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Chapter 2
Communication and Globalization
Communication in Multicultural Contexts
Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written
English Language
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact of globalization on communication
2. Demonstrate an understanding of how cultural diversity affects communication
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of varieties of English
================================================================
What words can you think of that you can relate to the
globalization?
Engage
Globalizatio
n
Explore
Assess your understanding of the concepts presented in this lesson by answering the
following questions (Madrunio & Martin, 2018).
About globalization and its impact on
communication
1. Is globalization mainly an economic
phenomenon?
2. Do globalization processes take place in rich
countries alone?
Yes
No
Not
Sure
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3. Does globalization contribute to the deepening
of poverty?
4. Does globalization adversely affect
communication?
5. Is there country in the world today that is not
affected by globalization?
Explain
TOPIC 1: Communication and Globalization
What is Globalization?
Globalization is a term that has been defined by various authors and is used in different
fields such as in business and education. Here are some of the definitions presented by
distinctive authors and groups.
In general, globalization refers to the intensification and acceleration of an ever
more open flow of communication and movement of people, technologies, money,
goods, images, and ideas across national borders. This cross-border interaction links
individuals, organizations, countries, and cultures into a global economy(Lo
Biondo & Rodriguez, 2012, p. 28).
Globalization is a complex multidimensional process that encompasses many areas,
including economics, ideology, politics, culture, and the environment, and increases
the interdependence of the world’s countries (Norouzi & Ataei, 2021, p. 66.
Globalization has an important quantitative element and multi-dimensional nature:
it is a process that transforms economic, political, social and cultural relationships
across different regions, increasing the speed of change and circulation of
information. (Autiero & Cobb, 2022).
Questions to Think About:
What is globalization in your own understanding?
How does globalization affect you?
What is the impact of globalization on communication?
How to Communicate Effectively in a Global Society (Barrot & Sipacio, 2018)
1. Express your ideas effectively in verbal, none-verbal, and written forms in either
digital or non-digital environment or both.
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2. Use effective listening skills to evaluate arguments and rationalize judgments, and
improve job-effectiveness and work relationship.
3. Communicate with purpose to a variety of audiences.
4. Promote collaboration and cooperation with others.
5. Understand the concept of diversity and promote respect all the time.
6. Use technology and social media responsibly.
TOPIC 2: Communication in Multicultural Contexts
Academic and professional contexts have become multicultural as a result of the
emergence of a globalized world. Hence, individuals of diverse cultural backgrounds, beliefs,
religions, gender, nationalities, religions, and ethnicities coexist with each other (Barrot &
Sipacio, 2018).
Culture
Culture is defined as the sum of a way of life, including expected behavior, beliefs, values,
language and living practices shared by members of a society. It consists of both explicit and
implicit rules through which experience is interpreted.
We communicate with other people with different cultures. Frank (2013) presents the
3P model of culture to raise awareness among communicators in various cultures.
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Perspectives describe
"what members of a The Concept of Micro-culture
culture think, feel, and
value". This includes ideas Micro-culture is….
about what is important in an identifiable group of people who share a set of values,
life, and beliefs about how beliefs, and behaviors and who possess a common history and
younger people should verbal and nonverbal symbol system that is similar to but
relate to older members of systematically varies from the larger, often dominant cultural
society. Perspectives defin milieu, (Neuleip, 2015).
e what members of a
particular
consider
Food
is culture
often the
first an identifiable group of people: If other people do not
appropriate
cultural product that and recognize them as a group, their culture may not be strong
inappropriate
behavior.
people
think of
when they enough to really be a micro-culture.
think
about
another
culture. The special foods People in a micro-culture…
associated with a particular … share a set of values, beliefs, and behaviors: This fits
culture are often the first perfectly with the 3P model of culture. Cultures are defined by
thing someone unfamiliar their perspectives, practices, and products.
with the culture learns
about it. Other cultural … possess a common history: Having a common history is
another
requirement
for an identifiable cultural group.
products
include clothing,
music, and literature.
… possess a common… verbal system: The verbal system is language. The members of the
micro-culture speak the same language. Often this includes special terms that only people in
the micro-culture use (slang or jargon). Sometimes this means that the micro-culture speaks a
different language from the larger culture. An example of this would be the Spanish-speaking
Latinos in the United States.
… possess a common… nonverbal symbol system: The members of the micro-culture may use
different clothing that helps to identify them. They may have in common a special type of art
or music. They may use different gestures when they are together.
