The Era of Decolonization: Decolonization and independence in West and East Africa
Introduction
The main focus of this module is on decolonization and the independence movement in West and
east Africa.
Reading:
Chapter 23: Consolidation of empire: the early period of colonial rule by Kevin
Shillington, pp 376-393
Freedom! Freedom! Freedom! (1957)
Mau Mau’s daughter (1954)
Jomo Kenyatta in court (1953)
Video:
The Rise of Nationalism
Returning soldiers and a rising African intelliigestia fueled the growing nationalist movemenst in
Africa. Moreover, the emergence of an independent India furthjer catalyzed the anti-colonial
movement. The struggle for independence assumed different forms and modes: from appeals to
the colonial powers to mass political campaigns to bloody uprisings. In 1957, Ghana became the
first African nation to become independent. Further African decolonization occurred with the
independence of Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia,
Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Malawi, Gambia, Botswana, Swaziland, Cameroon, Chad, the
Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Madagascar, Mali, Senegal, and Niger
Ghana
The Second World War (1939-1945) had a profound impact on the then British colony of the
Gold Coast. Ghanaians began to protest their exclusion from the corridors of power and the
exploitation of the country and its people. Those who had served in the war played a key role. In
August 1947 the United Gold Coast Convention (U.G.C.C). The central slogan of this political
party was the demand for “Self government within the shortest possible time”. Kwame
Nkrumah became the full-time General Secretary of the Party, emerging as the central figure in
the independence struggle. A general boycott of European goods was carried out in January of
1948, which resulted in a series of riots the following month. The most dramatic event, however,
was the February 28, 1948 shooting of veterans who had served in the Second World War.
Veterans organized a peaceful march in Accra (the capital) to protest their living conditions. This
unarmed group was fired on, killing several people. Riots then ensued. In order to assert their
authority and control British colonial officials arrested the nationalist leaders, including
Nkrumah.
Nkrumah eventually broke with the U.G.C.C. He opposed the ambiguity f their demand of
“Self-government in the shortest possible time.” Instead he demanded and wanted “Selfgovernment Now”. To fight for immediate independence Nkrumah formed the Convention
Peoples Party (CPP) in 1949. The C.P.P. organized workers and farmers into a mass movement
for independence. In 1950 a national economic boycott and strike was organized. As the struggle
intensified the British imprisoned Nkrumah and the leadership of the C.P.P.
Nkrumah at a pro-independence rally.
Nevertheless, given the growing opposition to colonial rule, the British held general elections in
1951. The people of the Gold Coast were allowed to elect a government that would have certain
limited powers. While still in prison, the C.P.P. overwhelmingly won the elections. Nkrumah
was released from prison to assume the position of Prime Minister. Nkrumah won another
overwhelming electoral victory in 1956. From 1951 to 1957, Nkrumah and his government
passed a number of constitutional measures that paved the way for formal independence of
Ghana, which was proclaimed on 6th March 1957, the curtain was drawn on the old colonial
order. Ghana (named after a West African kingdom) emerged as the first country in Africa,
south of the Sahara to regain independence from colonial rule.
Kwame Nkrumah
Nkrumah declaring the independence of Ghana, March 6, 1957 (see Freedom! Freedom!
Freedom! (1957).
Kenya
While, it could be argued the Ghanaian struggle for independence was relatively peaceful, the
Kenyan struggle was much more violent. At the center of this violent confronation lay the socalled “Mau Mau” Uprising or revolt of the Land and Freedom Party against colonial rule. The
rebellion lasted fropm 1951-1960, when it was eventually defeated. As in Ghana returning
soldiers from the Second World War played a key role. The uprising was the result of a political
movement against colonialism. Intitailly dominated by the Kikuyu, other ethnic nationalities/
groups eventually joined the movement. The aim was to reclaim the land from the colonial
power and settlers. Each fighter took an oath to that effect. Jacob Njangi, a former fighter,
explained: “We used to drink the oath. We swore we would not let white men rule us forever. We
would fight them even down to our last man, so that man could live in freedom." (see Mau
Mau’s daughter (1954). The British As a result, the British made taking the Mau Mau oath a
capital offence. Between 1953 and 1956 more than 1,000 Africans were publicly hanged for
alleged Mau Mau crimes.
A fighter taking the oath.
There were a number of causes of the rebellion. For example, there was great deal of frustration by exsoldiers over their high rates of unemployment. Also, Africans (especially the Kikuyu) had been displaced
from the most fertile of the Kenyan highlands. Many were reduced to living in squalid conditions in land
reserves and camps that were inadequate. Racism and concerted efforts to control the African
population contributed to growing anger that eventually erupted in the rebellion. The movement of
Africans was strictly controlled and restricted. They needed permission (in the form of passes) to move
from one are to another, they were not allowed into the best schools, hotels, restaurants etc.
Additionally, the burden of taxation was high, forcing many Africans to work as cheap labour on white
owned plantations in order to earn the money needed to pay the taxes or face imprisonment. Thus,
many Africans felt that they had no choice but to participate in the rebellion.
The emergence of an educated African strata/elite played a very important role. For example,
Jomo Kenyatta returned to Kenya after his studies in Europe, and became active politically (see
Jomo Kenyatta in court (1953). He organized with others several political campaigns on various
issues. A particular focus was the need for Africans to have a meaningful role in decisionmaking. While, the British were able to suppress the rebellion, they eventually had to accede to
Kenyan independence, which was gained in 1963.
The following photo depicts the mass arrests of Kenyan suspected to be part of the
rebellion.
A group of fighters.
Arrested rebels.
Questions for discussion
1. What role did veterans of the Second World War play in the Ghana’s independence
struggle?
2. How central was Kwame Nkrumah to Ghana’s independence struggle?
3. What were the causes of the “Mau-Mau” uprising in Kenya?
4. What were the effects of the “Mau-Mau” uprising?