Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts. Academic Writing . Writing College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing Center. Colorado Technical and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008. Academic language has a unique set of rules: it should be explicit, formal and factual as well as objective and analytical in nature. Students often think that academic language should sound complex and be difficult to write and understand but that is not necessarily the case. Instead, academic writing should be clear and concise in order to communicate its contents in the best way. Objectivity •Academic writing requires special knowledge and use of more complex language and objectivity. •This means that the writing must be impersonal and maintains a certain level of social distance. •Avoiding personal pronouns, rhetorical questions, and emotive language •Do not address readers directly by using “you.” Academic writing is based on research and not on the writer’s own opinion about a given topic. When you write objectively you are concerned about facts and not influenced by personal feelings or biases. When presenting an argument to the reader, try to show both sides if you can and avoid making value judgments. At the same time you will probably have to do an analysis or a discussion and in that manner express an attitude. In order to convey attitude without using for example “I think”, you may use words such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely and unexpectedly. Note that the attitude you are expressing should not be based on personal preferences but rather on the evidence that you are presenting. Personal pronouns In general, academic texts are impersonal in nature. This means that the main emphasis should be on evidence and arguments and not based on personal opinion and feelings. The use of personal pronouns such as “I”, “we” and “you” should be avoided as much as possible. Some types of academic writing encourage the use of personal pronouns. For example, in reflective writing the use of the personal pronoun is accepted. You should be aware that the use of personal pronouns may be different between academic fields and that some disciplines do not accept it at all. Make sure to check what is recommended, either by asking your instructor or by reading other academic texts within your subject. Active and passive voice One way of avoiding the use of personal pronouns is to use the passive voice. Example: I used a variety of techniques to analyze my material. (Here the “I” is the subject performing the action). A variety of techniques were used to analyze the material. (This sentence is impersonal and the action is performed upon the subject, “A variety of techniques”, by an unnamed agent. The choice of “the” instead of “my” also serves to make the sentence more objective). Use of the passive voice can be somewhat heavy and sometimes imprecise. Nowadays, many writers avoid an excessive use of the passive voice. A way of writing objectively and still use the active voice is to use your material, your text or your research as the active agent. Examples: As this this thesis will show…. The research reveals that…. Formality Reflects your dignified stance in your writing as a member of the academic community •Requires precision to make it a ‘legitimate’ piece of academic writing •Avoiding: •Colloquial words and expressions (stuff, a lot of, kinda)•Contractions (doesn’t, haven’t)•Two-word verbs (put off, bring up) In order to achieve the appropriate level of formality, you should read literature within your field. This will also help you learn and use subject-specific terms. Correct use of terminology and language facilitates your communication and heightens the credibility of your work. Contractions: In English, contractions are used in informal settings and are therefore not appropriate for academic texts. Instead of using a contraction you should write out the words in their entirety. Here are a few examples: Don’t – do not Wasn’t – was not Can’t – cannot (Observe that it is written in one word) It’s – it is (Observe the difference between “it’s” (contraction of “it is”) and the possessive “its” (as in “The dog wagged its tail”) Acronyms and Abbreviations: It is important to use acronyms and abbreviations properly in academic writing so that your text is as clear as possible for the reader. You should only use abbreviations when it makes the reading of your text easier. Another rule of thumb is that the abbreviated term should appear at least three times in the paper. If you use a term more rarely it might be better to spell it out. Words that are commonly abbreviated such as “professor” (prof.) and “department” (dept.) should be spelled out in academic texts. Note however that some abbreviations may be used in citations and reference lists. An acronym is a type of abbreviation that is formed by the first letter of each word in a phrase or organization. UN and WHO are two examples of well-known acronyms. When you introduce the acronym, you should always write out the whole name or phrase followed by the acronym in parentheses. Once you have introduced it, you may use the acronym in the rest of your text. For example: The World Health Organization (WHO) has expressed concern over the spread of the virus. The WHO has therefore…. Latin abbreviations should not be used in the text itself but may be used in parentheses or in notes and