Chapter 1:
The Database Environment
and Development Process
1
Objectives
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Define terms
Name limitations of conventional file processing
Explain advantages of databases
Identify costs and risks of databases
List components of database environment
Identify categories of database applications
Describe database system development life cycle
Explain prototyping and agile development approaches
Explain roles of individuals
Explain the three-schema architecture for databases
Chapter 1
2
Definitions
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Database: organized collection of logically
related data
Data: stored representations of meaningful
objects and events
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Structured: numbers, text, dates
Unstructured: images, video, documents
Information: data processed to increase
knowledge in the person using the data
Metadata: data that describes the properties and
context of user data
Chapter 1
3
Figure 1-1a Data in context
Context helps users understand data
Chapter 1
4
Figure 1-1b Summarized data
Graphical displays turn data into useful
information that managers can use for
decision making and interpretation
Chapter 1
5
Chapter 1
Descriptions of the properties or characteristics of the
data, including data types, field sizes, allowable
values, and data context
6
Database Examples
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Database is involved like everywhere in our
world
For example:
If we go to bank to deposit or withdraw
Make hotel and airline reservation
Purchase something on-line
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Chapter 1
Database Applications
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These examples are what we called traditional
database applications
More Recent Applications:
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Chapter 1
Traditional database application
Geographic Information Systems (GIS):can store and
analyze maps, weather data, and satellite images
Multimedia database: store images, audio clips, and
video streams digitally
Data Warehouses: systems are used in many companies
to extract and analyze useful business information from very
large databases to support decision making.
Real-time and active database technology is used to
control industrial and manufacturing processes.
Database search techniques are being applied to the
World Wide Web to improve the search for information
Database can be any size and
complexity
For example:
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A list of names and address
IRS Internal Revenue Service (IRS) )‫خدمة اإليرادات الداخلية (مصلحة الضرائب‬
(assume it has 100 million taxpayers and each taxpayer
file 5 forms with 400 characters of information per
form=800Gbyte)
Amazon.com
(15 million people visit per day; about 100 people are
responsible for database update)
Chapter 1
Database System
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Data:
Known facts that can be recorded and have an
implicit meaning.
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Database:
A collection of related data.
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Database Management System (DBMS):
DBMS is a computerized system that enables users
to create and maintain (add or drop) a database.
◼ A software package/system to facilitate the
Define, Construct, Manipulate and Share functions of
a computerized database.
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Chapter 1
Typical DBMS Functionality
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Define involve specify data types, structures, and
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Construct or Load the initial database contents and
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Manipulate the database:
constraints
stored data on a secondary storage medium
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Retrieval: Querying, generating reports
Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its
content
Accessing the database through Web applications
Share a database allows multiple users and programs to
access the database simultaneously
Chapter 1
Data, Information and
Knowledge (1 of 3)
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Data items: refer to an elementary description of
things, events, activities, and transactions that are
recorded, classified, and stored, but not organized to
convey any specific meaning.
It can be numeric, alphanumeric, sounds, or images.
E.g. student grade in a class.
A database consists of stored data items organized
for retrieval.
Chapter 1
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Data, Information and
Knowledge (2 of 3)
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Information: is data that has been organized so they
have meaning and value to the recipient.
The recipient interprets the meaning and draws
conclusions and implications from the information.
It may convey a trend in the environment, or
perhaps indicate a pattern of sales for a given period
of time.
Data items are processed into information by means
of an application.
E.g. a student’s grade point average
Chapter 1
13
Data, Information and
Knowledge (3 of 3)
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Knowledge: consists of data and/or Information that have been
organized and processed to convey understanding, experience,
accumulated learning and expertise as they apply to a current
problem or activity.
The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his
experience, and encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new
inputs from his surroundings.
E.g. the GPA of a student applying to a graduate school can provide
an admission officer with the knowledge of how good the student is
only in comparison with the GPAs of other students and schools.
