYNAPSE sTRTNGTHENERs
Read more on researches relevant to the cognitive Development of
Intermediate School children. Summarize one research report with
all the parts of an absffact given in part I, Unit I, Module
Look for the relationship of human and cognitive development:
I.
d
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
MRITEC,oN
From the module on the Cognitive Development
School Children, I learned that...
MODULI
of Intermediate
fficHAtLmrGt
ln this Module. cl
. identifl th
childhoo,J
determine
.
developm,
'
inten'ieu
ment.
#f.*i,'A
Lry'';nla lNTRol
ilt1t
?
At this peri
Iess time in the
either alone or n
I
have alreadv fa
already used to
them, these socir
also different for
r
,E@ACTIV
l.
Paste a
Recall a
brief
stor
unit
5
Module 23
-
socio-Emotional Development of lntermediate schoolers
Socio-Em
otional Development
ruroDuLEn of lntermediate Schoolers
L.
-
Heidi Grace
Borabo, MA.Ed.
TACHATLENGE
In this Module. challenge yourself
.
'
'
to:
identifl, the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late
childhood stage.
determine the qualities of family life that affect older children's
developnrent including changes in family interactions.
interiew a parent regarding their child's socio-emotional deveropment.
',#$,,,ffi
,ffiKra
tNTR0DUCTt0N
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending
time in the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home,
either alone or with other children, rather than with adults. older children
have already familiarized themselves with other children. They are
already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For many, of
them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but
also different forms of learning.
less
ffiMACTTvTTY
l. Paste a picture of you when you were in Grade 4, 5 or 6.
Recall a significant event that happened to you. Write a very
brief story of what happened.
.l
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Emc
nnllYsls
Q
this
Discussion Questions:
unde
As you share you story with a classmate, answer the
questions
below:
l.
2.
exp€
emol
Why was this event so significant?
What do you think were the factors that made you react or
feel that way?
empi
event has affected you socially and
ings
3. How do you think this
emotionally?
4. Thinking
emol
Emo
about it, do you think you could have acted or felt
differently?
c
&
lgslRAcnolt
Builr
understanding Self-competence, self-Identity and Self-concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of
development is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is
what Erik Erikson referred to when he described the developmental task
of middle childhood - the social crisis industry versus inferiority.
Industly refers to the driye to acquire new skills and do meaningful
"work".
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child's
definitions of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpreQtions in the surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be
provided in order for children to develop a sense of perseverance.
They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along with
.ti
it
\
.\
'
sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with
internal and psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely
employ more social comparisore - distinguishing themselves from others.
In dealing with other children, they show increase in perspective-taking.
This ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to:
(a) judge others' intentions, purposes and actions, (b) give importance to
social attitudes and behaviors and to (c) increase skepticism of others'
claims.
peer
impo
stabi
incrr
child
skills
Unit
5
Module 23
-
Socio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediate Schoolers
Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children
[re
questions
in
increased
this stage, show improved emotional understanding,
understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single
experience. They may also show greater ability to show or conceal
emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine
empathy.
,vou react or
socially
and
acted or felt
[-Concept
'this period of
ence. This is
bpmental task
us inferiority.
do meaningful
re. The child's
ing to interprenities must
be
perseverance.
ed, along with
hemselves with
Ey most likely
es from others.
,sWctivelaking.
:s the child
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children's
emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others and use this to guide and motivate behavior.
Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
. Developing emotional seli-awareness
. Managing emotions (self-control)
. Reading emotions (perspective taking)
. Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in
peer interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very
important. The approval and belongingness they receive contribute to the
stability and security of their emotional development. Peer size also
increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this stage,
children prefer to belong to same-sex peer'groups.
There are five types of Peer Status:
. Popular - frequently nominated as the bestfriend and one who
is rarely disliked by peers
. Average - receives an average number of positive and negative
nominhtions from peers
. Neglected - very seldom nominated as bestfriend but is not
really dislil<ed
.
cism of others'
-
infrequently nominated as
a bestfriend but one who
is
also disliked by peers
.
to:
r importance to
Rejected
-
frequently nominated as
Controversial
by peers
is
disliked
time
same
a best friend but at
the
Popular children which peers find very positive have the following
skills and as a result they become the most favored in the group:
l.
They give out reinforcement.
2.
They act naturally.
child and Adolescent t)B\EbplItgnt Looldng al LBamers at Different Life Stages
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
emotions.
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of why the group
or majority of the peers develop negative feelings toward rejected
children:
1. They participate less in the
2.
classroom.
They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance.
3.^ They are more often reported as being lonely.
4.
Aggressive
a.ln
-
boys:
They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and
disruptive.
-
They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down
They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends.
Family
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by
failure. If children do not find a supportive family when
they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a
musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. tf Amities are seen
as a primary support system, failures and setbacks become temporary
and surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal
flaws or deficits. This time is a critical time for children to develop a
success and
t
,r
*
i
I
of competence. A
high-quality adult relationship, specifically, family
relationship enables them to successfully go thrgugh this stage of develsense
tl
opment.
'$
orc rDrAs
This Module stresses that:
. During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological
and social changes take place across the developmental domains.
. As children progress through late childhood, the family
environment remains extremely important, while the community
environment - including the school - also becomes a significant
factor in shaping the child's development.
; During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact
Sr
l.B
fa
cl
Partll Unit5 Module23- socio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediateschoolers
on development; peer acceptance becomes very important
I
emotions.
to
well-being.
y the group
rd rejected
I
attendance.
$nrrrrcATrcit
l. Based on the readings and researches that you have, what are the
factors which greatly affect the socio-emotional development of
children in their late childhood stage.
ttentive and
wn.
r friends.
rcterized by
Ermily when
x playing a
ies are seen
I temporary
to personal
o develop a
inlly, family
p of devel-
r,vchological
Nl domains.
the family
r community
a
significant
hong impact
FACTORS THAT GREATLY AFFECT THE
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
)
Interview a parent or a teacher of an intermediate schooler. Use
the questions below as your guide. Write your conclusions and
insights.
Name of Parent (optional):
Age and Grade Level of the Child:
Gender
of the Child:
Questions:
a. What were some marked changes in your child as he/she
4 to 6)?
interactions with parents,
reached the intermediate level (Grades
b.
c.
sibling(s)
How can you describe his/lrer
peers?
any, teachers and
What can you say about your child's self-confidence and self-
- if
esteem?
d. What activities in the home do you do to help your
interact with people around him/her?
I,tri,
E
tt
\
I
,r
T
Insights:
child
Partll UnitS Module23- Soiio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediateSchoolers
iler.
Use
bions and
ffi:
l.
sYNAPst SIRI]{GIHENIRS
Read more on researches related
socio-emotional
development of intermediate school-aged children. Research on
how children emotionally respond to the following events in life:
. death
. parents' separation
. rejection from peers
as he/she
.
sibling(s)
: and self-
iour child
I
I
I
I
I
I
r*/
/r/
I
to the
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
- , RTSTARCH
&/-
Give an abstract of at least 1 research which you did in Synapse
Strengtheners. Follow the parts of an abstract given in Part I, Unit I,
Module tV.
ll
,'l
i
'\fi
M*
Part
ll
unit
5
Module
23-
socio-Emotional Development of -lntermediate Schooters
MRtttECTIoN
From this Module on the Socio-Emotional Developrnent
I leamed that...
Schoolers,
of Intermediate
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Ut.lIT
Adolescence
6
(The High School Learner)
illegal dru
of droppi
personal
- Paz L Lucido, Ph,D,
situatiorq
I
guidance
lives suco
high schor
WqTNTRoDUCTToN
Unconsciously, students who gain admission into high school may
be unawaie of the dangers and stresses involved in their personal
transition during the age of adolescence. Indeed, it can be a rough
time for them both at home and school, although the kind of disturbing
events adolescent students may likely meet head-on will depend on the
physical-social environment surrounding each individual leamer.
Photo by B
@cna
At tt
l.
de
ch:
2.
illr
ad<
Feelings of'uncertainty, even of defeat, can thus arise from
challenges that the adolescent leamer may face, balanced by the kind
of support they receive at home or in school. In Philippine high
schools, crisis situations can occur by way of the destructive culture of
3. ani
em
po!
Part
ll
unit 6 Module 24
- Physical
Development of the High school Learners
illegal drugs and youth gang violence, and the less recognized problems
of dropping out due to social problems, such as poverty, and more
personal problems, such as low aspirations and delinquency. In this
situation, high school teachers and their schools are challenged to provide
guidance and support so that the adolescent learner can manage their
lives successfully through stresses and storms that may accompany their
high school years.
nl
ma)
personal
a
rougtr
lisn:rbing
d on
the
Photo by Bernadette T. lnocencio
Photo by Maggie l. Amor
fficHAr.rENcE
At the end of the Unit, you must be able
l.
to:
define adolescence and explain the concepts of biological
changes, puberty, and transition into adulthood;
2.
illustrate the biological, cognitive and socio-emotional changes of
adolescence, and;
se from
le
kind
ine high
ulture of
3.
analyze the issues related to physical, cognitive and socioemotional maturation inclusive of sexuality, thereby formulating
positive values on adolescent development.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
m0
M
ffic
A
I
a
:
ffi4
SI
a
a
@r
A
l.
2.
