Leadership And Decision Making LEADERSHIP • Leadership is a complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers, and the situation. • Process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals. Due to the complexity of leadership, the concept has been defined in many ways: 1) Process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner 2) Directing and coordinating the work of group members 3) Interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to LEADERSHIPS AS A PROCESS OF INFLUENCING AN ORGANIZED GROUP TOWARD ACCOMPLISHING ITS GOALS • Pertains to actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities • Creating conditions for a team to be effective • The ability to engage employees, the ability to build teams, and the ability to achieve results • The first two represent the how and the latter the what of leadership. • A complex form of social problem solving. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL MANAGERS AND EFFECTIVE MANAGERS 1) 2) Successful Managers - Those promoted through the ranks - Spend more time in organizational socializing and politicking - Spend less time on traditional management responsibilities such as planning and decision making Effective Managers - Make real contributions to their organization’s performance LEADERSHIP IS BOTH SCIENCE AND ART - • • • Leadership remains partly an art as well as a science. Some managers may be effective leaders without ever having taken a course or training program in leadership. Some scholars in the field of leadership may be relatively poor leaders themselves. LEADERSHIP IS BOTH RATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL • Leadership involves both the rational and emotional sides of human experience. • Some scholars suggest the very idea of leadership may be rooted in our emotional needs. • Belief in the potency of leadership (the romance of leadership) may be a cultural myth that has utility primarily insofar as it affects how people create meaning about causal events in complex social systems. - Good leadership is more than just calculation and planning, though a rational analysis can enhance good leadership. - Remember Martin Luther’s King Jr.’s “I have a dream” speech. He inspired people to action and at the same touched their hearts and minds. - Aroused feelings can be used positively or negatively. There were leaders who were able to inspire people to greed deeds of actions and courage and there were others who made people act mindlessly. - Mere presence of a group causes people to act differently than when they are alone LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 1) Leadership – is consistent with risk taking, dynamic, creativity, change and vision. It is value choosing ang value laden. 2) Management – deals with efficiency, planning, regulations, control, and consistency. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN MANAGERS AND LEADERS MANAGERS LEADERS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Administer Maintain Control Have a short-term view Ask how and when Imitate Accept the status quo Innovate Develop Inspire Have a long-term view Ask what and why Originate Challenge the status quo Leadership and Management Overlap: • Leadership and management are two overlapping functions. • Some functions performed by leaders and managers are unique, but there are functions which overlap. LEADERSHIP MYTHS In general, these myths can be classified into three broad categories of beliefs that hinder the development of leadership: 1) 2) 3) “Good leadership is all common sense.” - One believes that good leadership only entails common sense. - The problem is the term common sense is ambiguous. - It implies that there is a body of practical knowledge about life that virtually any reasonable person with moderate experience has acquired. - If leadership were simply common sense, then there would be fewer workplace problems. “Leaders are born, not made.” - Innate factors and formative experiences influence behavior and leadership - Natural talents or characteristics may offer certain advantages or disadvantages to a leader. - What is important is how these factors interact. - Research shows cognitive abilities and personality traits are partially innate. Natural talents may prove to be advantageous or disadvantageous to a leader. - Different environments can nurture or suppress different leadership qualities. “The only school you can learn leadership from is the school of hard knocks.” - Formal study and experiential learning complement each other. - Formal study of leadship provides students with a variety of ways of examining a particular leadership situation. Studying the different ways researchers have defined and examined leadership helps students use these definitions and theories to better understand what is going on in any leadership situation. - Figure 1.2: The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership (This framework depicts leadership as a function of 3 elements; leaders, followers and situation.) THE INTERACTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYZING LEADERSHIP It states that leadership is the result of a complex set of interactions among the leader, the followers, and the situation. Example: In-groups and out-groups • In-groups: High degree of mutual influence and attraction between the leader and a few subordinates. • Subordinates feel a high degree of loyalty, commitment, and trust toward the leader. In-groups are distinguished by their high degree of loyalty, commitment and trust felt toward the leader. Leaders have more influence to the ingroup followers that with the out-group followers. THE LEADER Characteristics include: • Unique personal history • Interests • • Character traits Motivation 1) Effective leaders differ from their followers and from ineffective leaders on elements such as personality traits, cognitive abilities, skills, and values. 2) Leaders are generally calm and are not prone to emotional outbursts. 3) Leaders appointed by superiors may have less credibility and may get less loyalty. 4) Leaders elected or emerging by consensus from ranks of followers are seen as more effective. 5) Leader’s experience or history in a particular organization is usually important to her or his effectiveness. 