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River
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see River (disambiguation).
"Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see Rivers (disambiguation).
"Riverine" redirects here. For riverine warfare, see Brown-water navy.
The Amazon River (dark blue) and the rivers which flow into it (medium blue).
The start of a mountain stream.
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater stream, flowing on the
surface or inside caves towards another waterbody at a lower elevation, such as
an ocean, sea, bay, lake, wetland or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the
ground or becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water.
Small rivers can be referred to using names such as creek, brook and rivulet. There are
no official definitions for the generic term river as applied to geographic
features,[1] although in some countries or communities a stream is defined by its size.
Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; examples are "run" in
some parts of the United States, "burn" in Scotland and Northeast England, and "beck"
in Northern England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek,[2] but not
always: the language is vague.[1]
Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada
Rivers are an important part of the water cycle. Water from a drainage basin generally
collects into a river through surface runoff from precipitation, meltwater released from
natural ice and snowpacks, and other underground sources such as groundwater
recharge and springs. Rivers are often considered major features within a landscape;
however, they actually only cover around 0.1% of the land on Earth. Rivers are also an
important natural terraformer, as the erosive action of running water with carve
out rills, gullies and valleys in the surface, as well as transferring silt and
dissolved minerals downstream, forming river deltas and islands where the flow slows
down. As a waterbody, rivers also serve crucial ecological functions by providing and
feeding freshwater habitats for aquatic and semiaquatic fauna and flora, especially
for migratory fish species, as well as enabling terrestrial ecosystems to thrive in
the riparian zones.
Rivers are significant to mankind since many human settlements and civilizations are
built around sizeable rivers and streams.[3] Most of the major cities of the world are
situated on the banks of rivers, as they are (or were) depended upon as a vital source
of drinking water, for food supply via fishing and agricultural irrigation, for shipping, as
natural borders and/or defensive terrains, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery
or generate electricity, for bathing, and as a means of disposing of waste. In the preindustrial era, larger rivers were a major obstacle to movement of people, goods,
and armies across regions. Towns often developed at the few locations suitable
for fording, to build bridges or to support ports, and many major cities such
as London are located at the narrowest and most reliable site at which a river could be
crossed via bridges or ferries.[4]
In Earth science disciplines, potamology is the scientific study of rivers,
while limnology is the study of inland waters in general.
Topography
The Colorado River at Horseshoe Bend, Arizona
Source and drainage basin
A river begins at a source (or more often several sources) which is usually a watershed,
drains all the streams in its drainage basin, follows a watercourse, and ends either at
a mouth or mouths which could be a confluence, river delta, etc. The water in a river is
usually confined to a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers
there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel.
Floodplains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction
between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in urban areas where
the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing and industry.
The terms "upriver" and "downriver" refer to the direction towards the source of the river
and towards the mouth of the river, respectively.
Channels
Cross-section of a river channel and its valley
Rivers can flow down mountains and hills through valleys, and can
create canyons or gorges, especially when traversing plains. The river channel typically
contains a single stream, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams,
producing a braided river,[5] which occur on peneplains and some of the larger river
deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare; they have
multiple sinuous channel - 1 carrying large volumes of sediment. There are rare cases
of river bifurcation in which a river divides into distributaries, and the resultant flows end
in different seas. An example is the Nerodime River in Kosovo.
A river flowing in its channel is a source of energy that acts on the river channel to
change its shape and form. In 1757, German hydrologist Albert Brahms empirically
observed that the submerged weight of objects that may be carried away by a river is
proportional to the sixth power of the river flow speed.[6] This formulation is also
sometimes called Airy's law.[7] Thus, if the speed of flow is doubled, the flow would
dislodge objects with 64 times as much submerged weight. In mountainous torrential
zones, this can be seen as erosion channels through hard rocks and the creation of
sands and gravels from the destruction of larger rocks. A river valley that was created
from a U-shaped glaciated valley can often easily be identified by the V-shaped channel
that it has carved.
