Organizational Psychology
Midterm Exam Study Guide
1. What are independent, dependent, intervening, and control variables?
Independent: variable – the ‘driver variable’ you’re looking to examine.
Dependent: variable – the ‘outcome variable’ you’re looking to examine.
Intervening: variable that isn’t being measured but still affects the outcome
Control: something that is held constant
2. What is a correlation? How do you interpret the strength of a correlation? Think of some
examples (e.g., the harder I study, the higher my grade).
 Correlation: Is my independent variable related to my dependent variable?
 Represents the degree of a ‘linear’ relationship
 Scale -1.0 to +1.0 (ignore the sign)
3. What is the difference between causal and correlational research? Which type of research
do applied I/O psychologists normally perform? Why is this type of research so common
among practitioners?
 Casual is trying to figure out what caused this thing (usually by experimentation)
 Correlation does no equal causation
 This is why applied I/O’s usually don’t perform ‘causal’ research – they
perform correlational research because they can’t control all variables like
you can in a lab.
4. What are the various forms of reliability? Provide an example of each. What effect does
reliability have on validity?
 Reliability: the consistency/stability of measure
o Ex. Test-retest, parallel forms, inter-rater, split-half, internal consistency
 Validity: the degree to which inferences from scores on a test are justified with
evidence.
 Just because a test is reliable doesn’t mean its valid
o Ex. Content, criterion-related
5. What do the terms criterion deficiency and criterion contamination mean?
 Criterion deficiency is when a performance evaluation is missing part of what a
worker does on the job
 Criterion contamination a situation in which a response measure (the criterion) is
influenced by factors that are not related to the concept being measured (it is
there and shouldn’t be there)
6. What does the term generalizability mean?
The term 'generalizability' refers to the application of the results of research to the
normal public
7. What is a latent variable? What is the difference between a “global scale” and a “facet
scale”? Provide an example.
 Latent variable: a variable that cannot be observed directly
 Global: overall feeling about the job (i.e., a “latent”
variable).
 Job facet: dimensions of the job such as your supervisor,
your coworkers, promotion opportunities
8. What is an experimental group? What is a control group?
Experimental group is the group you are testing on
Control group is where all variables are held constant
9. What are the four types of validity (hint: they all start with “c”)? Provide examples for each.
a. Construct Validity: as the extent to which a test measures the construct that it
purports to measure
b. Content Validity: Degree to which your assessment(s) covers a representative
sample of the job-related KSAO’s being assessed (“To what degree does the
content of my assessments match the content of the job?”)
c. Criterion-related Validity: How much a predictor relates to a criterion (e.g., some
measure of job performance) from a statistical perspective.
d. Face Validity: The extent to which a test appears to be job related (i.e.,
e. it “looks related”).
10. What is face validity? Why does it matter?
Face validity: is the test measuring what it is supposed to measure
It is important to know if you are trying to measure something specific and in terms of
the job does this test get out of it what you want (auto mechanic example)
11. What is the difference between a predictive and concurrent criterion-related validation
study?
Predictive validation approach: A test(s) is given to a group of applicants (not employees).
You then hire a bunch of people from that larger group (i.e., those who performed well
on the test). Then, you wait until it’s appropriate to obtain performance-related
information about these new hires until they’ve had time to fully learn the job.
Concurrent validation approach: A test(s) is given to a group of employees who are
already on the job. The scores on the test(s) are then correlated with measure of current
job performance. Concurrent approaches are more common than
predictive.
12. What is range restriction? How would you explain it to someone in simple terms?
Range restriction is taking only part of a group to there is no variation
Ex.) Harvard admissions
13. What is homogeneity? What is heterogeneity
Heterogeneity signifies diversity within a group or sample. This is the opposite of
homogeneity when samples are more alike than different.