illustrations. Explicitness Academic writing is explicit in several ways. First and foremost, it means that there is a clear presentation of ideas in the paper. The text should have a well-organized structure and be easy for the reader to follow. One way to accomplish clarity and structure in your text is through the use of signposts. Signposts are words and phrases that you can use in your text in order to guide the reader along. Signposting can be divided into two different categories: major signposting and linking words and phrases. Major signposting is used to signal key aspects of the work, such as the purpose of an academic paper and its structure. Some examples of major signposting: The aim of this study is to … This chapter reviews/deals with … In conclusion … Linking words and phrases create coherence and give the reader directions by marking transitions between sentences and paragraphs. Some examples of linking words and phrases: However, … Firstly, ... . Secondly, ... For example … … because … Being explicit in your writing also means that you are not vague but rather very specific in the presentation of ideas, numbers and years. Being specific helps add precision to your writing. Caution ACADEMIC WRITING IS CAUTIOUS In academic writing, you need to show that you have read widely and thought critically and creatively about what you have read. Your ideas need to be clear and your language needs to be precise. You need to be able to prove what you say. If you make a statement like All girls like pink, a reader can show that this statement is not true by simply finding one girl who doesn't like pink. Your credibility as an academic writer is immediately destroyed. However, if you say, Pink is popular with girls, this is much harder for your reader to disprove. If you have more detailed evidence, you should use it to back up your statement, Two research projects (quote your sources here) have recently concluded that the majority of girls aged 9 to 19 like pink. Of course you can use many of these words, but you need to be very careful that what you say cannot be easily challenged. Some statements are generally accepted as being true, so you can use stronger language. It is unlikely that anyone will challenge you if you say, 'It is obvious that there are two genders; male and female.' Common sense needs to be used in deciding when it is okay to use these words and when they are best avoided. all; always; never; every concerned citizen; clearly; it is obvious that; absolutely; obviously; there is no doubt that; without a doubt; definitely; this essay has proven; absolutely certain; any right-thinking person; certainly; undoubtedly; every CAUTIOUS WORDS Here are some useful words to help you avoid making statements that are too strong or too general to be academic. VERBS-assume, suggest, estimate, indicate MODALS-can, could, would, may, might, should, appear, look, seem, tend, appear ADVERBS-appear, tend, look, seem, often, usually, generally, occasionally ADJECTIVES-likely, unlikely, probable, possible Structure Structure your writing Good academic writing is clearly structured. It must have a beginning, middle and an end. In essays, reports, dissertations and presentations, these parts are: Introduction Main body Conclusion The information on the following pages will tell you what content should go in each section. Note: the body is the longest part of your paper and can contain as many paragraphs as necessary to support the main ideas of your argument. Title a title which is too short often uses words which are too broad and, thus, does not tell the reader what is being studied. For example, a paper with the title, "African Politics" is so non-specific the title could be the title of a book and so ambiguous that it could refer to anything associated with politics in Africa. A good title should provide information about the focus and/or scope of your research study. Academic writing is a serious and deliberate endeavor. Avoid using humorous or clever journalistic styles of phrasing when creating the title to your paper. Journalistic headlines often use emotional adjectives [e.g., incredible, amazing, effortless] to highlight a problem experienced by the reader or use "trigger words" or interrogative words like how, what, when, or why to persuade people to read the article or click on a link. These approaches are viewed as counter-productive in academic writing. A reader does not need clever or humorous titles to catch their attention because the act of reading is assumed to be deliberate based on a desire to learn and improve understanding of the research problem. In addition, a humorous title can merely detract from the seriousness and authority of your research. The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable research paper title: 1. 2. 3. 4. The purpose of the research The scope of the research The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the research] The methods used to study the problem The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to highlight the research problem under investigation. Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics that reflect general principles. Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study, Rarely use abbreviations or acronyms unless they are commonly known, Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest, Use current nomenclature from the field of study, Identify key variables, both dependent and independent, Reveal how the paper will be organized, Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis, Is limited to 5 to 15 substantive words, Does not include redundant phrasing, such as, "A Study of," "An Analysis of" or similar constructions, Takes the form of a question or declarative statement, If you use a quote as part of the title, the source of the quote is cited [usually using an asterisk and footnote], Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title are also capitalized, and Rarely uses an exclamation mark at the end of the title. The Subtitle Subtitles are frequently used in social science research papers. Examples of why you may include a subtitle: 1. Explains or provides additional context, e.g., "Linguistic Ethnography and the Study of Welfare Institutions as a Flow of Social Practices: The Case of Residential Child Care Institutions as Paradoxical Institutions." [Palomares, Manuel and David Poveda. Text & Talk: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Language, Discourse and Communication Studies 30 (January 2010): 193-212] 2. Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or imaginative title or quote , e.g., "Listen to What I Say, Not How I Vote": Congressional Support for the President in Washington and at Home." [Grose, Christian R. and Keesha M. Middlemass. Social Science Quarterly 91 (March 2010): 143-167] 3. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research , e.g., "The Geopolitics of the Eastern Border of the European Union: The Case of Romania-Moldova-Ukraine." [Marcu, Silvia. Geopolitics 14 (August 2009): 409-432] 4. Qualifies the temporal scope of the research , e.g., "A Comparison of the Progressive Era and the Depression Years: Societal Influences on Predictions of the Future of the Library, 18951940." [Grossman, Hal B. Libraries & the Cultural Record 46 (2011): 102-128] 5. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual , e.g., "A Deliberative Conception of Politics: How Francesco Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and Democracy." [ La Torre, Massimo. Sociologia del Diritto 28 (January 2001): 75 - 98] 6. Identifies the methodology used , e.g. "Student Activism of the 1960s Revisited: A Multivariate Analysis Research Note." [Aron, William S. Social Forces 52 (March 1974): 408-414] 7. Defines the overarching technique for analyzing the research problem , e.g., "Explaining Territorial Change in Federal Democracies: A Comparative Historical Institutionalist Approach." [Tillin, Louise. Political Studies 63 (August 2015): 626-641. Introduction A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper. The TIOC Approach • Highlight the trend/s in the field • Pinpoint the issues underlying the trend/s • State the overall objective/intent of the paper in the light of the gap identified • Discuss the possible contribution of the research attempt to advancing/improving disciplinal theory research, practice and policy • (cross-reference to strengthen claims) CARS Model SOTP Theoretical Framework Clear presentation of the theory which explains why the study exists.2. Appropriate development of conceptual frame with reference to the problems of the study. SEC Approach The SEC Approach • Rule 1: State the theory • Suggested sentence stems • The theoretical basis of this paper is… • This study is theoretically anchored on… • This paper is premised on… • Rule 2: Explain the theory • Rule 3: Contextualize the theory Scope, Limitations, and Delimitations limitations are what the researcher cannot do (elements outside of their control) and delimitations are what the researcher will not do (elements outside of the boundaries they have set). Writing the Scope: Why – the general aims and objectives (purpose) of the research. What – the subject to be investigated, and the included variables. Where – the location or setting of the study, i.e. where the data will be gathered and to which entity the data will belong. When – the timeframe within which the data is to be collected. Who – the subject matter of the study and the population from which they will be selected. This population needs to be large enough to be able to make generalisations. How – how the research is to be conducted, including a description of the research design (e.g. whether it is experimental research, qualitative research or a case study), methodology, research tools and analysis techniques. Use the below prompts as an effective way to start writing your scope: This study is to focus on… This study covers the… This study aims to… Since the delimitation parameters are within the researcher’s control, readers need to know why they were set, what alternative options were available, and why these alternatives were rejected. For example, if you are collecting data that can be derived from three different but similar experiments, the reader needs to understand how and why you decided to select the one you have. Your reasons should always be linked back to your research question, as all delimitations should result from trying to make your study more relevant to your scope. Therefore, the scope and delimitations are usually considered together when writing a paper. How to Start Writing Your Study Delimitations Use the below prompts as an effective way to start writing your study delimitations: This study does not cover… This study is limited to… The following has been excluded from this study… Examples of Delimitation in Research Examples of delimitations include: research objectives, research questions, research variables, target populations, statistical analysis techniques. Examples of Limitations in Research Examples of limitations include: Issues with sample and selection, Insufficient sample size, population traits or specific participants for statistical significance, Lack of previous research studies on the topic which has allowed for further analysis, Limitations in the technology/instruments used to collect your data, Limited financial resources and/or funding constraints. Related Literature Scholarly vs. Popular Literature Paraphrasing Citation Plagiarism Methodology Results 1. Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data 2. 30. • T he researcher is required to: (1) briefly introduce the topic, (2) present the data, (3) analyze and interpret the results.• Presentation of the results should follow the order and sequence of the problems raised in Chapter 1.• T he researcher is required to scholarly analyze and interpret the results by providing scientific & unbiased insights concerning the results of the study.• It is also suggested to integrate the contents of chapter 2 (cross referencing) Conclusions/Recommendations T he purpose of Chapter 5 is to summarize the entire research project. It would include discussions on what the research is all about, the problems and the hypotheses, and a brief version of the significance of the study.• T he summary would also include the research design, the population and sample, and the statistical techniques used.• T he summary of findings or results of the study is presented in the order of the problems raised in Chapter 1• T he conclusions are based on the findings of the study.• T he recommendations are based on the derived conclusions. Abstract The Cambridge English Dictionary defines an abstract in academic writing as being “a few sentences that give the main ideas in an article or a scientific paper” and the Collins English Dictionary says “an abstract of an article, document, or speech is a short piece of writing that gives the main points of it”. The aim of a thesis abstract is to give the reader a broad overview of what your research project was about and what you found that was novel, before he or she decides to read the entire thesis. The reality here though is that very few people will read the entire thesis, and not because they’re necessarily disinterested but because practically it’s too large a document for most people to have the time to read. The exception to this is your PhD examiner, however know that even they may not read the entire length of the document. Some people may still skip to and read specific sections throughout your thesis such as the methodology, but the fact is that the abstract will be all that most read and will therefore be the section they base their opinions about your research on. In short, make sure you write a good, well-structured abstract. Whilst the abstract is one of the first sections in your PhD thesis, practically it’s probably the last aspect that you’ll ending up writing before sending the document to print. The reason being that you can’t write a summary about what you did, what you found and what it means until you’ve done the work. A good abstract is one that can clearly explain to the reader in 300 words: What your research field actually is, What the gap in knowledge was in your field, The overarching aim and objectives of your PhD in response to these gaps, What methods you employed to achieve these, You key results and findings, How your work has added to further knowledge in your field of study. Another way to think of this structure is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction, Aims and objectives, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion. Following this ‘formulaic’ approach to writing the abstract should hopefully make it a little easier to write but you can already see here that there’s a lot of information to convey in a very limited number of words. An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes: Example of A Bad Abstract Let’s start with an example of a bad thesis abstract: In this project on “The Analysis of the Structural Integrity of 3D Printed Polymers for use in Aircraft”, my research looked at how 3D printing of materials can help the aviation industry in the manufacture of planes. Plane parts can be made at a lower cost using 3D printing and made lighter than traditional components. This project investigated the structural integrity of EBM manufactured components, which could revolutionise the aviation industry. What Makes This a Bad Abstract Hopefully you’ll have spotted some of the reasons this would be considered a poor abstract, not least because the author used up valuable words by repeating the lengthy title of the project in the abstract. Working through our checklist of the 6 key points you want to convey to the reader: 1. There has been an attempt to introduce the research area, albeit half-way through the abstract but it’s not clear if this is a materials science project about 3D printing or is it about aircraft design. 2. There’s no explanation about where the gap in the knowledge is that this project attempted to address. 3. We can see that this project was focussed on the topic of structural integrity of materials in aircraft but the actual research aims or objectives haven’t been defined. 