PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
CHILD
and
Adolescent
Learners
And
Learning
Principles
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
Human Development
 the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
through the life span
 includes growth and decline
 can be positive or negative
Major Principles of Human Development:
1. Development is relatively orderly
a.) Proximodistal Pattern
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
b.) Cephalocaudal Pattern
Development proceeds from the head downward.
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
developmental processes and rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product
cognitive and socio- emotional processes.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
of biological,
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Approaches to Human Development
1.) Traditional Perspective
• Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence,
little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age
2.) Life-span Approach
• Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does
during childhood.
Characteristics of a Life- Span Perspective
a.) Development is LIFELONG- It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage
dominates development.
b.) Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL- Development consists of biological, cognitive
and socio-emotional dimensions.
c.) Development is PLASTIC- Development is possible throughout the lifespan.
d.) Development is CONTEXTUAL- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
e.) Development involves GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION- Growth,
maintenance and regulation are 3 goals of human development. The goals of individuals
vary among developmental stages.
Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform Practice
 All areas of development and learning are important.
 Learning and development follow sequences.
 Development and learning proceed at varying rates
 Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.
 Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
 Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self- regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
 Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
 Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural
contexts.
 Children learn in a variety of ways.
 Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language,
cognition, and social competence.
 Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
 Children‘s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition,
teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and
delivery are primary concerns.
Three Phases:
1.) Germinal Stage= first 2 weeks, conception,
implantation, and formation of placenta
2.) Embryonic Stage= 2 weeks-2 months,
formation of vital organs and systems
3.) Fetal Stage= 2 months –birth, bodily growth
continues, movement capability begins, brain
cells multiply age of viability.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also
transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
• Extreme dependents on adult
• Beginning psychological activities
• Language of newborn is cry
• Usually eats every two to three hours
• Uncoordinated movements
• Toothless
• Poor vision
• Usually doubles weight by 9 months
• Responds to human voice and touches
• Responds to human voice and touch
1 year old
• Change from plump baby to a learner
• Begins to walk and talk
• Ability for passive language
• Tentative sense of independence
• Determined explorer
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
2 years old
• Begins to communicate verbally
• Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences
• Famous for negative behavior ―NO‖ to everything!
• Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• Great imitators
Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years
consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and
precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the
child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self
and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the
workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not
come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have
initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space
and distance such as fearing that they may go down the
drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by
demonstrating how long something will take by holding
out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler‘s fierce determination to do
something may give way to a four-year-old‘s sense of guilt for doing something that
brings the disapproval of others.
3 years old
• Wants to be just like parents
• Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• Climbs stairs with alternating feet
• Can briefly stand on one foot
4 years old
• Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct
• Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death)
Years old
• Can hop on one foot and skip
• Can accurately copy figures
• May begin to read
• Socialize with other children their age
Middle Childhood and Late Childhood
The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood
and much of what children experience at this age is
connected to their involvement in the early grades of
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by
assessing one‘s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self
and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through
team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and
children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to
learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and
fellow students.
• Both large and small muscles well-developed.
• Developed complex motor skills
• From independent activities to same sex group activities
• Acceptance by peers very important
• Parental approval still important
Adolescence (13 to 18 years old)
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical
growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive
change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of
invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually
transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.
• Traumatic life stage for child and parent
• Puberty occurs
• Extremely concerned with appearance
• Trying to establish self- identity
• Confrontation with authorirty
Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old)
The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in
their mid-30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are
at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and
substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.
• Physical development complete
• Emotional maturation continues to develop
• Usually learned to accept responsibity for for actions and accept responsibility for
actions and accept criticism
• Usually knows how to profit from errors
• Socially progree from age- trelated peer groups to people with similar interests.
Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old)
The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a
period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period
of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find
solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more
realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference
between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the
AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in
those economies (Weitz, 2007).
• Physical changes begin to occur:
 Hair begins to begin to thin and gray
 Wrinkles appear
 Hearing and vision decrease
 Muscles lose tone
• Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging
• Love and acceptance still take a major role
Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the ―young old‖ and ―old old‖ or the ―young old‖, ―old old‖, and ―oldest
old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the
―young old‖ who are people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old‖ or those who are 80
and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old
are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested
in being productive and active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the
majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as
arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this
age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only
a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better way to appreciate the
diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine
whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who
is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease
than others of the same age).
• Fastest growing age bracket of society
• Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination
• Some memory problems
• Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
• Very concerned with health and finances
• Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 3: Issues on Human Development
There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history
of developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:
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Is development due more to genetics or environment?
Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are
later events equally important?
Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates

Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental
psychology and what many psychologists today believe about these issues.
Nature vs. Nurture
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The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment
usually referred to as the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues
in both philosophy and psychology.
Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas
are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the
concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with
experience determining our knowledge.
Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty.
However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as
diet and nutrition.
Early Experience vs. Later Experience
A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the
relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are
we more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play
an equally important role?
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood.
According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the
age of five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or
abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood
events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout
life. Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally
into well-adjusted adults.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does
change occur smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:
1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud,
who believed in the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood
experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that
development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.
1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage
theory of psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts
that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory,
Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important
learning processes include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
social learning. In each case, behavior is shaped by the interaction between the
individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and
abilities. Examples of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive
development.
4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of
many parents is whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental
milestones offer guidelines for the ages at which certain skills and abilities
typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls slightly behind the
norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in
behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more
common.
5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so
developmental theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning
theories rely more on the environment's unique impact on an individual, so
individual differences are an important component of these theories. Today,
psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when describing child
development.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 4: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who
came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's
basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how
their personalities developed and whether or not they would
end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages
of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal,
Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
The Role of Conflict
Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must
be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and
the more energy that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important
characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she matures
psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As
the troops advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful
in winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able
to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the
need for troops to remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to
the next confrontation.
Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation
Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the
next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any
particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration.
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant
to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is
overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to
what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been
permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It
gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido,
and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such
as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb
suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly when under
stress.
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from
defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and
that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e.,
their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in
which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature
of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all
forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality
who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be
stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and
their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they
perform!
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal
toilet-training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They
like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive
personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes)
becomes a new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the
conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud
called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting
the characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of
Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a
young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his
eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both
Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the
boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his
mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father
would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves
most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in
masculine dad-type behaviours. This is called identification, and is how the three-tofive year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviours of another
person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and
adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl
desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the
development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for
a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,'
and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the
mother to take on the female gender role.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means
hidden). The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and
sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work,
hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and
begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another
person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during
the phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
emphasizes
unconscious
,motivation- main cause of behavior lies buried in the
unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy
and a theory of personality.
