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Rise & Fall of The Mughal Empire And
Its Causes
Brief history of Mughals
Mughal Empire was established in the year 1526, when its first ruler Zahir ud Din Muhammad Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat; in which his army was outnumbered ten to one.
However, Babur’s clever use of firearms and artillery seized his victory. After which he continued to win
battles in quick succession and became the unchallenged ruler of northern India. Though Babur fought
and conquered territories and also treated his conquered subjects with respect and dignity, he died in
1530, leaving his son Humayun to rule. However, Humayun was not a strong leader, because of which,
he ran into great difficulties. He was challenged and defeated by Sher Shah Suri, who was one of his
Afghan chiefs. Humayun fought for about 15 years and lost much of the territory; however, in 1545 Sher
Shah Suri was killed. Another rebel to his throne was his brother Kamran, whom Humayun defeated in
1549 and by 1555 he regained all the territories that were once in control of Babur. Unfortunately, in
1556 he died, when his foot tripped on his robes on the steps of his library and fell. Humayun’s son
Akbar ascended to the throne at the age of 13. Even though Akbar did not receive any formal education,
he kept a firm grip on the empire and expanded it further than any of his ancestors. From his ascension
to the throne in 1556 till 1580 he put down rebels and defeated Hindu rajas. His military tactics,
strategic mind, believing in justice and giving position upon merit, rather than religion or lineage, earned
him the name “Akbar the Great''. However, his lack of education played an unforgettable part in his life.
He founded a new religion, known as “Deen e Ilahi”, which brought new waves of rebellions by the
Muslim clergy, in 1581. The religion he formed died along with him; in fact, Akbar in his last days went
back to traditional Islamic teachings. By the time he died in 1605, at the age of 65, the Mughal Empire
was strong and the foundations had laid for other emperors to continue to expand the lands under
Mughal control.
Akbar was succeeded by his oldest son Jahangir who tried to overthrow Akbar in 1600; he had
been forgiven and Akbar chose him to be his successor. Jahangir faced many rebellions from 1606 to
1622. Main rebellions were laid by Jahangir’s own sons, Khusrau (in 1606 and 1607) and Khurram (in
1622). Despite the rebellions, Jahangir extended the Empire and Mughal Control reached till Bengal. He
also signed a treaty with the British in 1615, while ignorant of the European trade control race in the
region, which would eventually overthrow the Mughals. Jahangir’s wife Nur Jahan worked hard to
maintain and improve the empire. Nur Jahan was an intelligent and courageous woman. Some historians
even argue that she was so influential that she played almost as great a part in ruling the empire as
Jahangir himself. However, in 1627, Jahangir died and was succeeded by his son Khurram, against the
will of Nur Jahan; she wanted her son in law, Shahriyar, to be accepted and proclaimed Emperor.
However, Khurram easily defeated this rebellion and named himself Emperor Shah Jahan. In the time of
Shah Jahan, there came a severe famine in Gujarat, upon which Shah Jahan expanded handsomely and
saved the lives of thousands of his citizens. Among the wonders of the Mughal architecture, Taj Mahal
was built during the reign of Shah Jahan. He tried to extend the Mughal Empire towards central Asia, but
didn’t succeed.
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Aurangzeb Alamgir
How did Aurangzeb come to power?
In 1657, Shah Jahan fell severely ill and decided to appoint Dara, his eldest son, as emperor. However,
other sons of Aurangzeb did not accept Dara as their father’s successor due to which the struggle for
power among the four brothers began. Shah Shujah was defeated in battle by Dara. Murad and
Aurangzeb joined forces to defeat Dara and then laid siege to Agra (Mughal capital). Shah Jahan was
imprisoned and he died in 1666, after spending 6 years in captivity and was buried in Taj Mahel.
Aurangzeb broke off his agreement with Murad and got him murdered at Gwalior to become the
emperor of the Mughal empire.
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Aurangzeb’s Reign
Aurangzeb is considered as the most controversial Mughal emperor and historians are divided on the
subject of his legacy. Shah Jahan left the empire larger and more peaceful, than any other time in
history. However, The wars of succession and wars waged by Aurangzeb exhausted the treasury to a
great extent.
Aurangzeb’s Wars
The wars started with Rajputs from 1679 till 1681, including rebellions by Sikhs and the Satnamis in
Mewar and Jats in Gokal. Aurangzeb wanted to expand the empire north‐words, which brought him into
conflict with the Pathan Tribesmen in the North Western Frontier. The most expensive war among them
was with Maratha leader Shiva. He was originally defeated in 1665 and was kept as a captive in Agra.
However, he managed to escape and started the fight in Deccan against Aurangzeb. Even after 25 years
of fighting, the Marathas couldn’t be subdued. Yet, at the time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the empire
became larger than it had ever been, expanding from Kashmir to Karnataka and Ghazni to Chittagong.
Aurangzeb spent most of his reign away from the capital, fighting wars and this exhausted the treasury
and left the capital vulnerable.
Aurangzeb’s Reforms:
1) He reintroduced the Jizya (Islamic tax on non‐Muslims) that was abolished by Akbar. This brought him
in conflict with the Rajputs and his Hindu subjects.
2) He banned alcohol, singing and dancing at courts.
3) Even though he abolished several taxes on the trade, the general taxes increased during his reign.
4) If he smelled the stench of corruption, he destroyed temples. However, some historians also cite
that, for every temple he demolished, he constructed new ones.
Aurangzeb’s Successors
Aurangzeb had come to power by defeating his brothers but didn’t want the infighting to
continue after his death. Therefore, he divided the Empire among his three sons to avoid conflict.
However, the fighting that broke out among them resulted in Prince Muazzum to establish himself as an
Emperor, and his reign lasted for a few years, after which a conflict broke out among Muazzam’s sons.
Victory went to Jahandar Shah, who was murdered within a year of his claim to the throne. From the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707 till 1717 about twelve different people became Emperor. Muhammad Shah
became Emperor in 1719, and ruled for 30 years. He was the last Mughal leader who could claim to be
the emperor. The great Mughal empire became divided and weak due to an indefinite law of succession
and infighting among the royal princes.
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Reasons for the Mughal Decline
Even though many historians blame Aurangzeb, there is no single emperor that can be blamed for the
decline of the Mughals. Multiple reasons and mistakes on the part of successive emperors contributed
to the downfall of the once great empire over the course of a few hundred years.
1. Control and Communication
Decisions often had to be relayed over thousands of miles with no certainty that those decisions would
comply with the current scenario, because of the time delay. In addition, there was no way for the
Emperor to know what's happening in every part of the Empire. This is why Aurangzeb used
mansabdars, yet when the rebellions broke out, there was a delay of months before the Emperor could
take a decisive action to end them. As the power and wealth of the nobility grew, they turned against
the Emperor and Alamgir II was assassinated by powerful courtiers.
2. Indefinite law of succession
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession and the throne was always won on the basis of
the ‘strength of the sword’. The constant infighting among the royal princes divided the empire,
exhausted the treasury, depleted the military resources and left the empire vulnerable to foreign
invasions. The constant warfare led to the deaths of expert and skilled commanders and left little time
for the Mughals to train their soldiers. This weakened the Mughal army to a great extent.
3. Economic Decline
According to the various historical records, Mughal Empire used to generate more than 23% in
world’s GDP, which earned the Empire the name of ‘Golden Sparrow’. But the continuous wars that
followed Aurangzeb’s death, did not only cost military expenses, but also disturbed the daily business,
which led to low revenue generation.
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4. Extravagant Lifestyle
As the Mughal empire amassed large fortunes, Mughals became addicted to an extravagant and
opulent lifestyle. They spent large sums of money to build palaces, mausoleums for their loved ones,
Masjids and various other structures. Even though Mughal buildings are still considered as marvels of
architecture, they took several years to construct and strained the treasury. Shah Jahan was known for
his love for extravagance, he built the Taj Mahal and the peacock throne that burdened the treasury.
The Mughals were known for their Harems where they kept women won during conquests. They
bestowed lands and jewels on them and their various children.
5. Foreign Invasions
Nadir Shah
The invasion of Nadir Shah in 1738‐39 made it clear that the empire had become weak. He crushed the
Mughal army in less than three hours at the battle of Karnal. He ordered a massacre in the streets of
Delhi and 20,000 to 30,000 Indians were killed by the Iranian troops and as many as 10,000 women and
children were taken as slaves, forcing Mohammad Shah to beg Nader for mercy. The Mughal emperor
was forced to hand over the keys of the Mughal treasury. He looted the peacock throne, koh‐i‐ noor and
darya‐i‐noor diamonds. The booty they had collected was taken to Iran on 700 elephants, 4,000 camels,
and 12,000 horses. The mughal empire could never recover from the loss of prestige and wealth caused
by Nader Shah.
Ahmed Shah Durrani
In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani launched a military campaign, which gave him the control of Punjab and
Kashmir by 1756. The resistance Ahmad Shah Durrani got was not from Mughal army but rather from
the Marathas. He defeated Marathas at the battle of Panipat and took over Delhi. He appointed
Muhammad Shah’s son, Ahmad Shah on the throne. However, his rule didn’t last long. His successor,
Alamgir II, was assassinated on the orders of his chief minister, appointing, Shah Alam II, the next ruler.
He remained in Bihar and didn’t come to Delhi for twelve years.
British
In 1764, Shah Alam II was defeated by the British at the battle of Buxar. His death gave British the
control of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In 1803, British occupied Delhi, and placed the Emperor under their
protection. The next two emperors were only by name. Shah Alam II’s son Akbar II ruled only parts of
Delhi and his son Bahadur Shah II was exiled, as a result of the war of independence 1857 and he died in
Rangoon. Bahadur Shah’s sons and grandsons were killed. This marked the end of the Mughal Empire.
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Europeans in India
Age of Colonialism
The Europeans, the Dutch, the Portuguese, the French and the British,who came in 1608 under an
agreement with Aurangzeb, played an important role in putting an end to the Mughal Empire. They first
obtained a firman to trade with India, but gradually began interfering in Indian politics and gradually set
up a British empire in India that lasted for 100 years.
British:
British came to India as traders. A private company named East India Company, was introduced to
Mughal court to permit them the trade, in the 1600s. However, in truth, British, along with other
colonial powers of the time, had their eyes on the treasures of India Subcontinent. As an evidence, in
the time of Aurangzeb British tried to overthrow the Mughals, but failed to do so. Though, they were
pardoned, along with a huge fine, but to think that they wouldn’t interfere in the matters of the
subcontinent was pure naivety. British made most of every opportunity they could get, to divide and
make rivals out of two neighboring Mughal provinces, after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707. British provided
their soldiers and weapons, in exchange for lands and wealth of Rajas and Nawabs. And in due time they
colonized India Subcontinent.
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British East India Company: EIC:
Queen Elizabeth I granted permission to a group of British merchants in 1600 to trade in the
east of the world. They came to India in 1608 and when Jehangir became the Governor of Gujarat, he
allowed the British to trade. In 1615, when Jehangir became the Mughal Emperor, the British became
the only traders in the whole India. They made three cities as their presidencies: Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta.