Wisdom is the top of the DIKW hierarchy and to get there, we must
answer questions such as ‘why do something’ and ‘what is best’. In
other words, wisdom is knowledge applied in action.
Chapter 1
14
Organizing Data in a Computer System (1
of 2)
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A computer system organizes data in a hierarchy that starts
with bits and bytes and progresses to fields, records, files,
and databases.
Chapter 1
Organizing Data in a Computer System (2
of 2)
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Bit: represents the smallest unit of data a computer can process
(0/1).
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Byte: is a group of eight bits, represents a single character,
which can be a letter, a number, or symbol.
Field: A logical grouping of characters into a word, a group of
words, or a complete number. For example, a student's name
would appear in the name field.
Record: A logical group of related fields, such as customer's
name, product sold, and hours worked, are examples of a record.
File: A logical group of related records. For example, the student
records in a single course would constitute a data file for that
course.
Database: A logical group of related files. All students’ course
files could be grouped with files on students’ personal histories
and financial backgrounds to create a students' database.
Chapter 1
Databases
Improve
Business
Performance and Decision Making
◼ Businesses use their databases to:
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Keep track of basic transactions, such as paying
suppliers, processing orders, keeping track of
customers, and paying employees.
Provide information that will help the company
run the business more efficiently, and help
managers and employees make better
decisions.
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Chapter 1
If a company wants to know which product is the
most popular or who is its most profitable customer,
the answer lies in the data.
Big Data
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There has been an explosion of data from Web
traffic, e-mail messages, and social media content
(tweets, status messages), as well as machinegenerated data from sensors (used in smart
meters, manufacturing sensors, and electrical
meters) or from electronic trading systems.
We now use the term big data to describe these
datasets with volumes so huge that is petabyte
and exabyte range—in other words, billions to
trillions of records, all from different sources
Chapter 1
Databases and The Web
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Every time a customer use the Web to place an
order or view a product catalog, he is using a Web
site linked to an internal corporate database.
Many companies now use the Web to make
some of the information in their internal
databases available to customers and business
partners.
Chapter 1
Database System
◼ Database
System:
DBMS + Database
Chapter 1
Simplified database system
environment
Chapter 1
Database Management System
- manages interaction between end users and database
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management: Rob & Coronel
Chapter 1
S511 Session 2, IU-SLIS
22
Database System Environment
▪ Hardware
▪ Software
- OS
- DBMS
- Applications
▪ People
▪ Procedures
▪ Data
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management: Rob & Coronel
Chapter 1
S511 Session 2, IU-SLIS
23
Types of Databases
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Types of Databases:
Types of Database can be categorized
according to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chapter 1
Users Numbers
Location
Data Sensitivity
Data Structure
Others
Types of Databases
Database according to Users Numbers:
❑ Single-user database:
❑ Multiuser database: Supports multiple users at the same time
❑ Enterprise database
❑ Single-user database:
❑ Supports one user at a time
❑ Desktop database: Runs on PC
Chapter 1
25
Types of Databases
❑ Multiuser database: Supports multiple users
at the same time
Workgroup databases:
❑ Supports a small number of users or a
specific department
❑ (user number 2 ≤ N < 50)
❑ Associated to one department
❑ Enterprise database:
❑ Supports many users across many
departments
❑ (user number 50 ≤ N < M)
❑ Associated to more than one
department
Chapter 1
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Types of Databases (continued)
Can be classified by location:
◼ Centralized:
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Distributed:
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Supports data located at a single site
Supports data distributed across several sites
Cloud:
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Created and maintained using cloud data
services that provide defined performance
measures for the database
Chapter 1
Centralized
Distributed
Chapter 1
Cloud
28
Types of Databases (continued)
Database according to Data Sensitivity
❑
Operational database: Designed to
support a company’s day-to-day
operations
❑
❑
Transitional DB
❑
Production DB
Analytical
database:
Stores
historical data and business metrics
used exclusively for tactical or
strategic decision making
❑
Data warehouse: Stores data in a format
optimized for decision support
Chapter 1
Types of Databases (continued)
Database according to the Structure Degree
❑ Unstructured data: It exists in their original state
❑ Structured data: It results from formatting
❑ Structure is applied based on type of processing to be