Three Structures of Personality
1.) ID
2.) Ego
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3.) Superego
Tripartite Theory of Personality
Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego,
and superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.
The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the
inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct –
Eros (which contains the libido), and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real
world (like a referee). It is the decision-making component of personality
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of
satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms,
etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from
one's parents and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through
causing feelings of guilt.
Trait Approach to Personality
This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits which are the
fundamental units of one‘s personality.
Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means
that traits should remain consistent across situations and over time, but may vary
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between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to genetic
differences. These theories are sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because
of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores
are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given numeric score to indicate how
much of a trait they possess.
Chapter 5 : Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Schema- Piaget used the term ―schema‖ to refer to the cognitive structure by which
individuals intellectually adapt too and organize environment. It is an individual‘s way to
understand or create meaning about a thing experience.
Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and
organize their environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning
about a thing experience.
Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium this means
there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then
exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium
Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage
The first stage corresponds for infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement
and activity. The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn, about him and the world.
 Object permanence
This is the ability of the child to know that and object still exists even when out of sight.
This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage
The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old roughly
corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At
this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend the
child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
 Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually develops
the period between 2 to 7 years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking
from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretend the presence of water,
the glass remain to be a glass at around for years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to
drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone.
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 Egocentrism/Self centered
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother‘s birthday.
Or a three years old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy ―uncle‖
and not daddy
 Centration
This refers to the Tendency of the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
include other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses
with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same amount of water.
However, once water from one of the glasses s transferred to an obviously taller buy
narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child
only focused or ―centered‖ only one aspect for the new glass, that it is a taller glass.
 Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand
that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand 5-3 is 2.
 Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human lie traits or characteristics to inanimate
object. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, show will reply, ―Mr. Sun is asleep.‖
Stage 3. Concrete- Operational Stage
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in term of
concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8 - 11 years or the
elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
 Decentering
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to e more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations
 Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operation
cannot be reversed
 Conservation
This is the ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mas, volume, or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. The concrete operational
child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is
still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.
 Seriation
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This refer to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based on one , dimension
such as weigh, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve in general ideas or specific problems and
can educated guess. This stage is characterized by the following
 Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final devision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects, The individuals can now deal with ―What if‖ questions.
 Analogical reasoning
Ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use that relationship to narrow
down possible answer in another similar situation or problem.
The individual in the formal operation stage can make an analogy. If United Kingdom is
to Europe, then Philippines is to Asia. The individual will reason that since the UK is
found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found what continent?. Then
Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete
object the individual can now understand relationship and do analogical reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or situation.
For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures Greenland is near he
north pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
CHAPTER 6: Erik Erikson’s Psycho- Social Theory of Development
Erik Homburger Erikson
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Father of Psychosocial Development
Nationality American/ German
Fields Developmental Psychology Influences Sigmund
Freud/ Anna Freud Coined the term Lifespan Development
He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s when he
met Anna Freud,
An Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna‘s encouragement,
he began to study child psychoanalysis at the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Institute.
He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn about the
influence of society and culture on child development.
From this, he developed a number of theories, the most
famous being his psychosocial development.
He believed that humans have to resolve different conflicts as they progress
through each stage of development in the life cycle.
Erikson‘s theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is
characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual. If a
person is unable to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, they will be confront
and struggle with it later in life.
Elements
Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human interaction and how an individual
becomes more conscious of themselves and their surroundings.
Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual becoming competent in different
areas life, by becoming competent in life they feel more important.
Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an individual struggles to attain some
psychological quality. Sometimes referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be a time
of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual works toward success or failure.
8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
•
•
•
•
Best known theories of personality and development.
Personality develops in a series of predetermined stages.
Psychosocial, and not psychosexual.
In each stage of development conflicts acts as turning points in life
Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought,
behavior and emotional responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to
surrounding situations.
Psychosexual Development- Refers to the emotional and psychological changes
across the life cycle that occurs in the context of the individual‘s social environment.
Stage
Psychosocial Crisis
Basic Virtue
Age
1.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Hope
0 - 1½
2.
Autonomy vs. Shame
Will
1½ - 3
3.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Purpose
3-5
4.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Competency
5 - 12
5.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Fidelity
12 - 18
6.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Love
18 - 40
7.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Care
40 - 65
8.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Wisdom
65+
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this
stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their
primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of
psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on
developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently. These are
particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a
―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority
occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage
where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own.
Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role
confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming
intimate, loving relationships with other people.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood
(ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through
creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson‘s stage theory
of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at
death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that
moral development is a continual process that occurs
throughout the lifespan.
• Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people
stories involving moral dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research and interviews
with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these
participants and they were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
• One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958)
concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we
don‘t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences
of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in
order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is
not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the
moral standards of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the
group to which the person belongs.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to
be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of
others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the
wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the
law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far
as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6
(post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from
those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware
that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times
when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz‘s dilemma, the protection of
life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of
moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend
these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and
having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted
few people reached this stage.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 9: Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory
Lev Semonovich Vygotsky
• ―The Mozart of Psychology‖
• Lev Semonovich Vygotsky was born in Western
Russia on November 5, 1986.His father, Semi
L‘vovich, founded the ―Society of Education in
Gomel‖, and held a wide range of active interest
including foreign language, history, literature, theater
and arts. His mother was educated as teacher.
• His work began when he was studying learning and
development to improve his own teaching.
•
He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning
and development and educating students with special
needs.
Sociocultural theory of development:
• Crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a
cultural context, have on cognitive development.
• Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities.
• Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner‘s environment all contribute to
the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback.
• Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning
experience.
Language
• Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture.
• Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
• It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
• It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems.
• It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps
the learner to regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Actual Development
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Which the child may perform certain level of competency she/ he may not immediately
be at it.
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what the child accomplish alone and what he/she can
accomplish with guidance of another.
Scaffolding
Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she
cannot accomplish independently.
It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches.
It is not about doing short cuts for the child
It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the
child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 9: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory
to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to
influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the
importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological
systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find
themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological
system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which
includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with
and influence each other in all aspects of the children‘s lives.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most
immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the
daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family
members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals
interact with the children will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they
treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and
relationships will understandably foster they children‘s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of
ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same
ecological system to experience very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible
for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child‘s particular
personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and
biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which
children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such,
involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and
between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner‘s theory, if a child‘s parents are actively involved in the
friendships of their child, for example they invite their child‘s friends over to their house
from time to time and spend time with them, then the child‘s development is affected
positively through harmony and like-mindedness.