6) Leader’s legitimacy is affected by the extent of follower participation in a leader’s selection. THE FOLLOWERS Both practitioners and scholars stress the relatedness of leadership and followership. Following aspects of followers affect the leadership process: • Expectations • Personality traits • Maturity levels • Levels of competence • Motivation 5 Basic Styles of Followership according to Robert Kelley: 1) Alienated Followers – they habitually point out the all the negative aspects of the organization to others. 2) Conformist Followers – are the “yes people” in the organization. 3) Pragmatist Followers – are rarely committed to their group’s work goals, but they have learned not to make waves. 4) Passive Followers – they don’t have the characteristics of the exemplary followers. They rely to their leader to do all the thinking. 5) Exemplary Followers – present a consistent picture to both leaders and coworkers of being independent, innovative and willing to stand up to superiors. Their talents are applied to the benefits of the organization. Workers who share a leader’s goals and values, and who feel intrinsically rewarded for performing a job well may be more motivated. Following factors have significant implications: • • Number of followers reporting to a leader Followers’ trust and confidence in the leader Importance of the leader and follower relationship has undergone dynamic change for the following reasons: 1. 2. 3. Increased pressure to function with reduced resources. Trend toward greater power sharing and decentralized authority in organizations. Increase in complex problems and rapid changes in an organization. Ways in which followers can take on new leadership roles and responsibilities in the future: 1. Being proactive in their stance toward organizational problems. 2. Contributing to the leadership process by becoming skilled at “influencing upward.” 3. Staying flexible and open to opportunities. Alternative approach to understanding followership: • Constructionist approach – Views leadership as combined acts of leading and following by different individuals, whatever their formal titles or positions in an organization may be. THE SITUATION Leadership makes sense in the context of how the leader and followers interact in a given situation. • Most ambiguous aspect of the leadership framework Illustrating the Interactional Framework: Women in Leadership Roles Women are taking on leadership roles in greater numbers than ever before. Problems that constrain the opportunity for capable women to rise to the highest leadership roles still exist. Findings from studies regarding problems that constrain women from gaining leadership roles: • Mentors of women executives had less organizational influence and clout than did the mentors of their male counterparts. • Compared to men, women’s trust in each other decreases when work situations become more professionally risky. • • • • • Women’s commitment to the organizations they worked for was more guarded than that of their male counterparts. Strong masculine stereotype of leadership continues to exist in the workplace. Women are seen as less well suited to the requirements of leadership than men. Practice interactive leadership Interactive leadership developed by women’s socialization experiences and career paths Factors that explain the shift toward more women in leadership roles: • Women themselves have changed • Organizational practices have changed • Leadership roles have changed • Culture has changed GLASS CLIFF - Female candidates for an executive position are more likely to be hired than equally qualified male candidates when an organization’s performance is declining. - Challenge for women in addition to the glass ceiling. - Reflects a greater willingness to put women in precarious positions. THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND FOR EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP Leadership must always be assessed in the context of the leader, the followers, and the situation. Leaders may need to respond to: 1. Various followers differently in the same situation 2. Same followers differently in different situations Followers may respond to: 1. 2. 3. Various leaders differently Each other differently with different leaders The right behavior in one situation is not necessarily the right behavior in another situation. CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY: Leadership is the process of influencing an organized group toward achieving its goals. Considerable overlap exists between leadership and management. Study of leadership must also include two other areas: the followers and the situation. Good leadership makes a difference, and it can be enhanced through greater awareness of the important factors influencing the leadership process. INTRODUCTION LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT VS. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 1) Leader Development – is more appropriate to use when referring to methods intended to facilitate growth in individual’s perspective or skills. 2) Leadership Development – focus on developing shared properties of whole groups or social systems such as the degree of trust among all members of a team or department, or on enhancing the reward systems in an organization to better encourage collaborative behavior. “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.” - John F. Kennedy Leadership is a Process, Not a Position THE ACTION-OBSERVATION-REFLECTION MODEL (A-O-R Model) This shows that leadership development is enhanced when the experience involves the following processes: • • Action • Observation Reflection Leadership development through experience may be better understood as the growth resulting from repeated movements through all three phases rather than merely in terms of some objective dimension. Action What did you do? How specifically did you do it? e x p e r i e n c e Observation What happened? What were the results? How did it impact others? e x p e r i e n c e Reflection How do you understand it now? What was the paradigm shifts? Learning theorists suggest that people can learn the most from experiences when they spend time thinking about and reflecting on those experiences. This notion provides the basis for the action-observation-reflection (A-O-R) model and the spiral of experience. It is not enough just to have experiences, but one needs to think about what they did, what the outcomes were, and how they can leverage what they did to learn the skills required to continue to perform effectively or how they can change to be more effective. Developing the skills necessary to observe the consequences of one’s actions and reflecting on the importance and meaning will improve leadership development and leadership performance. The Spiral of experience – is the most productive way to develop as a leader. KEY ROLE OF PERCEPTION IN THE SPIRAL OF EXPERIENCE 1. 