performed
❑ Semistructured data: Processed to some extent
Chapter 1
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Types of Databases (continued)
Others Database
•Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Represents data elements in textual format
❑ General-purpose databases: Contains a wide variety of data used in multiple
disciplines
❑ Discipline-specific databases: Contains data focused on specific subject areas
Chapter 1
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Outline
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Database Introduction
An Example
Characteristics of the Database
Actors on the Scene
Advantages of using the DBMS approach
Chapter 1
An UNIVERSITY example
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A UNIVERSITY database for maintaining information
concerning students, courses, and grades in a university
environment
We have:
STUDENT file stores data on each student
COURSE file stores data on each course
SECTION file stores data on each section of each course
GRADE_REPORT file stores the grades that students
receive
PREREQUISITE file stores the prerequisites
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Chapter 1
Example of a simple database
Chapter 1
Database manipulation
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Database manipulation involves querying and
updating
Examples of querying are:
Retrieve a transcript
EX: List the prerequisites of the “Database” course
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Examples of updating are:
EX: Enter a grade of “A” for “Smith” in “Database”
course
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Chapter 1
Outline
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Database Introduction
An Example
Characteristics of the Database
Actors on the Scene
Advantages of using the DBMS approach
Chapter 1
Database System vs. File
System
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management: Rob & Coronel
Chapter 1
S511 Session 2, IU-SLIS
37
Database V.S. File
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1.
2.
3.
4.
In the database approach, a single repository of data is
maintained that is defined once then accessed by
various users
The major differences between DB and File are:
Self-describing of a DB
Insulation between programs and data
Support of multiple views of the data
Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
Chapter 1
Self-describing nature of a
database system
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Database system contains not only the
database itself but also a complete definition of
the database structure and constrains
The information stored in the catalog is called
Meta-data (data about data), and it
describes the structure of the primary database.
Chapter 1
Example of a simplified Meta-data
Chapter 1
DBMS Functions (continued)
Chapter 1
Insulation between programs
and data
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In file processing, if any changes to the
structure of a file may require changing all
programs that access the file
In database system, the structure of data files is
stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the
access program
This is called program-data independence
Chapter 1
Program-Data independence
For example, a file access program may be written in such a way
that it can access only STUDENT records of the structure shown in
Figure 1.4. If we want to add another piece of data to each
STUDENT record, say the Birth_date, such a program will no longer
work and must be changed. By contrast, in a DBMS environment, we
only need to change the description of STUDENT records in the
catalog
The characteristic that allows program-data independence and programChapter 1
operation independence is called data abstraction
Support of multiple views of the
data
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Each user may see a different view of the
database, which describes only the data
of interest to that user
View is subset of database
Chapter 1
Support of Multiple Views of
the Data
Chapter 1
Sharing of data and multi-user
transaction processing
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Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve
from and to update the database.
Concurrency control within the DBMS
guarantees that each transaction is correctly
executed or aborted
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For example, when several reservation clerks try to
assign a seat on an airplane flight
(these types of applications are generally called
online transaction processing (OLTP))
Chapter 1
Disadvantages of file processing
a) Data redundancy and inconsistency:
Data redundancy means duplication of data and inconsistency means that
the duplicated values are different.
b) Integrity problems:
Data integrity means that the data values in the data base should be
accurate in the sense that the value must satisfy some rules.
c) Security Problem:
Data security means prevention of data accession by unauthorized users.
d) Difficulty in accessing data:
Difficulty in accessing data arises whenever there is no application
program for a specific task.
e) Data isolation:
This problem arises due to the scattering of data in various files with
various formats. Due to the above disadvantages of the earlier data
processing system, the necessity for an effective data processing system
arises. Only at that time the concept of DBMS emerges for the rescue of a
large number of organizations.