Part
ll
unil 6 Module 24
- Physical
Development of the High school Learners
Physical Development of the
High School Learners
rrroDuLEu
-
Paz
l. Lucidq
Ph.D.
ffi*rmrilGE
At the end of this Module,.you are challenged
to:
o define adolescence.
o describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying
pu-
berty.
o
o
identifr the psychological consequences of early and rate maturation in the period of adolescence.
identifl symptoms, causes of possible habit
of coping with them.
disorders and ways
ffi@ACTrvrTY
your real life experiences along the following aspects:
Individual perceptions whether your growth was slow or fast,
smooth or by spurts, etc. Any sense of curiosity or concern
(especially as to such incidences as menstruation for girls and
Share
o
o
wet dreams for boys).
How your self-image (esteem) was affected by your physical
growth (possibly too thin or plqmp, lanky or shoq homely-looking
etc.)
o
Parental relationship during these years, as
more independence, privacy, etc.
you
may have sought
@. malYsls
Answer the following questions as a group:
l. Was there anything common in the experiences shared?
2. Was there anything unique?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
o'msrnAcrroN
peak at
&
continual
Defining Adolescence
The period of hdolescence begins with biological changes of
puberty and ends with the role and work of adult life. The specific
ages for this period varies from person to person but distinct phases
have been identified. The advent of puberty may come early for some
and late for some others. But everyone goes through these stages.
These stages are: l). early adolescence characterlzed by pube(y mostly
occurring between ages l0 and 13; 2). middle adolescence characterized
by identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16; and 3). late adolescence
which marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive
declining
spurt lat(
A
while bol
stages in
strength.
face mat
organs.
B
part in ti
Sexual n
T
and socio-emotional changes, physical transition being particularly coupled
with sexual transformation. This Module is focused on physical develop
ment that takes place during adolescence. All the while, the aspect of
individuality in adolescent development is unique to each individtial,
although there are common issues that depend on race and culture,
inclusive of dependence versus independence, changes in parent-adolescent relationship, exploration, need for more privacy and idealization of
complex.
ized chen
hormones
signals
gonadotr
lies bene
others.
geometric
the femt
Pubertal changes
gonatrotq
comprises the major
This is manifested by a
adolescence.
to
early
childhood
from
transition
change in physical appearance, a more rapid rate of development (next
to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth
spurts. The phenomenon commonly results in a feeling of awkwardness
and unfamiliarity with bodily changes.
male test
In all cultures, biological change
In addition, alterations in sleeping habits and
secreted.
lated.
Sec
comprise,
first sign
parent-adolescent rela-
tionship may be experienced accompanying puberty changes.
I
The growth spurts
Throughout life, the grolvth hormone conditions gradual increases in
body size, and weight, but hormone flooding occurs during adolescence
causing an acceleration known as the growth spurt. Body changes
include change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk
length). In particular, spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather
thap leg growth.
In girls, the growth spurt generally begins at age l0 reaching its
lation. th
growth.
growth r
growth p
late in p
the laryru
most obr
In
.
enlargem,
growth s
female t
Unit 5 Module 24
peak at age
I
changes of
lhe specific
[nct phases
ly for some
ESe stages.
hrty mostly
*raracterized
adolescence
-
Physical Development of the High School Learners
ll
and-a-half, and decreasing at age 13, while slow
continual growth occurs for several more years. Boys begin their groMh
spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching a peak at 14 and
declining at age 15 and-a-half.
At age 16 and Yo, girls reach 98 percent of their adult height,
while boys do so at age 17 and %. Growth in height is conditioned by
stages in bone maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of size and
strength, while a similar spurt occurs for weight, muscle size, head and
face maturation, and especially the development of the reproductive
organs.
Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take
part in the groMh spurt during adolescence.
D.
al, cognitive
arly coupled
cal develop
lre aspect of
r individdal,
rnd culture,
rrent-adoles-
balization of
the major
rifested by a
pment (next
n as growth
rwkwardness
olescent relaL
I
increases in
; adolescence
rdy changes
width, trunk
folvth rather
reaching its
Sexual maturitv
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is
complex. Hormones are recognized to be powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. The triggering by
hormones of the hypothalamus glands ori hormones of the pituitary glands
signals the entire process of sexual maturation. Duringr the process,
gonadotropic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary, which
iies beneath the base of the brain and are situated approximately at the
geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the ovaries in
the female and the testis in the male, are then stimul'ated by the
gonatrotopic hormones, in tum stimulating their own hormones. When the
male testis is stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is
secreted, while estrogen is secreted when the female ovary is stimulated.
Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by testosterone,
comprised by the growth of the testis and scrotum (recognized to be the
first sign of puberty), penis and first pubic hair; the capacity for ejaculation, the groMh spurt, voice change, facial hair development/ beard
growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair.. The acceleration of the
growth of the penis precedes the growth spurt in height. Pubic hair
growth precedes the first appearance of facial hair growth. Occurring
late in puberty, the lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of
the larynx and double lenghening of the vocal cords, is viewed to be the
most obvious aspect
of
adolescent development.
In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of
breast
of pubic hair, the widening of the hips, a
growth spurt, and menarche (first menstruation). The elevation of the
female breast is the first external sign of puberty in girls, while the
enlargement, the appearance
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leames at Different Life Stages
t
t\
\
i
n
d
'
growth of the uterus and vagina accompanies continued enlargement of
ih" b..*t. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning I I to I1.5 years
(5 percent), up to 12 and 12.5 years (25 percent) and at age 13 (60
percent). There are, however, differences in reaching menarche in accordance with ethnic differences. Studies show that African American and
European American girls may exhibit secondary sex activities as early as
8.87 years and 9.96 years; menarche as early as ll.6 years and 12.4
rea
years, respectively.
soc
In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of
puberty and sexual maturity in boys. At about age 12 or 13, boys
experience the enlargement of the testis and the manufacture of sperms
in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their first ejaculation of semena sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland. The need to discharge
semen occurs more or less periodically following pressure caused by the
production of seminal fluid by th'e prostate gland. Noctumal emissions or
"wet dreams'l occur during sleep often caused by sexual dreams.
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is caused
by conscious fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It is important to
note that science and religion differ in their regard to masturbation.
ofl
Modem medical science sees it as an inevitable transitional phenomenon
among adolescents. On the other hand, religion generally regards it
as gravely sinful, ascribing sin even to sexual fantasies. To view the
issue objectively, a guilt complex on the matter is unhealthy to growth.
On the other hand, habitual masturbation is an aberration when it can
inhibit the growing adolescent from confidence in heterosexual (malefemale friendship) relationship. In the end, while the growing yotrth need
not feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need to be forewamed
about habitually giving in these urges. Outgrowing the acts of
masturbation is wholesope especially during adulthood when males and
females need to relate to each other in a mature relationship.
pn
am
inf
fte
thir
uP
w€
Ac
w(
ch
be
lis
an
go
sf
da
sh
flr
D
UI
s€
The secular trend
The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages has
been perceived during the past one hundred years. Known as the.
Secular Trend, the phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation
compared with that occurring in previous millennia. In 1880, for example,
the average age at which girls had their first menstrual period in wellnourished industrial societies was 15 and 17 years. This is not true,
however, in depressed societies wherein this period is a bit later at about
15.5 years.
One hundred years ago, boys reached their adult height at ages
23 and 25 and girls at ages 19 and 20. Today, maximum height is
CC
tr
d,
pr
o
Part
mlargement of
I to I1.5 years
{ age 13 (60
rche in
accor-
American and
lbs as early as
pars and
12.4
[e first sign of
2 or
13, boys
frne of sperms
tion of semend to discharge
r caused by the
al emissions or
dreams.
Fns
is
caused
is important to
r masturbation.
al
phenomenon
rally regards it
s. To view the
rlthy to growtlt.
on when it can
rosexual (maleving youth need
be forewarned
rg the acts of
vhen males and
nship.
at all ages has
Known as the
pid maturation
80, for example,
period in wellhis is not true,
it later at about
Unit 5 Module 24
-
Phyrical Development of the High School Learners
for boys and 13 and 14 for girls.
The occurrence of the secular trend is ascribed to many factors,
among which are: the complex interaction of genetic and environmental
influences, improvement in health care, improved living conditions, and
the control of infectious diseases. Better nufrition is a major factor, since
this provides more protein and .calories for humans from conception
upwards. But while Third World counffies are still experiencing their
secular trends, industrialized countries appear to experience the levelling
off in the achievement of physical maturation and greater height and
weight at earlier ages.
reached between 18 and 20 years
Adolescent sleeping habit
Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and.
would want more sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused by
changes in adolescent behavioural patterns. Teens often stay up late
because they enjoy it, especially with the advent of Internet music
listening, video watching, message/pholo/e-cam communication, chatting,
and blogging. About 90 percent of teenager high school student r.po.t
going to bed later than midnight. Socializing with peers add to the
problem, causing difficulties'in waking up early and causing teenagers to
struggfe to stay alert and function productivelyShorter sleep time also contributes to increased levels of depression,
daytime sleepiness, and problems with sleeping. The school and teachers
should therefore take time to impart healthy sleeping habits, to prevent
fluctuations in moodiness and anemic conditions among teens.