However, if the child‘s parents dislike their child‘s peers and openly criticize them, then
the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to
negative development.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings,
one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly
nonetheless.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not
directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents‘ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood
the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss
at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the
children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is
composed of the children‘s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant
beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development
than children in peaceful environments.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension
of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the
children‘s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure,
address, parents‘ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as
economic cycles and wars.
By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems
Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children‘s
development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize us to
variations in the way children may act in different settings.
For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the
role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with
the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different
settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these
settings.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Chapter 10: Stages of Child Learning Development
When planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating an educational
program, the nurse as educator must carefully consider the characteristics of learners
with respect to their developmental stage in life. The more heterogeneous the target
audience, the more complex the development of an educational program to meet the
diverse needs of the population. Conversely, the more homogeneous the population of
learners, the more straightforward the approach to teaching.
An individual‘s developmental stage significantly influences the ability to learn.
Pedagogy, andragogy, and gerogogy are three different orientations to learning in
childhood, young and middle adulthood, and older adulthood, respectively. To meet the
health-related educational needs of learners, a developmental approach must be used.
Three major stage-range factors associated with learner readiness—physical, cognitive,
and psychosocial maturation—must be taken into account at each developmental
period throughout the life cycle.
For many years, developmental psychologists have explored the various patterns
of behavior particular to stages of development. Educators, more than ever before,
acknowledge the effects of growth and development on an individual‘s willingness and
ability to make use of instruction.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
As noted earlier, actual chronological age is only a relative indicator of someone‘s
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial stage of development. Unique as each individual
is, however, some typical developmental trends have been identified as milestones of
normal progression through the life cycle. When dealing with the teaching-learning
process, it is imperative to examine the developmental phases as individuals progress
from infancy to senescence so as to fully appreciate the behavioral changes that occur
in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
As influential as age can be to learning readiness, it should never be examined in
isolation. Growth and development interact with experiential background, physical and
emotional health status, and personal motivation, as well as numerous environmental
factors such as stress, the surrounding conditions, and the available support systems,
to affect a person‘s ability and readiness to learn.
Musinski (1999) describes three phases of learning: dependence, independence, and
interdependence. These passages of learning ability from childhood to adulthood,
labeled by Covey (1990) as the ―maturity continuum,‖ are identified as follows:
 Dependence is characteristic of the infant and young child, who are totally dependent
on others for direction, support, and nurturance from a physical, emotional, and
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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

intellectual standpoint (unfortunately, some adults are considered to be stuck in this
stage if they demonstrate manipulative behavior, do not listen, are insecure, or do not
accept responsibility for their own actions).
Independence occurs when a child develops the ability to physically, intellectually,
and emotionally care for himself or herself and make his or her own choices, including
taking responsibility for learning.
Interdependence occurs when an individual has sufficiently advanced in maturity to
achieve self-reliance, a sense of self-esteem, and the ability to give and receive, and
when that individual demonstrates a level of respect for others. Full physical maturity
does not guarantee simultaneous emotional and intellectual maturity.
THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CHILDHOOD
Pedagogy is the art and science of helping children to learn (Knowles,
1990; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). The different stages of childhood are divided
according to what developmental theorists and educational psychologists define as
speci fic patterns of behavior seen in particular phases of growth and development. One
common attribute observed throughout all phases of childhood is that learning is subject
centered. This section reviews the developmental characteristics in the four stages of
childhood and the teaching strategies to be used in relation to the physical, cognitive,
and psychosocial maturational levels indicative of learner readiness (Table 5-1).
Infancy (First 12 Months of Life) and Toddlerhood (1-2 Years of Age)
The field of growth and development is highly complex, and at no other time is
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation so changeable as during the very early
years of childhood. Because of the dependency of members of this age group, the main
focus of instruction for health maintenance of children is geared toward the parents,
who are considered to be the primary learners rather than the very young child
(Crandell et al., 2012; Palfrey et al., 2005; Santrock, 2011). However, the older toddler
should not be excluded from healthcare teaching and can participate to some extent in
the education process.
TABLE 5-1 Stage-Appropriate Teaching Strategies
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Learner
General
Teaching
Characteristics
Strategies
Nursing Interventions
INFANCY-TODDLERHOOD
Approximate
Birth-2 years
Dependent on
Orient teaching to
Welcome active involvement
age:
Sensorimotor
environment
caregiver
Forge alliances
Cognitive
Trust vs.
Needs security
Use repetition and
Encourage physical closeness
stage:
mistrust (Birth-
Explores self and
imitation of
Provide detailed information
Psychosocial
12 mo)
environment
information
Answer questions and concerns
stage:
Autonomy vs.
Natural curiosity
Stimulate all senses
Ask for information on child‘s
shame and
Provide physical
strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes
doubt (1-2 yr)
safety and emotional
security
Allow play and
manipulation of
objects
EARLY CHILDHOOD
Approximate
3-5 years
Egocentric
Use warm, calm
Welcome active involvement
age:
Preoperational
Thinking precausal,
approach
Forge alliances
Cognitive
Initiative vs.
concrete, literal
Build trust
Encourage physical closeness
stage:
guilt
Believes illness self-
Use repetition of
Provide detailed information
Psychosocial
caused and punitive
information
Answer questions and concerns
stage:
Limited sense of time
Allow manipulation
Ask for information on child‘s
Fears bodily injury
of objects and
strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes
Cannot generalize
equipment
Animistic thinking
Give care with
(objects possess life
explanation
or human
Reassure not to
characteristics)
blame self
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Centration (focus is on
Explain procedures
one characteristic of
simply and briefly
an object)
Provide safe, secure
Separation anxiety
environment
Motivated by curiosity
Use positive
Active imagination,
reinforcement
prone to fears
Encourage
Play is his/her work
questions to reveal
perceptions/feelings
Use simple drawings
and stories
Use play therapy,
with dolls and
puppets
Stimulate senses:
visual, auditory,
tactile, motor
MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
Approximate
6-11 years
More realistic and
Encourage
Welcome active involvement
age:
Concrete
objective
independence and
Forge alliances
Cognitive
operations
Understands cause
active participation
Encourage physical closeness
stage:
Industry vs.
