CAMBODIA A country on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia. Cambodia is largely a land of plains and great rivers and lies amid important overland and river trade routes linking China to India and Southeast Asia. The influences of many Asian cultures, alongside those of France and the United States, can be seen in the capital, Phnom Penh, one of a handful of urban centres in the largely rural country. For 2,000 years Cambodia’s civilization absorbed influences from India and China and, in turn, transferred them to other Southeast Asian civilizations. From the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Funan and Chenla (1st–8th century) through the classical age of the Angkor period (9th–15th century), it held sway over territories that are now part of Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. The Khmer (Cambodian) empire reached its apex in the 12th century, a time marked by the construction of the massive temple complexes known as Angkor Wat and Bayon and the imperial capital of Angkor Thom. CAMBODIAN LITERATURE The classical literature of Cambodia comprises works composed in verse and recorded between the 16th and mid-19th century; much of it reflects the cultural influence of India. It can be classified according to three major genres: the epic, verse novels, and cbap, or “codes of conduct.” The best-known epic is the Reamker (“Honour of Rama”; Eng. trans. Reamker), the Cambodian version of the Ramayana, one of the great epic poems of India. Surviving texts of the Reamker date from the 16th or 17th century, but bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat show that the Rama (Cambodian Ream) story had been known in Cambodia for centuries. The Cambodian version includes incidents and details not found in the Sanskrit original written by the poet Valmiki. As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Rama story in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, from sculpture to dance drama and from painting to tourist art. Verse novels emerged during the early 18th century. They are usually long, in some instances consisting of as many as 8,000 stanzas. Most are based on the jataka tales (stories of the former lives of the Buddha, found widely in Southeast Asian literature), while others draw on local folktales and legends. One of the best-known is Tum Teav, a tragic love story believed to be based on real events that occurred during the 17th century. The story was passed down orally and then eventually recorded in the 19th century by the poet Santhor Mok. It remains a widely known story that is taught in schools and often retold in comic-strip format. It has also been filmed on two occasions and has inspired stage adaptations and popular songs. Cambodian literature is something of a unique creation, born from a tragic national history and a culture of oral storytelling. Vincent Wood explores the history of Cambodia’s literature and the struggles faced by Khmer writers in the twentieth century. Historically, only a small portion of Cambodia’s population was literate and so large parts of the storytelling traditions of the country are oral and based in local folklore. These stories are heavily influenced by the predominant religions of Buddhism and Hinduism and also reflect the cultural influence of nearby India. The oldest example of such oral stories is the Reamker, a Cambodian version of the Indian epic Ramayana which is traditionally staged theatrically with dance alongside the verses. For most of Cambodia’s history, written literature was, for the most part, restricted to the royal courts or Buddhist monasteries of the country. In 1863 Cambodia became a protectorate of France, bringing new literary attitudes and technologies to the country; by 1908 the first book in Khmer was printed in Phnom Penh. This allowed a new flowering of Cambodian literature and by 1954 the Khmer Writers’ Association had been set up in order to promote writing, as well as introduce new themes and direction to literature. Tararith Kho is one of the few Cambodian authors to have made a name for himself both within his own country and internationally. He became a Scholar at Risk fellow at Harvard. His books and poetry anthologies include Lesson of Life, Culture Should Not Stay Alone, Regretful, Red Print and Khmer Nigeria Poetry. Other recent literature is still predominantly focused on big issues plaguing the country, such as Somaly Mam’s The Road of Lost Innocence. The book is a memoir about Mam’s childhood and adolescence as a prisoner of the sex trade in Cambodia, and helps to raise awareness of the extent of the trafficking to this day. CULTURE OF CAMBODIANS IN DECISION MAKING Cross cultural management will be more effective if you understand the importance Cambodians place on personal relationships. The communication style in Cambodia generally reflects the value placed on relationships as people tend to be fairly indirect in the way they communicating. This helps to protect relationships and avoid conflict: Negotiations will be slow while they take the time to get to know you. It is worth being patient as any display of impatience could jeopardize the deal. BASIC ELEMENTS BASIC ELEMENTS OF A STORY The most fundamental components of a storyline are the setting, characters, plot, conflict, and