CHAPTER 15
Late Classical Greek
and Hellenistic Art
(400–31 BCE)
Copyright © 2021 Thames & Hudson
Chapter 15 Outline
• The Late Classical Period, c. 400-323 BCE
• The Hellenistic Period, 323-31 BCE
• Looking More Closely: Indo-Greek Art
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Introduction
• Athens lost much of its political supremacy after it was
defeated by Sparta in 404 BCE, but it maintained an
important cultural role.
• The Greek city-states declined and aristocracies
increased, coinciding with the period of Late Classical art
• Realism and individualism in art replaced idealized gods,
warriors, and athletes
• The conquests of Alexander the Great, between 336 and
323 BCE, spread Greek culture and people over a vast
empire
• Greek art and architecture spread and was in turn
influenced by the art of neighboring cultures
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Map: The conquests of Alexander
Map 15.1 The conquests of Alexander
The Late Classical Period
c. 400–323 BCE
Artwork: Aphrodite of
Knidos, Roman copy after a
marble statue by Praxiteles
15.1 Aphrodite of Knidos, Roman copy after a
marble statue by Praxiteles, from present-day Turkey,
c. 350 BCE. Marble, height 6 ft. 9 in. (2.06 m). Musei
Vaticani, Rome.
Aphrodite of Knidos
• Roman copy of bronze
original by Praxiteles
• Innovative nude depiction of
Aphrodite, the goddess of
love—unlike male figures,
goddesses were not
portrayed naked
• Aphrodite is preparing to
bathe—a human activity—as
the viewer looks on
• Naturalistic contrapposto
stance—right hip pushes out,
creating an S-shape
Key Terms: contrapposto
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Head of Alexander
15.2 Head of Alexander, from Pella, Greece, third century BCE. Marble, height 12 in. (30.5 cm).
Archaeological Museum, Pella, Macedonia.
Head of Alexander
• One of several surviving
portraits of Alexander
• Characteristic tousled
hair and side part
• Style of Lysippos
includes gentle turn of
the head and far off
gaze
Key Terms: mosaic
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Apoxyomenos
(The Scraper)
15.3 Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), Roman copy after
a bronze statue by Lysippos, c. 330 BCE. Marble, height
6 ft. 9 in. (2.06 m). Musei Vaticani, Rome
Apoxyomenos (The Scraper)
• Shows an athlete scraping
oil, sweat, and dirt off his
skin after exercising
(mundane, human activity)
• Breaks out of Classical
planes by having one arm
outstretched toward the
viewer
• Invites viewer to move
around the statue, unlike
Classical works that were
primarily frontal
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Theater at Epidauros
15.4 Theater at Epidauros, fourth century BCE. Peloponnese, Greece.
Theater at Epidauros
• Greek drama originated in religious rituals associated with Dionysos,
the god of wine
• Theater at Epidauros has innovate acoustics, beauty, and symmetry
• Circular performance area held the main characters of the play, the
chorus, who commented on the action, and an altar where sacrifices
to Dionysos were held
• Seating area built into the hillside
• Only men were actors
Key Terms: skene, proskenion
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Palace at Vergina (architectural
drawing)
15.5 Palace at Vergina (architectural drawing), Entrance and facade (below) and floor plan (bottom). Macedonia, Greece, late fourth century BCE
Palace at Vergina
• Rise in hereditary
monarchies necessitated
palatial architecture and
monumental burial places
• Vergina was the capital of
the Macedonian monarchy
and had a grand palace
and set of royal tombs
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Palace at Vergina
–2
• Palace at Vergina had
banqueting rooms around
a central court with a Doric
peristyle
• Elaborate mosaic floors
• Residence, administrative
center, and site of
symposia (gatherings
where aristocratic men
drank and conversed)
Key Terms: peristyle
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Abduction of Persephone
15.6 Abduction of Persephone, from tomb complex at Vergina, Tomb I, mid-fourth century BCE. Fresco.
Vergina, Macedonia, Greece.
