ANCIENT GREECE
The Ancient Greeks contributed much to the development of Western
culture in so many different areas: alphabet, drama, comedy, poetry,
politics, democracy, medicine, architecture, science, sculpture and
philosophy. Much of the Greek experience remains deeply embedded in
the Western world today; and not just as letters to distinguish one
fraternity or sorority from another.
The Greek use of rational thought, and not supernatural explanation, to
understand the natural world formed the basis of Western philosophy
and science. The Greek appreciation of the value and beauty of the
individual was crucial to the ensuing artistic and aesthetic history of the
West. The Greeks also developed the idea and practice of "democracy,"
an idea and practice so radical in the ancient world and much different
than the current understanding and use of the concept
•Whereas the Hebrews provided an ethical religion
for the West (in the form of Judaism and the idea
of ethical monotheism), the Ancient Greeks
provided an ethical philosophy. Both focused on
the role of the individual (and not community
responsibility for events), and both would
complement each other (ethical irrationalism in the
form of religion and ethical rationalism in the form
of philosophy) when merged later in Christianity. I'll
repeat that in my comments on Christianity.
• The Greek city states--it is important to remember that there was
never any unified kingdom or state of Greece even under Philip II of
Macedon and his son Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE-let's get back to my point about the Greek city states. They were all
individual polities, and all engaged in colonization. Colonial expansion
first began relatively early in the eighth century. Already by the 600s
BCE, Greeks had established overseas settlements/colonies throughout
the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Marseilles, Syracuse, Odessa, etc.).
Some historians have theorized that the colonialism was a response to
overpopulation, but in any case by the fifth century (400s BCE) there
were Greek settlements scattered all along the Mediterranean and
Black Sea shorelines. Many of these later came under the imperial
control of Athens, but these settlements ensured that Greek language
and culture spread widely and influenced local societies wherever
there was cultural and economic contact.
• We often associate the ancient Greeks with philosophy. Feel free to investigate all
of these different philosophic schools as they are all part of the philosophical
heritage of the world today. These are just some quick notes.
• Classical Greek Philosophy
• Protagoras, 490?-420?, was a leading sophist; man is the measure of all things;
everything is relative to man; relativism
• Socrates, 470?-399, debated the sophists; we only know of him through Plato's
dialogues, asked questions to get to the root of ethics and morality
• Plato, 429?-347?, authored numerous dialogues and also The Republic, which we
used to read in HIS 101; The "allegory of the cave" is part of The Republic and a
good description of his idea of forms--a higher realm of ideal forms existed and
the real world is an imperfect copy of those forms, the shadows on the cave wall.
Plato was no believer in democracy and believed that power should be wielded
by a class of guardians.
• Aristotle, 384-322, had studied at Plato's Academy; wrote quite a bit ad relied on
observation and empirical study. In contrast to Plato, he asserted that form and
matter are of equal importance and that there are no ideal forms out there
somewhere. He was a scientist! Also, in contrast to Plato, he advocated neither a
monarchy nor a democracy but a polity, a commonwealth of the middle class.
THE CHALLENGE OF PERSIA
• The
challenge
of
Persia
refers
to
the
conflict
between Greece and Persia in the 5th century BCE which involved two
invasions by the latter in 490 and 480 BCE. Several of the most famous
and significant battles in history were fought during the Wars, these
were at Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea, all of which
would become legendary. The Greeks were, ultimately, victorious and
their civilization preserved. If they had been defeated then the
western world may not have inherited from them such lasting cultural
contributions
as
democracy,
classical architecture and sculpture, theatre, and the Olympic Games.
ORIGINS OF THE WAR
• Persia, under the rule of Darius (r. 522-486 BCE), was already
expanding into mainland Europe and had subjugated Ionia,
Thrace, and Macedonia by the beginning of the 5th century
BCE. Next in king Darius' sights were Athens and the rest of
Greece. Just why Greece was coveted by Persia is unclear.
Wealth and resources seem an unlikely motive; other more
plausible suggestions include the need to increase the prestige
of the king at home or to quell once and for all a collection of
potentially troublesome rebel states on the western border of
the empire. The Ionian rebellion, the offering of earth and
water in submission to the Persian satrap in 508 BCE, and the
attack by Athens and Eretria on the city of Sardis in 499 BCE
had not been forgotten either.