4. There’s no mention at all of what the author actually did to investigate structural integrity. For example was this an experimental study involving real aircraft, or something in the lab, computer simulations etc. 5. The author also doesn’t tell us a single result of his research, let alone the key findings! 6. There’s a bold claim in the last sentence of the abstract that this project could revolutionise the aviation industry, and this may well be the case, but based on the abstract alone there is no evidence to support this as it’s not even clear what the author did. This is an extreme example but is a good way to illustrate just how unhelpful a poorly written abstract can be. At only 71 words long, it definitely hasn’t maximised the amount of information that could be presented and the what they have presented has lacked clarity and structure. A final point to note is the use of the EBM acronym, which stands for Electron Beam Melting in the context of 3D printing; this is a niche acronym for the author to assume that the reader would know the meaning of. It’s best to avoid acronyms in your abstract all together even if it’s something that you might expect most people to know about, unless you specifically define the meaning first. Example of A Good Abstract Having seen an example of a bad thesis abstract, now lets look at an example of a good PhD thesis abstract written about the same (fictional) project: Additive manufacturing (AM) of titanium alloys has the potential to enable cheaper and lighter components to be produced with customised designs for use in aircraft engines. Whilst the proof-of-concept of these have been promising, the structural integrity of AM engine parts in response to full thrust and temperature variations is not clear. The primary aim of this project was to determine the fracture modes and mechanisms of AM components designed for use in Boeing 747 engines. To achieve this an explicit finite element (FE) model was developed to simulate the environment and parameters that the engine is exposed to during flight. The FE model was validated using experimental data replicating the environmental parameters in a laboratory setting using ten AM engine components provided by the industry sponsor. The validated FE model was then used to investigate the extent of crack initiation and propagation as the environment parameters were adjusted. This project was the first to investigate fracture patterns in AM titanium components used in aircraft engines; the key finding was that the presence of cavities within the structures due to errors in the printing process, significantly increased the risk of fracture. Secondly, the simulations showed that cracks formed within AM parts were more likely to worsen and lead to component failure at subzero temperatures when compared to conventionally manufactured parts. This has demonstrated an important safety concern which needs to be addressed before AM parts can be used in commercial aircraft. What Makes This a Good Abstract Having read this ‘good abstract’ you should have a much better understand about what the subject area is about, where the gap in the knowledge was, the aim of the project, the methods that were used, key results and finally the significance of these results. To break these points down further, from this good abstract we now know that: 1. The research area is around additive manufacturing (i.e. 3D printing) of materials for use in aircraft. 2. The gap in knowledge was how these materials will behave structural when used in aircraft engines. 3. The aim was specifically to investigate how the components can fracture. 4. The methods used to investigate this were a combination of computational and lab based experimental modelling. 5. The key findings were the increased risk of fracture of these components due to the way they are manufactured. 6. The significance of these findings were that it showed a potential risk of component failure that could comprise the safety of passengers and crew on the aircraft. The abstract text has a much clearer flow through these different points in how it’s written and has made much better use of the available word count. Acronyms have even been used twice in this good abstract but they were clearly defined the first time they were introduced in the text so that there was no confusion about their meaning. Conclusion The abstract you write for your dissertation or thesis should succinctly explain to the reader why the work of your research was needed, what you did, what you found and what it means. Most people that come across your thesis, including any future employers, are likely to read only your abstract. Even just for this reason alone, it’s so important that you write the best abstract you can; this will not only convey your research effectively but also put you in the best light possible as a researcher. Introduction This is the firs at part of the abstract, and should be brief and attractive to the reader at the same time. After reading a well written intro, the reader would be eager to read more. Research significance This usually answers the question: Why did you do this research? Methodology This usually answers the questions: What did you do? How did you do it? Results This answers the question: What did you find out after doing the research? Or what are the advantages of your method based on the results? Conclusion This usually answers the question: What do your findings mean? What have you contributed?