Abduction of Persephone
• Fresco in the royal tomb complex at Vergina
• Three of the walls in the oldest tomb had frescoes, including the
Abduction of Persephone
• Shows the kidnapping and forced marriage of Persephone, daughter
of the Demeter (goddess of the harvest), by Hades (god of the
underworld)
• Myth explained the changing of the seasons as Demeter mourned
the annual loss of daughter
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Abduction of Persephone
–2
• Bright splashes of color are set against a white
background
• Strong sense of motion and emotion
• Depth is well conveyed through foreshortening
Key Terms: tumulus, ashlar, fresco, perspective, foreshortening
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Facade of Tomb II
15.7 Facade of Tomb II, Vergina, c. 330–320 BCE. Macedonia, Greece.
Facade of Tomb II
• Tomb believed by some to
belong to Philip II, King of
Macedonia and father of
Alexander the Great
• Doric facade, including
frieze, triglyphs, and
metopes
• Scene representing a hunt
appears in the space
above the frieze; shows
sophisticated illusion of
depth
Key Terms: frieze, triglyphs, metopes, attic
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Tomb II
15.8 Tomb II (sectional drawing), Vergina, c. 330–320 BCE. Macedonia, Greece.
Tomb II
• Two stone barrel-vaulted
chambers with an
antechamber in front
and another chamber
behind
Key Terms: barrel-vaulted
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Royal textile from the antechamber
of Tomb II
15.9 Royal textile from the antechamber of Tomb II, Vergina, Macedonia, c. 330–320 BCE. Purple dyed
woolen yarn and gold thread, height 11 ¼ in. (28.5 cm). Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina), Greece.
Royal Textile from Antechamber of Tomb II
• Found in a larynx (chest
made to hold human
remains) the antechamber
of Tomb II
• Wrapped the remains of a
young woman in her midtwenties
• Gold and purple fabrics
denote royal status
• Weaving was the work of
women artists
Key Terms: sarcophagus
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Diadem from the antechamber of
Tomb II
15.10 Diadem from the antechamber of Tomb II, Vergina, Macedonia, c. 330– 320 BCE. Gold and
enamel. Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina), Greece.
Diadem from Antechamber of Tomb II
• Found with royal textile
in the larynx in Tomb II
• Finely decorated with
gold vines, leaves, and
flowers
• Very delicate details and
symmetry
Key Terms: diadem
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Larnax from the inner chamber of
Tomb II
15.11 Larnax from the inner chamber of Tomb II, Vergina, Macedonia, c. 330–320 BCE. Gold and
enamel, 14 × 13 × 8 in. (35.6 × 33 × 20.3 cm). Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina), Greece.
Larnax from Inner Chamber of Tomb II
• Found in the inner chamber of
Tomb II along with a large
marble sarcophagus
• Held the burned remains of a
man in his forties, though it is
not certain whose (perhaps
Philip II or his second son)
• Decorated with floral and plant
patterns in several horizontal
registers
• Found with dozens of elaborate
silver vessels, containers used
for funerary rites, and weapons
Key Terms: repoussé, register
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: House at Olynthos, House A vii 4
(plan drawing)
15.12 House at Olynthos, House A vii 4 (plan drawing), Chalkidiki peninsula, Greece, c. 432–348 BCE.
House at Olynthos, House A vii 4
• Remains of houses can
help us understand
domestic relations of
ordinary people
• Male visitors were
separated from girls and
women of the home
• Houses at Olynthos, near
ancient Macedonia, had
features from both the
Classical and Hellenistic
periods
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
House at Olynthos, House A vii 4
–2
• House focuses inwards with
only one exterior door that
prevented outsiders from
looking in
• Open-air interior courtyard
that most rooms could
access, facilitating
communication and
movement
• Mens’ rooms had more
elaborate decoration and
had more separation from
the rest of the house
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
The Hellenistic Period
323–31 BCE
The Hellenistic Period
• Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE without a clear heir,
plunging his empire into chaos
• His surviving generals carved up the empire into distinct
kingdoms
• Macedonia, Egypt, Syria, and other smaller areas were
controlled by different generals and their families
• The art of each kingdom became increasingly dramatic,
threatening, and hyper-realistic, evoking an emotional
response from the viewer
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Map: The Hellenistic world, c. 188 BCE
Map 15.2 The Hellenistic world, c. 188 BCE.
Artwork: Coin of King
Menander
15.13 Coin of King Menander, with the image of
Athena on the reverse, mid-second century BCE. Silver,
0.35 oz. (9.95 grams). British Museum, London.