They called India as the Golden Sparrow and took a lot of wealth from here by signing peace
treaties with many of the states. They controlled the trade of India and made huge profits. They also
brought the Industrial Revolution in India which later made many Indians unemployed.
They brought the education system in India, made many schools and colleges including Christian
missionary schools. They brought telegraph and postal systems in India which made communication
easier. They made irrigation systems and constructed many headworks and barrages and brought more
agriculture in India. They made roads and canals to be able to make better transport service in the
country.
Annexation of Indian areas/ British Expansion
The British used three methods to take control of the native states as their policy of expansion.
1. They gave the native states the option of making the British their paramount and pay heavy
taxes (lagaan) in order to keep the de facto ruler in place.
2. Annexation of princely states
3. Doctrine of lapse
The Carnatic Wars refer to a series of military conflicts between the British East India Company and
French East India Company along with the role played by the Nawab of Carnatic and the Nizam of
Hyderabad. Three wars were fought between 1745 and 1763. The immediate result of these wars was
that the struggle for power in India between the French and the British ended and the French influence
was doomed forever and British were able to consolidate their foothold in India.
After the three Carnatic wars, the French were restricted to Pondicherry and Chandermangore. The
success in Carnatic wars enhanced British prestige and they were left alone to decide the fate of the
crumbling Muslim rule in India.
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Battle of Plassey: By 1757, the British had become strong rulers. A British Governor, General Robert
Clive. fought against the Nawab of Bengal, Nawab Siraj Ud‐Daulah. Siraj was a strong ruler who fought
against the British as he was ignited by the French for the battle. Siraj’s Commander‐in‐Chief and cousin,
Mir Jafar betrayed Siraj and sided with the British. Around 300 soldiers along with Siraj died in the
battle. Mir Jafar was made the puppet Nawab of Bengal.
Battle of Buxar: In 1764, Mir Jafar’s son (Mir Qasim), Nawab of Awadh (Shuja‐ud‐Daulah) and Mughal
emperor (Shah Alam II) joined forces against the British Governor General, Robert Clive who was trying
to restore his power. The British remained victorious and gained control of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa And
Shah Alam II was placed under British protection.
Exploitation of Bengal: East India Company was established to gain as much profit as possible, and it
was its greed after Buxar that would embarrass British. The company made huge profit out of the
monopoly of the trade in Bengal, making its merchants accustomed to receiving personal “gifts” which
would increase their wealth. As they made huge profits, the local people were exploited, which resulted
in the death of many in a serious famine that hit Bengal.
Robert Clive: He is the leader who paved the way for a British Raj in India. He was responsible for the
military victory for East India Company’s control of Bengal, admitted to the uncivilized anarchy and
corruption that followed while exploiting Bengal. He was put to trial before the British parliament and
died due to his opium addiction.
Pitt’s Act: Was an Act of the British Parliament passed in 1784 that brought the East India Company's
rule in India under the control of the British Government. East India’s commercial rights remained with
the company but a board of control was appointed by the British government to oversee the political
matters of East India Company.
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Assault on Afghanistan: The British were threatened about Russia seeking to expand its territory. In
1839, British invaded Afghanistan and installed its own puppet ruler, however the British army could not
face the difficult terrain of Afghanistan as well as the locals and soon within Two years the Afghans
rebelled and massacred the British force. Out of 4000 soldiers, only one surgeon survived and returned
to Jalalabad and reported the incident.
Annexation of Sindh: The British felt that their pride had been hurt by the loss in Afghanistan and
decided to turn to Sindh. The British were in a treaty (1809) with the Amirs of Sindh. But they didn’t
care. All they wanted was to have an excuse. The British General Sir Charles Napier provoked the Amirs
of Sindh to an extent that they attacked the British Residency in 1843. Because the British had an
excuse and they annexed Sindh to the British control.
Punjab Battles: During 1846‐49, Punjab fought battles against the British under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
A treaty was signed which stated that Ranjit Singh and the British officers would not intervene in each
other’s areas on the two banks of River Ravi however after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, his son
Kharak Singh could not hold the pressure of British authorities and Punjab came under the control of the
British. Finally Punjab was annexed by the British in 1846 and later NWFP was also controlled by them.
Battle of Miani: In 1834, Battle of Miani was fought between the Amirs of Sindh over the control of
territory. British Governor General Sir Charles Napier played an important role in bringing Sindh under
the control of the British by creating problems amongst the Amirs
Battle in NWFP: In 1839, Afghanistan was attacked by the British as the Pathan tribes were causing
trouble to the British. The British wanted to control and secure the border between British India and
Afghanistan which they did in 1892 by making Durand Line.
Doctrine of Lapse: In 1852, Lord Dalhousie issued the famous Doctrine of Lapse which stated that if
any ruler didn’t have a male successor to the throne, the state would be annexed by the British even
though Britain was being ruled by a woman. The British refused to recognise adopted sons. They mainly
made this rule as Oudh, Jhansi, Kanpur, Sitara and many other states were to be annexed and they had
strong leaders who would have opposed the British authority.
The British Expansion results
Due to the arrival of the Industrial Revolution and Cotton Textile, many Indians became jobless and
unemployed and gave up their jobs and remained as slave labourers in the mills. Many Indians did not
like the British changing their culture and intervening into their religious practices. For example, the ban
on Purdah was disliked by Muslims and the ban on Suttee was hated by the Hindus. Christian
Missionaries were blamed for teaching Christianity and the Bible and also made Indian children soft for
their religion. The Monopoly in trade brought no real benefit to India as huge profits were sent back to
England. The railway and road system remained an advantage for the British as they were able to
depute their army and artillery anywhere without much delay of time. The agrarian policy brought more
agriculture but less profit to the Indians as they had to pay huge taxes to the mansabdars.
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Tipu Sultan
Mysore was a princely state in the south of India and its rulers proved to be difficult enemies for the
British. Haider Ali defeated the British in the first and second Mysore wars. Tipu Sultan became the ruler
after the death of his father Haider Ali. He was the ruler of Mysore, a brave warrior also called “Tiger of
Mysore”. Unfortunately, he was also facing continuous attacks from his neighbours, the Nizam of
Hyderabad Deccan and Marathas. In 1791 in the third Mysore war, he was defeated by Sir Hector
Munro but his final defeat came in 1798 during the fourth Mysore war when his relative Mir Sadiq
deceived him and the British Governor General Lord Wellesley killed him at Seringapatam. His two sons
were also taken under British captivity.
Short Questions
1. Who was Aurangzeb Alamgir?
Aurangzeb was the last great emperor of Mughal Empire who took over the throne after Shah
Jahan. He was a courageous man who spent much of his time fighting wars and trying to
administer the empire efficiently. He was a deeply religious man; he Wrote out copies of the
Quran and he imposed Jizya tax on Non Muslims. Aurangzeb was a just ruler and had a very
simple character. Aurangzeb increased the size of Mughal Empire by capturing all but the very
southern part of India.
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2. What kind of man was Aurangzeb?
Aurangzeb was a deeply religious person; who wrote out copies of the Quran and made the
famous Pearl Mosque. He was a disciplined ruler with high administrative qualities due to which
he was able to run the empire for a long time. He was a just ruler and a brave one, whose main
ambition was to increase his territory for which he believed it right to use any means. He was a
person who could be ruthless to his own kith and kin like he killed his own brother in the battle
over the Empire.
3. What was the Jizya Controversy?
Aurangzeb imposed the non Muslim tax again on the Indians. This tax had been abolished long
ago by Akbar. Non Muslims, especially Hindus were angered as it was a tax abolished long ago
by Akbar. It was a differential tax and was considered as enforcement to convert to Islam. It
was criticized as a way of supporting the long drawn costly wars and as a financial assistance.
4. Was Aurangzeb responsible for the decline of Mughal Empire?
To some extent Aurangzeb could be responsible for he built a lot of buildings which drained the
treasury quicker than expected like the Pearl Mosque for his personal prayers. Aurangzeb
fought long costly wars to capture more land and to fight off the invaders. He could not
administer very efficiently for he was often away from his capital.
5. Who were the Marathas?
The Marathas was a powerful group of people who were skilled as Guerrilla fighters. They were
devoted to Hinduism and had grown in power during the 17th century and they were the
expected rulers after Mughals due to their power. Aurangzeb was unable to crush the Marathas
of Deccan which proved their power. In 1760 they even occupied Delhi. They were defeated in
the Third Battle of Panipat.
6. How were the Marathas Defeated?
The Marathas were defeated by their inner weaknesses. They controlled more land than any
ruler but not all was in one place. Their unity and loyalty to the main Peshwa decreased and
their power began to deteriorate. Then they were crushed in the 3rd Battle of Panipat in 1761
by the invading army of Ahmed Shah Abdali. They suffered heavy casualties in this battle and
lost all their ambitions of ruling the Empire.
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7. How did invasions weaken the Mughal Empire?
The invasions drained the Mughal Empire and destroyed its prestige. The Persian Invasion
under Nadir Shah resulted in Delhi getting sacked and the Empire getting looted. The famous
peacock throne of Mughals was taken away by Nadir Shah. Ahmed Shah Abdali led 10 Invasions
in Northern India and looted the Empire.
8. Who was Ahmed Shah Abdali?
Ahmed Shah Abdali was an Afghan leader who led Afghan Army in the Indian Territory and
raided the Mughal Empire. He was also known as Ahmed Shah Durrani due to his leadership
and military skills. His military skills achieved victory over the Marathas in the 3rd Battle of
Panipat. He had to turn back because of the mutiny of his followers instead of capturing the
empire.
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Detailed questions
1. Was ____________ the main reason for the decline of the Mughal empire ?:
>Aurangzeb’s religious reforms
● Reinstituted Jizya Tax on non Muslims
● Destroyed Hindu temples
● Enforced Islamic laws
● Banned Satte (Hindu tradition of burning a widow alive on her husband’s funeral pyre)
All of which led to Hindu (Hindus formed a large part of India) agitation
>Aurangzeb’s wars.
●
●
●
Fought a war against the Rajputs
attempted to expand north (in a campaign against NWFP pathans)
crushed numerous Rebellions (Sikhs, Satnamis, Jatts)
●
The Maratha War, which was the costliest.
All these wars resulted in heavy taxes, and emptied the Mughal treasury. Leaving the Mughal empire in
economic misery. Aurangzeb spent the majority of his reign away from the capital, waging wars and
couldn’t administer the capital efficiently.
>Aurangzeb’s love for luxury.
●
●
●
Built palaces, spent huge sums on himself.
E.g Pearl Mosque for his own private prayers in Delhi
Made him unpopular. Furthered economic decline.
>Indefinite law of succession.
● The dead Mughal emperor’s sons would fight for power.