2. 3. Experience depends on what events happen to one and how one perceives those events. Perception affects all three phases of the action, observation, and reflection or A O R model. People actively shape and construct their experiences. PERCEPTION AND OBSERVATION • With respect to observation, people selectively attend to events in the environment. • One phenomenon that demonstrates this selectivity is called perceptual set. • Perceptual sets can influence any of our senses, and they are the tendency or bias to perceive one thing and not another. • Many factors can trigger a perceptual set, such as feelings, needs, prior experience, and expectations. Perceptual sets can influence any of one’s senses. - Tendency or bias to perceive one thing and not another. - Feelings, needs, prior experiences, and expectations can all trigger a perceptual set - Stereotypes about gender, race, and the like represent powerful impediments to learning because they function as filters that distort one’s observations. PERCEPTION AND REFLECTION • Perception influences reflection. • Reflection – is how humans interpret their observations. • Perception – is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-making, activity, of which attribution is an important aspect Factors that affect the attribution process: a. Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail. b. Self-serving bias: Tendency to make external attributions for one’s own failures and make internal attributions for one’s own successes c. Actor or observer difference: Refers to the fact that people who are observing an action are much more likely than the actor to make the fundamental attribution error Apart from perception and attribution, reflection also involves higher functions like evaluation and judgment. PERCEPTION AND ACTION • Research shows that perceptions and biases affect supervisors’ actions toward poorly performing subordinates. • Research shows that perceptions and biases affect supervisors’ actions toward poorly performing subordinates. • Self-fulfilling prophecy – Occurs when one's expectations or predictions play a causal role in bringing about the events he or she predicts. • Having expectations about others can subtly influence our actions, and these actions can, in turn, affect the way others behave. REFLECTION AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 1. Reflection offers leaders insights about framing problems differently, viewing situations from multiple perspectives, and understanding subordinates better. 2. Leaders tend to ignore reflection because they lack time or they lack awareness of its value. 3. Leadership development can be enhanced by raising implicit beliefs to conscious awareness in order to aid thoughtful reflection. 4. Intentional reflection may prompt one to see potential benefits in experience not initially considered relevant to leadership. Fundamental Archetypes of Leadership: These archetypes provide the value for helping developing leaders articulate their tacit knowledge on leadership, see the similarities and differences and have a better understanding on the complexities of leadership. • • • Teacher and mentor Father and judge Warrior and knight • • Revolutionary and crusader Visionary and alchemist Single and Double-loop Learning: 1) Single-loop learners - They seek relatively little feedback that may significantly confront their fundamental ideas or actions. - 2) Individuals learn only about subjects within the comfort zone of their belief systems. Double-loop learning - Involves being willing to confront one’s own views and inviting others to do the same. - Mastering double-loop learning is viewed as learning how to learn. - Learning is enhanced through a practice of systematic reflection or after event reviews or A E Rs. MAKING THE MOST OF ONE'S LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCES: LEARNING TO LEARN FROM EXPERIENCE 1. Research shows a meaningful link between stress and learning. 2. The learning events and developmental experiences that punctuate one’s life are usually— perhaps always—stressful. 3. In stressful situations, there is a tendency to do what’s always been done. 4. What results is one of the great challenges of adult development: the times when people most need to break out of the mold created by past learning patterns are the times when they are most unwilling to do so. 5. Being able to go against the grain of one’s personal historical success requires an unwavering commitment to learning and a relentless willingness to let go of the fear of failure and the unknown. 6. To be successful, learning must continue throughout life, beyond the completion of one’s formal education. Leader Development in College: University courses in leadership generally provide a broad survey of leadership research and findings. In these settings, knowledge is often transferred via the lecture method. Additionally, these courses make use of individualized feedback, role playing, and case studies to enhance learning and development. Simulations and games are other methods of leader development. Recent research suggests that development as a leader may most authentically and enduringly occur when the context and design of the experiences afford learns the opportunity to deeply personalize their lessons of experience. Leadership programs should be multidisciplinary and should cultivate values represented in the broader field. Service learning is used to inculcate values such as social responsibility and the expectation to become engaged in one’s community. Should