14. What are the three facets of employee engagement?
 Vigor: are you energized/interested in your work
 Dedication: do you stick it out and give your all
 Absorption: does it feel like the clock is flying or slowly ticking along
15. What are normative, continuance, and affective commitment? Think of examples for each.
 Affective– emotional attachment to and identification with the organization.
o Ex. “Working at Company X feels like having a ‘family’. I can’t
o leave them!”
 Continuance– commitment based on the costs that the employee associates with leaving
(similar to the ‘sacrifice’ factor of job embeddedness).
o “If I left, I’d lose my reputation, employee discount, etc.”
 Normative– feelings of obligation to remain with the target.
o “I’d normally think about leaving but they’ve been so good to me I don’t think I
can leave.”
16. What is the difference between employee engagement, job satisfaction, and job
embeddedness? What are the components of job embeddedness?
 Job embeddedness is the factors that keep employees there. They are:
o Fit – how well you think you fit with your job, community, etc.
o Links – to other people at your job, friends outside of work, etc.
o Sacrifice – what you would give up if you left. Your benefits, house,
community, etc.
17. What does the research show regarding the relationship between intelligence and job
satisfaction? Are there certain personality attributes more commonly associated with job
satisfaction? What about intelligence level?
there is not a correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction. Those who are highly
intelligent may have low job satisfaction if they are not in the right position for their skills,
experience, or interests, or if their organization is not a cultural fit for them.
18. What are the different types of organizational justice? Provide examples for each.
 Distributive justice – fairness of the outcomes, results, or ends achieved based on
equity, equality, and need (the ‘what’).
o Example: You + another person hold the exact same job. Her annual bonus
payout is 80% more than yours and you feel you performed roughly
equally. Is this fair?
 Procedural justice – fairness by which means are used to achieve results (i.e., the
‘how’ or the process).
o Example: You + another person hold the exact same job and perform
equally well. Her annual bonus payout is 80% more than yours. She goes
to Applebee’s for drinks each Friday after work with your boss, but you go
home to be with your family. Is this
favoritism? Is this fair?
 Interactional justice – the fairness with which people are treated within an
organization and the timeliness, completeness an accuracy of the information
received.
o Example: Your company has annual layoffs and offers above average
severance packages. is this fair?
19. What constructs comprise the latent variable of core self-evaluations?
20. What are typical costs associated with losing employees via involuntary or voluntary
attrition? Is it always a financial loss when an employee leaves an organization? Why or
why not?
 Voluntary isn’t a lot of cost
 Involuntary they have to buy them out of their contract/ possible suits if the process isn’t
handled correctly
21. What are the primary theories of work motivation? Provide examples for each.
a. Expectancy Theory: People are rational decision makers who will expend effort on
activities that lead to desired rewards (emphasis on people thinking rationally)
Ex.) “If I work hard, I expect to perform well.”
b. Goal Setting Theory: Goals must be (
i. Clear (here’s where the specificity comes in)
ii. Challenge (here’s where the complexity comes in) (where you set the bar)
iii. Commitment
iv. Feedback
v. Task complexity (how hard it is to accomplish the task, regardless of how
high the bar is set)
vi. Ex. Reduce turnover at your store by 20% or all customer phone calls are
answered by the third ring.
c. Self-regulation theory: individuals play an active role in monitoring their own
behavior, seeking feedback, responding to the feedback and forming opinions on
success of future goals.
d. Work Design theory: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, task
feedback
22. What are some of the strongest drivers of someone feeling motivated at work?
1. Behavior – the action(s) you took.
2. Performance – how well you performed those behaviors (or how
well someone else judged your performance).
3. Ability – what you can do.
4. Situational factors – what you’re allowed to do.
5. Motivation – what you will do if given the chance.
23. What is the name of the motivation theory which argues that when managers hold high
expectations of their employees, their employees usually perform well due to those high
expectations?
Goal Setting Theory
24. What are some goal setting best practices?
S.M.A.R.T
Specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic, time bound
25. What are some key components in incentive programs in terms of driving work
performance?
Ability, motivation and opportunity
Performance = ability x motivation x opportunity
26. What are the Uniform Guidelines and why do they matter? What about the other sources
of materials which guide I/O professional practice?