●
Aurangzeb tried preventing this by dividing the empire between his 4 sons. Didn’t work
●
Muezzum was the first emperor.After he died, his sons fought. In 10 years, 12 claimed the
throne
●
These wars were costly and weakened the economy. Many capable soldiers, nobles died.
●
Left the empire divided and weak.
>weak successors
● Were lazy, incompetent. Unable to control the government.
● Handed the government over to the mansabdars (Nobles put in charge, system started by
Akbar. These were often corrupt, disloyal and sought their own gains)
● These often corrupt nobles grew in power and rulers became puppet emperors. Some princes
and rulers were assassinated by courtiers such as Farukhsiyar and Alamgir.
● Thus, there was an imbalance of power. Any emperor who would take control could not rule
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>Military Inefficiency
● Mughals used to have powerful, disciplined armies. Used to fight with clever tactics with strong
commanders.
● They became complacent with time. Didn’t feel the need for an army
● Army became weak. Less disciplined. No modern advancements in warfare.
● Army was also made of different groups: Persian. Afghani etc.
● The Mughals lacked a naval fleet as well, despite having numerous ports.
>Vast Empire
●
●
●
Over 1000’s of miles. Communication and transport was difficult. Months before news e.g:
Rebellions reached the emperor, and he couldn’t react in time.
The Mansabdari system was weak and corrupt, and no longer countered this.
Bihar, Deccan, Bengal managed to declare independence at points.
>Invaders
●
●
●
Nadir Shah, Persian leader invaded. Defeated Muhammad Shah at Karnal 1734
He sacked Delhi. Left after 2 months with many jewels, good and the peacock throne
Ahmed Shah, an Afghan came in 1747.Attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore. Had control over
Punjab by 1749 and over Kashmir and Multan by 1756.
>British
● Put the last nail in the coffin of the Mughal empire
● Were military better equipped due to the British industrial revolution.
● Also employed local sepoys. Had military experience from their combat against the French and
Portuguese.
● Won decisive Battles: Plassey, Buxar. Mir Jafar betrayed Indians, helped British.
● Exploited captured lands for a lot of profit
● Indian aristocracy sided with the British
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British Rule
Why did the British government take over the EIC?
● The Volume of trade and profit to the British was extremely significant. The crown did not feel
that a thing of such importance should remain in the hands of a private company. They thus
took control of the EIC.
● The British needed to shape their foreign policy, since the Russians seemed to be trying to
expand . This couldn’t be done under the EIC.
●
British Prestige was at stake. The needed expansion to regain the image they had lost in their
disgraceful loss at Kabul by the Afghans.
Why did the European nations become involved in the subcontinent?
● India had certain raw materials that the rest of the world did not have and they desired,
including spices, cotton, sugar, silk, jute etc
● The British had a great regard for the raw materials, since they had recently undergone the
industrial revolution and wished to expand their industries.
● The Middle Eastern countries had a tax on Europeans, and the Byzantine Empire was now under
the Ottomans who sought cheaper trade routes.
● They avoided land routes in the Middle East, since trading via sea was cheaper, more effective
and gave economies of scale.
● British went to India since other lands (e.g: Africa) were already under Portuguese control. They
also fought against the French here.
How successful were the British in taking control of India?
British Failures
●
●
●
In 1666, EIC grew proud, refused taxes and issued coins. Aurangzeb sent a force against them,
defeating them. EIC paid a fine, apologized, reduced activities.
In 1756, Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah defeated EIC and managed to drive them away from
and they captured Calcutta.
Tipu Sultan had French support, and used his strong army against the EIC several times.
Defeating the
Successes
●
The very next year in 1757, The British, under Robert Clive defeated Siraj ud Daulah’s forces with
the help of Mir Jafar’s betrayal. Siraj died, and the Mir Jafar was placed as a puppet ruler by the
British
●
In The Battle of Buxar of 1764, the British defeated Mir Jafar’s son, Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II
and the Nawabs of Oudh. This extended their influence, gave them Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
They collected Revenue from here, managed to get a bigger army. Ended true Muslim Rule.
History
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In 1782, first GG, Warren Hastings signed a treaty with the Marathas They could now focus on
other places, and Maratha take over was prevented.
● In 1799, GG Wellesley invaded Mysore and killed Tipu Sultan. They thus killed a strong enemy
and took control of his lands in Mysore.
● In 1803, The British entered Delhi, forced Shah Alam II to accept rule under “British Protection”
which basically meant that The Emperor no longer had any real power. British were true rulers
by this point.
● They provoked the Sindh Amirs into war despite a treaty signed between the two parties in an
attempt to make up for their disgrace in Afghanistan.
● British managed this partly because of the Industrial Revolution, which made them
technologically superior, giving them an edge over the Indians with their weapons, techniques.
Why were the British hated?
● The British were essentially foreign invaders who had no regard for the rich history and
dynasties of the Indian subcontinent and became foreign rulers.
● They imposed heavy taxes (lagaan) on the common people.
● They considered Indians inferior to the British.
● India was very wealthy, but this wealth was heavily exploited by the british, with all this wealth
going over to the British crown.
● In 1829, they banned Suttee (A common hindu tradition)
● Replaced Persian with English as the government language. Indians could no longer get
government jobs.
● Indians had to send their children to co‐ed schools with westernized Educations. They disliked
this as it went against their culture and religion.
● Christian Missionaries came and set up schools, and seemed to try and convert the local
populace to Christianity. This was resented by the Indians.
● British brought in the railway system, which also annoyed the Indians as they felt that the British
were trying to intervene in India too much.
● British sold cotton in India (thanks to Industrial Revolution) and collapsed the Indian Textile
Industry, leaving millions jobless and poor
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Section 1
Religious Thinkers
SHAH WALI ULLAH
INTRODUCTION:
Qutub‐Ud‐Din, was his actual name and he was born on February 21st ,1703, four years before
the death of Aurangzeb, in the house of Shah Abdul Rahim; who founded Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi.
Later on, Qutub‐Ud‐Din became famous by the name Shah Wali Ullah. He learned many books from his
father, and was inducted in the tradition of bayath (sacred vows) by his father. By the age of 17, he was
permitted by his father to provide spiritual guidance and reforms to the fellow Muslims. However, his
father died in 1718. In 1724, He went on the pilgrimage to Arabia and stayed there for fourteen months.
He learned the books of Hadiths under the scholars of holy cities (Makka and Madina); one of the
famous scholars was Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim. He returned to Delhi in 1932. He started teaching
again and writing as soon as he returned, until his death, about three decades later.
BELIEFS:
Shah Waliullah believed that the main reason for the Muslim decline was the weak faith of the Muslims
who had strayed away from the teachings of The Quran and the Islamic traditions. Muslims were decided
among sects, and shia sunni quarrels and fights were common. He truly believed that it was necessary for
Muslims to return to their religious roots for the revival of Muslim glory in India.
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Section 1
WORK:
His work is as follows:
1.
He Translated the Quran into Persian (the language of
educated Muslims), because many people were not familiar with
Arabic.
2.
He wrote fifty‐one books in Persian and Arabic. The
most famous of which are Hajjatullah‐ul‐Baligha and Izalat‐Akhfa.
3.
He wrote an account of the lives of the first four caliphs
of Islam, which brought balance and closeness among the Shias
and Sunnis.
4.
In economics, he emphasized the need for social justice.
He wanted the peasants and craftsmen to be truly valued for
their contribution to the economy.
5.
His most important contribution to the Muslim
community was his organization of opposition to the Marathas, who were threatening to over‐
run the Mughal Empire from the south. He united the Muslims via Jihad. He wrote a letter to
Afghan King Ahmad Shah Abdali and joined local forces with local Muslim leaders and defeated
the Marathas in the Battle of Panipat in 1761.
IMPORTANCE:
Shah Wali Ullah was the first religious thinker who tried to understand the reasons for the Muslim
decline and gave solutions to combat these issues for the revival of Muslim power. The Madrassa
continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic principles and researching Islamic thought even after his
death. He believed that Muslims could prosper if they followed proper Islamic customs and did not
indulge in social evils. His writing gave a large number of Muslims a chance to study their religion and
motivated them for a better future. He inspired Muslims to lead a pure and simple Life and emphasized
on the need of staying united instead of finding minor differences in beliefs. He tried to bridge the
sunni‐ shia and sufi‐ulema gap. He tried to oppose the Marathas by trying to unite the Muslims under a
common enemy. Many future leaders were inspired by his teachings and fought for the betterment of
the Muslim community.
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Section 1
SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI
INTRODUCTION:
Syed Ahmad was born in the small town of Raebareli near Lucknow. He moved to Delhi in 1806 and
Studied in Madrassa Rahimya for two years. In 1810 he joined a Pathan Military Leader and learned to
use European weaponry. He returned to Delhi in 1817, to try and restore the pure and original Islam in
the hearts and minds of the people.
BELIEFS:
Syed Ahmad believed that the freedom of Muslims can only be achieved by an armed struggle against
the British and Sikhs. He believed that the evil in the Islamic society had to be cured and hence, called
for the Jihad Movement to overthrow the non Muslim forces, which were oppressing them. Only then
Muslims could be rescued from the clutches of evil customs of other societies. He wanted the Muslims
to be able to freely practice their religion without the fear of Ranjit singh (the sikh ruler of Punjab and
NWFP). Ranjit SIngh had prohibited azaan and used the Badshahi Masjid as a stable for horses.
WORK:
His contribution for the revival of Islam and Muslims are as follows:
1. He traveled several hundreds of miles to raise Mujahideen for the liberation of Punjab and
NWFP, which were under Sikh control.
2. In 1826, Syed Ahmad established his headquarters near Peshawar and sent a messenger asking
Ranjit Singh to allow muslims follow their religion but the request was turned down so he had
no choice but to fight. He attacked at Okara on 21 December 1826 and later at Hazaro and
defeated the Sikhs.
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Section 1
3. He was a successful military leader and the mujahideen force soon reached 80,000 men. The
men belonged to different tribal areas and quarreled with each other regarding the matters of
the camp.
4. When Syed Ahmad was about to attack the fort of Attock, he was encountered by the army of
35000 Sikh men. Syed Ahmed was unaware that Yar Muhammad Khan, a Pathan chief, was
bribed by the Sikh and even his servant tried to poison him.
5. Yar Muhammad deserted him on the battle field along his men and this created chaos and lead
to defeat. Syed Ahmad had no choice but to move his headquarters to safety of Panjtar near
Kashmir but was again betrayed when a person in his army told the British a secret way to
attack them.
6. In 1831, the battle of Balakot took place, as a result of a surprise attack led by Sikh. It was in this
battle that six hundred Muslims were killed along with Syed Ahmad Barelvi. And he earned the
title of Shaheed.