In the middle reaches where a river flows over flatter land, meanders may form through
erosion of the river banks and deposition on the inside of bends. Sometimes the river
will cut off a loop, shortening the channel and forming an oxbow lake or billabong.
Rivers that carry large amounts of sediment may develop conspicuous deltas at their
mouths. Rivers whose mouths are in saline tidal waters may form estuaries.
Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream
will often be a combination of the free water flow together with a substantial volume
flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain
(called the hyporheic zone). For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of
flow may greatly exceed the visible flow.
Types and ratings
Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta that has the
classic Greek letter delta (Δ) shape after which river deltas were named.
A radar image of a 400-kilometre (250 mi) river of methane and ethane near the north pole of Saturn's
moon Titan
Rivers have been classified by many criteria including their topography,
their biotic status, and their relevance to white water rafting or canoeing activities.
Subsurface rivers: subterranean and subglacial
Most but not all rivers flow on the surface. Subterranean rivers flow underground
in caves. Such rivers are frequently found in regions with limestone geologic
formations. Subglacial streams are the braided rivers that flow at the beds of glaciers
and ice sheets, permitting meltwater to be discharged at the front of the glacier.
Because of the gradient in pressure from the overlying weight of the glacier, such
streams can even flow uphill.
Permanence of flow: perennial and ephemeral
An intermittent river (or ephemeral river) only flows occasionally and can be dry for
several years at a time. These rivers are found in regions with limited or highly variable
rainfall, or can occur because of geologic conditions such as a highly permeable river
bed. Some ephemeral rivers flow during the summer months but not in the winter. Such
rivers are typically fed from chalk aquifers which recharge from winter rainfall. In
England these rivers are called bournes and give their name to places such
as Bournemouth and Eastbourne. Even in humid regions, the location where flow
begins in the smallest tributary streams generally moves upstream in response to
precipitation and downstream in its absence or when active summer vegetation diverts
water for evapotranspiration. Normally dry rivers in arid zones are often identified
as arroyos or other regional names.
The meltwater from large hailstorms can create a slurry of water, hail and sand or soil,
forming temporary rivers.[8]
Stream order classification
See also: Main stem
The Strahler Stream Order ranks rivers based on the connectivity and hierarchy of
contributing tributaries. Headwaters are first order while the Amazon River is twelfth
order. Approximately 80% of the rivers in the world are of the first and second order.
The ways in which a river's characteristics vary between its upper and lower course are
summarized by the Bradshaw model. Power-law relationships between channel slope,
depth, and width are given as a function of discharge by "river regime".
In certain languages, distinctions are made among rivers based on their stream order.
In French, for example, rivers that run to the sea are called fleuve, while other rivers are
called rivière. For example, in Canada, the Churchill River in Manitoba is called la rivière
Churchill as it runs to Hudson Bay, but the Churchill River in Labrador is called le fleuve
Churchill as it runs to the Atlantic Ocean. As most rivers in France are known by their
names only without the word rivière or fleuve (e.g. la Seine, not le fleuve Seine, even
though the Seine is classed as a fleuve), one of the most prominent rivers in the
Francophone commonly known as fleuve is le fleuve Saint-Laurent (the St. Lawrence
River). Since many fleuves are large and prominent, receiving many tributaries, the
word is sometimes used to refer to certain large rivers that flow into other fleuves;
however, even small streams that run to the sea are called fleuve (e.g. fleuve côtier,
"coastal fleuve").
Topographical classification
Rivers can generally be classified as either alluvial, bedrock, or some mix of the two.
Alluvial rivers have channels and floodplains that are self-formed in unconsolidated or
weakly consolidated sediments. They erode their banks and deposit material
on bars and their floodplains.
Bedrock rivers form when the river downcuts through the modern sediments and into
the underlying bedrock. This occurs in regions that have experienced some kind of uplift
(thereby steepening river gradients) or in which a particularly hard lithology causes a
river to have a steepened reach that has not been covered in modern alluvium. Bedrock
rivers very often contain alluvium on their beds; this material is important in eroding and
sculpting the channel. Rivers that go through patches of bedrock and patches of deep
alluvial cover are classified as mixed bedrock-alluvial.