and effect
Be honest, allay
Provide detailed information
Psychosocial
inferiority
Deductive/inductive
fears
Answer questions and concerns
reasoning
Use logical
Ask for information on child‘s
Wants concrete
explanation
strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes
information
Allow time to ask
Able to compare
questions
objects and events
Use analogies to
Variable rates of
make invisible
physical growth
processes real
Reasons syllogistically
Establish role
stage:
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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Understands
models
seriousness and
Relate care to other
consequences of
children‘s
actions
experiences;
Subject-centered
compare procedures
focus
Use subject-
Immediate orientation
centered focus
Use play therapy
Provide group
activities
Use drawings,
models, dolls,
painting, audio- and
videotapes
ADOLESCENCE
Approximate
12-19 years
Abstract, hypothetical
Establish trust,
Explore emotional and financial support
age:
Formal
thinking
authenticity
Determine goals and expectations
Cognitive
operations
Can build on past
Know their agenda
Assess stress levels
stage:
Identity vs.
learning
Address
Respect values and norms
Psychosocial
role confusion
Reasons by logic and
fears/concerns
Determine role responsibilities and
understands scientific
about outcomes of
relationships
principles
illness
Engage in 1:1 teaching without parents
Future orientation
Identify control focus
present, but with adolescent‘s
Motivated by desire for
Include in plan of
permission inform family of content
social acceptance
care
covered
Peer group important
Use peers for
Intense personal
support and
preoccupation,
influence
appearance extremely
Negotiate changes
important (imaginary
Focus on details
audience)
Make information
stage:
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Feels invulnerable,
meaningful to life
invincible/immune to
Ensure
natural laws (personal
confidentiality and
fable)
privacy
Arrange group
sessions
Use audiovisuals,
role play, contracts,
reading materials
Provide for
experimentation and
flexibility
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Approximate
20-40 years
Autonomous
Use problem-
Explore emotional, financial, and
age:
Formal
Self-directed
centered focus
physical support system
Cognitive
operations
Uses personal
Draw on meaningful
Assess motivational level for
stage:
Intimacy vs.
experiences to
experiences
involvement
Psychosocial
isolation
enhance or interfere
Focus on immediacy
Identify potential obstacles and
with learning
of application
stressors
Intrinsic motivation
Encourage active
Able to analyze
participation
critically
Allow to set own
Makes decisions
pace, be self-
about personal,
directed
occupational, and
Organize material
social roles
Recognize social
Competency-based
role
learner
Apply new
stage:
knowledge through
role playing and
hands-on practice
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD
Approximate
41-64 years
Sense of self well-
Focus on
Explore emotional, financial, and
age:
Formal
developed
maintaining
physical support system
Cognitive
operations
Concerned with
independence and
Assess motivational level for
stage:
Generativity
physical changes
reestablishing
involvement
Psychosocial
vs. self-
At peak in career
normal life patterns
Identify potential obstacles and
stage:
absorption
Explores alternative
Assess positive and
stressors
and
lifestyles
negative past
stagnation
Reflects on
experiences with
contributions to family
learning
and society
Assess potential
Reexamines goals
sources of stress
and values
caused by midlife
Questions
crisis issues
achievements and
Provide information
successes
to coincide with life
Has confidence in
concerns and
abilities
problems
Desires to modify
unsatisfactory aspects
of life
OLDER ADULTHOOD
Approximate
65 years and
Cognitive changes
Use concrete
Involve principal caregivers
age:
over
Decreased ability to
examples
Encourage participation
Cognitive
Formal
think abstractly,
Build on past life
Provide resources for support (respite
stage:
operations
process information
experiences
care)
Psychosocial
Ego integrity
Decreased short-term
Make information
Assess coping mechanisms
stage:
vs. despair
memory
relevant and
Provide written instructions for
Increased reaction
meaningful
reinforcement
time
Present one concept
Provide anticipatory problem solving
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Increased test anxiety
at a time
Stimulus persistence
Allow time for
(afterimage)
processing/response
Focuses on past life
(slow pace)
experiences
Use repetition and
(what happens if …)
reinforcement of
information
Avoid written exams
Use verbal
exchange and
coaching
Establish retrieval
plan (use one or
several clues)
Encourage active
involvement
Keep explanations
brief
Use analogies to
illustrate abstract
information
Sensory/motor
Speak slowly,
deficits
distinctly
Auditory changes
Use low-pitched
Hearing loss,
tones
especially high-pitched
Avoid shouting
tones, consonants (S,
Use visual aids to
Z, T, F, and G), and
supplement verbal
rapid speech
instruction
Visual changes
Farsighted (needs
glasses to read)
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Lenses become
opaque (glare
problem)
Smaller pupil size
Avoid glares, use
(decreased visual
soft white light
adaptation to
Provide suffcient
darkness)
light
Decreased peripheral
Use white
perception
backgrounds and
Yellowing of lenses
black print
(distorts low-tone
Use large letters and
colors: blue, green,
well-spaced print
violet)
Avoid color coding
Distorted depth
with pastel blues,
perception
greens, purples, and
Fatigue/decreased
yellows
energy levels
Increase safety
Pathophysiology
precautions/provide
(chronic illness)
safe environment
Ensure accessibility
and fit of prostheses
(i.e., glasses,
hearing aid)
Keep sessions short
Provide for frequent
rest periods
Allow for extra time
to perform
Establish realistic
short-term goals
Psychosocial
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
Give time to
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
changes
reminisce
Decreased risk taking
Identify and present
Selective learning
pertinent material
Intimidated by formal
Use informal
learning
teaching sessions
Demonstrate
relevance of
information to daily
life
Assess resources
Make learning
positive
Identify past positive
experiences
Integrate new
behaviors with
formerly established
ones
Ages and Stages of Development
Choosing quality care that is in a healthy and safe environment should be your number
one priority. Look for child care that stimulates and encourages your child‘s physical,
intellectual, and social growth. Keep your child‘s age and personality in mind when
looking for the program that best meets his needs. Understanding what makes your
child feel secure and knowing the activities he enjoys and will learn from will make a
difference in your final child care decision.
Personality
Each child has his own personality and responds to caregivers or experiences
differently. Just like adults, children may have outgoing, shy, or even-tempered natures.
Your caregiver should be in tune with your child‘s special personality and treat your
child in a positive and caring manner that agrees with his special personality. This is
crucial to nurturing his healthy emotional growth. By understanding your child‘s
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
personality, you and your caregiver can help him succeed by offering care, activities,
and discipline that best fit his needs.
Developmental stages
As your child grows, you may find yourself searching for clues to her behavior. As a
parent, you may hear the words ―developmental stages.‖ This is just another way of
saying your child is moving through a certain time period in the growing-up process. At
times, she may be fascinated with her hands, her feet, and her mouth. As she grows,
she may get into everything. Lock your doors and cabinets, and take a deep breath
during those exploration years! Then there will be an age when independence is all she
wants. At every stage, what she needs is your love, understanding, and time.