IMPORTANCE:
●
He led the first armed struggle to free Muslims from non‐Muslim tyranny. Although, the defeat
of the mujahideen in the Battle of Balakot was a serious setback for the Jihad movement, it still
survived. The movement continued on the hills of NWFP until 1863 when the British sent a
large force to deal with its determined followers. It was not a movement for a leader but it was
to achieve religious freedom. Jihad of Syed Ahmad inspired many Muslims. And it became the
fore‐runner of Pakistan movement as the aim of this movement was to safe‐guard Muslim
interest and achieve a homeland where they could practice their Religion, Culture and
Freedoms.
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Section 1
HAJI SHARIATULLAH
INTRODUCTION:
Haji Shariatullah was born in 1781 in Faridpur, in east Bengal district to a poor family. He went to Arabia
on pilgrimage and stayed there for about nineteen years. The teachings of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul
Wahab had a great influence on him, because of which he started the Faraizi Movement and became
known for it.
BELIEFS:
He believed that the miserable condition of the Muslims in India and Non Muslim rulers led to the
country being Dar‐Ul‐Harb (Country under Foreign Rule). He preached that Friday and Eid prayers
cannot be offered here and that Muslims need to migrate from the unislamic state. He also believed
that Muslim community had moved away from Islamic practice. He wanted them to return to what he
thought was the proper observation of Islamic obligations called the Faraiz. The Faraizi Movement
supported the idea of Jihad against the non‐Muslims who were undermining the true principles of Islam.
WORK:
His contributions to improve the lives of Muslims of subcontinent are as follows:
1. He started the Faraizi movement to restore the Pride of the Muslims and remove what he
thought were the Hindu practices.
2. The main focus of Faraizi movement was to repent for the past sins and promise to live a
righteous life in the future.
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3. He emphasized on the need to abstain from extravagance in life, weddings and funerals to avoid
taking debt from wealthy non Muslims.
4. Faraizi movement had a direct impact on Muslims’ lives and it started to make trouble for British
and Hindu landlords who didn’t want a Muslim population that had a desire to improve their
lives. As a result they drove Haji Shariatullah out of Nawabganj in Dhaka, where he died in 1840.
5. His work inspired his son, Mohsin‐ud‐din to continue the movement after him, who continued
to improved the position of Muslim in East Bengal and introduced important economic
measures.
6. Mohsin‐ud‐din divided East Bengal into a circle under control of successor (Khalifa) to carry out
religious activities.
7. Mohsin‐ud‐din helped the peasants in opposing land taxes and threatened to declare Jihad
against the British, because of which British Captured and imprisoned him; he died in captivity in
1860.
IMPORTANCE:
The Work of Haji Shariat Ullah was important because it encouraged Muslims of the time to improve
themselves when they were demoralized by the oppression of Hindus and the British. It also brought a
spiritual revival which led to the revival of Islam in East Bengal. Hindu influences were removed from
Islamic practices. And it might be said that some seeds for the Pakistan Movement were sown by the
Faraizi Movement as Bengal emerged as the seat of Muslim nationalism in the later years.
Titu Mir
Titu Mir was born as Syed Mir Nisar Ali in a village of Bengal. He was a hafiz of the Quran and a scholar
of the hadith and Muslim traditions. He met Syed Ahmad Barelvi in Makkah and was strongly inspired
by him. On his return to India, He preached against practicing shirk and engaging in bidah (innovation in
Islam). He also emphasized on maintaining beards with trimmed moustaches for men, and burqas for
women.
Titu Mir opposed the discriminatory measures of non muslim landlords that included taxes on mosques
and the wearing of beards. He organized people against the landlords and trained his men in hand‐to‐
hand combat and the use of the lathi (bamboo stick) and constructed a bamboo fort. Titumir declared
independence from the British and took over several districts. The private armies of the zamindars and
the forces of the British met with a series of defeats at the hands of his men as a result of his strike‐and‐
retreat guerrilla tactics.
Finally, the British forces equipped with cannons attacked him on 19 November 1831. Titu Mir only had
spears and sticks at his disposal and was overwhelmed by the British. The bamboo fort was destroyed
and Titu Mir was martyred along with his followers.
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Section 1
COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIOUS THINKERS
Islam was widely spread in subcontinent by Shah Wali Ullah, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi and Haji
Shariatullah.
Shah Wali Ullah was a religious scholar whose Madrassa Rahimiya produced a number of scholars in the
sub‐continent and therefore helped in spreading Islam far and wide. He translated the Quran into
Persian and made Quranic teachings accessible to the common Muslim man. His letters to Ahmed Shah
Abdali eventually led to the Maratha defeat at the third battle of Panipat. Thus his letters played a part
in decreasing the non Muslim influence of Marathas and united Muslim leaders which revived Islam in
the subcontinent. His books not only converted many people to Islam and increased understanding of
religion for Muslims but also united the different Muslim sects such as the Shias and Sunnis.
Shah Wali Ullah was not able to bring Muslim power back to subcontinent and Muslims were still being
oppressed by Marathas who prevented them from obeying their religion's law.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi's jihad movement was the first armed struggle to free Muslims in British
India. It united the Muslims against one common enemy and showed the power of the Muslims and
helped in the spread of Islam.
Syed Ahmed eventually failed to defeat the British and the oppressing Sikhs and Muslims once again
returned to their tormented lives.
Haji Shariatullah's Faraizi Movement emphasized the need for Muslims to return to their religious
teaching and perform their religious obligations. This particularly became popular in Bengal and Muslims
were revived back to their religious teachings. His movement also united the Muslims of Bengal and it
can be said that this movement sowed the seeds of Pakistan movement as Bengalis continued to fight
for the rights of Muslims.
Haji Shariatullah could only bring rejuvenation in Bengal and so could not reach the entire subcontinent.
The failure of the Jihad Movements discouraged Muslims to rise up against the enemy which weakened
Islam.
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Section 1
Short Questions
1.What did Shah Wali Ullah believe about the role of Islam?
Shah Wali Ullah believed that Islam should direct every aspect of life. Political, social and economical
behaviour should be guided by Islamic values. He believed that Muslims can not be successful if they
departed from the principles of their religion. He believed Islamic values of Justice and equilibrium must
be followed. He emphasized on putting an end to cast and sect system and follow the teaching of
brotherhood Islam to achieve success.
2. Who was Shah Wali Ullah?
Shah Wali Ullah was born in 1703 in the house of Shah Abdul Rahim who ran the Madrasa‐eRahimiya.
He travelled to Saudi Arabia in 1724 and lived there till 1732; he got educated under Shiekh Abu Tahir, a
renowned religious scholar. He was a religious man who inspired Muslims to rise and follow the
teachings of their religion. He gained many disciples as well as many criticizers in the course of his work.
He translated the Quran for the first time to Persian in the Indian subcontinent.
3. What were the achievements of Shah Wali Ullah?
Shah Wali Ullah revived the spirit of Islam in the hearts of Muslims of Subcontinent. He gave Muslims
an Identity. He made the Muslims realize their mistakes and successfully united them. translated the
Quran in Persian and wrote 51 books for better understanding and implementation on Islamic Religion.
4. Who was Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi?
Syed Ahmed Shaheed was born in a Syed Family of Rae Bareilly near Lucknow in 1786. He got his initial
education from Shah Wali Ullah’s sons at the Madrasa‐e‐ Rahimiya. He was a man of action who disliked
the British rule. He joined Amir Khan’s Pathan force and got trained in the use of European weapons and
built up his military skills. He went for Hajj from 1821 to 1823, and studied under a renowned scholar,
Sheikh Abdul Wahhab. He struggled hard to finish Sikh rule in Punjab and died fighting for Muslims in
the battle of Balakot in 1831.
5. What was the Jihad Movement?
The Jihad movement was the movement set up by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi. Its purpose was to
make Muslims perform Jihad. Its purpose was to free Muslims from Sikh and British Rule. It aimed to
organize the Muslims and think about betterment.
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6. What were the reasons for Syed Ahmed Shaheed’s failure in defeating Sikhs?
The Sikhs under Ranjit Singh were a very powerful and superior force. The Muslims were divided and
reluctant to work unitedly. The locals of Balakot and his own forces disagreed over the taxes he laid
upon them. There was a lack of support.
7. What was the Faraizi Movement?
The Faraizi movement was the movement started by Haji Shariat Ulla in East Bengal The Faraizi
movement was started to organize Muslims by making them punctual in following their Faraiz. It aimed
to protect the rights of poor Muslim farmers in East Bengal. Its followers were known as Faraizis who
grew greatly in number as the movement grew in popularity. Their Faraizi movement was very
successful until an alarmed British put an end to it recognising it as an opposition against them.
9. Who was Haji Sharait Ullah?
He was a reformer and religious scholar. He was born in 1781 in Faridpur District. In 1799 he went to
Saudia Arabia where he studied under Sheikh Abdul Wahab. He was the founder of the Faraizi
movement which aimed to organize muslims and protect their rights.
10. Who was Titu Mir?
Titu Mir was a disciple of Syed Ahmed Shaheed. He was a man of action. He was from West Bengal
where he tried to protect the rights of farmers and free them from tyranny of Hindu zamindars. He
made his base at Nalkerbaria, where he built a Bamboo Fort out of the Bamboo stick for his army. He
was killed in battle in 1831.
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Detailed Questions
Shah Wali Ullah.
Why did he wish to revive Islam In the subcontinent?
●
He believed that most of the problems of Muslims were due to their incomplete Knowledge and
understanding of the Holy Quran. As the Holy Quran is in Arabic whereas common Muslims
knew Persian. He wanted that the Quranic teachings be made accessible to the common people
so they may act on them
●
The Muslim community was divided into sects, such as Sunni and Shia. Thus they were
vulnerable to attacks on their religion. SWU wanted them to put aside their differences to
create a more united and strong community.
●
Many Unislmaic practices had entered Islam due to a constant interaction with Hindus and other
non Muslim communities. Thus they had forgotten the moral and spiritual principles of Islam.
Hence, SWU wished to revive Islam to purify the Islamic Society.
What were the Works of SWU?
●
Translation of Quran into Persian, the local language, despite the opposition of the ulemas. So it
was easier for common Muslims to act on Islamic teachings. Thus Islam was revived among the
locals. This also paved the way for his sons to translate it into Urdu, making it available to even
more people.
●
Also tried to stop the Muslims from dividing into sects. Studied the differences between Sunni
and Shia objectively and wrote an account of the first four caliphs in a way acceptable to both
groups. Thus tried to reconcile between them to unite the Muslims.
●
Wrote 51 books on different aspects of Islam like Fiqh and Hadis. Significant among them were
the Hujjatullah ul Baligha and Izalat ul Akhfa. This helped Muslim understand Islamic principles
and act on them.
●
Taught at the Madrassa Rahimiya for many years. Important as it paved for the youth to
familiarize themselves with the fundamental principles and glorious past of Islam hence
inducing solidarity and pride in them regarding their religion.
●
Tried to unite the Muslims against the Marathas and Sikhs so Islam could be protected and
revived. It was he who invited Ahmed shah Durrani from Persia who defeated the Marathas and
the Muslims were saved from non Muslim tyranny.
