ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY REVIEWER (CABUG, RICARDO JR. A. BSMT 133) CHAPTER I: The Human Organism 1.1 ANATOMY 1. Human Anatomy & Physiology – is the study of the structure and function of the human body. 2. Stimuli (Stimulus) – is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. 3. Anatomy – is the scientific discipline that investigates the structures of the body. (Anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study.) Importance of Anatomy and physiology: - Basis of understanding diseases - Career in health sciences - Evaluate recommended treatments - Allows an understanding of how the body works and respond to stimuli. The major goals of studying physiology: 1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli. 2. To understand how the body maintains internal conditions within a narrow range of values in the presence of continually changing internal and external environments. 2. Human Physiology – is the study of a specific organism, the human, whereas cellular physiology and systemic physiology are subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational levels. 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY Two general ways to examine the internal structures: 1. Surface anatomy – is the study of external features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for locating deeper structures. 2. Anatomical imaging – involves the use of xrays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures, such as when determining if a bone is broken or a ligament is torn. Six structural levels: 1. Chemical Level • Smallest level • Atoms, chemical bond, molecule 2. Cell Level • Cell – the basic structural and functional units of organisms, such as plants and animals. • Organelles – the small structures that make up some cells. • Compartments and organelles • Examples are: Mitochondria & nucleus 3. Tissue Level • Tissue – is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. • Smooth muscle – non-striated and involuntary. • Histology – the study of the microscopic structure of tissues. Four broad types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous. 4. Organ Level • Organ – is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions. Example: Stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney. 5. Organ System Level • Organ System – is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions. 1.2 PHYSIOLOGY 1. Physiology – is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things. (Organ Systems of the body: last page) 6. Organism Level • Organism – is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one Two Basic approaches to the study of anatomy: 1. Systemic anatomy – is the study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems. 2. Regional anatomy – is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously. (Anatomists – an expert in anatomy; a dissector.) cell, such as a bacterium, or a trillions of cells, such as a human. Heart rate – 50 to 100 beats per minute Blood pressure Blood glucose level Blood cell counts Respiratory rate Normal range (normal value/reference range) – normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point: normal or average value of a variable overtime, body temperature fluctuates around a set point. Set point for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on the body on the body activities, as needed. Examples: 1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Six essential characteristics of life: 1. Organization – refers to the specific • relationship of the many individual parts of an organism, from cell organelles to organs, interacting and working together. 2. Metabolism – is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, • movement, and reproduction. • Plants, algae, bacteria: Photosynthetic organism can produce its own nutrients. • • Virus – can’t produce its own nutrients. • 3. Responsiveness – is the ability of an 2. Negative feedback mechanism – is when any organism to sense changes in the deviation from the set point is made smaller or environment and make the adjustments is resisted. (in this context negative means “to that help maintain its life. decrease.”) • Adaptation – Processes and structures - A negative feedback response involves; by which organism adjust in short term Detection: of deviation away from set point and or long term changes in their Connection: reversal of deviation towards set environment. Eg: Sweating & shivering point and normal range. 4. Growth – refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. 3. positive feedback mechanism – occur when the 5. Development – it includes the changes an initial stimulus further stimulates the response. organism undergoes through time. (in this context positive means “to increase.”) (Development usually involves growth, but - Not directly used homeostasis. it also involves differentiation.) - Generally associated with diseases. • CFU-GEMM – Stem cell - Negative feedback mechanism unable to C – Colony maintain homeostasis. F - Forming U - Unit The components of feedback: G – Granulocytes: white blood cell 1. Receptor – monitors the value of a variable E – Erythrocytes: red blood cell such as body temperature, by detecting stimuli. M - Monocytes: small white blood cell 2. Control Center – it determines the set point for M – Megakaryocytes: small platelets the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable, such as part of the • Differentiation – is change in cell brain. structure and function from generalized 3. Effector – such as the sweat glands, can change to specialized. the value of the variable when directed by the 6. Reproduction – is the formation of new control center. cells or new organism. 1.5 HOMEOSTASIS 1. Homeostasis (homeo/same, stasis/stop) – is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body despite fluctuations in either the external environment or the internal environment. Value of a variable(Our average body temperature is 98.6°F.) • Variable – measures of body properties that may change in value. Example of variables: Body Temperature – 37 1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN 1. Anatomical position – refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward. 2. Supine – when lying face upward. 3. Prone – when lying face downward. 4. Right & Left – are used as directional terms in in anatomical terminology. 