focus on expected developmental outcomes, with associated assessment and evaluation to determine program effectiveness. • Different leader development methods may be used beyond service learning. Some courses or program elements might involve individualized feedback to students in the form of: a. Personality, intelligence, values, or interest test scores b. Leadership behavior ratings c. Case studies and role playing are used as vehicles for leadership discussions d. Simulations and games are structured activities designed to mirror the challenges or decisions commonly faced in the work environment Leader Development in Organizational Settings Leadership training programs are more narrowly focused than university courses and are much shorter. Oftentimes, these training programs target a specific audience and the set of skills that audience needs to better accomplish their job tasks and responsibilities (e.g., mid-level managers). Increasingly leadership development is occurring in the context of work itself. A great deal of research has demonstrated the positive effects of education and training programs on performance and advancement, but the content of these programs varies substantially. Program Content Depends on the Organization Level of Participants: 1) First-level supervisors 2) Mid-level managers Programs for the first-level supervisors uses lectures, case studies, and role-playing exercises to improve supervisory skills. They focus on: Mid-level manager programs use individualized feedback, case studies, presentations, role playing, simulations, and in-basket exercises to improve: • • • Interpersonal skills Oral and written communication • Monitoring skills • Giving feedback • Time management • Conducting performance reviews • Planning • Goal setting Conger states that a multi-tiered approach is effective and should focus on personal growth, skill building, feedback, and conceptual awareness. 1. 2. 3. 4. Training Some approaches to leadership development emphasize individualized feedback about each person’s strengths and weaknesses based on standardized assessment methods. Others emphasize that leader development in the twenty-first century must occur in more lifelike situations and contexts. Leadership programs for senior executives and CEOs focus on strategic planning, public relations, and interpersonal skills. Training Programs and Action Learning Traditional training programs involve personnel taking leadership classes during work hours. Traditional training programs involve personnel taking leadership classes during work hours. Such training addresses common leadership issues, but its artificial nature makes it difficult to transfer concepts to actual work situations. Action learning involves the use of actual work issues and challenges as the developmental activity itself. They are conducted in teams of work colleagues who are addressing real company challenges. Development Planning To make enduring behavioral changes, leaders must provide positive answers to the following five questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Do leaders know which of their behaviors need to change? Is the leader motivated to change these behaviors? Do leaders have plans in place for changing targeted behaviors? Do leaders have opportunities to practice new skills? Are leaders held accountable for changing targeted behaviors? Good development plans are constantly being revised as new skills are learned or new opportunities to develop skills become available. Provides a methodology for leaders to improve their behavior even as they go about their daily work activities. Coaching Key leadership skill that can help leaders improve the bench strength of the group and retain high-quality followers. Process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities that they need to develop and become more successful. Types of Coaching: 1) Formal coaching programs: Designed for the specific needs and goals of individual executives and managers in leadership positions. Features of Formal Coaching: • One-on-one relationship between manager and coach lasts from six months to more than a year. • The process begins with an assessment of the manager to clarify development needs. • Coach and manager meet regularly to build skills. • Role plays and videotape are used extensively, and coaches provide immediate feedback. Outcomes of coaching programs • • Clarification of managers’ values • Identification of discrepancies between managers’ espoused values and their actual behaviors • Development of strategies to better align managers’ behaviors with their values (Formal coaching programs can be expensive. It cost more than 100,000 dollars.) (Coaching may be more effective at changing behavior than more traditional learning and training approaches.) 2) Informal coaching: Takes place whenever a leader helps followers to change their behaviors. • The process can be used to diagnose why behavioral change is not occurring and what can be done about it. • It can and does occur anywhere in the organization and is effective for both high-performing and low-performing followers. • Increases in difficulty when it occurs either remotely or across cultures. Peterson and Hicks: Steps in Informal Coaching 1 2 3 Forging a Inspiring Growing partnership commitment skills 4 Promoting persistence 5 Shaping the environment Mentoring Personal relationship in which a more experienced mentor acts as a guide, role model, and sponsor of a less experienced protégé. Mentoring is not the same as coaching because: 1. It may not target specific development needs 2. Guidance is provided by someone several leadership levels higher in the organization and not the immediate supervisor 3. Mentor may not even be part of the organization 4. There are formal and informal mentoring programs 5. Informal mentoring occurs when a protégé and mentor build a long-term relationship based on friendship, similar interests, and mutual respect Mentor - experienced person willing to take an individual under his or her wing - usually someone 2 to 4 levels higher in an organization - provides protégés with knowledge, advice, challenge, counsel, & support about career opportunities, organizational strategy and policy, and office politics. • In a formal mentoring program, the organization assigns a relatively inexperienced but high-potential leader to a top executive in the company. Often used to accelerate the development of female or minority protégés. Informal mentoring may be more effective than formal mentoring as it creates a stronger emotional bond and can last a lifetime. • • BUILDING ONE'S OWN LEADERSHIP SELF-IMAGE 1. 