History
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Revived Islam in the prevalent economic system by stressing on social justice, equibilarium. He
made laborers and craftsmen more aware by stressing that they should be paid justly and urged
traders and businesses to adapt to a fair Islamic system of trading thus eliminating corruption in
Business activities.
Haji Shariat Ullah
Why did he wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent?
●
Believed that Muslims of the sub continent were leading miserable lives because they had
started following Hindu practices due to their interaction with them. Thus they started the
Faraizi Movement to purify the Islamic society.
●
Muslims in Bengal were surprised by the Hindu landlords. HSU wanted to end this tyranny. Thus
he started the Faraizi Movement to create a sense of Jihad in muslims so that they could fight
for their rights.
●
Muslims had forgotten the basic principles of Islam and did not practice religious obligations i.e
obligatory prayer and fasting. Thus he started the Faraizi movement to insist upon them to
follow the pillars of Islam
What were the works of HSU?
●
He began his reform movement known as the “Faraizi Movement” started as a reaction to the
anti Islamic policies of British and Hinds. The movement insisted upon the fulfillment of Fariaz i.e
one’s religious obligations imposed by God and His Prophets. His followers came to be known as
the “fairizis” on account of their insistence of the fulfillment of one’s duties. As a result many
Muslims declared themselves to the performance of their duties and became staunch Muslims.
●
Brought the Muslim peasants together against the cruel exploitation by the Hindu Zamindars,
infused a spirit amongst the Peasants who got together to direct Jihad against the then religious
and social oppression to fight for their rights.
●
This confidence and awakening of the Bengalis from their slumber prepared the grounds for
future works of his successors like Titu Mir and Dadu mian.
●
Worked towards elimination of Hind customs that had crept into Muslim society due to their
continuous interaction. Significant as he attempted to purify the lives of Muslims so that they
oculd not only distinguish Islamic practices and rituals but also follow the true Islam.
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Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi
Why he launched the Jihad movement against Sikhs of Punjab.
●
The Sikh rulers of Punjab were not letting the Muslims practice their religion freely and even the
Azaan was banned. This angered SASB and he launched the Jihad movement against the Sikhs
for Muslim religious freedom.
●
He wanted to launch it against the two main anti Muslim forces, British in Bengal and Sikhs in
Punjab. He was aware that British were hard to defeat as they were a superpower. Therefore he
launched Jihad against the Sikhs first as they were a relatively weaker force and he thus were
more likely to be defeated.
●
SASB knew that Punjab was surrounded by Muslim tribes, which encouraged him to fight against
the Sikhs as these could help him
What was the contribution of SASB?
●
Launched the Jihad Movement against the Sikhs in Punjab as they were not letting the Muslims
practice their religion freely. He gathered an army and launched war on them. Although the
Mujahideen were later defeated, this shows his commitment to liberate Muslims from
oppressive rulers and grant them their due rights.
●
This movement not only infused a great deal of determination and moral courage but also had
influence on future generations, inspiring them to fight for their rights and to overthrow the
foreign powers.
●
It unified the Muslims and created awareness regarding their political, religious and cultural
rights. It was also the first movement meant to free Muslims from tyranny rather than place a
ruler in power.
What were the Reasons for the Jihad movement’s failure.
●
SASB’s army was not well trained in military tactics. Most of the fighters were teachers, or
spiritual leaders. This made it difficult for the Mujahideen forces to fight against the Sikhs and
come up with clever strategies to defeat them. On the other hand, the Sikhs were tough and
well trained under Ranjit, who was a strong military ruler.
●
The Muslim army was not united. The Muslims were of many different backgrounds. Soldiers
often mistrusted each other and were reluctant to agree with one another. As a result, due to
internal conflicts there wasn’t always full support from everybody. Which weakened the Muslim
forces..
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●
The Pathans did not tolerate being in an army that they weren’t running themselves. They
weren’t ready to compromise which strained their relations with other Muslims.SASB imposed
taxes on locals to bear military costs, but local people were pissed off since they had never paid
such a tax and were thus resented SASB. As a result, SASB lost support of the local people which
further weakened his forces.
●
He lost money from taxes and his funds became limited and thus not all the military costs could
be afforded. They could not improve upon/buy more needed military equipment.
●
Moreover, SASB’s army was not as sincere to him. There were attempts by Yar Muhamad Khan
to assassinate SASB. He had to tackle internal threats as well as external ones. Thus, his
attention was diverted from his main goal, which was to defeat the Sikhs. Yar Muhammad’s
army betrayed him in battle in Akora, weakened his fighting and causing his defeat.
●
When SASB was moving to Balakot, traitors informed Sikhs of the Muslim’s route. Thus, the
Sikhs prepared themselves and strengthened their forces which made it easier for them to
defeat the Muslims. So, when they launched their surprise attack at Balakot, the Muslims were
unprepared for this unexpected attack, and were defeated.
●
Sikhs outnumbered the Muslims in this battle. The weaker Mujahideen lost, and SASB was killed,
effectively ending the movement.
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Section 1
War of Independence 1857
INTRODUCTION:
The War of Independence of 1857 is an important landmark in the history of the sub‐continent,
as it resulted in the dawn of the struggle for independent countries of India and Pakistan, after 150
years of foreign rule. The revolt of the Sepoy accompanied by the civilians was so strong enough to
shake the very foundation of British rule in the sub‐continent. It seemed for sometime that the rule had
disappeared from the land.
The causes of the war of independence were political, social, economic and religious which are as
follows:
Political Causes
The English East Indian Company’s influence had been growing fast over the sub‐continent
since the Battle of Plassey 1757 soon afterward in 1764 the British got yet another victory in the Battle
of Buxar against the Indians. The victory at Buxar brightened the prospects of the British East India
Company in India. By 1818, approximately all the Indian states had either been annexed or had entered
into a treaty with the British. This led to following Political causes:
1. Annexation policy of the British: The Britishers through their diplomacy continued to expand
their rule by annexing different states of the sub‐continent for example Sindh, Mysore, Oudh,
etc as a result their territorial limits also increased.
2. Doctrine of lapse: Lord Dalhousie applied a new policy for the expansion of the British Empire,
which was called doctrine of lapse in 1852. According to the doctrine, the rulers of state were
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not allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed when they died without a male
heir. Lord Dalhousie annexed many states like Oudh, Jhansi, Behar etc through this doctrine.
These annexations created a sense of insecurity among the Indian Princes and also among the
general public. They become suspicious of the British policies.
3. The replacement of both Sanskrit and Persian by English as the official language in 1834 had
further upset both the Hindus and Muslims.
4. Confiscation of property of nobles: It was decided by the past rulers that the noble were
always granted large States which served as a source of income for them. The British
government reversed this policy and confiscated thousands of such estates. As a result
thousands of affected nobles went against the company. That is why when the war broke out
those landlords were in the front‐line.
Economical Causes
The new agrarian policy of the British and the British monopoly of trafe, destroyed about all Industries
and resulted in massive unemployment
1. Agrarian policy: The new agrarian policy introduced by the British government shook the
foundation of village communities. The zamindars were asked to provide documents to prove
their land holdings. If they failed to do so then their properties were confiscated. In addition to
this, taxes on the lands were also increased, due to which thousands of zamindars found
themselves in tough economic problems.
2. Destruction of local Industries: As a result of the industrial revolution in England, cheaper and
standardized goods were now flowing in Indian markets. The local Industries could not compete
with the imported goods, as a result the local Industries badly suffered.
3. Unemployment: The British did not trust the Indians and Indians were not appointed to
important jobs especially on the higher posts. The higher posts were now reserved for the
British, creating unemployment among the educated Indians. Due to destruction of local
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Industries (cottage industries), millions of people were left jobless especially among lower
classes.
4. Employment and Businesses: After all this if Indians get the jobs (like infirmary or any other),
their salary was too low, which increased the resentment. And for the business owners the taxes
were high to the point that they were unable to pay them. Some cases of corrupt tax collectors
also emerged in the midst of all this, who used to keep the money in their own pocket;
inevitably increasing resentments between rulers and the ruled.
Religious Causes
1. Propagation of Christianity: Although in the beginning the English had shown respect
towards all religions, yet with the passage of time they changed their mind and devised
ways to propagate Christianity in India. The Missionaries were sent to India for
preaching. They did their preaching mainly in public places with the support of British
government. The Bible was included in the syllabus of different schools. Moreover the
British government now passed a law according to which, the converts would be
allowed to keep their ancestral properties.
2. Anti religious law: The British government introduced certain laws which were against
the prevailing religions of the sub‐continent. For example the widows were allowed to
remarry which greatly offended the Hindus and so did the banning of the Suttee custom
in 1829. The British government banned Hijab, which offended Muslims.
Military Causes
1. Disbandment of Armies of the annexed states: The British had annexed many states of the
sub‐continent on the basis of the doctrine of lapse. Now they declared that the armies of these
annexed states would be disbanded. The disbandment left thousands of local soldiers
unemployed.
2. The British army in the sub‐continent consists of both Muslim and Hindu soldiers. When this
Army marched into Afghanistan, it created problems because the Hindu soldier did not want to
leave what they saw as Mother India. The Muslim soldier were also unhappy with having to fight
fellow Muslims.
3. Greased cartridges: The British introduced new cartridges which were greased in cow and pig fat
and the soldiers were required to chew the top in order to use them. As pigs are considered
unclean for Muslims and cows are sacred for the Hindus. This led both the communities to
refuse to use these new cartridges. And also brought them (Muslims and Hindus) to the
conclusion that British are inconsiderate to their customs and traditions and resulted in further
resentment.
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EVENTS OF THE WAR
January 1857 The British introduced new ‘Enfield Rifles’ with greased cartridges and replaced the old
Brown Basket Rifles. At Meerut, a rumor spread that the wax used to grease the cartridges was made of
cows’ and pigs’ fat. Cow was sacred to Hindus and pigs are forbidden for Muslims. Therefore a group of
sepoys denied to use the cartridges.
March 1857 Mangal Panday defied his British officers and was tried and executed.
May 1857 Sepoys in Meerut refused to touch the new rifle/guns. They were ‘court‐martialed’ and
imprisoned. But fellow Sepoys broke into prison and rescued them. Meerut was sacked and British officers
were put to death. Soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II became
the unifying symbol of uprising to gain help from both the Hindus and Muslims. War spread quickly and
Kanpur, Jhansi, Allahabad and Lucknow were captured.
September 1857 Delhi and Lucknow were regained by the British, Bahadur Shah II was made to
surrender. But, his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar were brutally killed and
presented to him as a lesson.
June 1858 Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai was killed (Dressed as man in Battle). Her supporter of great ability
Tatya Topee (Indian General) escaped. However, he was later caught and executed.
August 1858 War was officially declared over
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Aftermath of The War
1. Queen Victoria gave the Proclamation Act and ended the role of East India Company after the
War of Independence in August 1858. The designation of Governor General was replaced by
Viceroy. A new designation of Secretary of State for India was also made.