Alluvial rivers can be further classified by their channel pattern as meandering, braided,
wandering, anastomose, or straight. The morphology of an alluvial river reach is
controlled by a combination of sediment supply, substrate composition, discharge,
vegetation, and bed aggradation.
Biotic classification
There are several systems of classification based on ecological conditions typically
assigning classes from the most oligotrophic or unpolluted through to the
most eutrophic or polluted.[9] Other systems are based on a whole eco-system approach
such as developed by the New Zealand Ministry for the Environment.[10] In Europe, the
requirements of the Water Framework Directive has led to the development of a wide
range of classification methods including classifications based on fishery status [11]
A system of river zonation used in francophone communities[12][13] divides rivers into three
primary zones:
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The crenon is the uppermost zone at the source of the river. It is further divided into
the eucrenon (spring or boil zone) and the hypocrenon (brook or headstream zone).
These areas have low temperatures, reduced oxygen content and slow moving
water.
The rhithron is the upstream portion of the river that follows the crenon. It has
relatively cool temperatures, high oxygen levels, and fast, turbulent, swift flow.
The potamon is the remaining downstream stretch of river. It has warmer
temperatures, lower oxygen levels, slow flow and sandier bottoms.
Navigability
The international scale of river difficulty is used to rate the challenges of navigation—
particularly those with rapids. Class I is the easiest and Class VI is the hardest.
Streamflow
Studying the flows of rivers is one aspect of hydrology.[14]
Characteristics
Direction
River meandering course
Rivers flow downhill with their power derived from gravity. A common
misconception holds that all or most rivers flow from north to south, but this is not so:
rivers flow in all directions of the compass and often have complex meandering
paths.[15][16][17]
Rivers flowing downhill, from river source to river mouth, do not necessarily take the
shortest path. For alluvial streams, straight and braided rivers have very low sinuosity
and flow directly down hill, while meandering rivers flow from side to side across a
valley. Bedrock rivers typically flow in either a fractal pattern, or a pattern that is
determined by weaknesses in the bedrock, such as faults, fractures, or more erodible
layers.
Rate
Volumetric flow rate, also known as discharge, volume flow rate, and rate of water flow,
is the volume of water which passes through a given cross-section of the river channel
per unit time. It is typically measured in cubic metres per second (cumec) or cubic feet
per second (cfs).
Volumetric flow rate can be thought of as the mean velocity of the flow through a given
cross-section, times that cross-sectional area. Mean velocity can be approximated
through the use of the law of the wall. In general, velocity increases with the depth
(or hydraulic radius) and slope of the river channel, while the cross-sectional area
scales with the depth and the width: the double-counting of depth shows the importance
of this variable in determining the discharge through the channel.
Effects
Fluvial erosion
In its youthful stage, a river causes erosion in the watercourse, deepening the
valley. Hydraulic action loosens and dislodges aggregate which further erodes the
banks and the river bed. Over time, this deepens the river bed and creates steeper
sides which are then weathered. The steepened nature of the banks causes the sides of
the valley to move downslope causing the valley to become V-shaped.
Waterfalls also form in the youthful river valley where a band of hard rock overlays a
layer of soft rock. Differential erosion occurs as the river erodes the soft rock more
readily than the hard rock, this leaves the hard rock more elevated and stands out from
the river below. A plunge pool forms at the bottom and deepens as a result of hydraulic
action and abrasion.[18]
Flooding
Flash flooding caused by a large amount of rain falling in a short amount of time
The mouth of the River Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rain caused flooding and significant erosion of the
beach.
Flooding is a natural part of a river's cycle. The majority of the erosion of river channels
and the erosion and deposition on the associated floodplains occur during the flood
stage. In many developed areas, human activity has changed the form of river
channels, altering magnitudes and frequencies of flooding. Some examples of this are
the building of levees, the straightening of channels, and the draining of natural
wetlands.