•Whatever the exact motives, in 491 BCE Darius
once again sent envoys to call for the Greeks'
submission to Persian rule. The Greeks sent a nononsense reply by executing the envoys, and
Athens and Sparta promised to form an alliance for
the defence of Greece. Darius' response to this
diplomatic outrage was to launch a naval force of
600 ships and 25,000 men to attack
the Cyclades and Euboea, leaving the Persians just
one step away from the rest of Greece.
• The Persian War
https://youtu.be/QBd2TnswJBM
“WITH THEIR LONGER SPEARS, HEAVIER SWORDS,
BETTER ARMOUR, AND RIGID DISCIPLINE OF THE
PHALANX FORMATION THE GREEK HOPLITES WON A
GREAT VICTORY AGAINST THE ODDS.”
CLASSICAL GREEK CULTURE
• The Greeks made important contributions to philosophy,
mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
• Literature and theatre was an important aspect of Greek
culture and influenced modern drama.
• The Greeks were known for their sophisticated sculpture and
architecture.
• Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire and many other
civilizations, and it continues to influence modern cultures
today.
PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE
Building on the discoveries and knowledge of
civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia, among
others, the Ancient Greeks developed a
sophisticated philosophical and scientific
culture. One of the key points of Ancient Greek
philosophy was the role of reason and inquiry. It
emphasized logic and championed the idea of
impartial, rational observation of the natural
world.
• The Greeks made major contributions to math and
science. We owe our basic ideas about geometry and
the concept of mathematical proofs to ancient Greek
mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid, and
Archimedes. Some of the first astronomical models
were developed by Ancient Greeks trying to describe
planetary movement, the Earth’s axis, and the
heliocentric system—a model that places the Sun at the
center of the solar system. Hippocrates, another
ancient Greek, is the most famous physician in
antiquity.
He established a medical school, wrote many
medical treatises, and is— because of his systematic
and empirical investigation of diseases and
remedies—credited with being the founder of
modern medicine. The Hippocratic oath, a medical
standard for doctors, is named after him. Greek
philosophical culture is exemplified in the dialogues
of Plato, who turned the questioning style of
Socrates into written form. Aristotle, Plato's student,
wrote about topics as varied as biology and drama.
Art, Literature, and Theatre
•Literature and theatre, which were very
intertwined, were important in ancient Greek
society. Greek theatre began in the sixth
century BCE in Athens with the performance of
tragedy plays at religious festivals. These, in
turn, inspired the genre of Greek comedy plays.
• These two types of Greek drama became hugely
popular, and performances spread around the
Mediterranean and influenced Hellenistic and Roman
theatre. The works of playwrights like Sophocles and
Aristophanes formed the foundation upon which all
modern theatre is based. In fact, while it may seem like
dialogue was always a part of literature, it was rare
before a playwright named Aeschylus introduced the
idea of characters interacting with dialogue. Other
theatrical devices, like irony, were exemplified in works
like Sophocles’ Oedipus the King
In addition to written forms of theater and
literature, oral traditions were important, especially
in early Greek history. It wasn’t until around 670 BCE
that Homer’s epic poems, The Iliad and Odyssey,
were compiled into text form.
Greek art, particularly sculpture and architecture,
was also incredibly influential on other societies.
Greek sculpture from 800 to 300 BCE took
inspiration from Egyptian and Near Eastern
monumental art and, over centuries, evolved into a
uniquely Greek vision of the art form.
Greek artists reached a peak of excellence which
captured the human form in a way never before
seen and much copied. Greek sculptors were
particularly concerned with proportion, poise,
and the idealized perfection of the human body;
their figures in stone and bronze have become
some of the most recognizable pieces of art
ever produced by any civilization.
THE LEGACY OF GREEK CULTURE
•The civilization of ancient Greece was immensely
influential in many spheres: language, politics,
educational systems, philosophy, science, and the
arts. It had major effects on the Roman Empire
which ultimately ruled it. As Horace put it, "Captive
Greece took captive her fierce conqueror and
instilled her arts in rustic Latium."
•Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be
foundational to Western culture in general. The
Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture
directly, without Latin intermediation, and the
preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval
Byzantine tradition exerted strong influence on the
Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the
Western European Renaissance. A modern revival
of Classical Greek learning took place in the
Neoclassicism movement in eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century Europe and the Americas.
assignment
Give the names of three
Greek philosophers and
write a brief biographical
sketch of one of them.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
1775-1783
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1763-1783
American Revolution, also called United States War of
Independence or American Revolutionary War, (1775–
83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North
American colonies won political independence and went on to
form the United States of America. The war followed more than
a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown
and a large and influential segment of its North American
colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater
control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy
of salutary neglect.
Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within
the British Empire, but afterward it became an
international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779)
joined the colonies against Britain. Meanwhile,
the Netherlands, which provided both official recognition
of the United States and financial support for it, was
engaged in its own war against Britain. From the
beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course
of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that
helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers
of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the
French to help bring about the final British surrender at
Land campaigns to 1778
Americans fought the war on land with essentially two types of
organization: the Continental (national) Army and the
state militias. The total number of the former provided by
quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771
men, and the militias totaled 164,087. At any given time,
however, the American forces seldom numbered over 20,000; in
1781 there were only about 29,000 insurgents under arms
throughout the country. The war was therefore one fought by
small field armies. Militias, poorly disciplined and with elected
officers, were summoned for periods usually not exceeding
three months.
•The terms of Continental Army service were only
gradually increased from one to three years, and
not even bounties and the offer of land kept the
army up to strength. Reasons for the difficulty in
maintaining an adequate Continental force included
the colonists’ traditional antipathy toward regular
armies, the objections of farmers to being away
from their fields, the competition of the states with
the Continental Congress to keep men in
the militia, and the wretched and uncertain pay in a
period of inflation.
The American Revolution was the
war in which Great Britain’s 13
American colonies won their
independence. The colonies
became a new country, the United
States. The revolution began in
1775 and ended in 1783.
BACKGROUND
• Before the 1760s the colonies had a lot of freedom even though they
were under British rule. The British government was across the Atlantic
Ocean, more than 3,000 miles (5,000 kilometers) away. The colonies
had their own leaders and learned to solve their own problems. Also,
because Britain was often at war, it did not always pay close attention
to the colonies.
• In the 1760s, however, the British government tried to take more
control over the colonies. One major reason for this change was
the French and Indian War. Britain defeated France in the war in 1763.
But the war had been very costly. Afterward, Britain decided that its
American colonies should help to pay its debts.
TAXES
• To raise money, Britain forced the colonies to pay new taxes. In 1765
the British lawmakers, called Parliament, passed a law called
the Stamp Act. The act put a tax on legal papers, newspapers, and
other printed items. The colonists protested against the tax. They were
especially angry because Parliament was taxing them even though
they had no representatives in Parliament. Because of the protests,
the British government ended the tax in 1766.
• In 1767, however, a British official named Charles Townshend got
Parliament to pass several new tax laws. The Townshend Acts taxed
tea, lead, paint, paper, and glass coming into colonial ports. These
taxes made the colonists even angrier.
BOSTON MASSACRE AND TEA PARTY
• To keep order, the British government sent soldiers
to Boston, Massachusetts. On March 5, 1770, British soldiers
fired shots into a crowd. Crispus Attucks and several other
Americans were killed. This event became known as the Boston
Massacre.
• On the same day as the Boston Massacre, Parliament did away
with most of the Townshend Acts. They kept a tax on tea,
however. Then, in 1773, Britain passed a law that allowed a
British company to sell tea more cheaply than colonial
merchants. On December 16, 1773, colonists boarded British
ships in Boston Harbor and threw their cargo of tea into the
water. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party
• INTOLERABLE ACTS
• The British government then passed laws that were even
harsher. The colonists called them the Intolerable Acts. The
strongest of these acts closed the port of Boston until the
colonists paid for the tea they had ruined. Massachusetts was
put under military rule.
• The colonists realized that the colonies had to act together. In
1774 representatives from every colony except Georgia met in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The meeting was called
the Continental Congress. The representatives called on Britain
to cancel the Intolerable Acts. The British government
answered by sending in even more troops.