2. East India Company‘s monopoly in trade ended.
3. Muslims were mainly blamed for the uprising by the British Government.
4. Bahadur Shah Zafar II was exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar) and his sons and grandsons were killed
by the British and hence the direct Mughal bloodline died.
5. The British promised to change their policies towards Indians. They announced that they would
involve Indians in Civil Service.
6. The British ratio to Indian soldiers was reduced from 1:5 to 1:2 to ensure their better control in
India.
7. In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi.
More Indians were promised to be included in the Civil Service of India however the promise
was not fulfilled.
8. In 1878, the British passed the Vernacular Act to control press and publications in India so that
no news of any possible future war could be published further.
9. In 1878, the Arms Act was passed in India by which no India was allowed to carry weapons.
10. The British did everything they could to crush any further resistance or uprising. For example,
when people started throwing roses at the site of execution of rebels, the British feared that the
place would become a symbol of resistance and a memorial of the war. To prevent this, the
empress market was constructed in the same place as a symbol of British authority.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857
Although the war of independence was a heroic struggle to liberate the Indians and end the foreign
domination, it failed due to number of reasons:
1. There was an absence of unity, coordination and communication between the freedom fighters;
they fought like rebels in different groups at various places. Even the local rulers did not
coordinate with each other so they were defeated easily by the British troops.
2. British troops were outnumbered by the rebels but they were superior to the armies of the
local soldiers in training, equipment and discipline. The British also had control over the
telegraph and postal System, which enabled them to gather information from various fronts of
the war and issue necessary instructions.
3. There was very little unity and the sense of nationalism among the Indian states. The uprising
was led by Princes and powerful landLords who were fighting for their own motives of restoring
their own authority. Hardly anyone thought of a united and independent India.
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4. Many of the prominent States for example Hyderabad, Gwalior and Nepal remained loyal to the
British rulers. In fact the rulers of Kashmir and Punjab helped British government during the
uprising.
5. Apart from the Rani of Jhansi (Lakshmi Bai) and Nana Saheb, there was no capable Central
leadership who could unite the whole population. The last Mughal king was too old and weak
and was not fit to be the leader of the Rebels Army.
6. The British succeeded in bribing certain freedom fighters in the Indian camp. These traitors
betrayed their own men and sided with the British troops. Which resulted in a great loss to
Indians.
Treatment of the Muslims After the war of 1857
The British blamed Muslims for the war and it took many years for the British to start trusting the
Muslims again. The re‐recruitment of Indian men was largely based on Sikhs, Pathans and Gurkhas, who
British thought to be trustworthy. The Muslims objected to British education and use of English, as both
were considered as un‐Islamic. British in return withdrew funding from Muslims Schools that resulted the
decline of Muslim education. Hindus on the other hand, adopted the new rule and gained favor of the
British.
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Section 1
Short Questions
Q1. What did British do about religion in the Subcontinent?
[4]
1. They first tried to adopt neutrality but later allowed Christian Missionaries to enter
India to spread Christianity.
2. The entry of Christian missionaries strengthened the British belief that the British are
superior to the Indians.
3. The British and Christian missionaries became intolerant of Indian Values and banned
the Hindu practice of Suttee.
4. Very few people changed their religion.
Q2. What was the result of Indian Uprising in 1857?
[4]
1. End of East India Company’s role and India was governed directly by the British
government.
2. Relations between the Indians and British worsened.
3. Muslims simply refused to cooperate due to harsh treatment by the British.
4. The rebels were severely punished by the British. The rebels were shot by the firing
squad, hanged to death or were shot at close range by cannons.
Q3. How did the rebellion affect British?
[4]
1. It cost them a great deal of money and business had to be suspended for an year.
2. It shocked the British.
3. They realized that Indians had to be given some rights.
4. They became harsh towards the Indians.
Q4. Who was Warren Hastings?
[4]
1. He was the first Governor General of Bengal.
2. He worked with the East India Company and rose through the ranks.
3. He extended British Controlled India by fighting war against Hyder Ali of Mysore and
Marathas.
4. He took bribes in organizing these ventures and had to return to Britain facing charges
of corruption.
5. He was cleared in the end but his reputation was ruined.
Q5. What part did the introduction of the railway play in India? [4]
1. The Railway played an important role as it was used to transfer the army effectively
throughout India.
2. The transport of goods and raw material became faster and more reliable.
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3. The Railway opened for the public and became the main public transport to different
cities.
4. It played an important role in British Victory in the War of Independence for troops
were quickly transferred from one place to another to put down rebellion.
5. It was important in communication because telegraph lines were laid along railway lines
for sending instant messages.
Detailed questions
Q1. What were the Reasons for outbreak of war of 1857:
Political: The British introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, allowing them to confiscate the territory of any
local ruler who did not have a real male heir. This did not please the Indian landlords as they were being
deprived for their lands and thus rebelled. In 1957 the Mughal Emperor had little power left but was still
an important symbolic figure. The British moved the Royal family from the Red fort of Delhi to a more
obscure Qutub Shahi. Indians saw this as mistreatment. At a lower level of society there was a resentment
of the lack of opportunities for native Indians in the Civil service. This resulted in more hatred for the
British as their rights were not considered. 1934, English replaced Persian as the official language of
administration. This created resentment because it wasn’t only seen as cultural intervention but also
increased Indian unemployment as they didn’t know English.
Military: Greased Cartridge Incident. Most of the sepoys were Indian, whereas officers were always
British. They sent Indian troops to fight in Afghanistan. Unpopular as Hindus didn’t want to leave mother
India and Muslims didn’t want to fight other Muslims.
Religious: Furthermore, regular rumors that Muslim, Hindu, Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to
Christianity. Angered Indian soldiers who felt that their religion was under threat. Hindu tradition suttee
was abolished, widow remarriage allowed. Pardha was ridiculed by the British. Christian Missionaries
made schools, taught Christianity and expected locals to give up their own religion. Employers sometimes
offered incentives for this.
Social: British had a very low view of the Indians. They tried to spread their own culture and considered
the Indians inferior and were reluctant in giving them high posts. The British were tried in special courts,
but Indians/Locals were tried in ordinary courts. Judgments were made by the British and were often
cruel/harsh.
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Q2. What were the Reasons for failure of war of 1857:
Indian Failures There was no unity among the rebels. They lacked a common purpose and everyone fought
for personal interest, often refused to fight unless they were harmed. Nana Sahib was only interested in
getting the doctrine of lapse reversed and was ready to come to terms if this demand was accepted. Some
of the princely state rulers supported the British in order to maintain their own power. Such as the ruler
of Kashmir, who sent 2000 troops to help the British. Thus their strength against the war grew, and the
Indians were less united. Lord Canning, the Governor General, adopted a conciliator policy towards the
rebels. He allowed many concessions for them: Announcing the rebels who gave up their arms were to be
forgiven. Thus, quite a few leaders left the battlefield to join in negotiations with the government. There
had been a great deal of vandalism in the war, thus the local population was harmed and became
displeased with the rebel’s nefarious activities. Instead, they sympathized with the British who stood for
law and order. Hence the British strength increased even further, rebels weakened. The Last Mughal
emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was considered the main leader of the revolt showed incompetence during
the war. More interested in poetry and luxury, and neglected the affairs of combat. Thus, his poor
administration meant weak control.
British Strength Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by the British with their troops from Bengal and
Central Asia. So, when the troops rebelled in 1857, the Punjabis and Singhies did not support. Meaning a
much smaller amount of rebels against the British might. The British had experienced the Industrial
Revolution and were technologically much more superior. Thus they had advanced weaponry, giving them
an edge over the Mughal/Indian forces who had traditional and outdated weaponry. The British were a
superpower at that time and had well trained, confident soldiers led by outstanding generals such as
Edwards and Neil. Who fought with devotion and loyalty to the British Queen. The rebel leaders in
comparison were indecisive and short sighted and hence were easily defeated by the British.
Q3. What were the outcomes of the war of Independence?
Negative The Indians failed their main objective of ending British Rule/Driving them out of the
subcontinent. They not only failed, but ended as slaves to the British. The British attained complete
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autonomy over the country and established a rather tyrannical rule over the Indians. The Mughal Empire
was removed from the Indian political scene forever as the country came directly under the British Crown
by the 1858 proclamation by Queen Victoria. The Muslims were greatly dismayed by this, as the main
figure of Muslim authority was exiled. The war left a trail of mutual fear and distrust in the minds of the
ruler and the ruled. The British became cautious, rigid, reactionary in their attitude towards the Indians
especially the Muslims, considering them to be solely responsible for the revolt, since they wanted to
restore the Mughal Empire. Thus the British began to develop a policy of suppressing the Muslims in every
walk of life. This hatred continued for half a century. The army taking the initiative in the War of
Independence was thoroughly revised. The number of European Soldiers was increased. Dismaying the
Indians, who took part in an attempt to gain better posts and salaries through the revolt. Instead, some
soldiers became jobless. T Cruel punishments, such as being blown to pieces by a canon were used.
Positive: The British tried to bring about a change in their administration and policies. They ended the
“British East India Co’ to the happiness of the Indians who were now relieved of the Company’s tyranny.
Thus there now to be ruled through a new, possibly less cruel ruler. New reforms and constitutional
changes were introduced. An act for the better government of India was passed and introduced. It
involved a Secretary of State with a council of 15 members to help him. Policy of centralization in the 1833
act was changed, and new principles of decentralization and Indianisation were recognized and Indians
could now be elected in provincial councils and thus attain power at a provincial level. Moreover, the 1861
Act restored legislative powers to the governments of Bombay and Madras. New Legislative Councils were
established in many provinces includingPunjab, Bengal etc. Thus, Indians were given much more political
say, which had been an aim of theirs in the War of Independence. The British policy of annexations was
changed. The queen declared no more extensions to their present territorial possessions. Also, the
Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned and Indians could now inherit ancestral lands with ease. Greased
Cartridge supply stopped. Indians relieved of a very sensitive Religious issue.
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SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN
INTRODUCTION:
After the war of Independence 1857, Muslims of the subcontinent were politically, socially and
educationally deprived. The British believed that the Muslims were responsible for the war of
Independence 1857 and for this they were not only dislodged from power but also penalized. The
Muslim’s share in the administration was reduced to negligible proportions. At that time, Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan stood for Indian Muslims.
BIOGRAPHY:
He was born on 17th October 1817 at Delhi and belonged to a noble and religious family. He got
his early education on medicine, astronomy, mathematics and religion from his maternal grandfather.
After completing his education, he joined government service as Naib Munshi at Agra and finally
became Chief Judge at Delhi and wrote ‘Asar‐ul‐Sanadeed’ which was a detailed story on the historical
movements of Delhi. He worked as a judge in many towns and retired from his job in 1876. During the
war of Independence 1857, he saved many British women and children at the risk of his own life. The
British government awarded him many gifts but he refused to accept them.