In many cases human activities in rivers and floodplains have dramatically increased
the risk of flooding. Straightening rivers allows water to flow more rapidly downstream,
increasing the risk of flooding places further downstream. Building on flood plains
removes flood storage, which again exacerbates downstream flooding. The building of
levees only protects the area behind the levees and not those further downstream.
Levees and flood-banks can also increase flooding upstream because of the back-water
pressure as the river flow is impeded by the narrow channel banks. Detention
basins finally also reduce the risk of flooding significantly by being able to take up some
of the flood water.
Sediment yield
Sediment yield is the total quantity of particulate matter (suspended or bedload)
reaching the outlet of a drainage basin over a fixed time frame. Yield is usually
expressed as kilograms per square kilometre per year. Sediment delivery processes are
affected by a myriad of factors such as drainage area size, basin slope, climate,
sediment type (lithology), vegetation cover, and human land use / management
practices.
The theoretical concept of the 'sediment delivery ratio' (ratio between yield and total
amount of sediment eroded) indicates that not all of the sediment is eroded within a
certain catchment that reaches out to the outlet (e.g., deposition on floodplains). Such
storage opportunities are typically increased in catchments of larger size, thus leading
to a lower yield and sediment delivery ratio.
Frozen river in Alaska
Brackish water
Brackish water occurs in most rivers where they meet the sea. The extent of brackish
water may extend a significant distance upstream, especially in areas with high tidal
ranges.
Ecosystem
River biota
Main article: River ecosystem
The organisms in the riparian zone respond to changes in river channel location and
patterns of flow. The ecosystem of rivers is generally described by the river continuum
concept, which has some additions and refinements to allow for dams and waterfalls
and temporary extensive flooding. The concept describes the river as a system in which
the physical parameters, the availability of food particles and the composition of the
ecosystem are continuously changing along its length. The food (energy) that remains
from the upstream part is used downstream.
The general pattern is that the first order streams contain particulate matter (decaying
leaves from the surrounding forests) which is processed there by shredders
like Plecoptera larvae. The products of these shredders are used by collectors, such
as Hydropsychidae, and further downstream algae that create the primary
production become the main food source of the organisms. All changes are gradual and
the distribution of each species can be described as a normal curve, with the highest
density where the conditions are optimal. In rivers succession is virtually absent and the
composition of the ecosystem stays fixed.
Chemistry
Main article: River chemistry
The chemistry of rivers is complex and depends on inputs from the atmosphere, the
geology through which it travels and the inputs from man's activities. The chemical
composition of the water has a large impact on the ecology of that water for both plants
and animals and it also affects the uses that may be made of the river water.
Understanding and characterizing river water chemistry requires a well designed and
managed sampling and analysis.
Uses
Leisure activities on the River Avon at Avon Valley Country Park, Keynsham, United Kingdom. A boat giving
trips to the public passes a moored private boat.
Construction material
The coarse sediments, gravel, and sand, generated and moved by rivers are
extensively used in construction. In parts of the world this can generate extensive new
lake habitats as gravel pits fill with water. In other circumstances it can destabilize the
river bed, and the course of the river and cause severe damage to spawning fish
populations which rely on stable gravel formations for egg laying. In upland rivers,
rapids with whitewater or even waterfalls occur. Rapids are often used for recreation,
such as whitewater kayaking.[19]
Energy production
Watermill in Belgium.
Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy,
via watermills and hydroelectric plants. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for
many hundreds of years, for instance in Orkney at Dounby Click Mill. Prior to the
invention of steam power, watermills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and
other textiles were common across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate
power from river water were established at places such
as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been a significant
increase in the development of large scale power generation from water, especially in
wet mountainous regions such as Norway.
Food source
Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history.[20] They are often a rich source of
fish and other edible aquatic life and are a major source of fresh water, which can be
used for drinking and irrigation. Rivers help to determine the urban form of cities and
neighborhoods, and their corridors often present opportunities for urban
renewal through the development of foreshoreways such as river walks. Rivers also
provide an easy means of disposing of wastewater and, in much of the less developed
world, other wastes.