Exploration
Instinctively, adolescents become aware
of changes in sexuality, thus
undergoing a period of exploration and adjustment. Learners from
sectarian (religious and gender exclusive) schools are more likely to
consider sexual openness to be dangerous, if not sinful. The case is not
perceived among non-sectarian or gender mixed schools, although more
dangers exist relating to heterosexual relationship and early pregnancy
among students in non-exclusive schools.
in urbanized communities,
students who are undergoing the
adolescent development. '
The drug culture, especially
presents
a serious danger to
exploratory phase
of
Pluses and minuses
, height at ages
imum height is
ll
in early or late
maturation
Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
I
t\
t
i
h
+t
a factor for adolescent acceptance and comfort or satisfaction with his/
weight,
her body image. Among girls, physical changes are more dramatic, but
perceptions of not being well developed as compared with their peers
can be a cause for timidity or shyness, if not frustration. In the case of
late maturing boys, the slack in growth in body build, strength, motor
performance and coordination may inhibit their performance in curricular
and extra-curricular activities, such as in sports. Being physically weaker,
shorter and slimmer would make them less apt to be outstanding in
leadership activities and in sports. On top of these, late maturing teens
are seen by their peers as being more childish, more inhibited, leis
independent, less self-assuring, and less worthy of leadership roles.
.. Meanwhile, teens who develop faster than their peers may be
overly conscious of this phenomenon. It helps to know that early
mafuring teens undergo a more intensive growth spurt than late mahrrirtg
teens. It can be a great plus for boys, who become bigger than
their age, more muscular, more physically attractive and more athletic.
It is obvious that the early maturing teens can gain social adyantage,
in -esteem and greater inner poise. But there are also some disadvantages, such as greater expectation on the part of others, resulting in
lessening the experience of freedom in more steady groMh.
caution.
The ideal masculine and feminine physiques
Most adolescents desire an "ideal body," which is the same as
being physically attractive or handsome in face (features of the eyes,
nose, lips, hair, :etc.) and in body (tall and muscular for boys and tall
and slender for girls).
' In the developed countries like the U.S., about l0 percent of adolescents have been known to take anabolic steroids in tablet or in
injectible form for cosmetic and athletic performance purposes, It is
important to forewam adolescents about the severe harmful effects of
long term use of steroids: liver dybfunction, cancer,. and damage to the
reproductive system. Short-term effects are hair loss, severe acne, high
blood pressure, shrunken testicles and low spenn production. Girl users
develop irreversible masculine characteristics, such as groMh of facial
hair. Steroids may also foster aggressive and destructive behaviour. Finally,
giving up the drug may lead to depression and suicide.
Adolescents and nutrition
Necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of vitamin
Bl2 (found in animal proteins), calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin and viamin
D. Magic diet schemes 'suggested by advertising and magazines to lose
gi
cents wht
cannot pr
with
food
sources
sl
It
ir
age grou
(hamburg
The
idea
It's
image. TI
color of
be respa
change ir
Th
cem goo
o(
op
.f
.I
.I
Part
I with his/
matic, but
heir
peers
he case of
gth, motor
t curricular
Ity weaker,
hnding in
ring
teens
ll
Unit SModule 24
- Physical
Development of the High School Learners
weight, give a radiant hair, whiten the skin, etc. should be met'with
caution. The vegetarian fad can also be disastrous especially to adolescents who need vitamins, minerals and protein which vegetable diets
cannot.provide. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced
with food intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating protein
sources such as milk, dairy products and eggs.
It is a recognized fact that teens are the poorest eaters among
age groups, as they often skip meals, frequently take snack foods
(hamburger, fuies, pizza, soft drinks, etc.) at fast-food eateries.
bited, less
roles.
s may be
that early
e maturing
igger than
re athletic.
adyantage,
disadvan=
:sulting in
i
same as
'the
eyes,
m and tall
rt of adoblet or in
oses.
It
is
effects of
age
to
the
rcne, high
Girl users
r of facial
ur. Finally,
lf
vitamin
nd vitamin
ps to lose
The ideal body
It's important that adolescents feel confident about their body
image. The physical features of the human body (facial looks, body size,
color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which must generally
be respected. However with advancement in hair and skin technology,
change in hair color and skin are no longer impossible.
There is more to body image than physical looks and these concem good habits in relation to:
. Cleanliness and grooming
. Proper wearing of clothes following current styles
. Erect bodily posture
. Eye contact while communicating
. Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency
Child antl Adob3cent Oeyelopmctil: Lolrine at Laanatr et Oifierent Life Stages
2.
$mrrrcATror
l.
Cite at least 5 big ideas from this Module. Cive a
application of each in your personal life.
Play
lede
w€t
agt
concrete
3.
Org
grcu
Blg ldca from thh ilodulc
Concrete Application
in your Life
4.
Org
groo
ato
5.
6.
Do
achi
Prel
stud
the
clim
I
2.
3.
4.
5.
Part
2.
a
concrete
ll
Unit 5 itbdule 24
-
Physical Dey.lopment of the High School Leamers
Play the role of medical expert who can provide wholesome knowledge and attitudes on physical transition in puberty (menstruation,
wet dreams, spermache etc.) and give a powerpoint presentation to
a group of adolescents.
Organize a fun cooking activity making nutrition an element in the
goup activity.
Organize a symposium on poise and grace (walking,
grooming, eye contact, etc) for adolescents. Each one must havp
a topic to talk about or demonstrate.
Do group sharing on your aspirations and ideals (celebrities,' ^
achievers, etc.) during the period.
Prepare a life-map which caR assist' in guiding future
:
4.
5.
students towards academic and future achievement (patterned after
the possible life-map of achievers, such as the Filipino Mt. Everest
climbers).
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
ffinwttcnou
Joumal Entry
Reflect on how as a future teacher can you foster the developof adolescent high school learners, such that the learners:
l. become aware of the personal transition-problems and stressesspringing from physical changes affecting him/her as an
ment
adolescent;
?,
3.
4.
5.
6.
can overcorne possible problems and stresses as adolescents;
are capable of identifuing the problems and sffesses peculiar to
Filipino high school students, different from students of other
cultures (e.g. Americaris, Europeans, etc.);
acquire wholesome and balanced attitude towards modern IT
technolory (lntemet surfing, chatting, e-mailing etc.) as a tool in
learning and personal growth;
develop approaches to foster self-esteem and wholesome attitude
towards their physical groMh (whether naturally/genetically tall,
thin, homely looking, etc.) among learners;
can envision lifelong values related to their physical
development (inclusive of grace and refinernent) contributing to
their personal success and a sense of fulfilment in life.
IrflODl,
I
HT:t:
l.
desc,
2.
Phas
iden
m€ta
3.
defir
.poss
4.
expl
incl
argu
fr&.
Share
them to You;
@
ffiBsrrE ACnvrTY
Surf the net for information on the genetic physical features of
different nationalities: such as Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, Americans,
etc. and. how geography, climate, nutrition, and racial mix (as case of
Fil-Ams and Euro-Asians) affect physicality.
.
You
affe
'
SP€{
(e.9.
fini
dem
'
Fiel
@mr
Answ
l.
All
ctu
2.
Dir
or[
p{(
ITX
bru
Part
ll
Unit 5 Module 24
nnoDuH 25
-
Physical Development of the High School Learners
Cognitive Development of the
High School Learners
-
Paz
l.
Lucido, Ph.D.
he developrners:
md
stresses-
t'her as
an
olescents:
s preculiar to
nts of other
modern IT
as a tool in
ome attitude
*ically'
CHAttT}IGE
In this Module, you are challenged to:
l. describe the theories of cognitive thinking and relate these to the
phases of teaching-and-leaming.
2. identify the avenues for the adolescent learner's acquiring
metacognition, elevating his thinking ability base.
3. define
phl,sical
ntributing to
lile.
to underachievement.
of the adolescent's new thinking skills,
outcomes
the
explain
.possible solutions
4.
tall.
ir
overachievement and underachievement and propose
inclusive of egocentrism, idealism and
increased
argumentativeness.
fr&ACrrvrTY
Share real life experiences about the following and relate
them to your cognitive development:
.
features of
. .\mericans.
(as case of
.
.
Your grades (possible awards, recognition) and how these
affected you.
Special projects that gave you opportunities for higher thinking
(e.g. IT research, workshops, planning, discovering, organizing,
finishing a project) and what cognitive processes were
demanded of you.
Field Study and how this helped you ilevelop cognitively.
@ nnnlsls
Answer the following questions:
1. All the activities you shared are cognitive in nature. What
changes are included in cognitive development?
2. Did you suddenly blossom into the thinker, the planner, the
organizer, the researcher, the analyst that you are? What
processes came along with these forms of cognitive development? Did these come along with physical development of the
brain?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
o
A
ngsmAcTrolr
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional
period of adolescence, are changes in thinking pattems. These changes
are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain's
increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections (technically known
as the corpus collosum) which join and coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the process of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex and
related temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination).
This second development covers the brain systems whose executive
functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been
identified by neurological scientisis and these are .at age 12, age 15,
and age 18.5, coinciding with the operational thinking processes of logical
reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in cognitive capability, the
adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or
general ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these
changes propel the adolescent from the world of the sensible and
concrete'thoughts to the world of the possible and the qniversal
(abstract ideas, such as on the generally good, true and beautiful).