Sir Syed is among the most prominent Indian Muslims and his contributions towards Muslims are
countless. He tried to bridge the gap between Muslims and the British and tried to educate the Muslims
to strengthen them socially and politically.
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His Efforts to Remove Misunderstandings Between Muslims and British
He worked for betterment of the British-Muslim relations. He felt that the Muslims should
extend cooperation with the British because they were rulers. And on the other hand, British held
Muslims responsible for the war of Independence 1857. To reconcile both sides, he worked hard.
His contributions are as follow:
Convincing the British:
1. In 1858, he wrote a pamphlet called “Essay on the Causes of Indian Revolt” (Asbab‐e‐Baghawat‐
e‐Hind) in order to convince the British that the full blame of war of Independence can’t be
imposed on just Muslims. He pointed three main reasons in his pamphlet
●
The lack of representation for Indians in the govt. of the country.
●
The forcible conversion of Muslims to Christians.
●
The poor management of the Indian Army.
He listed many other measures that were taken by the British, which resulted in dissatisfaction
and led to resentments among the Muslims. The pamphlet was even read by the members of royal
family.
2. In 1860, Sir Syed wrote The loyal Muhammadans of India, in which he defended the Muslims
and disproved the accusation of British and called upon them (British) to end the hostility
towards Muslim community. He added a list of the Muslims who had supported and remained
loyal to the British during the Indian revolt.
3. The british soldiers resented being called nadarath but he explained that it came from Arabic
word ‘Nasir’ which means benefactor or helper.
Convincing The Muslims:
1. Sir Syed came to the realization that the both sides (British and Muslims) know very little about
each other. To overcome this issue, he wrote ‘Tabyin‐ul‐Kalam’, in which he pointed out
similarities between Christianity and Islam. He further emphasized that it's not a sin to eat with
the christians on the same table.
2. He established the British Indian Association to increase cooperation among the two sides.
3. He also convinced the Muslims to take part in western education system.
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Educational services / Aligarh movement:
Sir Syed concluded that the situation of the Muslims can only be improved by modern
education. Therefore, he mainly worked in this sector. His contributions are as follows:
1. In 1859, he opened a school at Moradabad.
2. In 1863, he founded the Scientific Society at Ghazipur, with the aim of the society to translate
scientific documents from English, to different local languages, so that people of the Sub
Continent could understand the progress of science.
3. In 1864, he opened another school at Ghazipur.
4. His marvelous achievement, while he was posted at Aligarh was the establishment of MAO
(Muhammadan Anglo‐Oriental) High School in 1875. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan wanted it to be a
university. It was upgraded to the level of a university in 1920.
5.
In his schools, religious education along with modern learning was uncompromisingly essential.
Students were encouraged to take part in healthy discussions, while avoiding sectarian issues.
But this college was unable to impart knowledge to millions of Muslims scattered around the
subcontinent.
6. His aim was to spread a network of Muslim managed educational institutions throughout the
length and breadth of the country. He established the Muhammadan Educational Conference in
1886.
7. Even though Sir Syed himself remained active in politics, he advised Muslims to keep away from
it and focus on getting themselves educated first.
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Political Services
Two Nation Theory
The entire freedom movement revolved around the two Nation theory, which was introduced
by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Two Nation theory stated that Hindus and Muslims have social, cultural,
political, economic and lingual dissimilarities. The two communities are not just different on the basis of
religion but are two distinct nations and can not continue living with each other.
Sir Syed favoured Hindu‐Muslim unity in the beginning of his political career and wanted a united India.
The attitude of Congress and Hindus were the cause of concern to the Muslims. In Spite of the sincere
efforts by Sir Syed, the atmosphere of unity and brotherhood, the Hindus never came forward with an
open mind and always adopted a policy to damage the Muslims. Two Nation theory was a landmark in
the history of South Asia and after it, the Muslims of South Asia turned over a new leaf.
Factors That Contributed in The Two Nation Theory
Urdu Hindi controversy:
In 1867, Hindus of Banaras began to demand that Hindi should replace urdu as the official language of
India. They regarded Urdu as a Muslim origin language representing Muslim culture. That demand of
Hindus created hostility between Hindus and Muslims over the issue of language. It was the first
occasion on which Sir Syed realized that Hindus and Muslims could not agree even on the choice of
national language.
Attitude of Indian National Congress:
Indian National Congress was formed by Sir Octavian home in 1885. The main aim of INC was to
provide a forum for Indians where they could meet with the British rulers and discuss their problems.
From its existence, INC proved to be an organisation which was only protecting the rights and interest of
Hindus. Sir Syed warned Muslims not to join Congress and organized the United patriotic Alliance to
counter the Congress. Sir Syed objection was based on various reasons:
(i)
Majority of the members of Indian National Congress were Hindus. They were
advanced in education, wealth and political connections to dominate INC for voicing
their own demands. Under their domination Muslims would not receive a fair
hearing.
(ii)
Indian National Congress demanded that Western type of democracy as followed by
Great Britain should be introduced in India. Introduction of a system of democracy
on the line and pattern of England would simply mean the rule of majority in India.
Sir Syed considered it an anti Muslim demand and strongly objected against it. He
knew that if western democracy was introduced in India, the Muslims will have no
place in the council as they were in the minority by one to four. [1:4]
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Indian National Congress also demanded that appointments in the government
service should be based on competitive examinations. Sir Syed again opposed that
demand of Indian National Congress and he pointed out that the Muslims were far
behind in the field of education from the Hindus so they cannot compete against
Hindus for government posts.
His Death:
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan breathed his last on March 27, 1898. He is buried right along the Sir Syed
Masjid inside Aligarh University. His funeral was attended not only by thousands of Muslims but British
officials as well. He revived the dormant consciousness of Muslims and through his educational and
social reforms, he went down in Muslim history as arguably the most influential Indian politician of 19th
century.
Short Questions
Q1. Who was Sir Syed Ahmed. Khan?
[4]
1. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a thinker, philosopher , reformer and statesman.
2. He was born in Delhi in 1817.
3. He was the founder of Aligarh movement and established the Muhammadan Anglo‐Oriental
College.
4. He tried to improve relations of British with Muslims after the war of Independence 1857
through pamphlets and speeches.
5. He gave the two nation theory which became the basis of Muslim demand and the integral part
of Pakistan Movement.
Q2.How did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan try to improve British‐Muslim relations.
[4]
1. Muslims were in poor condition without any jobs and were treated harshly.
2. He wrote the Loyal Mohammadans of India to highlight the work of those who sided with the
British.
3. He wrote the pamphlet, “The Causes of Indian Revolt,” which highlighted the wrong steps of
British and the causes of War.
4. He wrote “Tabyan‐ul‐Kalam” in which he highlighted the similarities between Christianity and
Islam.
5. He asked the Muslims to adopt good habits of the british and leave their bad ones and should
cooperate with them to get benefits.
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Q3. What was the Aligarh Movement?
[4]
1. Sir Syed visited Oxford and Cambridge in 1869 and was impressed by their system of education
he decided to implement it in India as well.
2. He started a small movement in Aligarh. Through this movement he tried to educate Muslims
about Science and English language so that communication with British can become easy.
3. He was thus able to form the MAO College.
4. He tried to educate Muslims in the European Style.
Q4. What was the Two Nation Theory?
[4]
1. Sir Syed believed that Hindus and Muslims should be considered as separate nations.
2. He demanded that as a separate nation, Muslims should have a separate electorate in a
democratic election.
3. He believed that Hindus would always be dominant in a democracy and this would lead to
violence.
4. He suggested that due to the great differences between Hindus and Muslims in every field of
life, they should be given different treatment.
Detailed Questions
Q1. Why was he considered Pro British?
●
●
●
SSAK saved the lives of many British women and children during the WOI. Since the Muslims
were fighting against the British, this angered the Muslims and they started calling him pro‐
British.
Sir Syed didn't want the Muslims to fight against the British in the WOI because he knew that
they'd be easily defeated by the British. This gave the impression that he was trying to establish
the British as the rulers of India.
Muslims of the subcontinent believed that the British were invaders. Whereas Sir Syed believed
that the Muslim should accept that British were rulers of the Indians and should accept their
ideas, such as Western Education therefore this angered the Muslims and they labeled him pro
British.
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Q2. Why did he establish the Aligarh movement?
●
The British considered the Muslims guilty for the 1857 uprising. So after the war, the British
started the policy of repression against the Muslims. Sir Syed wanted to end this policy. He thus
started the movement to strengthen relations between Muslims and British by removing doubts
about the Muslim loyalty.
●
Muslims considered the British as only invaders, and didn’t want to cooperate with them. SSAK
believed that Muslims should accept the British as rulers and to accept British ideas, such as
Western Education, so that they could improve their social and economic relations which would
enable them to take jobs in civil service and army.
●
The Hindus of the sub continent were progressing socially, politically and economically due to
their cooperation with the British. This worried SSAK as he believed that the Muslims would get
dominated by the Hindus and therefore he established the Aligarh Movement to inform the
Muslims about the Hindu threat, and counter it.
Q3. Why did SSAK try to improve the British ‐ Muslim relationship?
●
The British considered the Muslims responsible for the WOI and started a policy of repression
against them. SSAK wanted an end to this tyranny, therefore he tried to improve British ‐
Muslim relationship to remove British Doubts about Muslim loyalty.
●
Muslims considered British as foreign invaders and were thus reluctant to acquire Western
Education whereas SSAK believed that Western Education was important for Muslims to live a
prosperous life. Therefore he tried to bridge the gap between the two communities so that
Muslims could accept British Ideas.
●
SSAK feared that the Hindus would dominate Muslims as due to their cooperative attitude
towards the rulers, they were developing economically, socially and politically. Therefore, SSAK
tried to improve the British – Muslim relationship so that Muslims could come at par with the
Hindus.
Q4. How did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan try to improve British-Muslim relations?
●
●
He wrote the Loyal Mohammadens of India to highlight the work of those who kept loyal to
British
He wrote the pamphlet, “The Causes of Indian Revolt,” which highlighted the wrong steps of
British, grievances of the Indians and the causes of War.
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●
He wrote “Tabyan‐ul‐Kalam” in which he brought down the similarities between the two
religions in one place.
●
He asked the to Muslims to adopt the good habits of the British but discard their bad ones and
to cooperate with them to get benefits.
●
He started a small movement in Aligarh and was thus able to form the MAO College.
●
Through this movement he tried to educate Muslims about Science and English language so that
communication with British becomes easy.
●
He tried to educate Muslims in the European Style.
Q5. Why did Sir Syed want Muslims to acquire a western Education?
●
SSAK asked Muslims to acquire western education so that Muslims could be recruited to the
civil service. The official language was english and hence no government job could be obtained
without the knowledge of english. This was the only way for Muslims to improve their social and
economic condition.
●
Hindus received education from English schools which improved their confidence and they
viewed illiterate Muslims as inferior.
●
SSAK believed that the Quran stressed upon knowledge and exploring the universe, therefore
western education of science was in line with the Quranic teachings. So he emphasized upon the
need to acquire education to understand the full majesty of God as the creator.