… similar to, but systematically varies from, the larger, often dominant cultural milieu: This
means that the micro-culture has a lot in common with the larger culture, but they also have
certain key differences
Intercultural Communication Skills (Barrot and Sipacio (2018)
When you interact, negotiate or convey information in a multicultural setting, you
apply your intercultural communication skills. Simply put, intercultural communication is the
sending and receiving of information, ideas, or messages across languages and cultures.
Intercultural competence is the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and
attitudes that lead to visible behavior and communication that are both effective and
appropriate in intercultural interactions.
General Guidelines for Communicating in a Multicultural Context
● Avoid asking inappropriate or personal questions.
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● Avoid stereotyping or generalizing certain group. Keep an open mind and be flexible.
● Avoid using jargons, clichés, highfalutin terms, technical terms, acronyms, and genderbiased language.
● Be sensitive, polite, tactful, and respectful at all times particularly in relation to cultural
practices, attitudes, and beliefs. Learn and understand the value of diversity.
● Develop intercultural communication skills.
● Eliminate gender-biased words or sexist language particularly in writing. Refer to the
ways on how to avoid gender-biased language in the succeeding section.
● In case you do not get the message conveyed by the person you are communicating
with, request him/her to repeat the message or simplify it.
● Learn and observe physical distance or space in dealing with other people. In some
cultures, shaking hands and hugging may not be appropriate.
● Listen attentively when others are speaking.
● Observe patience in listening to other people’s ideas, which may not be the same as
yours.
● Respect a person’s rights to confidentiality and privacy.
● Show consideration.
● Speak gently and politely; never shout to be understood.
● Stay calm, cool, and composed when you make a mistake or feel embarrassed by others.
Culturally, others do not mean to embarrass you.
● Make positive interpretations of the actions and words of other people.
● When you feel strange or uncomfortable about something being communicated by
other people, request them to clarify their meanings and intentions before you express
your emotions and ideas.
Gender-biased Words or Sexist Language
Use the words that are free from gender prejudice and unfair assumptions. Words must
not influence the audience in any particular or unfair direction.
Sexist Language
Chairman
Salesman
Congressman
Spokesman
Foreman
Stewardess
Waitress
Policeman
Fireman
Man-made
Businessman
Manpower
Neutral
Chair/Chairperson
Salesperson
Legislator
Spokesperson
Supervisor
Flight Attendant
Server
Police Officer
Firefighter
Manufactured
Business Executive
Workforce
Ways to Avoid Gender-biased Language
a. Substitute gender-biased pronouns with articles/determiner.
Sexist: Every employee is entitled to his 13th month pay.
Non-sexist: Every employee is entitled to a 13th month pay.
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b. Use plural pronouns instead of singular pronouns.
Sexist: Each employee must submit his proposal next week.
Non-sexist: All employees must submit their proposal next week.
c. Use either/or pronouns (he/she, his/her, his/hers). However, avoid putting men first all
the time.
Sexist: Every applicant must fill out his own application form.
Non-sexist: Every applicant must fill out his/her own application form.
d. Use second person pronoun (you, your) over third person pronoun (he, she). Be careful
not to change the meaning of the statement.
Sexist: The sales manager should prepare his marketing proposal for our new product.
Non-sexist: You should prepare your marketing proposal for our new product.
e. Use appropriate titles.
Sexist: Dear Sir (unknown addressee)
Non-sexist: Dear Sir or Madame (unknown addressee)
Non-sexist: Attention: HR Manager
Note: Use Ms. if you have no idea if the female addressee is single or married. Use Mrs.
(mistress) if you are sure that the female addressee is married. Of course, you have to use
Ms.for an unmarried female addressee.
Elaborate
Activity: Think about a situation where you were involved in a multicultural communication.
Describe the situation and answer the following questions:
1.
Do you think you were able to respond responsibly? Explain your answer.
2.
If you were to change your responses or behaviors in that conversation, what would
you change? Explain your answer.
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TOPIC 3: Varieties of the English Language
World Englishes
Kingsley Bolton
The English language now plays an important role in the lives of a rapidly increasing
proportion of the world’s population. From a global perspective, the sociolinguistically
complex sites of English-using African and Asian societies are no mere exotic sideshow, but
important sites of contact, negotiation, and linguistic and literary creativity.
The expression “world Englishes” is capable of a range of meanings and
interpretations. In the first sense, perhaps, the term functions as an umbrella label referring to
a wide range of differing approaches to the description and analysis of English(es) worldwide.