•
•
•
•
•
EARLY BATTLES
By this time many colonists believed that their problems with Britain could not be
worked out peacefully. They prepared to fight. They formed groups of soldiers
called minutemen. The minutemen were to be ready to fight “at a minute’s warning.”
In April 1775 Britain sent a force to seize the colonists’ military supplies in Concord,
Massachusetts. Paul Revere and William Dawes rode through the countryside to warn
the colonists that the British soldiers were coming. On April 19 a group of minutemen
met the British in Lexington, a town on the way to Concord. After a short fight, the
British moved on to Concord. Another group of American soldiers forced them to turn
back. The Battles of Lexington and Concord began the American Revolution.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. It brought together
the military forces of the colonies to form the Continental Army. It put George
Washington in charge of the army. Washington spent months preparing his troops for
battle.
Meanwhile the first major battle of the war took place at Bunker Hill, near Boston. The
British captured Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. But they lost so many soldiers that the
colonists claimed victory. The battle encouraged the colonists.
FIGHTING FOR INDEPENDENCE
• Before 1776, most colonists did not want to break free from Britain.
They only wanted to get Britain to do something about their
complaints. But as the fighting spread, more colonists became
convinced that they had to separate from Britain. On July 4, 1776, the
Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. With
this document, the 13 colonies became the United States of America.
• The Americans struggled against the larger and better-equipped British
Army. In the summer and autumn of 1776 the British forced George
Washington’s troops out of New York. The Americans were driven
across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. On Christmas night, however,
Washington crossed the Delaware River to return to New Jersey. He
had 2,400 troops with him, and they soon won important battles at
Trenton and Princeton, New Jersey. These victories kept the struggle
for independence alive
• The turning point of the war were the Battles of
Saratoga, in New York. On October 17, 1777, General
Horatio Gates led the Continental Army to a great victory
over the British. The victory helped to bring France into
the war on the side of the new United States. France
sent ships and soldiers.
• The winter of 1777–78 was a very hard one for the
Americans. Washington and his troops camped at Valley
Forge, near Philadelphia. They suffered terribly from
hunger and illness. But they emerged in the spring as a
stronger fighting force. They defeated the British in
Monmouth, New Jersey, on June 28, 1778.
Causes and Effects of the American
Revolution
• Causes
• The British Empire established colonies in the Americas.
• Britain and France engaged in the French and Indian War,
battling over land in North America. After the British won the
war, they gained possession of France’s North American
territories east of the Mississippi River. Up until this point the
British had left the American colonies mostly on their own, but
under the rule of King George III, Great Britain began to exert
more control over the colonies.
• The French and Indian War put the British crown in debt.
In order to increase revenues for the costs of defending
the expanding British Empire, Britain taxed the colonies.
It imposed the Sugar Act in 1764, and, one year later, it
added the Stamp Act. Colonists protested the added
taxes. The Stamp Act was repealed.
• In another effort to raise money and exert its authority
over the colonies, Britain established the Townshend
Acts in 1767. This series of acts placed taxes on tea, lead,
paint, paper, and glass imported to the colonies. The acts
were resisted through violence, deliberate refusal to pay,
and hostility toward British agents.
• Colonial opposition to the British grew, and the British
sent troops to Boston, Massachusetts. As punishment for
the colonists’ resistance, the British Parliament enacted
four measures known as the Intolerable Acts. Meant to
divide the colonies, the act united the colonies and
provided justification for organizing the First Continental
Congress in 1774.
• After representatives for the colonists called on Britain to
cancel the Intolerable Acts, Britain responded by sending
more troops. Fighting ensued, and the colonies officially
declared independence on July 4, 1776.
•Effects
• The Peace of Paris, a collection of treaties signed by both sides,
ended the war. Britain recognized the United States of
America as an independent country and ceded territory to the
new United States.
• A new plan of government, the Articles of Confederation, were
written in 1776–77 and adopted by Congress on November 15,
1777. The articles were not fully ratified by the states until
March 1, 1781. This new government organization served as a
bridge between the initial government by the Continental
Congress and the federal government provided under
the Constitution of the United States.