Piaget's Formal Qperational Thinker
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking
which demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows
him/her to go beyond the sensible and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypotheticpl, multidimensional and possible. In this realm of
thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the
sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically, formal operational
thinking consists in:
(a) propositional thinking--making assertions outside visual
evidence, and stating what may be possible in things not seen by the
eyes (for example, whether an unseen object is red or green, big or
small, flat or round);
(b) relativistic thinking-subjectively making an opinion on facts - involving one's own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts-which may be
either right .or wrong '(for example, arguing for or against the
superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or black);
(c) real versus possible-examining a situation and exploring the
possible in terms of situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in
implementing a student project or a school policy).
For Pia
thinking is th
sis, which is
situation, testi
of a situatio
laboratory e4
elements siq
chemical cha
A new
Rpasoning,
situations to
an examPle r
truth, exPress
a hypothesis.
Scienti
capacity for
will allow t
such as in P
projections
formal opera
Westem cul
thinking Pro
Outsid
mathematicr
. capability u
identifuing
The probkn
ideas and a
previously s
t
1
The
a
thought.
1
everydaY li{
or
response
Siegler's
I
As
influence o1
as stages
specific kn
quality of
influences
I
Part
the transitional
r These changes
r !o the brain's
dmically known
the two hemiprocess
of
rtal cortex
conand
s
myelination).
*rose executive
I planning.
ation have been
rye 12, age 15,
cesses
of
logical
capability, the
ulate abstract or
ffect. All these
e sensible and
I the qniversal
beautiful).
ional Thinking
iolescent allows
on what is abn this realm of
ng, entering the
mal operational
outside visual
rot seen by the
)r green, big or
inion on facts rwhich may be
or against the
r
black);
d exploring the
ible
success in
,
ll
Unat 5 Module 25
- Cognitive
Development of the High School Learners
For Piaget one indication of the prqsence of formal operational
thinking is the ability of the adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of the effects of several variables in a
situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly. An application
of a situation whicll requires combinational anglysis is -the school
laboratory experiment activity whefein high school students test chemical
elements singly and in combination resulting in an understanding of .
chemical changes.
A new thought capacity, known as Hypothetico-Deductive
Reasoning, emerges in the adolescent reasoning from general facts/ '
sltuations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum experiment is
an example of deducing from variables and generating and recognizing a
truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion from
a hypothesis.
Scientific evidence shows that'while adolescents may obtain the
capacity for format operational thinking, only experience and education
will allow them to actuatty practice it. School math and science courses,
such as in performing Physics-type problems (balance scales, pendulums,
projections of images and shadows, etc,) certainly help in actualizing
formal operational thinking, although only 40 to 50 percent of 'adults in
Western cultures have shown evidence of success in formal cognitive
thinking processes.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by
mathematical and science studies, the adolescent enters into a new
. capability which makes him a Problem-Solving Thinker. This involves
identiffing problems and seeking new ard creative solutions for them.
The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and reorganize
ideas and ask important questions, evEn defining totally new problems not
previously seen.
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of
thought. Thus, he/she is able to bring what is logically "best" for
everyday life, whether or not this may be the objectively correct solution
or response to a situation or problem.
Siegler's Information-Processing Skills
As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the
influence of the environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not
as stages of development, but more of a sequential acquisition of
specific knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He observes the
quality of information the adolescent processes, and those information
influences him/her in his facing tasks at hand ttrrough strategies or rules.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamer6 at Different Life Stages
In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation t'o balaraweight, distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and conflict balarn
problems. He examined the correct and wrong answers to each of tt:
problems, drawing out rule models in thinking and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show: (a) speed in informatioa
processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and acquired
knowledge base-a more emcient kind of thinking compared with tha d
the child (b) complexrty by way of considering longer term implicati<rr
and possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and (c) increased volume d
information processing, coupled with longer memory span.
Metacognition
Among the developmental cognitive advances in adolescence b
metacognition. This involves the ability to think above thinkiry
evidenced by awareness of and Capacity to identiff one's own thinkfu;
process&s or strategies--perception, comprehension, memory and problcn
those
clrve
of
le
rDt dr
srch a
Bq,on
(in
En
&mon
csrsisfi
rrcss (
compa
rhieri
l.
:.
3.
solving.
is stored in lgng terl
("1
know that"), as ncl
memory and now becomis more declarative
as procedural ("1 know how"). Thus, the learner becomes aware d
his/her poor memory, such that the ,adolescent may be prqdded n
muster cognitive capacity to supplement poor memory by emplolng I
memory aid, for example, a list of things to do and a mnemonk
device. The learner may also spend time with and attention to I
material to be leamgd, demonstrating higher thinking skills.
Another important information-processing trend is the adolescerft
ability to acquire an increased amount of knowledge and skills aloog
many areas or domains. From a novice, he/she becomes a near-€xpe[
Information is also processed more rapidly, while showing increased levcb
of memory performance.
The. knowledge acquired through experience
4.
5.
6.
7.
Urder
Il
Overachievers
Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of th
leamer's abilities, as well as potentials for success in given areas. \\B
IQ tests alone do not measure the great number of abilities that are plt
of human intelligence, they are still relatively good predictors of succcs
in school achievement. Indirectly, IQ tests are a beneficial instrument L
identiffing leaming deficiencies in leamers. .
In many societies, students who get IQ scores that place them i
the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell curve are considered "gifted." Sf,-
re lab
sores
belor*-
driete
!€es
A
&scrib
oltrt
b
mresis
,g
sc
Part
unit 5 Module 25 - cognitive Development of the High school Learners
those whose IQ tests are not in the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell
curue may actually achieve very high academic grades. The latter
ffi
of learners are labelled overachievers.
l talanca
I talancc
*r of the
brmation
acquired
[r t'at of
plicdims
olume of
iscence ls
thinking.
n trinkirg
I
ll
The case of overachievers serve as a reminder that the Ie test is
not the only determinant in school achievement. There are other factors
such as, motivation, interest, work habits, and personality development.
Beyond what are statistically shown by achievement in curicular subiects
(in English, Math, Science, Araling panlipunan,- etc.), overachievers
demonstrate superior work habits, greater interest in school work, more
consistency in doing assignments, and more grade/performance consciousness. overall, they show more responsibility, consciousness and planning
compared with "normal" achievers. Listed as characteristics of overachievers are:
l.
2.
Positive self value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism)
openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and
teachers)
problern
3. Positive
long temt
), as well
aware of
rqdded to
rploying a
4.
5.
mnemonic
ttion to
a
dolescent's
dlls
along
lear€xperL
interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to
feelings of others)
Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to
make right choices, initiates and leads activities)
Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to
discover and leam, interest in study values and varied fields of
study)
6.
Goal-orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning,
setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over short-term
pleasures)
7. control
over anxiety (well composed and reraxed in performing
organized tasks)
ased levels
nts of the
eas. While
ff are part
of
success
trmment in
ce them in
[ed." Still,
Underachievers
Individuals whose performance are below the measured Ie levels
are labelled underachievers. ln spite of possible potentials to leam and
scores in the top quarter on measured academic ability, their grades are
below their measured aptitudes for academic achievement. underachievement becomes more pronounced with the beginning of adolescent
years in high school when class work becomes more demanding.
As to types of underachievers, the withdrawn underachievers are
described as having a more pronounced tendency to be passive (thri:ir
overt behavior being submissive and docile). They follow the path of
no-resistance, not reacting against given assignments and actually followirg school regulations. Generally quiet, they tend not to participate in
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Lifb Stages
class activities. Meanwhile, the aggressive underachievers tend to be
talkative, if not disruptive and rebellious'
Parental involvement
There are many theories on underachievement, but generally the
influence of parents appears to be the dominant influence on the
adolescent's achievement levet, more than peer group influence. A
summary of differences between parents of high achievers and underachievers will help teacher educators understand the significance of
parental involvement in adolescent leaming and involvement in school
activities.
Generally, parents
of high
achievers demonstrato:
l. Positive attitudes about leaming, school, teachers, arid intellectual '
activities, such as by exposing their children to stimulating books,
word games, wholesome sports, travel, etc.;
Harmonious and supportive relationship, inclusive of open, free
and enjoyable interaction within the family;
J. Their own capabilities for success, conflict management, independent choice with which children can identify;
4: Encouragement and support for their children's echievement
2.
without undue Pressure;
5. Active involvement in the school program and in parent-teachercommunity activities.
Meanwhile, parents of underachievers show little or none of the
above traits, while possibly showing:
l. Indifference and disinterestedness in academic and extracurricular
activities of their children;
2. Authofitarian, restrictive and' rejecting: attitudes or the
opposite, namely being excessively lax so as to leave their
children on their own without any involvement or support;
J. Excessive indulgence, solicitousness, and protectiveness, thus
stifling their children's self initiative.
rmagr
to br
self-ir
earl1.
2.
Ideat
to po
at hc
irnpo
becor
short
Developil
Gerx
cognitive
Philippina
directly en
the pa*r u
graduates
'
in the pn
mismarch
examined.
social prol
Tol
area
of
de
adolescent
guide stud
types matr
Holland ha
work prefr
.Rr
re(
int
.In
int,
Possible adolescent behavior durtng cognitive growth
Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which
need to be understood for proper g;idance of the adolescent:
l. Egocentrism. This'is the tendency among adolescents to think too
much of themselves, Such as to be too sensitive to social
acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings, ideas, etc.- Feeling
they are being watched like an actor on a stage, they keep an
the
etc
.So
sin
wo
.Co
the
Part
:"nd to
bc
ll
Unit 5 Module 25
- counitive
Development of the High school Learners
imaginary audience making them anxious about what to wear, how
egocentric strain is one's feeling exaggeratedly
self-important, leading to dangerous situations such as entering into
early boy-girl relationships, reckless escapades and adventures.