Parent Tip
Recent brain research indicates that birth to age three are the most important years in a
child‘s development. Here are some tips to consider during your child‘s early years:

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Be warm, loving, and responsive.
Talk, read, and sing to your child.
Establish routines and rituals.
Encourage safe explorations and play.
Make TV watching selective.
Use discipline as an opportunity to teach.
Recognize that each child is unique.
Choose quality child care and stay involved.
Take care of yourself.
Learning styles
Children learn in many different ways. Each child has his own way of learning—some
learn visually, others through touch, taste, and sound. Watch a group of children and
you‘ll understand at once what this means. One child will sit and listen patiently, another
cannot wait to move and count beads. Another wants you to show her the answer over
and over. Children also learn in different ways depending on their developmental stage.
One thing we know is all children love to learn new things by exploring and discovering.
Children love to solve problems during play and in daily activities.
Look for a child care provider who understands children‘s learning styles and includes
reading, learning numbers, art activities, rhyming, and problem solving in your child‘s
daily activities. Also, find out how your provider encourages your child to understand
and benefit from daily activities and experiences.
Tips for looking for a child care provider during the first eighteen months of life
Look for a provider who:

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Is warm and friendly.
Interacts with your infant and has eye contact.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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
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Talks to your infant while diapering.
Includes your infant in activities, but keeps her safe from older children.
Avoids the use of walkers.
Has feeding and sleeping practices similar to yours.
Allows the infant to eat and sleep whenever she wishes rather than follow a
schedule.
Ages and stages
Depending upon the age of your child, his learning style and personality, your child will
have different needs. The first five years are especially crucial for physical, intellectual,
and social-emotional development. Keep your child’s personality and age in mind when
looking for child care experiences and activities. The following pages provide insight into
a child’s developmental stages from birth through fourteen years.
Birth to eighteen months: an overview
In the first eighteen months after birth, an infant makes miraculous progress. In this
relatively short time span, an infant sees her world through her senses. Babies gather
information through touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound. To help infants mature and
learn, the caregiver should stimulate but not overwhelm them. The overall goal is not to
“teach” your baby but to interact and explore her world with her. Older infants are on the
move. They take great pleasure in discovering what they can do with their voice,
hands, feet, and toes. Soon they practice rolling skills, crawling, walking, and other
great physical adventures. Through “the eyes of a child,” here is what you might expect
during the first eighteen months.
One month
What I’m Like: I can‘t support my own head and I‘m awake about one hour
in every ten (though it may seem more).
What I Need: I need milk, a smoke-free environment, a warm place to sleep,
hugs and kisses, and to hear your loving voice. It‘s not too early to sing or
read to me. The more you talk and introduce different things to me, the more
I learn.
Three months
What I’m Like: My hands and feet fascinate me. I‘ll laugh and coo at them
and you. I‘m alert for 15 minutes, maybe longer, at a time. I love to listen to
you talk and read to me.
What I Need: Talk to me, feed me, and sing to me. My favorite songs are
lullabies. Cuddle me. I need fresh air, a ride in a stroller. Give me things to
pull and teethe on.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Five months
What I’m Like: I may be able to roll over and sit with support. I can hold my
own toys. I babble and am alert for two hours at a time. I can eat most baby
food. Put toys just out of my reach and I will try to reach them. I like to see
what I look like and what I am doing.
What I Need: Make sure I‘m safe as I‘m learning to crawl. I need happy
sounds, and I like to be near you. Dance with me, tickle me, and tell me
about the world you see.
Nine months
What I’m Like: I‘m busy! I like to explore everything! I crawl, sit, pull on
furniture, grasp objects, and understand simple commands. I like to be with
other babies and I react to their happiness and sadness.
What I Need: I need locks on cabinets with medicines, household cleaners,
or other dangerous things. Put away small sharp objects. I need touches,
nutritious food, and educational toys to keep me busy.
Twelve months
What I’m Like: I may be able to pull myself up and sidestep around
furniture. I may begin walking. I make lots of sounds and say ―Mama‖ and
―Dada.‖ I‘m curious about flowers, ants, grass, stones, bugs, and dirt. I like
to get messy, ‘cause that‘s how I learn. My fingers want to touch everything.
I like to play near others close to my age but not always with them. If I‘m
walking, please walk at my pace.
What I Need: I need lots of cuddling and encouragement. I need a safe
place to move around as I will be getting into anything I can get my hands
on. Read to me again and again. Sing our favorite songs. Give me freedom
to do most things—until I need help. So please stay near.
Twelve to eighteen months
What I’m Like: I like to eat with a spoon, even if I spill. And I will spill, spill,
spill. I will explore everything high and low, so please keep me safe. I may
have temper tantrums because I have no other way of expressing my
feelings or frustrations. Sometimes I‘m fearful and cling to you. I like to have
evening routines: music, story, and bath time. I like balls, blocks, pull toys,
push toys, take apart toys, put together toys, and cuddles. Sometimes I say
―No‖ and mean it. By eighteen months I can walk well by myself, although I
fall a lot. I may jump. I say lots of words, especially the word ―mine‖—
because everything is mine! I like it when we play outside or go to a park. I
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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like being with other children. I try to take off my shoes and socks. I like to
build with blocks.
What I Need: Let me touch things. Let me try new things with your help, if I
need it. I need firm limits and consistency. Please give me praise. The more
you talk with me, the earlier I will tell you how I feel and what I need. I need
you to observe me and to understand why I‘m upset or mad. I need your
understanding and patience. I want a routine. I need you to not mind the
mess I sometimes make. I need you to say I‘m sorry if you made a mistake.
And please read to me over and over again!
The Toddler's Creed
If I want it, it‘s mine. If I give it to you and change my mind later, it‘s mine. If I take it
away from you, it‘s mine. If it‘s mine it will never belong to anybody else, no matter
what. If we are building something together, all the pieces are mine. If it looks just like
mine, it‘s mine.
Eighteen months through two years: an overview
During the next stage of life, your child is beginning to define himself. Look for child care
activities that spur his imagination and vocabulary. During the toddler years, children get
into everything, so do your best to keep your child safe from a potential accident. Yet,
realize accidents do happen even to the most careful parents and children.
When looking for quality care for your toddler, consider:
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

Is the child care setting safe and does it provide small group sizes and adult-tochild ratios?
Are there enough toys and activities so sharing isn‘t a problem?
Are there a lot of toys for building which can be put together?
Is there a dress-up area?
Do art activities allow the children the freedom to make their own art or do all
crafts look the same?