2. 3. Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes he or she can be. Many people are selling themselves short. People who want to avoid the responsibilities of leadership should keep an open mind about the importance and pervasiveness of leadership. CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY: One way to add value to one's leadership courses and experiences is by applying the action, observation, and reflection model. To become a better leader, one must seek challenges and try to make the best of any leadership opportunity. Behavior change efforts are most successful if some formal system or process of behavioral change is put into place. Systems include action learning, development planning, informal and formal coaching programs, and mentorships. Leaders can help their followers with behavioral change through coaching or mentoring programs. CHAPTER 3: SKILLS FOR DEVELOPING YOURSELF AS A LEADER THE NEW LEADER ONBOARDING ROAD MAP BEFORE YOU START Prehire data gathering Posthire activities THE FIRST DAY Meet your boss Meet your entire team THE FIRST TWO WEEKS Meet team members Meet peers Meet stars Other meetings THE FIRST TWO MONTHS Obtain external perspectives, strategy, structure, and staffing Socialize decisions THE THIRD MONTH Establish culture Team off-site: - Values - Strategy - Operating Rhythm Improvement areas Get feedback Sub team analyses (This is a road map to help people make successful transitions into new leadership positions.) BEFORE YOU START: DO YOUR HOMEWORK • A candidate should prepare for the interview. • The candidates should gather as much information about their potential company as they can. • Sources of information include Websites, annual reports, press releases, and marketing literature. • Can also use Facebook, LinkedIn, Plaxo, and other social networking sites to set up informational interviews with people inside the organization. • These informational interviews will help the candidates to learn more about the organization’s history and culture and provide important insight about the vacant position. THE FIRST DAY: MAKING A FIRST IMPRESSION The first meeting with the boss happens in the boss’s office and lasts an hour. The key topics to address in the meeting are: 1. Identifying the team’s key objectives, metrics, and important projects. 2. Understanding the boss’s view of team strengths and weaknesses. 3. Working through meeting schedules and communication styles. 4. Sharing plans for the day and the next several weeks. THE FIRST TWO WEEKS: LAY THE FOUNDATION The new leaders should meet people both inside and outside the team. Key objectives for these meetings are: • • • Learning as much as possible Developing relationships Determining future allies One-on-one meetings with key team members should provide the leader with answers to critical questions: • • • • • • What is the team member working on? What are the team member’s objectives? Who are the “stars” a level or two down in the organization? What are the people issues on the team? What can the team do better? What advice do team members have for the new leader, and what can the new leader do to help team members? a. b. c. d. e. f. g. New leaders should minimize their personal interactions with direct reports during their first two months on the job. They should discuss the following during meetings: Their peers’ objectives, challenges, team structure, etcetera Their perspectives on what the new leader’s team does well and could do better Their perspectives on the new leader’s team members How to best communicate with the boss How issues get raised and decisions made on their boss’s team During the first two weeks, new leaders should also try to meet with individuals who were once part of the team but have taken positions in other parts of the organization. These individuals can offer unique insights into the history of the team and its team members, and this source of information should not be overlooked. The two other pieces of organization new leaders should gather during the first two weeks are what the organization sees as the critical roles on the team and if they were any internal candidates for the team leader position. New leaders should need this information to ensure they have the best talent filing key roles and to see if anyone on the team may be hoping to fail. FIRST TWO MONTHS: STRATEGY, STRUCTURE, AND STAFFING • It is essential for the Leader to gather more information, determine the direction, and finalize the appropriate structure and staffing for the team for the next six weeks. • The first 90 days on the job provide a unique window for driving change and leaders should know how to “socialize” their strategy, structure, and staffing ideas with their bosses and peers before making any personnel decisions. The tasks to be performed include: a. Gathering benchmarking information from other organizations b. Meeting with key external customers and suppliers c. Meeting with the former team leader, if appropriate New leaders need to be able to articulate: d. Where the team has been and where it needs to go over the next one to three years e. What the team needs to accomplish and what changes will be needed to make this happen f. Their expectations for team members • Once the proposed changes have been agreed to, new leaders need to have one-onone meetings with all team members affected by any strategy, structure, and staffing decisions. • The new leaders should seek feedback from peers and recruiters. THIRD MONTH: COMMUNICATE AND DRIVE CHANGE Things to do include: a. Articulating how the team will win b. Identifying the what, why, and how of any needed changes c. Defining a clear set of expectations for team members The Major events for the third month: a. Meet with the entire team b. Meet off-site with direct reports if the team is large The purpose of the first meeting is to enable the leader to share the information he gathered during the process, vision for the future, staffing model, team structure, his/her expectations about the team members and any rationale regarding changes in the team. The change pertains to the tangible actions taken by the leader. KEY OBJECTIVES OF THE OFF-SITE MEETING: 1) Get agreement on the critical attributes and values of team members. - New leaders should set-off time to finalize and clearly define the positive and negative behaviors for all attributes and values they want to see in their members. 