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Outline
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Database Introduction
An Example
Characteristics of the Database
Actors on the Scene
Advantages of using the DBMS approach
Chapter 1
Database Users
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Database administrators:
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Database Designers:
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Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints,
and functions or transactions against the database. They must
communicate with the end-users and understand their needs.
End Users
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Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating
and monitoring its use, acquiring software and hardware resources,
controlling its use and monitoring efficiency of operations.
Access to the database for querying, updating, and generating
reports
System Analysts
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Determine the requirements of end users
Chapter 1
Outline
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Database Introduction
An Example
Characteristics of the Database
Actors on the Scene
DBMS Functions
Advantages of using the DBMS approach
Chapter 1
DBMS Functions
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DBMS performs functions that guarantee
integrity and consistency of data
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Data dictionary management
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defines data elements and their relationships
Data storage management
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Chapter 1
stores data and related data entry forms, report
definitions, etc.
DBMS Functions (continued)
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Multiuser access control
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Security management
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uses sophisticated algorithms to ensure multiple
users can access the database concurrently
without compromising the integrity of the database
enforces user security and data privacy within
database
Backup and recovery management
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Chapter 1
provides backup and data recovery procedures
DBMS Functions (continued)
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Database access languages and application
programming interfaces
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provide data access through a query language
Database communication interfaces
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Chapter 1
allow database to accept end-user requests via
multiple, different network environments
1.5 Workers behind the
Scene
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DBMS system designers and implementers
design and implement the DBMS modules and
interfaces as a s
Tool developers design and implement tools. the
software packages that facilitate database modeling
and design, database system design, and improved
performance.
Operators and maintenance personnel (system
administration personnel) are responsible for the
actual running and maintenance of the hardware and
Chapter 1
software environment for the database system.
Outline
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Database Introduction
An Example
Characteristics of the Database
Actors on the Scene
DBMS Functions
Advantages of using the DBMS approach
Chapter 1
Controlling Redundancy
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Controlling Redundancy is one of most
important feature to use DBMS
The traditional file approach, each group
independently keeps their own file.
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Chapter 1
For example: accounting office keeps data on
registration and billing info; whereas the
registration office keeps track of registration,
student courses and grades.
Controlling Redundancy
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1.
2.
3.
This redundancy in storing the same data
multiple times leads to several problems:
Logic update – we need to update several
times
Storage space is wasted
The file that represent the same data may
become inconsistent
Chapter 1
Other Advantages of using the
DBMS approach
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Restricting unauthorized access to data
(users or user groups are given account numbers
protected by passwords)
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Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes)
for efficient Query Processing Auxiliary files called
indexes are often used for this purpose
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Providing backup and recovery services
Chapter 1
Other Advantages of using the
DBMS approach
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Providing multiple interfaces to different classes
of users
Representing complex relationships among data
Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects
for program objects and data structures
.
.
Chapter 1
When Not to Use a DBMS
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Overhead costs :
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High initial investment in hardware, software, and training.
Generality that a DBMS provides for defining and processing
data.
Overhead for providing security, concurrency control, recovery,
and integrity functions.
if the database designers and DBA do not properly design the
database
if database systems applications are not implemented properly
use regular files under the following circumstances:
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Chapter 1
The database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to change.
There are stringent real-time requirements for some programs that may not be met because of DBMS overhead.