Some scholars, for example, favor a discussion of “world English” in the singular, and also
employ terms such as “global English” and “international English,” while others adopt the
same terms in their plural forms. Indeed, in recent years, a plethora of terminology has come
into use, including: English as an international (auxiliary) language, global English(es),
international English(es), localized varieties of English, new varieties of English, non-native
varieties of English, second language varieties of English, world English(es), new Englishes,
alongside such more traditional terms as ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL
(English as a Foreign Language).
In a second narrower sense, the term is used to specifically refer to the “new Englishes”
found in the Caribbean and in West African and East African societies such as Nigeria and
Kenya, and to such Asian Englishes as Hong Kong English, Indian English, Malaysian English,
Singaporean English, and Philippine English. Typically studies of this kind focus on the areal
characteristics of national or regional Englishes, with an emphasis on the linguistic description
of autonomous varieties of Englishes.
In a third sense, world Englishes refers to the wide-ranging approach to the study of
the English language worldwide particularly associated with Braj B. Kachru and other scholars
working in a “world Englishes paradigm.” The Kachruvian approach has been characterized
by an underlying philosophy that has argued for the importance of inclusivity and
pluricentricity in approaches to the linguistics of English worldwide, and involves not merely
the description of national and regional varieties, but many other related topics as well,
including contact linguistics, creative writing, critical linguistics, discourse analysis, corpus
linguistics, lexicography, pedagogy, pidgin and creole studies, and the sociology of language
(Bolton, 2002a).
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This ‘three circles’ model is an alternative and influential classification has been put
forward by Kachru in 1985. Note from the following quote that Kachru refers to the ESL/EFL
classification.
Countries in the Inner Circle include the USA and the UK. Countries in the Outer Circle
include Bangladesh, Ghana and the Philippines. Countries listed as being in the Expanding
Circle include China, Egypt and Korea.
The great advantages of this model over the ENL/ESL/EFL ones are, first, that it makes
English plural so that one English becomes many Englishes. Second, the model does not
suggest that one variety is any better, linguistically speaking, than any other. The spread of
English has resulted in the development of many Englishes and not the transplanting of one
model to other countries: ‘. . . English now has multicultural identities’ (Kachru, 1985).
According to McArthur (2002) and Davies et al. (2003), as cited in Clement (2011),
the diverse variants of Englishes presently used are pertained to as “World Englishes”.
Moreover, she elucidated the difference of standardized and non-standardized World Englishes
which are as follows:
Because a standard language is considered the prestige variety, the variety
established by the social elite, used in educational institutions, heard in the
media, and preserved in the literature of a nation, its mere existence can
effectively marginalize those who use non-standard varieties of the
language. Non-standard varieties may vary from the standard in terms of
phonology, lexis, or grammar, but in her discussion on language standards,
McKay (2002) notes that there is less tolerance for grammatical innovation
than for lexical innovation because grammar expresses a social identity.
… Standardization can be defined both by the existence of dictionaries and
grammar books for a particular variety or by the production of publications
in that variety. Clement (2011)
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Standard Englishes:
American English (AmE) and British English (BrE)
Other Standardized World Englishes:
Australian English (AusE)
Canadian English (CanE)
New Zealand English (NSE)
Philippine English (PhlE)
White South African English (WSAE)
Indian English (IndE)
Irish English (IrE)
Singaporean English (SgE)
Here are some samples of differences of the standard Englishes in terms of spelling and
vocabulary. The other World Englishes, other standardized or non-standardized, adapted the
spelling and vocabulary of either AmE or BrE in combination with their local languages.
Samples of Spelling Differences:
Figure 1. American vs. British Spelling Differences: Quick Reference Chart. From American and British
English Spelling | 80+ Differences Illustrated. ESL Buzz. https://www.eslbuzz.com/american-andbritish-english-spelling-differences/
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Samples of Vocabulary Differences:
British
American
aubergine
eggplant
Although I do not like eggplant at all, my mother’s meals with eggplant are very tasty.
beetroot
beet
My grandfather planted beetroots in his field in the village this year.
bonnet
hat
You should take your hat when you go out because it is raining outside.
braces
suspenders
I suggest you buy a suspenders, or your pants will fall.
courgette
zucchini
My favorite food in this life is courgette food.
cutlery
silverware
I’m getting married this summer so I’m thinking of buying cutlery for my new home.
exam
test
I will take the exam tomorrow, I have to work hard tonight.
headmaster
Principal
Our headmaster made a long speech this morning to the whole school.
holiday
vacation
We had a very nice holiday this summer, we visited almost the whole country.