2) Create a team scorecard. – New leaders will create the vision and overall objectives for the future, direct report teams need to formulate concrete, specific goals with timelines and benchmarks to measure success. 3) Establish an operating rhythm. – Teams need to work on their rules of engagement. 4) Establish task forces to work on key change initiatives. – Issues need to be addressed by the team can be done on off-site meetings, whereas task forces may be a better venue for resolving other issues. LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE Leadership practitioners can enhance the learning value of experiences by: • Creating opportunities to get feedback – The most helpful information for developing leadership comes from feedback regarding perceptions in one’s behavior, and impact on the group’s overall effectiveness. • Taking a 10 percent stretch - It conveys the idea of voluntary but determined efforts to improve leadership skills. • Learning from others - Leaders can learn a lot by observing how others react to and handle different challenges and situations. • Keeping a journal of daily leadership events – Good journal entries give leaders a wealth of examples they can use. • Having a developmental plan – Leaders should have a systematic plan outlining selfimprovement goal and help them take advantage of opportunities that they may otherwise overlook. TECHNICAL COMPETENCE It concerns the knowledge and repertoire of behaviors one can utilize to complete a task successfully. Followers with technical competence earn better performance appraisal ratings, exert influence in their groups, and are more likely to be a member of a leader’s in-group. This is related to improved managerial promotion rates, better training skills, lower rates of group conflict, reduced levels of role ambiguity, and higher motivation levels among followers for leaders. REASONS WHY FOLLOWERS NEED A HIGH LEVEL OF TECHNICAL COMPETENCE: • Performance is a function of technical competence. • Followers with high level of technical competence have a lot of expert power and at times can wield more influence in their groups than their leader. • Individuals with high levels of technical competence may be more likely to be of a leader’s in-group and more likely to be delegated tasks and asked to participate in decisions. STEPS IN BUILDING TECHNICAL COMPETENCE: • Determining how the job contributes to the overall success of the organization. • Becoming an expert in the job through education, training, observation, asking questions, and teaching. • Seeking opportunities to broaden one’s experiences by performing tasks associated with the other positions in one’s work group and visiting other parts of the organization. BUILDING EFFECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS WITH SUPERIORS In order to understand the superior’s world better, followers should: • Understand the superior’s personal and organizational objectives. • Realize that superiors do not have all the answers and have both strengths and weaknesses. • Keep the superior informed about various activities in the work group or new developments or opportunities in the field. ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A GOOD WORKING RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERIORS: a. Superiors and followers sharing the same values, approaches, and attitudes will: - b. Experience less conflict Provide higher levels of mutual support Be more satisfied with superior and follower relationships Followers receive better performance appraisal ratings. Requires followers to adapt to the superior’s style by: Clarifying expectations about their role on the team, committee, or work group Listing major responsibilities and using the list to guide discussions with superiors about different ways to accomplish tasks and relative priorities of the tasks Being honest and dependable BUILDING EFFECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS WITH PEERS Research suggests that a key requirement of leadership effectiveness is the ability to build strong alliances with others. WAYS TO ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN GOOD PEER RELATIONSHIPS: - Recognizing common interests and goals Understanding peers’ tasks, problems, and rewards Practicing a theory Y attitude Recognition of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses DEVELOPMENT PLANNING It is a systematic process of building knowledge and experience or changing behavior. Peterson and Hicks believe that there are five interrelated phases to developmental planning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identifying development needs Analyzing data to identify and prioritize development need Using prioritized development needs to create a focused and achievable development plan Periodically reviewing the plan, reflecting on learning, and modifying or updating the plan as appropriate Transferring learning to new environments CONDUCTING A G-A-P-S ANALYSIS • • G – goals A – abilities P- perceptions S- standards. The first phase in the planning stage. This helps the leader to gather and categorize all pertinent development planning information. STEPS IN GAPS ANALYSIS: 1. 2. 3. 