Multiple-user access to data is not required
Disadvantages of File Processing
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Program-Data Dependence
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Duplication of Data
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No centralized control of data
Lengthy Development Times
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Different systems/programs have separate copies of the same data
Limited Data Sharing
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All programs maintain metadata for each file they use
Programmers must design their own file formats
Excessive Program Maintenance
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80% of information systems budget
Chapter 1
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Problems with Data Dependency
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Each application programmer must maintain
his/her own data
Each application program needs to include
code for the metadata of each file
Each application program must have its own
processing routines for reading, inserting,
updating, and deleting data
Lack of coordination and central control
Non-standard file formats
Chapter 1
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Duplicate Data
64
Chapter 1
Problems with Data Redundancy
Waste of space to have duplicate data
◼ Causes more maintenance headaches
◼ The biggest problem:
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Data changes in one file could cause
inconsistencies
◼ Compromises in data integrity
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Chapter 1
65
SOLUTION:
The DATABASE Approach
Central repository of shared data
◼ Data is managed by a controlling
agent
◼ Stored in a standardized, convenient
form
◼
Requires a Database Management System (DBMS)
Chapter 1
66
Database Management System
◼
A software system that is used to create, maintain, and provide
controlled access to user databases
Order Filing
System
Invoicing
System
Payroll
System
DBMS
Central database
Contains employee,
order, inventory,
pricing, and
customer data
DBMS manages data resources like an operating system manages hardware resources
Chapter 1
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Advantages of the Database Approach
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Program-data independence
Planned data redundancy
Improved data consistency
Improved data sharing
Increased application development productivity
Enforcement of standards
Improved data quality
Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
Reduced program maintenance
Improved decision support
Chapter 1
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Costs and Risks of the Database
Approach
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New, specialized personnel
Installation and management cost and
complexity
Conversion costs
Need for explicit backup and recovery
Organizational conflict
Chapter 1
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Elements of the Database Approach
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Data models
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Entities
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Noun form describing a person, place, object, event, or concept
Composed of attributes
Relationships
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Graphical system capturing nature and relationship of data
Enterprise Data Model–high-level entities and relationships for
the organization
Project Data Model–more detailed view, matching data structure
in database or data warehouse
Between entities
Usually one-to-many (1:M) or many-to-many (M:N)
Relational Databases
◼
Database technology involving tables (relations) representing
entities and primary/foreign keys representing relationships
Chapter 1
70
Figure 1-3 Comparison of enterprise and project level data models
Segment of an enterprise data model
Segment of a project-level data model
Chapter 1
71
One customer
may place many
orders, but each
order is placed by
a single customer
→ One-to-many
relationship
Chapter 1
72
One order has
many order lines;
each order line is
associated with a
single order
→ One-to-many
relationship
Chapter 1
73
One product can
be in many
order lines, each
order line refers
to a single
product
→ One-to-many
relationship
Chapter 1
74
Therefore, one
order involves
many products
and one product is
involved in many
orders
→ Many-to-many
relationship
Chapter 1
75
Chapter 1
76
Figure 1-5 Components of the Database Environment
Chapter 1
77
Components of the
Database Environment
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CASE Tools–computer-aided software engineering
Repository–centralized storehouse of metadata
Database Management System (DBMS) –software
for managing the database
Database–storehouse of the data
Application Programs–software using the data
User Interface–text and graphical displays to users
Data/Database Administrators–personnel
responsible for maintaining the database
System Developers–personnel responsible for
designing databases and software
End Users–people who use the applications and
databases
Chapter 1
78
The Range of Database Applications
◼
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Personal databases
Two-tier Client/Server databases
Multitier Client/Server databases
Enterprise applications
◼
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Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
Data warehousing implementations
Chapter 1
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Chapter 1
80
Figure 1-6 Two-tier database with local
area network
Chapter 1
81