The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures were issued to help
employers make equitable employment decisions, such as for hiring and selection,
retention, and test use, in accordance with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act.
THERE SHOULD BE MORE
27. What are protected classes? Which classes are protected at the federal level?
Protected classes: Applicants, employees and former employees are protected from
employment discrimination
Protected Classes: race, color, religion, sex, national origin
28. What can states do and not do in terms of expanding, diminishing, or changing laws made
at the federal level?
They can’t do anything right?
29. What is the primary difference between job analysis and job evaluation?
o In job analysis you aren’t placing a value on the tasks performed or
the attributes needed to perform them – you’re just documenting
them from an unbiased viewpoint.
o In job evaluation you are placing a value on both to determine
appropriate compensation (i.e., these are the tasks performed, these
are the necessary attributes, and here’s how much value I would
place on the work).
What the job is vs how much value the job provides
30. What type of validity is established when performing job analysis? Why is establishing this
type of validity critical (hint: think of the parachute metaphor)?
 Courts want criterion-related, but you need content validity as your safety chute
 This is in case your criterion-related validation doesn’t work out as you planned
31. There are multiple ways to conduct a job analysis, and some are more appropriate for certain
situations than others. What is a task-oriented job analysis? What are some jobs where this
type of job analysis would be most appropriate?
work-oriented job analysis, is concerned with what the employees does (relevant jobrelated behaviors) and how it is done (required machinery, tools, interaction with people,
and information).
32. How has the practice of job analysis evolved as the United States economy shifted from
manufacturing to a knowledge-based economy?
People need to know things
What was talked about in quiz 3
Went from manufacturing/assembly line to not
33. What is the difference between negotiation, mediation, and arbitration?
 Mediation – Employees and the organization meet with a neutral third party who
tries to help the two sides reach a mutually agreed upon solution.
 Arbitration – The two sides present their case to a neutral third party who then
makes a decision as to which side is right (so, an arbitrator make the decision, a
mediator facilitates a decision).
o Binding Arbitration – Neither
side can appeal the decision.
o Nonbinding Arbitration – Can
accept the decision or take the
case to court.
 Negotiation: trying to handle it out of court only the two parties involved (no
outside 3rd party)
34. What does the law require in terms of providing accommodations for employees who
actively practice a religion? What rights do these people have and not have?
Organizations are required to accommodate unless it causes undue hardship.
”Requirements” are different from “preferences”.
They can have off on holidays
35. What were the claims behind Ricci v. DeStefano, Albermarle v. Moody, & Gross v. FBL
Financial Services? What did each case focus on?
 Ricci v. Destefano (summer 2009)–118 firefighters took cognitive written and oral
tests for consideration for a promotion to Captain and Lieutenant. The pass rate
for Blacks was half that of Whites. Based upon rules set by the Union and the city,
all promotions would have gone to Whites based on the results of the tests. The
city was afraid of a lawsuit, so they didn’t promote anyone – that is obvious reverse
discrimination. The case was settled 5-4 by the Supreme Court.
 Albemarle Paper Company v. Moody (1975): (you have to look at reasonable
alternatives) The employer may be found liable for systemic discrimination if they
didn’t consider better alternatives - even if the selection procedure is related to the
job. Conducted a validation study only one month before the trial and focused on
high-level jobs, not the roles in question.
 Gross v. FBL Financial Services: In April 2004, Jack Gross sued FBL Financial Services,
Inc. (FBL) under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) alleging he was
demoted because of his age. A federal district court in Iowa found in his favor and
awarded him $46, 945.
36. What is adverse impact, why does it matter, and how do we properly assess for it?
Adverse impact: when something has an unintended negative consequence
Ex. when protected group members score differently (usually worse) than nonprotected members
 We assess them by looking into all the steps of out tests, having hard conversations
and implement Computerized adaptive testing (CAT) and situational judgment tests
(SJT’s)