jug
Can you bring the jug in the kitchen here?
pitcher
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jumper / pull over
sweater
I’m thinking of getting him a pull over for Valentine’s Day.
maths
math
Maths was the hardest of the lessons I learned.
module
class
I’m in second class, or which class are you in?
pyjamas
pajamas
Put on your pyjamas before going to sleep, then go to bed.
trainers
sneakers
Today we are going to buy a sneaker with my father.
waistcoat
vest
If you want, put a vest on your child because the weather has gotten so cold.
anticlockwise
counter
appetizer
starter
aubergine
eggplant
biscuit
cookie
boot
trunk
braces
suspenders
candyfloss
cotton candy
car park
parking lot
chemist
drugstore
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chips
French fries
cot
crib
courgette
zucchini
crisps
chips
drawing pin
thumbtack
dressing gown
robe
dummy
pacifier
dustbin
garbage can
flannel
washcloth
flat
apartment
football
soccer
fringe
bangs
grill
broil
hairslide
barrette
holiday
vacation
jumper
sweater
lift
elevator
mobile phone
cell phone
number plate
license plate
off-licence
liquor store
oven glove
oven mitt
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parting
part
pavement
sidewalk
petrol
gas, gasoline
postbox
mailbox
postcode
zip code
public school
private school
pushchair
stroller
shopping trolley
shopping cart
skipping rope
jump rope
sledge
sled
state school
public school
TOPIC 4: Registers of Spoken and Written of the English Language
Language register is the level and style of your writing. It should be appropriate for
the situation you are in. The language register determines the vocabulary, structure, and some
grammar in your writing. The three most common language registers in writing are: Formal,
Informal, and Neutral
The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss
or a stranger. The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is conversational and
appropriate when writing to friends and people you know very well. The neutral register is
non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most appropriate for technical writings.
Formal Language Register
Formal writing is impersonal, meaning it is not written for a specific person and is written
without emotion.
Formal writing includes:
•
Business Letters
•
Some essays
•
Official speeches
•
Professional emails
•
•
•
Letters of complaint
Reports
Announcements
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Rules of the formal language register:
1. Avoid contractions
Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very common in
spoken English. In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.
In formal writing, you should use:
•
cannot instead of can’t
•
will not instead of won’t
•
is not instead of isn’t
•
•
have not instead of haven’t
could not instead of couldn’t
Contractions CAN be used if you are quoting someone’s exact words in your writing.
Example: “Two-thirds of my eighth grade students can’t read at grade level,” the professor
stated.
2. Write in third person point of view
In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless it is a quote.
Avoid using: I, You, We,
Us
Examples:
X You can purchase a car for under P500,000.
√ One can purchase a car for under P500,000. or
√A car can be purchased for under $10,000.
3. Avoid using too much passive voice
In formal writing it is better to use an active voice.
Passive sentences:
The article was analyzed by the staff.
The research was completed by the students in 2009.
Active sentences:
The dog ate the bone.
The students completed the research in 2009. or
In 2009, the students completed the research.
4. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés
Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular to a certain
region or area.
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Examples of slang:
•
awesome/cool
•
check it out
•
•
okay/ok
in a nutshell
A cliché is a phrase that is overused (said too often).
Common clichés:
•
too much of a good thing
•
Time is money.
•
Beauty is only skin deep.
•
•
moment of truth
Don’t push your luck.
5. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms
For abbreviations, write the complete word the first time, then use the abbreviation.
When using acronyms, write the entire name out the first time it appears, followed by the
acronym. From then on, you can use the acronym by itself.
Examples:
•
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
•
Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
Do not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would use in friendly emails and texts.
Examples:
•
LOL (laugh out loud)
•
&
•
w/o (without)
•
•
•
ttyl (talk to you later)
b/c (because)
w/ (with)
6. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also
Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in formal writing:
•
Nevertheless
•
Additionally
•
However
•
In addition
•
As a result of
•
Although
7. Always write in complete sentences.
8. Write longer, more complex sentences.
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Informal Language Register
Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. We use informal
writing when we are writing to someone we know very well.
Informal writing includes:
•
Personal e-mails
•
Short notes
•
Most blogs
•
•
•
Phone texts
Friendly letters
Diaries and journals
There are no major rules to informal writing. With informal writing, you can include things
such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Slang and clichés
•
Figurative language
Symbols and abbreviations
•
Acronyms
Incomplete sentences
•
Short sentences
First person, second person, and third person
Paragraphs or no paragraphs
•
Jokes
Personal opinions
•
Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
Passive and active voice