Figure 1-7 Three-tiered client/server database
architecture
Chapter 1
82
Enterprise Database Applications
◼
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
◼
◼
Integrate all enterprise functions
(manufacturing, finance, sales, marketing,
inventory, accounting, human resources)
Data Warehouse
◼
Integrated decision support system derived
from various operational databases
Chapter 1
83
Figure 1-8a Evolution of database technologies
Chapter 1
84
Enterprise Data Model
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First step in database development
Specifies scope and general content
Overall picture of organizational data at high
level of abstraction
Entity-relationship diagram
Descriptions of entity types
Relationships between entities
Business rules
Chapter 1
85
FIGURE 1-9 Example business function-to-data entity matrix
Chapter 1
86
Two Approaches to Database
and IS Development
◼
SDLC
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System Development Life Cycle
Detailed, well-planned development process
Time-consuming, but comprehensive
Long development cycle
Prototyping
◼
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Rapid application development (RAD)
Cursory attempt at conceptual data modeling
Define database during development of initial
prototype
Repeat implementation and maintenance activities
with new prototype versions
Chapter 1
87
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10)
Planning
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical Design
Implementation
Maintenance
Chapter 1
88
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–preliminary understanding
Deliverable–request for study
Planning
Planning
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical Design
Database activity–
enterprise modeling and
early conceptual data
modeling
Chapter 1
Implementation
Maintenance
89
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–thorough requirements analysis and
structuring
Deliverable–functional system specifications
Planning
Analysis
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical Design
Database activity–thorough
and integrated conceptual
data modeling
Chapter 1
Implementation
Maintenance
90
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–information requirements elicitation
and structure
Deliverable–detailed design specifications
Planning
Analysis
Logical Design
Logical
Design
Physical Design
Database activity–
logical database design
(transactions, forms,
displays, views, data
integrity and security)
Chapter 1
Implementation
Maintenance
91
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–develop technology and
organizational specifications
Planning
Deliverable–program/data
structures, technology purchases,
organization redesigns
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical
Design
Physical Design
Database activity–
physical database design (define
database to DBMS, physical
data organization, database
processing programs)
Chapter 1
Implementation
Maintenance
92
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–programming, testing,
training, installation, documenting
Planning
Deliverable–operational programs,
documentation, training materials
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical Design
Database activity–
database implementation,
including coded programs,
documentation,
installation and conversion
Chapter 1
Implementation
Implementation
Maintenance
93
Systems Development Life Cycle
(see also Figure 1-10) (cont.)
Purpose–monitor, repair, enhance
Planning
Deliverable–periodic audits
Analysis
Logical Design
Physical Design
Database activity–
database maintenance,
performance analysis
and tuning, error
corrections
Chapter 1
Implementation
Maintenance
Maintenance
94
Prototyping Database Methodology
(Figure 1-11)
Chapter 1
95
Prototyping Database Methodology
(Figure 1-11) (cont.)
Chapter 1
96
Prototyping Database Methodology
(Figure 1-11) (cont.)
Chapter 1
97
Prototyping Database Methodology
(Figure 1-11) (cont.)
Chapter 1
98
Prototyping Database Methodology
(Figure 1-11) (cont.)
Chapter 1
99
Database Schema
◼
External Schema
◼
◼
◼
◼
◼
Conceptual Schema
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◼
User Views
Subsets of Conceptual Schema
Can be determined from business-function/data
entity matrices
DBA determines schema for different users
E-R models–covered in Chapters 2 and 3
Internal Schema
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Chapter 1
Logical structures–covered in Chapter 4
Physical structures–covered in Chapter 5
100
Figure 1-12 Three-schema architecture
Different people
have different
views of the
database…these
are the external
schema
The internal
schema is the
underlying
design and
implementation
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Managing Projects
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◼
Project–a planned undertaking of related
activities to reach an objective that has a
beginning and an end
Involves use of review points for:
◼
◼
◼
◼
Validation of satisfactory progress
Step back from detail to overall view
Renew commitment of stakeholders
Incremental commitment–review of
systems development project after each
development phase with rejustification
after each phase
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Managing Projects: People Involved
◼
◼
◼
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◼
◼
◼
Chapter 1
Business analysts
Systems analysts
Database analysts and data modelers
Users
Programmers
Database architects
Data administrators
Project managers
Other technical experts
103
FIGURE 1-13 Computer
System for Pine Valley
Furniture Company
Chapter 1
104
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