Idealism. The adolescent opens thought on the possibre, an avenue
to possibly imagining what is far-fetched and less ideal to situations
at home, in school, and in society. Imagining the world of the
impossible (as a utopia or heaven on eafth), the adolescent may
become discouraged as social realities (e.g. family discords) fall
short of the ideal.
to behave, etc. one
rrrally ttre
rce on the
fluence. A
md
under-
ificance of
t in school
intellecu.ral
ring
books,
'open,
free
ment, indschievement
rent-teacher-
none
of
the
rtracurricular
des or the
leave their
tpport
reness, thus
viors which
It:
to think
e to
2.
Developing occupational skills
Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on academic
cognitive learning, neglecting attention to occupational skills. In the
Philippines, there is evidence that high school graduates lack skills to
directly enter the labor sector. Generally, college education is viewed as
the path to occupations and careers in life. Unfortunately, even college
graduatgs are viewed to lack occupational skills needed for employment
in the present-day commercial and industrial sectors. The possible
mismatch between academic preparation and the professions need to be
examined. Schools which are diploma mills certainly do not contribute to
social progress.
Today, experts believe that high schools can go more along the
area of developing occupational skills than they are curently providing
adolescent students in high school. It is impo(ant therefore, at least to
guide students on their future career choices to view how personality
types match occupational interests and potential skills. Theorist John
Holland has identified basic personality factors matched with attitude and
work preferences. These personality factors are as follows:
. Realistic-This personality type prefers practical tasks, often
requiring physical labor and motor coordination, and less of
interpersonal skills, e.g. in construction (carpenters, drivers, etc.)
. Investigative-They prefer to think rather than act, being
interested in tasks that use conceptual skills, e.g. in the field of
the sciences and technology (chemists, scientists, technologists,
etc.)
.
too
social
etc. Feeling
rcy keep an
.
Social-They are social and tend to engage in interpersonal
situations and social interaction, e.g. in the social sciences (social
workers, physicians, broadcasters, etc.)
Conventional-They prefer structured tasks, and can subject
their needs to those of others, e.g. in office jobs (clerks,
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
manual workers, etc.).
Enterprising-They are skilled and constructive in thoughts and
actions, and are capable of leading others, e.g' in business,
industries (sales,'enterprises, etc.)
Artistic-They prefer unstructured tasks and may show ability
for self-expression, e.g. in the arts (artists, musicians, peformers,
etc.)
It is understood
that early enough, an adolescent may show various
personality factors making him capable of performing more than a single
task. Thus, we have cases of physicians entering into business ventures,
scientists enjoying artistic pursuits and the like.
Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those who
work part-time or full-time in fast-food restaurants as kitchen help, in
retail stores as sales clerks, and in offices as messengers and utility
personnel. High school students who work can benefit by acquiring the
attitudes and abilities needed for gainful occupation. These are:
. Self-reliance (working without being stressed)
. Ability to manage money (not spend money on luxuries, much
less on alcohol
a
a
o
or
drugs)
Social responsibility (cooperation and respect for others including superiors)
Mature work orientation (pride in the work done, quality work)
Personal responsibility (lndependently competing tasks)
Positive attitudes about work (it is not a burden, but a gainful
and wholesome activity that contributes tp personality growth)
Extracurricular activities
School activities outside the subjects for classroom study are
mechanisms for further development of the adolescent student allowing
the acquisition of new attitudes (such as discipline and motivation),
knowledge (such as of organization, sports, etc.), and skills (grganizing,
planning, time-managing, athletics, etc.).
Extracurricular activities ane an avenue for leadership, although
there is need to caution students on devoting more time than necessary
to these tasks since their more important curricular or study work may
suffer. For example, joining a stage club may be so engrossing espgcially to the artistically bent, such that studies may be neglected causing
lower academic achievement.
itr q
Unit 5 Module 25
Is
and
siness
@
- Cognitive
Development of the High School Learners
amucAnoN
Give one important concept that you leamed under each then give
its application in the teaching-leaming process.
ability
kmcrs
An application in the
teaching-learning process
One Concept Learned
\aious
a singh
1. Piaget's formal operation
1.
stage
,EfIUJTEE
e
wtp
Elp,
in
d utility
ing tE
;s, mudl
s inclu*
qv work)
t)
a pinfut
fo\r,tt)
study are
allowirg
ltivation),
rganizirg,
although
necessar,'
*ork
rnaY
sing
ed causitg
espe-
2. Siegleds
lnformationprocessing skills
2.
t.Qlmer3 at Dificrent Life Stages
Child and Adolesccnt Dernlopment: Looling et
An application in the
One ConcePt Leamed
teaching.learning Procest
MnEruolor
Reflect on the
.encouraged your cog
ones did not. As a
from . your past teacl
cognitive developnrenP
:
4.
Overachievement
@ffiBsrTr Acl
Intemet rEsearch,
achievers:
.
5.
Underachievement
.
.
.
.
*Little'; Stevie
composition, "L
Wolfgang Ama
Anne Frank at
occupation of I
Cralileo at age
Leonardo da
Painters' Guild
Unit 5 Modute 25
- Gogtilul Daibpncnt
of the High Gchool
trrrh€rr
MRErrcuolr
Reflect on the practices of your past teachers. which ones
.encouraged your cognitive development as an adolescent
and which
ones did not. As a future teacher, what lessons have you learned
from . your past teachers regarding ways of enhancing adolescents'
cognitive development?
@wEBsrTr Affrvrry
Intemet rcsearch, rcport and group discussion on notable adolescent
achievers:
'
,
"Little" Stevie wonder who at age l0 wrote his first musical
composition, "Lonely Boy."
'
'
.
'
wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at age 12 wrote his first opera.
Anne Frank at age 13 wrote his famous diary during the Nazi
occupation of Holland in 1942.
Galileo at age 17 began his study of physics in l5gl.
Leonardo
da vinci at age z0 was admitted to
Painters' Guild
in
1472.
the
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Socfo-em otion al D evelopment
ruroDULE
26
-
Paz
l.
Lucido, Ph.D.
o,:
ABsTRAorot
d'
Adolescence, a
can be the best of ti
excitement, discovery
related to adolescen
frequenting partiess an
are atypical to other
use frequently occr-n r
'ffi,WulNrRoDUCrloN
go through happy tin
able to go through tr
During adolescence, the teen shows manifestations of groMh as
he/she begins to have friends in school, attends parties, goes to
discos and keeps intimate friends with the same or with the opposite
sex. These extemal manifestations are signs of socio-emotional groMh
which usher in self-knowledge, self-identity, social relationships, and what
scholars see as an intensification of stereotypical gender roles (males
tend to be different from females).
Self-Understanding
Physica! and
c
are accompanied by
among adolescents.
significance since this
truman. lnhumanity,
and the despotic (fti
suffering and sadness
CHALTENGE
In this Module, you are challenged
college education.
to:
identifl, the socio-emotional changes in the adolescent.
describe how seltimage develops among teens.
determine the wholesome attitudes and values in teenage friendship.
discem the causes of moral reasoning and feeling, while understanding religiously-imposed morality.
recognize the need of the adolescent for freedom and privacy,
also known as adolescent emancipation.
ffi&ACrvrTY
Student-teachers share real-life experiences on their personal
development as adolescents. The class niay be divided with groups of 5
or 6 to draw up group findings on socio-emotional issues, such as:
(1) Developing self-esteem in the family
(2) Developing self-esteem in school
(3) Friendships during adolescence
(4) Joining cliques (barkadas) and consequences
(5) Intimate same-sex friends
(6) Intimate opposite sex friends
In early adole
reflective idea of orr'-which younger chil&
future. During adohs
and irnportance to r
inhospective thinkirg r
is bright, flexible, ine
From self-imag
esteem. This is an a
limitations or deficier
becomes useless and
others in self-pity (e
class grades as the
number of personagu
the beautiful people r
(Aristotle, Einstein, B
cannot be these peol
really a futile exercis
Unit 5 Module 25
o-,
lgstRA(loil
- Cognitivc Danlopment
of the High Scrrool
"*'r:
lcarrrlt
'
Adslescence, as expressed in the book "The Tale:of TWo Citieq"
can be the best of times... the worst of times." While it is a time of
excitement, discovery and joy, it can also ,bpen undesirable experiences
related to adolescent anXiety, concerns and troubles. Hanging out,
frequenting parties, and feeling first loves are typical to adolescents, but
ar€ atypical to other age gmups. Meanwhile, jwenile"violance and drug
use frequently occur during teenage'years. Forhrnately;.. most adolescents
go through happy times and are able to get themselves together to be
able to go through the next stage of development in adulthood through
college education.
Self-Understanding
Physica! and cognitive developments do not come in isolation, hrt
are accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings
among adolescents. The formation of a self-concept is of paramount
significance since this relates to enduring trais that make the person fully
[ruman. Inhumanity, as sadly demonstrated bj, the egotistic, the cruel
and the despotic (think of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have caused much
suffering and sadness to mankind in huinan history.