•The Constitution was written in 1787
to
amend
the
Articles
of
Confederation. The Constitution
organized the country’s basic
political institutions and formed the
three branches of government:
judicial, executive, and legislative.
FINAL BATTLE
• In the last years of the war most of the fighting took
place in the South. In 1780 the British, led by General
Charles Cornwallis, won battles in South Carolina. But in
1781 American and French forces trapped Cornwallis in
Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis surrendered on October
19, 1781. The fighting was over.
• The peace treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, in
Paris, France. It was called the Treaty of Paris. By signing
the treaty, Britain agreed that the United States was an
independent country.
•
CLASS ACTIVITY
Make a list of all former
US presidents, together
with the years they were
in office.
QUESTIONS FROM THE class PRESENTATION ON AMERICAN PAST PRESIDENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
How many of the past presidents are still alive today?
What is the name of the past president that was assassinated?
The name of the first American black president?
The name of the President that ruled for a short period ?
The president that ruled the United States of America twice?
The name of the American past president that was once an actor in a movie
before he became president?
7. The past American president that stopped the slave trade?
8. Who was the American president when the twin tower was bombed ?
9. The Gulf war occurred when James Madison was president of the United
States of America. True or False?
10. Andrew Jackson was president of the United State in
what year?
11. The name of the president that ruled America twice?
12. Who was president of America from 1850-1857?
13. The name of the American president that resigned?
14. The name of the American president that ruled from
1933-1945?
15. William Howard was the 10th American president.
True or False?
16. What state is former president John Tyler from?
17. How many of America past president bears the name
George?
• CLASS ACTIVITY
1. What year was the American Revolution ?
2. What happened in 1781 during the war?
3. When was the peace treaty signed during the
revolution?
4. The articles of confederation. When was it written?
5. What caused the revolution ?
6. When was the declaration of independence approved?
7. What happened in May 1775?
• Origins of Rome
As legend has it, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and
Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. Left to drown in a
basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued
by a she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their
own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing his brother,
Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him.
A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations)
kings followed in a non-hereditary succession. There are seven
legendary kings of Rome: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus
Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the
Elder), Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the
Proud (534-510 B.C.). While they were referred to as “Rex,” or
“King” in Latin, all the kings after Romulus were elected by the
senate.
Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the
overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus,
whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and
tyrannical, compared to his benevolent predecessors. A
popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a
virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son.
Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy into a
republic, a world derived from res publica, or “property of
the people.”
Rome was built on seven hills, known as “the seven hills
of Rome”—Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Aventine Hill,
Capitoline Hill, Quirinal Hill, Viminal Hill and Caelian Hill.
• The Early Republic
The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected
magistrates called consuls. They also served as commanders in
chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the
people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was
dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original
senators from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic
was marked by the long struggle between patricians and
plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some
political power through years of concessions from patricians,
including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could
initiate or veto legislation
• Military Expansion
• During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both
size and power. Though the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C.,
the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero
Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by
264 B.C. Rome then fought a series of wars known as the Punic
Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa. The first
two Punic Wars ended with Rome in full control of Sicily, the western
Mediterranean and much of Spain. In the Third Punic War (149–146
B.C.), the Romans captured and destroyed the city of Carthage and sold
its surviving inhabitants into slavery, making a section of northern
Africa a Roman province. At the same time, Rome also spread its
influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian
Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province.
• Internal Struggles in the Late Republic
• Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble
under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an
era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between
rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove
small farmers from public land, while access to
government was increasingly limited to the more
privileged classes. Attempts to address these social
problems, such as the reform movements of Tiberius and
Gaius Gracchus (in 133 B.C. and 123-22 B.C.,
respectively) ended in the reformers’ deaths at the
hands of their opponents.
• Julius Caesar’s rise
• When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he
formed an uneasy alliance known as the First Triumvirate
with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (who
suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71 B.C.)
and another rising star in Roman politics: Gaius Julius
Caesar. After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar
returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C.
From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar
received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in
Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering
the rest of the region for Rome.
• From Caesar to Augustus
• Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides
of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group of his enemies (led by
the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius).
Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted
heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and
divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was
known as the Second Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the
western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa,
tensions developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon
dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of
Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the
onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the Battle of Actium. In the
wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra
committed suicide.
• Age of the Roman Emperors
• Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century
of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax
Romana–two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He
instituted various social reforms, won numerous military
victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture
and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years,
supported by his great army and by a growing cult of
devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate
elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a
long-running tradition of deification for popular
emperors.
• Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (14-37
A.D.), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and
Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s
conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose
excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall
and eventual suicide. Four emperors took the throne in the
tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (6979), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the
Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman
court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare.
Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of
recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which
destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
• Roman Architecture
• Roman architecture and engineering innovations have
had a lasting impact on the modern world. Roman
aqueducts, first developed in 312 B.C., enabled the rise
of cities by transporting water to urban areas, improving
public health and sanitation. Some Roman aqueducts
transported water up to 60 miles from its source and the
Fountain of Trevi in Rome still relies on an updated
version of an original Roman aqueduct.
• Roman cement and concrete are part of the reason ancient
buildings like the Colosseum and Roman Forum are still
standing strong today. Roman arches, or segmented arches,
improved upon earlier arches to build strong bridges and
buildings, evenly distributing weight throughout the structure.
• Roman roads, the most advanced roads in the ancient world,
enabled the Roman Empire—which was over 1.7 million square
miles at the pinnacle of its power—to stay connected. They
included such modern-seeming innovations as mile markers
and drainage. Over 50,000 miles of road were built by 200 B.C.
and several are still in use today.
AN IMAGE OF THE ROMAN FORUM
Top 10 Facts About The Romans
1. The Romans would have baths together. ...
2. The Romans invented loads of things! ...
3. The Roman's most popular form of entertainment were Gladiator
fights. ...
4. The rich Romans had servants. ...
5. We still use some Roman roads. ...
6. They worshipped a lot of different Gods and Goddesses. ...
7. Ancient Rome is underground.
8. The Romans spoke Latin
9. The Roman armies were very strong and well trained.
10.The Romans invaded lands all over the world
The Roles of Slaves
• Slave labour was used in all areas of Roman life except public
office. In addition, slaves were often mixed with free labour as
employers used whatever human resources were available and
necessary to get a job done. If one could not find enough slaves
or skills were needed which only paid labour could provide,
then labourers and slaves would work together. In the
agricultural sector such a mix of labour was particularly
common as the work was seasonal so that at harvest time paid
labour was brought in to supplement the slave staff because to
maintain such an extended work force year-round was not
economically viable.
• Slaves, then, were employed by private individuals or the state
and used in agriculture (especially the grain, vine and olive
sectors), in mines (especially for gold and silver),
manufacturing industries, transportation, education (where
they brought their specialist knowledge of such topics
as philosophy and medicine to the Roman world), the military
(principally as baggage porters and camp assistants), the
service industries (from food to accounting), in the private
home, in the construction industry, on road-building projects,
in public baths, and even to perform tasks in certain cult rituals.
• Slave Rebellions
• There is some evidence that slaves were better treated in the Imperial
period as fewer wars resulted in slaves being in less ready supply and,
therefore, they increased in value and it was recognised that harsh
treatment was counter-productive so that there were even laws which
provided against excessively cruel owners. However, in practical terms,
one can imagine, that owners were at liberty to treat their property as
they thought best and the only real constraint was the desire to
maintain the value of the asset and not provoke a drastic and collective
reaction from those enslaved. Indeed, treatises were written advising
the best methods of management regarding slaves - what food and
clothing was best, which were the most efficient methods of
motivation (e.g. giving time off or better food rations), and how to
create divisions amongst slaves so that they did not form dangerous
protest groups.
• Conclusion
• The entire Roman state and cultural apparatus was, then,
built on the exploitation of one part of the population to
provide for the other part. Regarded as no more than a
commodity, any good treatment a slave received was
largely only to preserve their value as a worker and as an
asset in the case of future sale. No doubt, some slave
owners were more generous than others and there was,
in a few cases, the possibility of earning one's freedom
but the harsh day-to-day reality of the vast majority of
Roman slaves was certainly an unenviable one.