Looking More Closely: Indo-Greek Art
• Greek language and culture
spread to Central and South Asia
with Alexander’s Empire
• There they mixed with local
traditions
• This area was a cultural
crossroads and allowed the further
spread of Classical and Hellenistic
styles
• Inhabitants also incorporated other
styles into Greek art and culture
• Greek and Iranian gods were
worshipped simultaneously in
Persia
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Coin of King Menander
• The coin of King Menander
shows Menander’s image
labeled in Greek on one
side, with the other side
showing the Greek
goddess Athena labeled in
the local language and
script
• Mixing of styles continued
for centuries
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Pergamon in the Roman period
15.14 Pergamon in the Roman period (reconstruction drawing). İzmir province, Turkey.
Pergamon in the Roman Period
• Pergamon was in northwestern
Anatolia and shows the
influences of Hellenistic culture
and the warfare and shifting
alliances of this period
• Originally part of the Seleucid
Empire but shifted alliances and
defeated the Gauls in central
Anatolia in 241 BCE
• Stone monuments in Pergamon,
Delos, Delphi, and Athens
commemorate this victory
Key Terms: agora
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Gaul Killing
Himself and His Wife
15.15 Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife (two views),
Roman copy of bronze statue by Epigonos, from
Pergamon (İzmir province, Turkey), c. 230–220 BCE.
Marble, height 6 ft. 11 in. (2.11 m). Museo Nazionale,
Rome.
Artwork: Gaul Killing
Himself and His Wife – 2
15.15 Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife (two views),
Roman copy of bronze statue by Epigonos, from
Pergamon (İzmir province, Turkey), c. 230–220 BCE.
Marble, height 6 ft. 11 in. (2.11 m). Museo Nazionale,
Rome.
Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife
• Roman sculpture that probably
imitates a Pergamene original
commemorating the victory over
the Gauls
• Gaul has already killed his wife
to prevent her capture by the
enemy and is preparing to
dramatically take his own life
• Both dress and hairstyle
recognizable as Gallic
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife
–2
• Strong, tense body of Gaul
contrasts with the lifeless form
of his wife
• Invites viewers to walk around
the sculpture to take in the full
emotional intensity
• Meant to evoke a strong
emotional response
Key Terms: Baroque, sculpture in the round
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Great Altar of Zeus
15.16 Great Altar of Zeus, Pergamon (İzmir province, Turkey) c. 180–160 BCE. Reconstructed at the
Pergamon Museum, Berlin.
Great Altar of Zeus
• Monumental altar originally sat in a sacred precinct and was
probably built to celebrate another victory over the Gauls
• Covered in larger-than-life painted sculpture
• Contained an altar and area to display military spoils
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Great Altar of Zeus
–2
• Exterior sculpture divided into three levels: the Gigantomachy,
freestanding female figures, and akroteria
• Inside the colonnaded courtyard was a sacrificial altar and statues of
the twelve Olympian gods
Key Terms: cornice, podium, high relief, akroteria
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Gigantomachy (Athena Battling
Alkyoneos), Great Altar of Zeus
15.17 Gigantomachy (Athena Battling Alkyoneos), Great Altar of Zeus, Pergamon (İzmir province,
Turkey), c. 180–160 BCE. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.
Gigantomachy (Athena Battling Alkyoneos)
• Legendary battle between gods
and giants; impending victory of
the gods is clear
• Larger-than-life figures emerged
into real space, resting their
limbs on the steps
• Visitors ascending the stars
might feel as though they are
participating in the battles
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Gigantomachy (Athena Battling Alkyoneos)
–2
• Lively, dramatic style
• Emotional intensity evident in
the face of the Giant Alkyoneos
and his mother
• Overlapping diagonals link the
figures
• Gods maintain order over chaos
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Pythokritos of Rhodes
(?), Winged Victory (Nike) of
Samothrace
15.18 Pythokritos of Rhodes (?), Winged Victory
(Nike) of Samothrace, from Samothrace, Greece, 220–
150 BCE. Parian marble statue on gray Rhodian marble
base, height 18 ft. 3 in. (5.56 m). Musée du Louvre,
Paris.