In early adolescence (10-13 years),,the teen begins to acquire a
reflective idea of one's self, not only in terms of the immediate pres€nt
which younger children also see, but in terms of their past and their
future. During adolescent years, the teen also begins to see hiVher role
and irnportance to society. This development requires self-thought or
inhospective thinking along generalized ideas, such as in thinking tlrat one
is bright, flexible, intelligent etc.
From self-image, there is the all important value known as setfesteem. This is an appreciation of who one is, regardless of possible
limitations or deficiencies in bodily and mental qualities. In the end, it
becomes useless and unhealthy to seriously compare ourselves with
others in self-pity (e.g. not being as good looking or not having high
class grades as the other fellow). One can only think of unlimited
number of personages who are incomparable in physical traits (such as
the beautiful people of the celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen
(Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc.). Since the growing youth ordinarily
cannot be these people, making comparisons of self with others is
really a futile exercise.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
Stereotypes in gender differences
Scholars make reference to gender differences, as studies in
countries like the U.S. show that boys have higher self-esteem in
achievement and leadership, while girls see themselves better in terms of
congeniality and sociability (Hattie & Marsh, 1996). These studies also
show that boys are more self-sufficient, while girls are help-seeking.
Other studies show that girls have a higher self-esteem in relation to
competence in spelling, penmanship, nea0less, reading and music (Elcless,
et al., 1993). Meanwhile, boys feel more competent in math subjects,
while, girls prefer social and verbal skills (Marsh, 1989). ln terms of
general abilities and self-confidence, however, no significant differences
wqre observed.
Meanwhile, another U.S. study shows that Hispanic American grls
view themselves stereoffid as more 'Teminine," therefore more submissive and dependent, than their European American counterparts. On the
other hand, European American girls tend to see themselves As stronger
and more active, nurturing and expressive compared with their Hi6panic
counterparts (Varquez-Nuttal, et al., 1987).
Within the family domain, there are also stereotyping concepts of
adolescent American boys and girls. Boys tend to prefer activity and
autonomy of children,'while girls prefer family relationship, connection,
and openness. On feelings, girls experience more anxiety, self-doubt in
making choices, isolation/individualism in the family, compared with boys.
Generally, girls are a more emotional lot cornpared with boys (Olver et
al., 1990).
In adult life, studies show that men see themselves as.separate
and distinct persons, while women tend to see themselves through otherg
for example as a daughter, wife, or mother. Consequently, women tend to
give way . to the wishes of others, even sacrificing their own interests.
On the other hand, men more easily know their own needs and their
genuine desires in life (lz.ard &Ackerman, 996),
If these research findings apply also in Philippine setting? Find out
Developing self-esteem
Some scholars see the roots of self esteem in the mother-child
relationship. Thus" boys develop a masculine trait in self esteem since
there is more distancing between mother and son, compared with the
closer emotional connection between mother and daughter. The high
involvement and intrusion by mothers in the lives of their daughter anl
observed to cause delay in the development of self-individuation among
girls.
As girls begin t
connection with their
confidence, tusting th
engage more freely i
tence and energy. B
surfaces for girls to I
more self-conscious
development girls te
adventure.
While the result
youths of other coun
serve as safeguards to
during their adolescr
effects
of
adolescent t
More important to
.
.
I
o
.
.
nc
Self-esteem
regardless of
emotional).
Potential enr
through hmil;
The personal
although mot
(coming from
Popularity ar
comely lmks)
are among tl
esteem but tl
growth. The
self-esteem lu
regardless of
Self-appreciati
other intemal
which can lea
she needs in
Friendship and intin
Teenage friendstr
terms of sharing ,of d
rcsponding to one ano
to spend more tirne w
comprising an emotior
Unit 5 Module 26
-
Socioemotional Developrnent
As girls begin to separate themselves form the matrix of emotional
connection with their mother (7-ll years), they gain strength and selfl
confidence, trusting their own feelings and knowledie. They also begin to
engage more freely in sports ind the arts with more courage, competence and e.nergy. But at age 14 (middle adolescence), the danger
surfaces for lirls to lose their assertiveness, as their personality becomes
more self-conscious and deferential. It appears that at this stage of
development, girls tend to lose their flexibiliry optimism and spirit of
adventure.
while the results of these U. s. studies may not be applicable to
youths of other countries and cultures, these are useful ideas that can
serve as safeguards to ensure the proper directions for reorienting youths
during their adolescent growth. It does appear, however, that the
effects of adolescent transitions and acquisition of self-esteem are mixed.
More important to note are some established facts, namely:
' Self-esteem means appreciation of one's self or self-love,
regardless of genetic potential endowments (physical, mental,
emotional).
'
'
.
.
Potential endowments can be developed to a great extent
through family formation, school education, and sociat influence.
The personal attitude-and-will to grow depends on the individual,
although motivational influences can help progressive growth
(coming from parents, siblings, friends, teachers, etc.).
Popularity and external appearance (such as body physique,
comely looks), admiration by others, social position and prestige,
are among the many external factors that contribute to selfesteem but these are passing or vanishing contributions to
growth. They may last for many years, but in the end,
self-esteem has to grow from internal appreciation of oneself,
regardless of extemal circumstances in life.
Self-appreciation, self-reliance, autonomy, energy, courage, and
other internal positive motivators are more permanent factors
which can lead the adolescent to the progressive self-concept he/
she needs in adult life.
Friendship and intimacy
Teenage friendship is a social system which can be wholesome in
terms of sharing ,of thoughts and feelings, caring for one another, and
responding to one another's deeper psychological needs. Adolescents tend
to spend more time with friends (up to l6yo of their time, studies show),
comprising an emotional investment they can benefit from.
Child and Adolescent
aLwbprnsnt
Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
The peer groups or cliques with which early adolescents (age 1013) identifr may enlarge. Belonging in larger groupings is especially
true in the case of middle adolescents (age 14-17), particularly among
those with leadership qualities. From cliques of 4-6 persons with similar
interests prwiding oompanionship and security to eaoh otheE the larger
peer group or crcwd can be comprised by lG20 members sharing common interests in social activities. Sexually, same-sex cliques can enlarge
into heterosexual cliques and interact with others in large crowd activities
such as athletic meets and social gatherings. The middle adolescent may
separate from identiffing with a crowd as he/she gnters into serious
boy-girl heterosexual intimate relationships.
Several types of friendship can be distinguished:
(a) acquaintances who meet periodically;
(b) companions who share common interest through regular contacts,
and
(c) intimates or best friends with depth of self-disclosure/feelings/
caling, romantic partners in intimate heterosexual relationship.
Intimate friendships are viewed to be especially important during
early adolescenc,e. Compared with those who have not been involved.in
intimaie friendship, adolescents who have friendships characterized by
compassion, openness and satisfaction tend to be more sociable and
more competent, while being less anxious, depressed and hostile. The
intimate parent-child relationship appear to also wane as adolescents
develop intimate friendship with a romantic partner.
The world of friends can be equally important, if not more
important than the family world. Talking with friends and sharing things
with them can be rewarding.in the sense that friends see both sides of
the story unlike parcnts Who normally impose their side of an issue. As
to the sexes, girls are viewed to be more capable than boys in forming
intimate friendships, benefiting more from social support they can get
from close friends. Evidence further shows that friendship among boys
is less intimate, as they put less trust in friendship and care less about
being listened to and being understood.
Identity
ne-\A/
The majr
inner sameness a
themselves in a
themselves and
however, is not a
evolvement of ol
however, maybe
havoc to a perso
in the previous s
It is impor
gradual and cun
accumulating or
During early ado
that leads to conl
copy teenager.
provides a ready
former identity as
Identifoing
t
ager may also
involvements rw<
"What do
Phases
self-image is referred to as identity issues. This process ushers in a
sense of confusion as adolescents bring together all the things they have
leamed as son$daughters, students and friends. and try to make sense
of their self-image.
I wart
of iderti
John ivlan
ing four phases ir
crisis are two din
l.
Identity
a follo*u
1
Thc
altematiw
of o0rer p
be prema
follow a
issues
The active search which adolescents engage in to try to gain a
understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, political
'
discinguishing self
r
of self<
2.
Moratorir
The
alternativr
experimenr
commitmr
moratoriul
Unit 5 Modub 26
-
Socioemotional Development
The major task in developing self-identity is the formation of
inner sameness and continuity in personality. only when adolescents see
themselves in a definite and reasonably unique self can they accept
themselves and the physical/social world they are in. Self-identity,
however, is not a stagnant end-poinl but rather a continuous change and
evolvement of oneself throughout life's course. This process of change,
however, maybe disrupted by a traumatic experience that can create
havoc to a person's personality, shattering the self-image he has gained
in the previous stages of life.
It is important to view the development of self-identity to be
gradual
and
Phases
of identity
cumulative throughout life. One finds self more and more,
aecumulating or Iosing values and standards acquired since childhood.
During early adolescence, there is often the case of over-identification
that leads to conformity with peers, resultrng in a stereotypical or carboncopy teenager. Here, there is the case of a youth culture which
provides a ready-made identity, setting the adolescent apart from his
former identity as a child in the world of famill.