Navigation and transport
Rivers have been used for navigation for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of
navigation is found in the Indus Valley civilization, which existed in northwestern India
around 3300 BC.[21] Riverine navigation provides a cheap means of transport and is still
used extensively on most major rivers of the world like the Amazon, the Ganges,
the Nile, the Mississippi, and the Indus.
In some heavily forested regions such as Scandinavia and Canada, lumberjacks use
rivers to float felled trees downstream to lumber camps for further processing, saving
much effort and cost by transporting the huge heavy logs by natural means. [22]
Political borders
Rivers have been important in determining political boundaries and defending countries.
For example, the Danube was a long-standing border of the Roman Empire, and today
it forms most of the border between Bulgaria and Romania. The Mississippi in North
America and the Rhine in Europe are major east–west boundaries in those continents.
The Orange and Limpopo Rivers in southern Africa form the boundaries between
provinces and countries along their routes.
Sacred rivers
See also: Rigvedic rivers, Sapta Sindhu, Sacred mountains, Sacred groves, Sacred
natural site, and Sacred site
Sacred rivers and their reverence is a phenomenon found in several religions,
especially religions in which nature is revered. For example, the Indian-origin
religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism revere and
preserve groves, forests, trees, mountains and rivers as sacred. Among the most
sacred rivers in Hinduism are the Ganges,[23] Yamuna,[24][25] and Sarasvati[26] rivers. Other
sacred rivers for Indian religions include the Rigvedic rivers, the Narmada,
the Godavari, and the Kaveri rivers. The Vedas and Gita, the most sacred of Hindu
texts, were written on the banks of the Sarasvati river.
Management
River bank repair
Main article: River engineering
Rivers are often managed or controlled to make them more useful or less disruptive to
human activity.
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Dams or weirs may be built to control the flow, store water, or extract energy.
Levees, known as dikes in Europe, may be built to prevent river water from flowing
on floodplains or floodways.
Canals connect rivers to one another for water transfer or navigation.
River courses may be modified to improve navigation, or straightened to increase
the flow rate.
River management is a continuous activity as rivers tend to 'undo' the modifications
made by people. Dredged channels silt up, sluice mechanisms deteriorate with age,
levees and dams may suffer seepage or catastrophic failure. The benefits sought
through managing rivers may often be offset by the social and economic costs of
mitigating the bad effects of such management. As an example, in parts of the
developed world, rivers have been confined within channels to free up flat flood-plain
land for development. Floods can inundate such development at high financial cost and
often with loss of life.
Rivers are increasingly managed for habitat conservation, as they are critical for
many aquatic and riparian plants, resident and migratory fishes, waterfowl, birds of
prey, migrating birds, and many mammals.
Concerns
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (July
2021)
See also: Ecologically dead rivers and Water pollution
Man-made causes, such as the over-exploitation and pollution, are the biggest threats
and concerns which are making rivers ecologically dead and drying up the rivers.
Plastic pollution imposes threats on aquatic life and river ecosystems because
of plastic's durability in the natural environment. Plastic debris may result in
entanglement and ingestion by aquatic life such as turtles, birds, and fish, causing
severe injury and death. Human livelihoods around rivers are also impacted by plastic
pollution through direct damage to shipping and transport vessels, effects on tourism or
real estate value, and the clogging of drains and other hydraulic infrastructure leading to
increased flood risk.[27]
See also
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Rivers portal
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Environment portal
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Ecology portal
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World portal
See also: geography, water cycle, and drainage basin
Arts, entertainment, and media
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"Old Man River"
The Riverkeepers (book)
General
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Drought
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Crossings
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Bridge
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Ferry
Ford (crossing)
Tunnel
Habitats
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Exposed riverine sediments
Riparian zone
Lists
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Lists of rivers
List of international border rivers
List of rivers by continent
List of rivers by discharge
List of rivers by length
List of waterways
Transport
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Barge
Raft
River transport
Riverboat
Sailing
Steamboat
Towpath
Yacht
References
1.