theme. Understanding what each of these aspects contributes to the story enables the reader to comprehend the structure and significance of a short story. Understanding how these aspects interact provides the reader with an appreciation for the short story's purpose. ELEMENTS OF A STORY ELEMENTS OF A STORY Settings Characters Conflict Theme Plot SETTINGS When/where does the story take place? The word "setting" includes not only where the story takes place but also when it happens, as well as the people and culture that live in the world where the story takes place. Having a well-developed setting is important because it enhances the reading experience and helps the story's plot, tone, and characters flourish. CHARACTERS A character is a person, animal, or anything personified who acts in the plot of a short story or other literary work. Through characters, readers can experience the world that the author has built, both through the characters' interactions with and perceptions of their environment. CONFLICT Conflict is any challenge that a character faces in a narrative. In a short narrative, the conflict is a struggle between two people or objects. The protagonist is on one side of the primary conflict. Conflict is essential to any story's tension and serves to propel the narrative forward. It is frequently employed to disclose a deeper meaning inside a narrative while exposing the motivations, ideals, and faults of the characters. THEME The idea, belief, moral, lesson, or insight being discussed here is referred to as the theme. It's the author's main point of contention that they want the reader to grasp. The theme might be thought of as the "why" of the story. It is also important to have a theme in order to give your characters and events significance, the kind of significance that frequently results in a significant amount of emotional or spiritual participation and release from the audience PLOT The sequence of events that take place throughout the narrative is referred to as the plot. In general, a plot will have an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. The plot is in charge of making sure that every important part of the story is in place so that the reader can understand it and it can move forward. Types of Linear Plots Plots can be told in Chronological order Flashback In media res (in the middle of things) when the story starts in the middle of the action without exposition PYRAMID PLOT STRUCTURE The most basic and traditional form of plot is pyramidshaped. This structure has been described in more detail by Aristotle and by Gustav Freytag. ARISTOTLE’S UNIFIED PLOT The basic triangle-shaped plot structure was described by Aristotle in 350 BCE. Aristotle used the beginning, middle, and end structure to describe a story that moved along a linear path, following a chain of cause and effect as it works toward the solution of a conflict or crisis. FREYTAG’S PLOT STRUCTURE Freytag modified Aristotle’s system by adding a rising action (or complication) and a falling action to the structure. Freytag used the five-part design shown above to describe a story’s plot. MODIFIED PLOT STRUCTURE TEACHING PLOT STRUCTURE THROUGH SHORT STORIES Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows the a causal arrangement of events and actions within a story. Freytag’s Pyramid is often modified so that it extends slightly before and after the primary rising and falling action. You might think of this part of the chart as similar to the warm-up and cool-down for the story. PLOT COMPONENTS CONFLICT is the dramatic struggle between two forces in a story. Without conflict, there is no plot. Types of Conflict Interpersonal Conflict Human vs Human Human vs Nature Human vs Society Internal Conflict Human vs Self THE LITERATURE OF INDONESIA COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE Cognitive component (beliefs and/or knowledge) Affective component (feelings) Behavioral component (predisposition to act) TONE refers to the methods by which writers and speakers reveal attitude or feelings –toward the material, toward their readers, and toward the general situation that they are describing or analyzing. The authors’ attitude or attitude toward the subject matter and toward the readers may be deduced by reading the selection carefully The tone depends on what the author himself feels towards the setting or the character, and what he wants us to feel. For example, when the author writes, “James didn’t want to go into that dark room and preferred to stay where he was”, he means that James was very scared. Or, the sentence “The sun was shining so bright that Margaret wanted to run around the garden singing all day long” suggests that Margaret was feeling excited or happy MOOD On the contrary, the mood depends on what the reader feels. The mood is usually created at the beginning of the story, so the reader can expect what will happen later on. For instance, the writer might say that the night was dark and moonless. Even though nothing is said about anyone feeling scared, this is probably the emotion that the reader will perceive. A different author might start his story describing a cruel man shouting and hitting his son. This will give the readers the feeling of anger towards the man, and pity towards his son.