Identifoing with the crowd, the adolescent lmay reach the stage of
distinguishing self from the crowd, in a process of exploration. The teenager may also try out a variety of attitudes, persuasions, commitments,
involvements revolving around the inner search for "Who I really am,,'
"What do I want for life," "How can I achieve my ideals?"
status
John Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory on identity by identifuing four phases in the attainment of an identity status. commitment and
crisis are two dimensions that combine to define these stages:
l.
Identity foreclosure. This is the case of an adolescent who is
a follower, finding security in others not in hiVher self.
The adolescent makes a commitment'before asking about
alternatives. This commitment,arises from values or expectations
of other people (such as a parrjnt, relative or friend), which may
be premature as foreclosure is rooted in commitment to obey,
follow a strong leader, respect authority-a most vulnerable kind
of self+steem
develops.
2. Moratorium. This is the case of an adolescent
searcher.
The adolescent enters a crisis by becoming aware of
alternative roles, values and beliefs. Thus, he explores and
experiments becoming a prober and critic without any permanent
commitment to follow authority or be part of a system. The
moratorium status is viewed as a most sophisticated mode of
Child and Adolesent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
identity search and achievement.
Identity achiever. This is the point where the adolescent fully
finds himselflherself.
An optimal sense of identity is experienced. One feels at
home with one's body, with one's knowledge and awareness of
where one is and where he/she is going in addition to the
possible recognition for deedS done. Identity seekers have looked
at alternatives and have made their choice with an optimal
feeling of themselves.
Identity diffusion. This is the case of the adolescent failing
to find himselflherself.
There is hardly a knowledge of who one is, uncertainty
running through episodes in-life. Identity-diffUsed persons lack
goal orientation, direction and commitment. While they may have
expressed interest in a future career, thcy are vague about it
and are unaware even of the advantage and disadvantages of
the work they want to do. Setting goals, they frequently change
them as they have no commitment to any given aim in life. As
a result, adolescence is prolonged, unable to reach maturity due
to a diffused or fragmented personality. Inability to explore
alternatives and make choices may be due to psychosocial
factors, springing from a complexity of reasons, such as disdain
or hostility to playing a role in the family or community. Told
by parents to do well in school so that he can enter a prestigious college, the peison may out of spite do poorly, even quit
,
school deliberately.
It is clear that successful
identity achiev.ement is crucial to
developing an integfated personality. The highest self esteem is achieved
by identity achievers, followed by those in the moratorium, foreclosurc
and identity difl19r.on status.
Overall, the ingredients that make up an optimal sensi'of personal
identity are:
L
2.
3.
inner confidence about self competence and ability to learn and
master new tasks;
ample opportunity to try out new roles either in one's fantasy or
in actual practice, and;
support from parents and adults.
Ctearty) pa-r6ntal relationship plays an important role in self-identity
development. In fact, parental indifference and rejection create inner
tension among chil
democratic style of
more easily fulfillin
openly, seek guidan
their parents' values
love and emotional
they may later on s
r
Stereotypical gend
Several snrdi€:
On emotional
conscious, excellir
forming intimate fri
arc
less emotional
re0).
In a cross c
nurturance, deferenc
dominance, aLftonom
female is d€x
stereo$pe (Segal a
the
In a study
or
countries (the Net
'tnodem" as they t
behaving. Mean*til
most "traditional," r
preference for fen
adolescents in the t
being ambitiouq
tE
independent. Mear
"liberated". In the
of being compassio
In general, f
be major factors in
Antisocial behavit
Gerald Panen
social behavior wtri
monitoring and disc
with peer and sctrot
peer group in late
Unit 5 Module 26
-
Sociobmotional Development
tension among children affecting their individuation. Meanwhile, the
democratic style of parental discipline makes tasks for children to be
more easily fulfilling, encouraging adolescents to express themselves
openly, seek guidance and advice from parents, even identiling with
their parents' values and rules. The protection of home, which conveys
love and emotional security, can be a safe haven for adolescents, even if
they may later on seek to be independent as a free spirit.
Stereotypical gender roles
Several studies on gender stereotypes show:
On emotionat response, girls in early adolescence are more selfconscious, excelling in verbal skills, while they invest more time in
forming intimate friendships. Meanwhile, boys show independence and
are less emotional, involving themselves in sports (Galambos, et al.,
r990).
In a cross cultural studies, the femal'e is
associated with
nurturance, deference and abasernent, while the male is associated with
dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition and achievement. In general,
female is described to be less active and weaker than the male
stereotype (Segal et al., 1999).
In a study on gender-role in ideology, adolescents in European
countries (the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, England) were most
*modem" as they believed in androgynous (equality
of sexes) ways of
behaving. Meanwhile, adolescents in African and Asian countries were
most "traditional," while those in the U.S. were midway, as girls show
preference for femininity and boys for masculinity. In comparing
adolescents in the U.S. and those in Sweden, Swedish youths show their
being ambitious, hard-working willing to take a stand, also selflreliant and
independent. Meanwhile, girls demonstratp a sense of being more
"liberated". In the U.S. girls .responded to show mofe:,expressive ways
of being compassionate, caring, eager to assuage hurt feelings.
In general, preparation for adult roles and so0iltlization appear to
be major factors in gender stereotyping differences.
the
Antisocial behaviors among adolescents
Gerald Patterson formulated a developmental progression for antisocial behavior which takes into account (a) the importance of parental
monitoring and discipline on the child in early childhood (b) involvement
with peer and school work in middle childhood, and (c) commitrnent with
peer group in late childhood and adolescence.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages
In early childhood (ages 10-13), the child is normally subordinated
to conventional authority in the farnily and majority of children including
teens generally show a reasonable degree of adherence to moral principles, able to succumb to the temptation to engage in unethical and
many girls attempt sri
lethal to boys, while 1
serious, but often not
pines? Find out.
unlawful behavior.
In legal terms, the juvenile delinquent is a young person under
the age of 18, who has been apprehended and convicted for transgression of established laws.
Juvenile delinquency is an occurrence with 1.4 million juveniles in
the U.S. arrested each year for crimes such as vandalism, drug abuse,
running away, and (almost 900,000 each year) for larceny-theft, robbery
and forcible rape. Offenses by male adolescents under the age of l8
account for 17 percent (or almost one-fourth) of all crimes committed.
The particular crimes of burglary, auto theft, aggravated assault, and
other'aggressive behaviors are committed by males. Girls, more
generally, have committed infractions related to running away from home
or deviant/illicit sexual behavior.
Commonly cited are a complexity of reasons to explain the
incidence of juvenile delinquency. These are: (l) family factors, (2) poor
parental supervision, (3) poor parental behavior, (4) feelings of
alienation (sense of separation) by children, (5) extemal factors affecting
the family (econornic and social pressures), and (6) child rejection/abuse/
Identified as con
abuse by adults, sexu
friend. There are, hou
danger signals, foremo
neglect.
even outright rejection, by
Peer factors. Lack of recognition,
in early and middle elementary school grades may result in making the
child unfriendly, troublesome and aggressive. Constant exposure to peers
with those who are poor academically and socially may also affect the
teenager. In school tliose treated as educationally retarded,, such that
they repeat the grades, are prone to misbehave in class, become truants
peers
and hate school altogether.
in Australia,
, Teenage suicides in the U.S. is comparable to thoseincidence
of '
the
However,
(Orbach,
lggT).
Iielgium, Great, Britain
suicides is lower in Canada, ltaly, Norway, the Netherlands, Nsw
Zealand and Ireland (Drummond), but substantially higher in Austria,
enmark, Hungary Japdn and Switzerland
The dramatic rise of teenage suicides in different countries
beginning the 1970s has aroused worldwide attention. Suicide rates have
begun to double, even triple especially in the U.S. with those age 15-24
years of age constituting one-fifth of the victims. The astonishing suicide
rates are equivalent to 13 incidences a day or 5,000 a year occurrences. Completed suicides are higher for boys, although three times as
Depression arise
can be minor depress
passes away, but a m
despair, pessimism ar
influence a person thr
persistent anxiety whk
Pre-suicidal adol
from being calm and
risks of suicidal action,
will, making empty I
concemed adult should
appropriate such
as
assistance.
Moral development
In his study of I
tists through the ages
moral reasoning anrorq
l.
Conventional
I
At this
r
conform to su
adults, engal
follow the rul
The focu
tations, relati<
stealing an ob
that object, su
Doing good ar
person by keq
following the
others to do t
2.
Post+onventicr
At this
s
Unit 5 Module 26
-
Socioemotional Development
many girls attempt suicide (D'Attilioet al., 1992). The use of firearms is
lethal to boys, while poisoning through overdoses by adolescent girls is
serious, but often not lethal. Does this picture hold trqe to the enltippines? Find out.
ldentified as common reasons for suicides are: physical or sexual
abuse by adults, sexual victimization, and association with a suicidal
friend. There are, however, warning signs that should be attended to as
danger signals, foremost of which is depression.
Depression arises from feelings of being low, sad and weary. It
can be minor depression when the negative mood is mild and easily
passes away, but a major one if it stays and deepens into feelings
of
despair, pessimism and misery. In its serious form, depression can
influence a person through a pervasive loss of interest
persistent anxiety which can lead to committing suicide.
or
pleasure and
Pre-suicidal adolescents may change mood in a mafter of weeks
from being calm and happy to showing manifestations that show the
risks of suicidal action, such as giving away prized possessions, writing a
will, making empty threats to end one's life. parent, teacher o. uny
concemed adult should be able to recognize the suicidal cues and do the
appropriate such as provide professional counselling and health
assistance.