^ Jump up to:a b "What is the difference between "mountain", "hill", and "peak"; "lake" and "pond"; or
"river" and "creek?"". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
2. ^ "WordNet Search: River". The Trustees of Princeton University. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
3. ^ Basic Biology (16 January 2016). "River".
4. ^ see for example John Speed's atlas 'The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine' published in 1611
and 1612 and the UK 'Old Series' of Ordnance Survey maps (1817-1830)
5. ^ Walther, John V. (15 February 2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4496-3234-2.
6. ^ Garde, R.J. (1995). History of fluvial hydraulics. New Age Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-224-08157. OCLC 34628134.
7. ^ Garde, R.J. (1995). History of fluvial hydraulics. New Age Publishers. p. 19. ISBN 978-81-224-08157. OCLC 34628134.
8. ^ "Sand River" in Iraq is actually a rapid movement of ice blocks. Tampabayreview.com. Retrieved on
14 July 2016.
9. ^ River Classification scheme. sepa.org.uk
10. ^ NZ's River Environment Classification system (REC). maf.govt.nz
11. ^ Noble, Richard and Cowx, Ian et al. (May 2002) Compilation and harmonisation of fish species
classification Archived 3 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. University of Hull, UK. A project under
the 5th Framework Programme Energy, Environment and Sustainable Management. Key Action 1:
Sustainable Management and Quality of Water
12. ^ Illies, J.; Botosaneanu, L. (1963). "Problémes et méthodes de la classification et de la zonation
éologique des eaux courantes, considerées surtout du point de vue faunistique". Mitt. Int. Ver. Theor.
Angew. Limnol. 12: 1–57.
13. ^ Hawkes, H.A. (1975). River zonation and classification. River ecology. Blackwell. pp. 312–374.
14. ^ Cave, Cristi. "How a River Flows". Stream Biology and Ecology. Archived from the original on 1
January 2015.
15. ^ Rosenberg, Matt (8 June 2006). "Do All Rivers Flow South?". About.com. Archived from the
original on 1 June 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
16. ^ Rosenberg, Matt. "Rivers Flowing North: Rivers Only Flow Downhill; Rivers Do Not Prefer to Flow
South". About.com. Archived from the original on 4 April 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
17. ^ Rydell, Nezette (16 March 1997). "Re: What determines the direction of river flow? Elevation,
Topography, Gravity??". Earth Sciences.
18. ^ "Landforms of the upper valley". www.coolgeography.co.uk. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
19. ^ Draper, Nick; Hodgson, Christopher (2008). Adventure Sport Physiology. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-31913-0.
20. ^ "National Museum of Prehistory-The Peinan Site-Settlements of the Prehistoric Times". nmp.gov.tw.
21. ^ "WWF – The World's Rivers" Archived 15 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. panda.org.
22. ^ "Logging Camps: The Early Years". Minnesota DNR.
23. ^ Alter, Stephen (2001), Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu
Culture, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade & Reference Publishers, ISBN 978-0-15-100585-7,
retrieved 30 July 2013
24. ^ Jain, Sharad K.; Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh (2007). Hydrology and water resources of
India—Volume 57 of Water science and technology library. Springer. pp. 344–354. ISBN 978-1-40205179-1.
25. ^ Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1-5. Popular Prakashan. pp. 290–
291. ISBN 0-85229-760-2.
26. ^ "Sarasvati | Hindu deity". Encyclopedia Britannica.
27. ^ van Emmerik, Tim; Schwarz, Anna (January 2020). "Plastic debris in rivers". WIREs
Water. 7 (1). doi:10.1002/wat2.1398.
Further reading
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Rivers
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Jeffrey W. Jacobs. "Rivers, Major World". Rivers, Major World – dam, sea, effects,
important, largest, salt, types, system, source. Water Encyclopaedia.
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Luna B. Leopold (1994). A View of the River. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674-93732-1. OCLC 28889034. — a non-technical primer on
the geomorphology and hydraulics of water.
Middleton, Nick (2012). Rivers: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958867-1.
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Categories:
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