Q6. Why did Sir Syed formulate his two nation theory?
●
Urdu had been the official language of India for many years. However, the Hindus wanted it
changed to their language, Hindi. This view wasn’t shared by the Muslims as Urdu was their
main language. This provoked SSAK to give his “Two Nation Theory” as he realized that the
Hindus and Muslims were two different nations because of their opposite cultures
●
Hindus wanted a parliamentary system in India. Sir Syed, however rejected this idea because as
Muslims were in minority, they would always be dominated by the Hindus.
●
Congress spoke of open competitive examinations for government jobs. However, SSAK rejected
this as Muslims were not educated enough to pass these exams and so most of the posts would
be taken over by educated Hindus.
●
These were the reasons for the two nation theory.
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Q7. What were the efforts made by Sir Syed to Provide Muslims with a western education?
●
Journal “Tehzib ul Akhlaq” ‐This journal included articles from influential Muslims who agreed
with Sir Syed that there was a need for a new approach regarding education. Some Ulemas
attacked it, yet it played a major part in bringing about an intellectual revolution amongst the
Muslim thinkers.
●
Scientific society at Ghazipur‐Translated scientific writings from English, Persian or Arabic into
Urdu; the main language of the Muslims. Muslims came to know about the scientific
advancements and this reduced the Muslim hatred towards British as they read about scientific
works and realized that the British were more than just invaders but had done a lot for
humanity through scientific inventions.
●
Founded schools in Ghazipur and Moradabad. These efforts of Sir Syed shows his commitment
towards expanding educational opportunities for Muslims as Muslims were reluctant to enroll in
British Schools
●
Established MAO (Muhammad Anglo Oriental) school in 1875, made into college in 1877
provided Western and Islamic education on the pattern of English Public School system. Proved
beneficial for Muslims in many ways: Provided quality education to the Muslims of India and
after graduating from this institute they could get better jobs in the government and improved
their social standing. It also helped to improve British Muslim relationship as noy only many
British were teaching in this institute which created respect in the hearts of Muslims for the
British but also after receiving English education, now the Muslims were in a better position to
communicate with the British in their language and remove misconceptions. It became a symbol
of unity for Muslims in the absence of the Muslim League. Many future leaders of Pakistan such
as Liaquat Ali Khan and Ayub Khan were educated there. Many historians believe that this
institution contributed the most for the formation of Pakistan. A few decades later, the students
of Aligarh were the ones at the forefront of the Pakistan movement. The students travelled far
and wide to gain support for the movement.
●
Mohammaden Educational Conference was established whose aim was to publicize the new
educational Methods being used at MAO. This helped improve Muslim education standards.
Also played a major role in establishing a Muslim political platform in the days before the
League was established as it attracted famous orators and writers who discussed the political
problems of the Muslims in India. It was after the 29th session of the same organization in
December 1906 at Dhaka that major leaders gathered to form the Muslim League, which was
the founding party of Pakistan.
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Section 1
Section A:
Chapter 5: Urdu and
regional languages of
Pakistan
History
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History
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History
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History
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Main Languages of Pakistan
• Urdu and English (official-Urban areas)
• Punjabi and Saraki (Punjab)
• Sindhi and Brahvi (Sindh)
• Pashto and Hindko (KPK)
• Balochi and Makrani (Balochistan)
• Hindko and Balti (Gilgit-Baltistan)
• Kashmiri, Potwari and Shina (Azad Kashmir)
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History
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Urdu
• Origin
The term Urdu derives from a Turkish word
Ordu meaning camp or army.
The Urdu language developed between the
Muslim soldiers of the Mughals armies who
belonged to various ethnicities like Turks,
Arabs, Persians, Pathans, Balochis, Rajputs,
Jats and Afghans. These soldiers lived in close
contact with each other and communicated
in different dialects. It is for this reason that
Urdu is also referred to as ‘Lashkari Zabaan’
or language of the army.
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Urdu
• Famous poets/writers of Urdu:
• Amir Khusro
• Mir Taqi Mir
• Mir Dard
• Asadullah Khan Ghalib
• Altaf Hussain Hali
• Faiz Ahmed Faiz
• Ahmed Faraz
• Anwer Masood
Section 1
History
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How did Urdu play an important role in
Pakistan Movement?
• Urdu became a reason to unite the Muslims
under Two Nation Theory (1860) by Sir Syed
when he highlighted the Hindi-Urdu
Controversy (1867).
• Pakistan Movement played an important part
in uniting the Muslims for 300 years and
Muslims started their political party, the All
India Muslim League in 1906 on the basis of
political rights and language.
• Urdu made the Muslims communicate easily
specially in Bengal and the Punjab where
different communities lived.
• Jinnah chose Urdu to be the official language
on 2nd February 1948 so as to bring harmony
and unity amongst the ethnic groups in
Pakistan. It was used as the government
language for all levels of the society.
History
Page 62
Section 1
Promotion of Urdu 1947-1999
• Urdu is spoken mainly in Karachi and other
urban areas of the country (Sindh and
Punjab) with 8% of population.
• Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation started
Radio Pakistan broadcasting on 14th August
1947.
• Anjuman-e-Tarraqi-e-Urdu was developed
under Molvi Abdul Haq’s leadership in 1948
to promote Urdu.
• Punjab University started M.A Urdu Program
in 1948 and later started Ph.D programs also.
• Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation launched
Pakistan Television (PTV) in November 1964
from Islamabad.
• Karachi University started the department of
Urdu in 1955 under Molvi Abdul Haq.
• First of the 13-volume exhaustive Urdu
Dictionary was published by Taraqqi-i-Urdu
Board in 1978.
• Examination Boards take their local exams in
Urdu. Many subjects are taught in Urdu
language.
History
Page 63
Section 1
Promotion of Urdu 1947-1999
• Cultural shows in Urdu language have been
organized including Mushairas etc.
• Urdu plays and films are very popular.
• Urdu newspapers ‘the Jung’, ‘The Nawa-eWaqt’and magazines ’Akhbar-e-Jahan’ are
published are widely read.
History
Punjabi
Page 64
Section 1
History
Punjabi
Page 65
Section 1
History
Punjabi
Page 66
Section 1
History
Page 67
Section 1
Punjabi
• Punjabi is the most widely spoken language
of Pakistan with almost 48% of population.
• It has different dialects in different parts of
Punjabi like Saraiki and Potohari.
• Some popular poets are Baba Farid Shakar
Ganj, Sultan Bahu, Bullay Shah and Waris
Shah.
• Munir Niazi is a famous poet of recent
years.
History
Page 68
Section 1
Development of Punjabi 1947-99
• Punjab University has a department to
promote Punjabi language.
• Number of magazines and newspapers are
published in Punjabi language.
• TV channels have been started to telecast
programmes in Punjabi language. Apna
Channel, Punjab TV etc.
• Radio programmes are broadcasted in
Punjabi language from FM Channels.
• Punjabi theatre and films are very well
known and are popular throughout the
country.
History
Sindhi
Page 69
Section 1
History
Sindhi
Page 70
Section 1
History
Sindhi
Page 71
Section 1
History
Page 72
Section 1
Sindhi
• Sindhi language is spoken in Sindh.
• It was written in ‘Marwari’ and ‘Arz Nigari’
in writing which was changed into Arabic.
• The first language in the subcontinent in
which the Holy Quran was translated.
• From 12th Century, Sindhi language
remained the same as of today.
• The main poets and writers of Sindhi
language are Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai and
Sachal Sarmast.
History
Page 73
Section 1
Development of Sindhi Language
1947-99
• Sindh University Jamshoro has the
‘Sindhiology’ department to promote Sindhi
language.
• Organizations like "Sindhi Literacy Board" and
"Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula" etc were set up.
• Several newspapers published in Sindhi, such
as Ibrat, Naw-i-Sind and Khadim-I-Watan
besides a number of Weeklies.
• Sindhi language was made compulsory in
Sindh province in 1972 under Sindhi
Language Bill.
• Sindhi is used in Sindhi as a part of local
examinations.
• Many TV channels telecast their programmes
in Sindhi like ‘KTN’, ‘Awaz TV’,‘Dharti’, ‘Sindh
TV’etc.
History
Pashto
Page 74
Section 1
History
Pashto
Page 75
Section 1
History
Page 76
Section 1
Pashto
• Pashto is the regional language of the
N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the
East Iranian group of languages and contains
many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi
words.
• It is the third widely spoken language in
Pakistan.
• Its main poets are Rehman Baba, Abdul
Hameed Baba and Khushhal Khan Khatak.
History
Page 77
Section 1
Development of Pashto 1947-99
• Although Pashto is an old language but its
literature is comparatively new one. After
independence Pashto literature received a
great boost.
• The services rendered by the Pashto poets
and writers in the freedom struggle, in fact
contributed a great deal towards the
promotion of Pashto literature.
• The Islamia College, Peshawar which
became the citadel of freedom movement
in N.W.F.P was established because of his
dedicated services.
• Peshawar University was established in
1950.
• An academy for the promotion of Pashto
literature was set up.
• The Pashto academy was set up in 1954
and Maulana Abdul Qadir (Alig) was
appointed as its Director. This academy
prepared Pashto dictionary.
History
Balochi
Page 78
Section 1
History
Balochi
Page 79
Section 1
History
Balochi
Page 80
Section 1
History
Balochi
Page 81
Section 1
History
Page 82
Section 1
Balochi
• Balochi is the regional language of
Balochistan. It is the least developed of all
the regional languages. It was spread by
Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.
• About 50% of Baloch live in Balochistan and
40% of them live in Sindh.
• It has two main branches; the Sulemani and
Makrani.
• Balochi was developed by two main poets,
Jam Darang and Shah Murid.
History
Page 83
Section 1
Development of Balochi 1947-99
• The Balochi literature was on the verge of
decline before partition.
• After partition, Radio Pakistan, Karachi began
its broadcast in Balochi language which
enhanced the developmental process of
Balochi language.
• The Balochi Literary Association was set up
which published many magazines and articles
in Balochi language.
• PTV Quetta Centre was established in 1974.
• A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan"
was published. A monthly known as "Olassis"
was also published.
• With the establishment of Quetta Television
Station the Balochi language has received
great welcome.
• Balochistan University conducts courses for
Balochi language.
• Local exams are held in Balochi in Balochistan.
History
Page 84
Section 1
Past Paper Questions:
• Why was Urdu chosen as the national
language in Pakistan in 1947? [7]
(Q2b/S/2015) (Q1b/W/2011)
• Why have regional languages been promoted
by the Pakistan government since 1947? [7]
(Q1B/S/2013)
• How has Pakistan promoted the development
of Sindhi since 1947? [4] Q2a/W/2013)
• How has the Pakistan government promoted
the development of Punjabi? [4]
(Q2a/W/2012)
• how has the Pakistan government promoted
the development of Balochi since 1947?
[4](Q2a/W/2010)