5. Etymology – is the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history. 6. Superior (Ety/Higher) – in anatomy this term is used for above or up, also called cephalic. 7. Inferior (Ety/Lower) – in anatomy this term is used for below or down, also called caudal. 8. Anterior (Ety/to go before) – is used for front, also called ventral. 9. Posterior (Ety/Posterus, following) – is used for back, also called dorsal. 10. Ventral (Ety/Venter, belly) – it means belly therefore, the anterior surface of the human body can also be called the ventral surface, because the belly “goes first” when we are walking. 11. Dorsal (Ety/Dorsum, back) – it means “back” thus, the posterior surface of the body is the dorsal surface, or back which follows as we are walking. 12. Proximal (Ety/Proximus, nearest) means nearest, whereas Distal means distant. These term are used to refer to linear structures and the other end is farther away. 13. Medial (Ety/Medialis, middle) - means toward the midline. 14. Lateral (Ety/Latus, side) - means away from the midline. 15. Superficial (Ety/Superficialist, surface) – refers to a structure close to the surface of the body. 16. Deep (Ety/Deop, deep) – is toward the interior of the body. (Ventral, dorsal, cephalic & caudal – is used term in Parasitology) Body Parts and Region: Memorize figure 1.9 pg. 13 & 14. The central region of the body consists of: 1. Head 2. Neck 3. Trunk - Thorax (Chest) - Abdomen (Belly) - Pelvis (Hips) • Upper Limb - Arm – extends from the shoulder to the elbow. - Forearm – extends from the elbow to the wrist. - Wrist - Hand • Lower Limb - Thigh – extends from the hip to the knee. - Leg – extends from the knee to the knee. - Ankle Foot The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary lines. 1. Right upper quadrant 2. Left upper quadrant 3. Right lower quadrant 4. Left lower quadrant (Please refer to figure 1.10 pg. 14) In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines, like a tic-tac-toe resulting in 9 regions. 1. Right hypochondriac region 2. Epigastric region 3. Left hypochondriac region 4. Right Lumbar region 5. Umbilical region 6. Left Lumbar region 7. Right iliac region 8. Hypogastric region 9. Left iliac region (Please refer to figure 1.10 pg. 14) Planes: Memorize figure 1.11 pg. 15. Four planes that is used to observe the body’s structure. (imaginary flat surfaces.): 1. Sagittal plane – it runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts. 2. Median plane – is a sagittal plane that passes through the middle of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves. 3. Transverse plane or horizontal plane or crosssectional – it runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts. 4. Frontal plane or coronal plane – it runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. Three ways to cut an organ: 1. Longitudinal section – it is a cut along the length of the organ. 2. Transverse section or cross section – it cuts completely through the organ, similar to cutting a hotdog or banana into round pieces. 3. Oblique section – It is a cut made diagonally across the long axis. Body Cavities: Memorize figure 1.13 pg. 16 The three large cavities in the trunk that is not open to the outside of the body: 1. Thoracic cavity – is surrounded by the rib cage and its separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm • Mediastinum – is a section that houses the heart, the thymus, the trachea, the esophagus, the blood vessel, and other structures. 2. Abdominal cavity – is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys. 3. Pelvic cavity – is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs. • Abdominopelvic cavity – is a cavity that consists of the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. 17. Serous membrane or serosal membrane – is a thin membrane that lines the internal body cavities and organs such as the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity, it also reduces friction. • Visceral serous membrane – inner layer or covers the organ. • Parietal serous membrane – outer layer • Cavity – a fluid-filled space between the membranes. The thoracic cavity contains three major serous membrane-lined cavities: 1. Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart • Visceral pericardium – covers the heart • Parietal pericardium – forms the outer layer of the sac around the heart. • Pericardial fluid – the fluid filling the pericardial cavity. - Pericardiocentisis - is a procedure where fluid is aspirated from the pericardium. 2 & 3. Pleural cavity – it surrounds each lung. • Visceral pleura - it covers both lungs. • Parietal pleura – lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm. • Pleural cavity – is located between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura and contains pleural fluid. - Pleuracentisis - the perforation of a cavity of the body or of a cyst or similar outgrowth, especially with a hollow needle to remove fluid or gas. 18. Peritoneal cavity – a serous membrane– lined cavity contained in the abdominopelvic cavity. It is also located between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal peritoneum and contains the peritoneal fluid. • Visceral peritoneum – covers many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity. • Parietal peritoneum – lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm. - Paracentisis - is a form of body fluid sampling procedure, generally referring to peritoneocentesis in which the peritoneal cavity is punctured by a needle to sample peritoneal fluid. Pericardium – around the Heart Pleura – around the Lungs Peritoneum – around the Abdominopelvic Cavity and its Organs. Infection in the serous membrane: 1. Pericarditis – is an inflammation of the pericardium. 2. Pleurisy – is an inflammation of the pleura. 3. Peritonitis – is an inflammation of the peritoneum. (One form of peritonitis occurs when the appendix ruptures as a result of appendicitis.) 19. Mesenteries – it is consisting of two layers of peritoneum fused together, anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs. 20. Retroperitoneal (“Retro” means behind) – situated or occurring behind the peritoneum. • Retroperitoneal organs: Abdominopelvic - Suprarenal (adrenal) glands - Aorta/inferior vena cava - Duodenum - Pancreas - Ureters - Colon - Kidneys - Esophagus - Rectum (SAD PUCKER)