And last, what are the toilet training and discipline practices of the provider?
Two years
What I’m Like: I am loving, affectionate, and responsive to others. I feel
sorry or sad when others my age are upset. I may even like to please you. I
don‘t need you so close for protection, but please don‘t go too far away. I
may do the exact opposite of what you want. I may be rigid, not willing to
wait or give in. I may even be bossy. ―Me‖ is one of my favorite words. I may
have fears, especially of sounds, separation, moving household objects, or
that big dog.
What I Need: I need to continue exploring the world, down the block, the
parks, library, and stores, etc. I like my routines. If you have to change them,
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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do so slowly. I need you to notice what I do well and PRAISE me. Give me
two OK choices to distract me when I begin to say ―No.‖ I need you to be in
control and make decisions when I‘m unable to do so. I do better when you
plan ahead. Be FIRM with me about the rules, but CALM when I forget or
disagree. And please be patient because I am doing my best to please you,
even though I may not act that way.
Three through five years: an overview
During the preschool years, your child will be incredibly busy. Cutting, pasting, painting,
and singing are all daily activities. When your child starts kindergarten around age five,
make sure home and child care activities include learning numbers, letters, and simple
directions. Most public school kindergarten programs are usually only a few hours a
day. You may need care before and after school. It is never too early to begin your
search.
When looking for quality care for your preschooler, consider:
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Are there other children the same age or close in age to your child?
Is there space for climbing, running, and jumping?
Are there books and learning activities to prepare your child for school?
Is television and movie watching selective?
Are learning materials and teaching styles age-appropriate and respectful of
children‘s cultural and ethnic heritage?
Are caregivers experienced and trained in early childhood development?
Are children given choices to do and learn things for themselves?
Are children rushed to complete activities or tasks?
Or are they given enough time to work at their own pace?
Three years
What I’m Like: Watch out! I am charged with physical energy. I do things on
my own terms. My mind is a sponge. Reading and socializing are essential
in getting me ready for school. I like to pretend a lot and enjoy scribbling on
everything. I am full of questions, many of which are ―Why?‖ I become fairly
reliable about using the potty. I may stay dry at night and may not. Playing
and trying new things out are how I learn. Sometimes I like to share. I begin
to listen more and begin to understand how to solve problems for myself.
What I Need: I want to know about everything and understand words, and
when encouraged, I will use words instead of grabbing, crying, or pushing.
Play with me, sing to me, and let‘s pretend!
Four years
What I’m Like: I‘m in an active stage, running, hopping, jumping, and
climbing. I love to question ―Why?‖ and ―How?‖ I‘m interested in numbers
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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and the world around me. I enjoy playing with my friends. I like to be creative
with my drawings, and I may like my pictures to be different from everyone
else‘s. I‘m curious about ―sleepovers‖ but am not sure if I‘m ready yet. I may
want to be just like my older sister or brother. I am proud that I am so BIG
now!
What I Need: I need to explore, to try out, and to test limits. Giving me room
to grow doesn‘t mean letting me do everything. I need reasonable limits set
for my own protection and for others. Let me know clearly what is or isn‘t to
be expected. I need to learn to give and take and play well with others. I
need to be read to, talked to, and listened to. I need to be given choices and
to learn things in my own way. Label objects and describe what‘s happening
to me so I can learn new words and things.
Five years
What I’m Like: I‘m slowing a little in growth. I have good motor control, but
my small muscles aren‘t as developed as my large muscles for jumping. My
activity level is high and my play has direction. I like writing my name,
drawing pictures, making projects, and going to the library. I‘m more
interested now in doing group activities, sharing things and my feelings. I
like quiet time away from the other kids from time to time. I may be anxious
to begin kindergarten.
What I Need: I need the opportunity for plenty of active play. I need to do
things for myself. I like to have choices in how I learn new things. But most
of all, I need your love and assurance that I‘m important. I need time,
patience, understanding, and genuine attention. I am learning about who I
am and how I fit in with others. I need to know how I am doing in a positive
way. I understand more about things and how they work, so you can give
me a more detailed answer. I have a big imagination and pretend a lot.
Although I‘m becoming taller, your lap is still one of my favorite places.
Six through eight years: an overview
Children at this age have busy days filled with recess, homework, and tear-jerking fights
with their friends. They begin to think and plan ahead. They have a thousand questions.
This age group has good and bad days just like adults. Get ready, because it‘s only the
beginning!
When looking for quality care for your school-age child, consider:
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Is the staff or provider trained to work with school-age children?
Is there space for sports activities, climbing, running, and jumping?
Are there materials that will interest your child?
Is television and movie watching selective?
Is there a quiet place to do homework or read?
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Is transportation available?
Six years
What I’m Like: Affectionate and excited over school, I go eagerly most of
the time. I am self-centered and can be quite demanding. I think of myself as
a big kid now. I can be impatient, wanting my demands to be met NOW. Yet
I may take forever to do ordinary things. I like to be with older children more
than with younger ones. I often have one close friend, and sometimes we
will exclude a third child.
What I Need: This might be my first year in real school. Although it‘s fun, it‘s
also scary. I need you to provide a safe place for me. Routines and
consistency are important. Don‘t accept my behavior one day and correct
me for the same behavior tomorrow. Set up and explain rules about daily
routines like playtime and bedtime. I need your praise for what I am doing
well. Since I may go to before-and after-school care, help me get organized
the night before. Make sure I have everything ready for school.
Seven years
What I’m Like: I am often more quiet and sensitive to others than I was at
six. Sometimes I can be mean to others my age and younger. I may hurt
their feelings, but I really don‘t mean to. I tend to be more polite and
agreeable to adult suggestions. By now I am conscious of my schoolwork
and am beginning to compare my work and myself with others. I want my
schoolwork to look ―right.‖ If I make mistakes, I can easily become
frustrated.
What I Need: I need to tell you about my experiences, and I need the
attention of other adult listeners. I really want you to listen to me and
understand my feelings. Please don‘t put me down or tell me I can‘t do it—
help me to learn in a positive way. Please check my homework and reading
assignments. Let me go over to my friends and play when possible. I still
need hugs, kisses, and a bedtime story.
Eight years
What I’m Like: My curiosity and eagerness to explore new things continues
to grow. Friends are more important. I enjoy playing and being with peers.
Recess may be my favorite ―subject‖ in school. I may follow you around the
house just to find out how you feel and think, especially about me. I am also
beginning to be aware of adults as individuals and am curious about what
they do at work. Around the house or at child care, I can be quite helpful.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
What I Need: My concept of an independent self has been developing. I
assert my individuality, and there are bound to be conflicts. I am expected to
learn and read and to get along with others. I need support in my efforts so
that I will have a desire for achievement. Your expectations will have a big
impact on me. If I am not doing well in school, explain to me that everyone
learns at a different pace, and that tiny improvements make a difference.