Moral development
In his study of Ethics and topics that have interested moral
scien-
tists through the ageso Lawrence Khorberg laid down three stages of
moral reasoning among adolescent:
l.
Conventional level
At this stage, the adorescent is abre to
2.
understand and
conform to social conventions, consider the motivgs of peers and
adults, engage in proper behavior to ptias" others, and
follow the rules of Society.
The focus of thinking of the teen is towards mutual expectations, relationships and conformity with others. Instead of
stealing an object, he/she may think of other options to acquire
that object, such as by asking or saving money to buy the thing.
Doing good and being good spring from a desire to be a good
person by keeping rules and respecting authority, sqrnmed up in
following the colden Rule (do unto others what you want
others to do unto you).
Post-conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent
wishes to conform to:
Child and Adolescent D,evelopment: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
(a) law and order (don't steal because it is against the law)
(b) the social contract (rights such as life and liberty must be
upheld to uphold the welfare of the majority in society), and
(c) universal ethical principles (the universal principles of justice,
equality of human rights, freedom of conscience; etc.)
Do males and females differ in moral reasoning? Some studies
show that women are more focused on issues related to caring and
cgnnecting with people, while males tend to resolve moral concems by'
invoking principles of faimess, equality, and justice.
A more recent consensus among scholars, however, is the theory
that differences in moral tendencies b6tween male and female
absolute, but relative to their individual orientations
are
not
Development of guilt
Guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one's actions, particularly
when harm has been done to oneself or others.
On the negative side, guilt can threaten self-image, such thbt if
one is unable to thresh out guilt feelings, there can be serious problems
in adjusting to normal living. Guilt that causes anxiety and fear can
usher in a complexity of illnesses, ranging from chronic fatigue to escaP
ism (e.g. use of drugs to forget the guilty feeling).
On the positive side, guilt makes us aware of possible wrongdoing,
serving as a regulator for individuals to be more responsible in upholding esteemed social values.
As to stages in developing guilt, the first rudimentary feelings.of
guilt begin when children think they have caused some kind of harm
to others. inaction to change behavior adds to the initial guilt feelingS.
Anticipatory Guilt is felt when the child sees consequences that are
detrimental to onesglf or others (e.g. stealing an item may cause others
to grieve losing a prized possession).
Meanwhile, .survivor Guilt is experienced when ohe feels blameworthy regardless of involvement. (e.g, lingering feeling of baseless guilQ.
when parents show co
appropriate support and
' On the other han
parents fail in providirg
Thus, parents who do
may lose them to beinl
In the end, the in
time can cause fiustrat
behavior.
As the adolescen
casting off infantile tiel
sense of individuation,
leave responsibility witt
process of individution
develops a keen sense
that East Asians, inclu
children-parents cohesic
Always, it is hel
rights of their growing
space for privacy (e.g.
(e.g. choosing a colleg
Identified by sch
practicing phase, as p
demands while the adc
freedom (b) rapprocl
parents, induced by p
fieedom to grow.
Thus, it is img
tion and psychologica
consists of the child's p
cal well-being consists
self-esteem, feeling ol
Ioneliness).
In the end, a pr
in moral
behavior
Peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g. example of good
study habits), although they can also encourage misconduct or inappropriate behaviors (e.g. use of illegal drugs). Peer influence should not be
Influences
underestimated.
Compared with the influence of peers, the influence of parents is
more pervasive. The quality of parent+hild relationship is most positive
and separation is bes,
Christian/lslam ic/Asiar/
Unit 5 Module 26
-
Socioemotional Developmenl
when parents show competence, ndn:oppressive-level parental control,
appropriate support and directiclii.
- :-
'
On the other hand, parent/adult and peer values can occur when
fail in providing the appropriate levels of support and nurturance.
Thus, parents who do not care about the whereabouts of their children
may lose them to being dependent on peers.
In the end, the inability of parents to provide quality ipresence and
time can cause frustration and anger, endangering the teen's emotional
par€nts
behavior.
As the adolescent goes through a stage of emotional autonomy
casting off infantile ties to family, it is important the he/she develops a
sense of individuation, taking personal responsibility for himself and not
leave responsibility with parents. It is important to note, howeveq that the
process of individuation starts from infancy but sharpens when the teen
develops a keen sense of separateness and competence. Studies show
that East Asians, including Filipinos, and Latin Americans show morechildren-parents cohesion and closeness.
Always, it is helpful for parents to respect the self-determination
rights of their growing children, such as their choosing friends, getting
space for privacy (e.g. writing diaries), making small and big choices
(e.g. choosing a college course)
Identified by scholars in the process of individuation are: (a) the
practicing phase, as parents continue to make behavior conformance
demands while the adolescent begins to feel the need for psychological
freedom (b) rapprochement, as adolescents re-establish bonds with
parents, induced by parents' recognizing their psychological need for
fircedom to grow.
Thus, it is important for parents to be aware of the life satisfaction and psychological well-being of their children. Life satisfaction
consists of the child's perception of the quality of hiVher'{ife. Psychological well-being consists of a complex multiple dimension of the child's
self-esteem, feeling of control, sociability (as opposed to anxiety and
loneliness).
In the end, a proper balance between parent-child connectedness
and separation is best, allowing for cross-cultural/ethnic differences (e.g.
ChristiaMslam iclAsian/Westem
cu ltures).
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Steges
Teacher's Blog
$EmrrcAnot
Implications for '
. The socio<
ffinffiAC,,il
Research on any teenage issue found on pp. 317-325. Pass a
sumrhary of the research by stating the following:
a.)
b.)
.
@
Self-esteern
objectives of the research
tity
findinp
can help ad
(gatnes inc
their self-es
Emotioml t
be handled
are antidote
tation on en
values to q
c.) conclusions and
d.)
and needs t
concrete iru
recommendations
.
wEBsrTr AorvrTY
Surf the internet for programs meant to help troubled teenagers.
Make a list of these teen programs, their objectives and contact number.
Pass this in clasS.
######
issues.
t
Unit
5 Module 26 - Socioemotional Development
$mrucAnolr
Implications for Teaching-Learning
. The socio-emotional world of the adolescent leamer is complex
and needs to be approached with care and understanding. Give
concrete instances where you can show care and understanding.
.
.
Seltesteem and/or self diffusion involves many intricate self-identity issues. Open discussion, reflection writing, expert lecture, etc.
can help adolescent leamers on this matter. List down 5 activities
(gaYnes included) that you can have for teenagers to enhance
their self-esteem.
Emotional crisis which can lead to depression and suicide should
be handled with care. Positive and progressive values inculcation
are antidotes to this crisis phenomena. Do a powerpoint presentation on emotional crisis wlth the objective of inculcating positive
values to counteract emotional crisis.
ChiH and Addes€nt Dar€lQmcnt: Looltirto at l,3tmafs et Different Life Stages
Module 3
Answer Key
AIISWTR IGY
Module
1
I -
l.
l.(
Between h
to exert a suuq
2.r'
3. I -
Development is continuous
only from a life-span
ence.
per-
t -
spective
4. ./
5. I -
not totatly the same; while there are things that are
uniform among individuals , therc arc also variations
6.
7.
8.
9.
I
I - multidimensional
I - contextual
r'
The effects of the biological, cognitive and
socioemotional processes
are
intertwined.
Research
can be overr(m
I - Earlier e4
3.
ences.
ANSWER KEY
t.(
pl2
2.r'
3. t Developrn€flt
lifelong only fro
life-span perspcr
4.'
5. I -
Module 2
tndividuah
velop in diff€rct
Ansrver Key
l. X -
2. I
3. I
4. X 5. I
6. X -
for all
stages
ways.
in human development
6.r'
7. * 8.
middle and late childhood
7. X - Play concems
8.
multi dinrernkrr
Middle and:late childhood are for elementary graden.
Mastery of the basic skills is the major concern in
primarily preschoolers
,
so is the con-
cem of early childhood.
X- School readiness is the primary concem of
hood teachers
early
child-
Developnre
f -
Developnc
takes place wit
context.
9.f-Theeffect
biological, cogni
socio-emotisnl
cesses are intcr
ATIISA'ERKEY
Module 3
Answer Key
I -
l.
Between heredity and environment, none can be said
to exert a stonger influence. Botr. interact to exert an influence.
t -
that
I -
Earlier experiences are as important as later experi.
Research findings show
can be overcome.
3.
change
in earlier
stagcs
ences,
ANSWER KEY p-12
ANSWER KEY p33
l. Each stage of
r.r'
I
2.r'
3. I Development
human developnrent
has a developnental
is
lifelong only from a
life-span perspective.
4.r'
5. t -
Individuals.develop in different
task.
2.(
3.'
4. I
ways.
cence. For Havighrust,
middle childhood comes
before adolescence.
6.r'
7., -
Development is
multi dimensional.
8.
f -
Development
5.
t
6.
a lt is a major con-
takes place within a
context.
9.
I *
The effects of
biological, cognitive and
socio-emotional processes are intertwined.
For Santrock middle
and childhood stages
come beforc adoles-
For both authors
mitldle childhood is
distinct ftom teatage.
cein in mfoldle childhood stage.
7.a-Playisagreat
need
M.
in early child-
E;l-Preparingfor
school rcadiness is the
major concem of early
childpod.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
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