Winged Victory (Nike) of Samothrace
• Dedicated in the Sanctuary of the
Great Gods on the island of
Samothrace
• Nike, goddess of victory, stands
proudly on the prow of a battleship
• Probably made in commemoration
of a naval victory
• Lifelike texture in the wings and the
windblown drapery that reveals the
body of the goddess
• Her body thrusts forward
powerfully against a strong wind
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Alexandros of
Antioch, Aphrodite of Melos
(Venus de Milo)
15.19 Alexandros of Antioch, Aphrodite of Melos
(Venus de Milo), Greece, c. 100 BCE. Marble, height 6
ft. 7 in. (2.01 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo)
• Signature of the artist appears at
the base
• Combines proportions of Classical
sculpture (graceful S-shape of
Praxiteles) and a sharp, dramatic
twisting of the figure
• Drapery is deeply carved, adding
to the shadow, and slips
downwards to add a sense of
eroticism
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Athenodoros,
Hagesandros, and Polydoros
of Rhodes, Laocoön and His
Sons
15.20 Athenodoros, Hagesandros, and
Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and His Sons,
first century CE. Marble, height 6 ft. 7 in. (2.01
m). Musei Vaticani, Rome.
Laocoön and His Sons
• Figures from the Trojan War shown
at the moment of their death
• Tense movement and theatricality
• Torso of Laocoön twists to his right
while his head, left arm, and leg
turn in the opposite direction
• Hair is deeply drilled to allow for play
of light and shadow
• Powerful muscles contrast with agony
and pathos in the face
• Date and origins of sculpture not
agreed upon
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Artwork: Apollonius, Seated
Boxer, from the Baths of
Constantine
15.21 Apollonius, Seated Boxer, from the
Baths of Constantine, Rome, c. 100–50 BCE.
Bronze, height 47 in. (1.2 m). Museo Nazionale
Romano-Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.
Seated Boxer
• Creation dates uncertain
• Originally had eyes inlaid with glass
or stone
• Shows extreme realism
• Boxer is very weary and his
muscular body contrasts with his
broken nose, beaten face,
cauliflower ears, and many scars
and wounds. His wounds include
newly dripping blood
• Still has symmetrical balance in hair
and beard, showing some of the
staging of Hellenistic art
Key Terms: lost-wax technique
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Discussion Questions
1. The Late Classical and Hellenistic periods saw dramatic
changes in art and architecture. Using three works of art
from this chapter, at least one architectural and one
sculptural, describe some of these changes and the political
or social motivations behind them.
2. Our understanding of the past is constantly evolving as a
result of innovative art historical research and
archaeological excavations. Choose two works from this
chapter and describe how recent research has changed or
augmented our understanding of the works of Late
Classical and/or Hellenistic social relations.
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Discussion Questions
–2
3. Hellenistic art is often intended to evoke an emotional
response. Choose two to three works of art from this
chapter and, using the tools of formal analysis (see this
book’s Introduction), describe the formal strategies the
artist(s) used to elicit this response. Were they effective?
Why or why not?
4. How is the art of the Hellenistic period more representative
of kingship than the polis? Provide at least two examples to
support your argument.
The History of Art–A Global View Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, et al
Picture Credits
Map 15.1 Peter Bull
15.1 Photo Scala, Florence
15.2 A. Dagli Orti/DEA/Getty Images
15.3 Luisa Ricciarini/Bridgeman Images
15.4 Andrey Khrobostov/Alamy Stock Photo
15.5 Peter Bull
15.6 Konstantinos Kontos/Photostock
15.7 mauritius images GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo
15.8 Peter Bull
15.9 Konstantinos Kontos/Photostock
15.10 Konstantinos Kontos/Photostock
15.11 Konstantinos Kontos/Photostock
15.12 Peter Bull
Map 15.2 Peter Bull
15.13 Photo Trustees of the British Museum, London
Picture Credits (Cont.)
15.14 Peter Bull
15.15a Simon Rawley/Alamy Stock Photo
15.15b Luisa Ricciarini/Bridgeman Images
15.16 bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin/Scala, Florence
15.17 bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. Photo Johannes Laurentius/Scala, Florence
15.18 Photo Musée du Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Thierry Ollivier
15.19 Photo Musée du Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Thierry Ollivier
15.20 Eric Vandeville/Gamma-Rapho/Getty Images
15.21 Photo Scala, Florence
Copyright
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 15
The History of Art – A Global View
By Jean Robertson, Deborah Hutton, Cynthia S. Colburn, Ömür Harmansah, Eric Kjellgren, Rex Koontz, De-nin D. Lee,
Henry Luttikhuizen, Allison Lee Palmer, Stacey Sloboda and Monica Blackmun Visonà
Copyright © 2021 Thames & Hudson