Tell me that the most important thing is to do my best. You can ask my
teachers for ways to help me at home. Problems in reading and writing
should be handled now to avoid more trouble later. And busy eight-year-olds
are usually hungry!
Nine through eleven years: an overview
Children from nine to eleven are like the socks they buy, with a great range of
stretch. Some are still ―little kids‖ and others are quite mature. Some are already
entering puberty, with body, emotions, and attitude changes during this stage. Parents
need to take these changes into account when they are choosing child care for this age
group. These children begin to think logically and like to work on real tasks, such as
mowing lawns or baking. They have a lot of natural curiosity about living things and
enjoy having pets.
What I’m Like: I have lots of energy, and physical activities are important to
me. I like to take part in sports and group activities. I like clothes, music, and
my friends. I‘m invited to sleepovers and to friends‘ houses often. I want my
hair cut a certain way. I‘m not as sure about school as I am about my social
life. Those of us who are girls are often taller and heavier than the boys.
Some girls may be beginning to show signs of puberty, and we may be selfconscious about that. I feel powerful and independent, as though I know
what to do and how to do it. I can think for myself and want to be
independent. I may be eager to become an adult.
What I Need: I need you to keep communication lines open by setting rules
and giving reasons for them, by being a good listener, and by planning
ahead for changes in the schedule. Remember, I am still a child so don‘t
expect me to act like an adult. Know that I like to be an active member of my
household, to help plan activities, and to be a part of the decision-making.
Once I am eleven or older, I may be ready to take care of myself from time
to time rather than go to child care. I still need adult help and
encouragement in doing my homework.
As children enter adolescence, they want their independence. Yet they still want to be
children and need your guidance. As your child grows, it‘s easier to leave him at home
for longer periods of time and also ask him to care for younger children. Trust your
instincts and watch your child to make sure you are not placing too much responsibility
on him at one time. Talk to him. Keep the door open. Make sure he is comfortable with
a new role of caregiver and is still able to finish his school work and other projects.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Eleven through fourteen years: an overview
Your child is changing so fast—in body, mind, and emotions—that you hardly know her
anymore. One day she‘s as responsible and cooperative as an adult; the next day she‘s
more like a six-year-old. Planning beyond today‘s baseball game or slumber party is
hard. One minute she‘s sunny and enthusiastic. The next she‘s gloomy and silent. Keep
cool. These children are in process; they‘re becoming more self-sufficient. It‘s
Independence Day!
What I’m Like: I‘m more independent than I used to be, but I‘m quite selfconscious. I think more like an adult, but there‘s no simple answer. I like to
talk about issues in the adult world. I like to think for myself, and though I
often feel confused, my opinions are important to me, and I want others to
respect them. I seem to be moving away from my family. Friends are more
important than ever. To have them like me, I sometimes act in ways that
adults disapprove of. But I still need reasonable rules set by adults.
However, I‘m more understanding and cooperative. I want nothing to do with
babysitters—in fact, if I‘m mature enough I can often be by myself or watch
others.
What I Need: I need to know my family is behind me no matter how I may
stumble in my attempts to grow up. This growing up is serious business, and
I need to laugh and play a lot to lighten up and keep my balance. I need you
to understand that I‘m doing my best and to encourage me to see my
mistakes as learning experiences. Please don‘t tease me about my clothes,
hair, boy/girlfriends. I also need privacy with my own space and things.
What is child development and what skills do children develop at different ages.
What is child development?
Child development is a process every child goes through. This process involves
learning and mastering skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes.
Children learn these skills, called developmental milestones, during predictable time
periods.
Children develop skills in five main areas of development:
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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1. Cognitive Development
This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems. For example, this includes a
two-month-old baby learning to explore the environment with hands or eyes or a
five-year-old learning how to do simple math problems.
2. Social and Emotional Development
This is the child's ability to interact with others, including helping themselves and
self-control. Examples of this type of development would include: a six-week-old
baby smiling, a ten-month-old baby waving bye-bye, or a five-year-old boy
knowing how to take turns in games at school.
3. Speech and Language Development
This is the child's ability to both understand and use language. For example, this
includes a 12-month-old baby saying his first words, a two-year-old naming parts
of her body, or a five-year-old learning to say "feet" instead of "foots".
4. Fine Motor Skill Development
This is the child's ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and
fingers, to pick up small objects, hold a spoon, turn pages in a book, or use a
crayon to draw.
5. Gross Motor Skill Development
This is the child's ability to use large muscles. For example, a six-month-old baby
learns how to sit up with some support, a 12-month-old baby learns to pull up to
a stand holding onto furniture, and a five-year-old learns to skip.
What is a developmental milestone?
A developmental milestone is a skill that a child acquires within a specific time frame.
For instance, one developmental milestone is learning to walk. Most children learn this
skill or developmental milestone between the ages of 9 and 15 months.
Milestones develop in a sequential fashion. This means that a child will need to develop
some skills before he or she can develop new skills. For example, children must first
learn to crawl and to pull up to a standing position before they are able to walk. Each
milestone that a child acquires builds on the last milestone developed.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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To find out more information about age-appropriate developmental milestones click on a
specific age below. If you are concerned your child has not met a developmental
milestone.
What are typical milestones, or skills, children learn at different ages?
We now know that our brains are not fully developed at birth. In fact, a baby's brain
weighs about one quarter (1/4) of what an adult's brain weighs!
The brain grows very rapidly during the first several years of life. During this time, your
child is learning all sorts of new skills.
What if my child does not meet a developmental milestone?
Each child is an individual and may meet developmental milestones a little earlier or
later than his peers. You may have heard people say things like, "he was walking before
he turned 10 months, much earlier than his older brother" or "she didn't say much until
she was about 2 years old and then she talked a blue streak!" This is because each
child is unique and will develop at his or her own pace.
However, there are definitely blocks of time when most children will meet a milestone.
For example, children learn to walk anytime between 9 and 15 months of age. So, if
your child is 13 months of age and not yet walking, there is no need to worry if he is
crawling and pulling to a stand. He has acquired the skills he needs to learn to walk and
may begin walking soon. However, if you have a child 15 months of age who is not yet
walking, it would be a good idea to talk with your child's pediatrician to make sure there
aren't any medical or developmental problems since age 15 months is outside of the
normal "window" or time frame in which children learn to walk.