4. Identifying career goals Identifying strengths and development needs related to the career goals Determining how one’s abilities, skills, and behaviors are perceived by others by asking others for feedback or through performance reviews or 360-feedback instruments Determining the standards of one's boss or organization has for one's career objectives BRIDGING THE GAPS: BUILDING A DEVELOPMENT PLAN: Following are the steps for developing a high-impact development plan: • • • • • • • Working on career and development objectives Determining the criteria for success Determining action steps Deciding whom to involve and reassessing dates Stretching assignments Using various resources Reflecting the knowledge with a partner SUMMARY • The first three months give leaders unique opportunities to make smooth transitions, paint compelling pictures of the future, and drive organizational change. • Performance is a function of technical competence. • Individuals who have good superior-follower relationships are often in the superior’s in-group. • Fundamental requirement of leadership effectiveness is the ability to build strong alliances with others. • Development planning is the systematic process of building knowledge and experience or changing behavior. IMPORTANT DISTINCTIONS: 1) Power - is defined as the capacity to produce effects on others or the potential to influence others. • It refers to the function of the leader, the followers, and the situation. It does not need to be exercised in order to have its effect. • Attributed to others on the basis and frequency of influence tactics they use and on their outcomes. 2) Influence - is the change in a target agent’s attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors as the result of influence tactics. 3) Influence tactics - One person’s actual behaviors designed to change another person’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors. • Apart from leaders, followers can also wield power and influence over leaders as well as over each other. • These are overt behaviors exhibited by one person to influence another. DISTINCTION BETWEEN POWER AND INFLUENCE: POWER INFLUENCE Power is the capacity to cause change Influence is the degree of actual change in a target person’s attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors. MEASUREMENT OF INFLUENCE Influence can be measured by the behaviors or attitudes manifested by followers as a result of a leader’s influence tactics. • Leaders with high amounts of power can cause fairly substantial changes in subordinates’ attitudes and behaviors. • Leaders and followers make use of variety of tactics to influence each other’s behavior or attitudes. • The amount of power followers has in work situations can also vary dramatically. • Individuals with a relatively large amount of power may successfully employ a wider variety of influence tactics. • Some followers may exert relatively more influence than the leader does in certain situations. • Followers often can use a wider variety of influence tactics than the leader. - This is because the formal leader is not always the person who possesses the most power in a leadership situation. POWER AND LEADERSHIP SITUATIONS THAT CAN AFFECT PERCEPTION OF ONE’S POWER: • • • • • • Furniture and arrangement Shape of the table used for meetings and seating arrangements Prominently displayed symbols Appearances of title and authority Choice of clothing Presence or absence of crisis SOURCES OF LEADER POWER IN THE LEADER, FOLLOWER, AND SITUATION FRAMEWORK: • French and Raven identified five sources or bases of power by which an individual can influence another. • These five sources include one that is primarily a function of the leader, another is the relationship of the leader and followers, one is primarily a function of the leader and situation, one that is primarily a function of the situation, and finally one that involves the three elements. FRENCH AND RAVEN’S BASES OF SOCIAL POWER EXPERT POWER 1) 2) 3) POWER OF KNOWLEDGE • Some people are able to influence others with their relative expertise in particular areas. • Followers may have more expert power than leaders at times. • If different followers have considerably greater amounts of expert power, the leader may be unable to influence them using expert power alone. REFERENT POWER • It refers to the potential influence one has because of the strength of the relationship between the leader and the followers. • Takes time to develop but can be lost quickly. • Desire to maintain referent power may limit a leader’s actions in certain situations. • The stronger the relationship, the more influence leaders and followers exert over each other. • A relative degree of responsiveness is primarily a function of the strength of the relationship. • Followers with relatively more referent power than their peers are often spokespersons for their units and have more latitude to deviate from work-unit norms. LEGITIMATE POWER • Depends upon on a person’s organizational role or his or her formal or official authority. • Allows exertion of influence through requests or demands deemed appropriate by virtue of one’s role and position. • Holding a position and being a leader are not synonymous. • Effective leaders often intuitively realize they need more than legitimate power to be successful. • Followers can use their legitimate power, job descriptions, bureaucratic rules, or union policies to influence leaders. 4) REWARD POWER • Involves the potential to influence others through control over desired resources. • Potential to influence others through reward power is a joint function of the leader, the followers, and the situation. Problems Associated with Rewards: a. Overemphasizing performance rewards can lead to workers feeling resentful and manipulated. b. Extrinsic rewards such as praise or compensation may not have the same behavioral effects as intrinsic rewards such as personal growth and development c. Rewards may produce compliance but no other desirable outcomes like commitment. Leaders can enhance their ability to influence others based on reward power by: a. Determining what rewards are available and most valued by subordinates. b. Establishing policies for the fair and consistent administration of rewards for good performance. Followers can exercise reward power over leaders by: 5) a. Controlling scarce resources b. Modifying their level of effort based on the leader’s performance COERSIVE POWER • It is the potential to influence others through the administration of negative sanctions or the removal of positive events. • Reliance on this power has inherent limitations. • Informal coercion can change the attitudes and behaviors of others. • One of the most common forms of coercion is a superior’s temperamental outbursts. • Followers that use coercive power to influence a leader’s behavior tend to have a relatively high amount of referent power among co-workers. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ABOUT FRENCH AND RAVEN’S POWER OF TAXONOMY • Leaders can usually exert more power during a crisis than during periods of relative calm. • During a crisis, followers may be more eager to receive direction and control from leaders. • Research indicates that leaders who rely on referent and expert powers have subordinates who: - Are more motivated and satisfied Are absent less Perform better FOLLOWING GENERALIZATIONS CAN BE MADE ABOUT POWER AND INFLUENCE: • Effective leaders take advantage of all their sources of power. • Leaders in well-functioning organizations are open to being influenced by their subordinates. • Leaders vary in the extent to which they share power with subordinates. • Effective leaders generally work to increase their various power bases or become more willing to use their coercive power. LEADER MOTIVES • One way of looking at the relationship between power and leadership involves focusing on the individual leader’s personality. • People vary in their motivation to influence or control others. • Need for power is expressed in the following ways: a. Personalized power – is exercised for personal needs by selfish, impulsive, uninhibited individuals who lack self-control. b. Socialized power - is used for the benefit of others or the organization and involves self-sacrifice. c. Thematic Apperception Test, a projective personality test, can assess the need for power. d. Need for power is found to be positively related to various leadership effectiveness criteria. Individuals vary in their motivation to manage. Miner describes motivation to manage in terms of the following composites: • • • • • • Maintaining good relationships with authority figures Wanting to compete for recognition and advancement Being active and assertive Wanting to exercise influence over subordinates Being visibly different from followers Being willing to do routine administrative tasks • Miner’s Sentence Completion Scale or M S C S measures a person's motivation to manage. • The overall composite M S C S score consistently predicts leadership success in hierarchical or bureaucratic organizations. • Findings concerning need for power and motivation to manage have several implications for leadership practitioners: - Not all individuals like being leaders - High need for power or motivation to manage does not guarantee leadership success • High need for socialized power and a high level of activity inhibition may be required for long-term leadership success. • Followers and leaders differ in the need for power, activity inhibition, and motivation to manage. TYPES OF INFLUENCE TACTICS BASED ON THE INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE: 1) Rational persuasion: When logical arguments or factual evidence is used to influence others. 2) Inspirational appeals: When a request or proposal is designed to arouse enthusiasm or emotions in targets. 3) Consultation: When targets are asked to participate in planning an activity. 4) Ingratiation: When an agent attempts to get a target in a good mood before making a request. Personal Appeals Exchange Coalition Tactics When a target is asked to do a favor out of friendship. When a target is influenced through the exchange of favors. When agents seek the help of others to influence the target. Pressure Tactics Legitimizing Tactics When threats or persistent reminders are used to influence targets. When agents make requests based on their position or authority. INFLUENCE TACTICS AND POWER • If power is the capacity to influence others, influence tactics pertain to the actual behaviors used by an agent to change the attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of a target person. • Various instruments have been developed to study influence tactics, but the Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) was the most promising. • A strong relationship exists between the relative power of agents and targets and the types of influence tactics used. • Leaders with high referent power generally do not use legitimizing or pressure tactics. • Leaders with only coercive or legitimate power tend to use coalition, legitimizing, or pressure tactics. Hard Tactics are Used When: Soft Tactics are Used When: a. a. b. c. b. c. An influencer has the upper hand Resistance is anticipated The other person’s behavior violates important norms One is at a disadvantage Resistance is expected There is personal benefit if the attempt is successful • Using influence tactics is a social skill. • People select influence tactics as a function of their power relationship with another person. - Relationship holds true universally across different social domains. OTHER WAYS TO SUCCESSFULLY INFLUENCE SUPERIORS: a. b. c. Thoroughly preparing beforehand Involving others for support or coalition tactics Persisting through a combination of approaches A CONCLUDING THOUGHT ABOUT INFLUENCE TACTICS An important lesson for leaders is the value of being conscious of what influence tactics one uses and what effects are typically associated with those tactics. Knowledge of such effects can help a leader to make better decisions about her or his manner of influencing decision. Leaders should pay attention to the actual influence tactics they use and why they believe particular methods are effective. • Influence efforts intended to build others up more frequently lead to positive outcomes than influence efforts intended to put others down. SUMMARY: • By reflecting on their different bases of power, leaders may better understand how they can affect followers and even expand their power. • Leaders can improve their effectiveness by finding ways to enhance the value of their personal contribution to their team. • Leaders should discourage in-group and out-group rivalries from forming in the work unit • Exercise of power occurs primarily through the influence tactics leaders and followers use. • Leadership practitioners should always consider why they are using a particular influence attempt before they actually use it.