In this website, we will provide you with some information about these "windows" or
blocks of time when children usually develop a skill. We also will share with you
some warning signs or "red flags" to watch for that may mean your child is not meeting
developmental milestones. We will also give you the names of some
books and websites about child development that you may find helpful.
However, whenever you have questions, do not hesitate to ask a professional like your
child's doctor, nurse practitioner, or a trained child development or behavioral specialist.
There are also several clinical specialists who are specifically trained in various areas of
development who can be consulted. These include speech pathologists, occupational
and physical therapists, developmental psychologists and audiologists.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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How can I help my child meet these developmental milestones?
As parents, we all want our children to succeed and be the best they can be. We know
from research that two factors influence how your child succeeds and grows: genes and
environment.
One of the factors that influence our child's development is their genetic makeup or
"genes." Some people refer to this as "nature." Genes are the genetic material we pass
onto our children. Children are born with their "genes" in place. These genes act like a
blueprint for what characteristics a child may have. For example, genes determine if a
child will have blue eyes or brown eyes; they also determine if he will be left- or righthanded.
The other factor that influences child development is the environment. This includes
experiences children have in their home, school and community environments. Some
people refer to this as "nurture." The environment can either improve or harm a child's
genetic blueprint. For example, malnourished children who live in third world countries
may not reach their IQ potential because of the impact of their environment on their
brain development.
We often think we need to run out and buy special toys, music and games to stimulate
our child's development, but we have to remind ourselves that it is more important to
provide the following, every-day activities you can do with your child to encourage brain
development.
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Give your child lots of love and attention. No matter what a child's age, holding,
hugging, and listening are important ways to show your child they matter.
Interact with your child by talking, singing, playing, eating, and reading with your
child. Your child will grow up feeling special and important to you. You will also
learn a lot about your child's interests and skills.
Read, read, read. Research has shown that children who are read to by their
parents have a larger vocabulary than other children. Reading also provides
children with new perspectives about the world we live in.
Learn some simple parenting skills for helping your child to learn how to behave.
The most important parenting skills are having consistent rules, rewarding
behaviors you want to see your child do more of, and having consequences
for behaviors you do not want your child to continue to do.
Limit TV time and video time to no more than 1-2 hours of educational viewing
per day.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
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Ask for help when you need it from your spouse, partner, family, friends, and
your child's doctor or nurse practitioner. Parenting is wonderful but it is not
always easy.
11 Types of Play Important to a Child's Development
Play builds your child's creativity and imagination as well as other skills. Whether it is
simply rolling a ball back and forth with a sibling or putting on a costume and imagining
she's an astronaut—she's developing important social skills such as learning to take
turns, cooperating, and getting along with others.
Does all play look the same to you? Sociologist Mildred Parten describes six types of
play that a child will take part in, depending on their age, mood, and social setting.
Unoccupied Play
Unoccupied play refers to activity when a child actually isn't playing at all. He may be
engaged in seemingly random movements, with no objective. Despite appearances, this
definitely is play and sets the stage for future play exploration.
Solitary (Independent) Play
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Solitary play is just what it sounds like—when your child plays alone. This type of play is
important because it teaches a child how to keep himself entertained, eventually setting
the path to being self-sufficient.1
Any child can play independently, but this type of play is the most common in younger
children around ages 2 or 3. At that age, they are still pretty self-centered and lack good
communication skills. If a child is on the shy side and doesn't know his playmates well,
he may prefer this type of play.
Onlooker Play
Onlooker play is when a child simply observes other children playing and doesn't
partake in the action. It's common for younger children who are working on
their developing vocabulary.
Don't worry if your little one is behaving this way. It could be that the child feels shy,
needs to learn the rules, or maybe is the youngest and wants just to take a step back for
a while.
Parallel Play
Put two 3-year-olds in a room together and this is what you are likely to see: the two
children having fun, playing side by side in their own little world. It doesn't mean that
they don't like one another, they are just engaging in parallel play.
Despite having little social contact between playmates, children who parallel play
actually learn quite a bit from one another like taking turns and other social
niceties.3 Even though it appears they aren't paying attention to each other, they truly
are and often mimic the other one's behavior. As such, this type of play is viewed as an
important bridge to the later stages of play.
Associative Play
Slightly different from parallel play, associative play also features children playing
separately from one another. But in this mode of play, they are involved with what the
others are doing—think children building a city with blocks. As they build their individual
buildings, they are talking to one another and engaging each other.
This is an important stage of play because it helps little ones develop a whole host of
skills—socialization (what should we build now?) and problem solving (how can we
make this city bigger?), cooperation (if we work together we can make our city even
better) and language development (learning what to say to get their messages across to
one another).4 Through associative play is how children begin to make real friendships.
Cooperative Play
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Cooperative play is where all the stages come together and children truly start playing
together. It is common in older preschoolers or in younger preschoolers who have older
siblings or have been around a lot of children).
Cooperative play uses all of the social skills your child has been working on and puts
them into action.5 Whether they are building a puzzle together, playing a board game, or
enjoying an outdoor group game, cooperative play sets the stage for future interactions
as your child matures into an adult.
Other Types of Play
While these stages are important and necessary for a child's social development, there
are other types of play that also contribute to a child's maturity. These types of play
usually develop as a child begins to engage in cooperative play and include:
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Dramatic/Fantasy Play: When your child who loves to play dress-up, doctor, or
restaurant, it's dramatic or fantasy play. Through this type of play, not only does
your child's imagination get a workout, but she learns how to take turns,
cooperate, share and work on language development. Through roleplay, kids are
also able to learn about functioning in the greater community.
Competitive Play: Whether she's beating her brother at Chutes and Ladders or
playing on a local soccer team, your child is engaging in competitive play. Rules
and turn-taking, and functioning as part of a team are the big lessons taken from
this type of play. You may have to give your child guidance about dealing with
both winning and losing.
Physical Play: Gross and fine motor skills really come into play here, whether
your child is throwing a ball or riding a bike. Physical play encourages kids to be
active.
Constructive Play: Forms of constructive play include building with blocks,
making a road for toy cars, or constructing a fort out of couch pillows.
Constructive play teaches kids about manipulation, building, and fitting things
together.6 Cognitive skills are used to figure out how to make something work
best, whether it is a block tower that won't stand up or a sandcastle that keeps
collapsing.
Symbolic Play: This type of play can be vocal (singing, jokes, rhymes), graphic
arts (drawing, coloring), counting, or making music. This type of play helps
children learn to develop skills in expressing themselves and exploring their
experiences, ideas, and emotions.
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OIC- College of Teacher Education
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