Chapter two
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
When studying a problem in a subject area, it is important to examine the previous studies
related to it. Therefore, in this literature review chapter present information about the previous
research related to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender community and the nature of nonLGBT human's attitudes towards the LGBT community. It is an important aspect which guides
to carry out this study systematically and accomplish this study objectives in proper manner.
Here the aspects missed by previous studies and the weaknesses of previous studies can also
be highlighted. A literature review is guided to conduct a systematic study. Accordingly, a
summary is included by extracting source data including the contents of previous studies,
names of researchers, relevant research books, research reports, etc.
2.2 Definitions of LGBT community
Definitions found in previous research are also similar to each other. According to the 'Mapping
LGBTIQ identities in Sri Lanka' report done by EQUAL GROUND organization in 2021, the
definitions of the LGBT words are as follows.
Lesbian: A Woman who is physically, emotionally and/or spiritually attracted to other
women.
Gay: A person physically, emotionally and/or spiritually attracted to someone of the same
sex. This term can be used by men, women or individuals who identify as nonbinary.
Usually used to describe men loving men and frequently used to identify the whole
LGBTIQ community– as in ‘Gay Community’.
Bisexual: A person physically, emotionally and/or spiritually attracted to both men and
women.
Transgender: A person whose sense of personal identity and gender does not correspond
with their birth sex. Its' mean, a person who was assigned a female sex at birth but identifies as male. And a person who was assigned a male sex at birth but identifies as female
(EQUAL GROUND, 2021).
2.3 Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation
Concepts of homosexuality and third gender identity have been closely related to sex, gender,
and sexuality or sexual desire. In briefly, sex is about your body, gender is about who you feel
yourself to be, and sexual orientation is about to whom you're attracted sexually. "Sex" is the
term we use to refer to a person's sexual anatomy (his or her sexual body parts). If a doctor
were to say that a girl is 'female' in terms of her sex chromosomes, her sex organs, and the
hormonal make-up, the doctor is referring to the girl's sex (her body). The "gender" call refers
to social roles that are assigned by a society according to gender. also gender assignment is the
social process by meet children are labeled girls or boys at birth. we can hear when someone
announces at the birth, "it is a boy", that's a part of that boy's gender assignment. "Sexual
orientation" Is the term that we used to refer to a person's sexual feelings and when we talk
about the person being homosexual, heterosexual, or gay like that we are talking about that
person's sexual orientation (Gamage, 2020).
Gender identities separate from biological sex. gender identity is an individual's deeply held
sense of being female, male or another gender. Sometimes children become aware at a young
age that their gender identity does not align with their physical sex characteristics, even
expressing the disconnect as soon as they can talk. Individuals whose biological sex and gender
identity match really think about the alignment of biology and identity because they have the
privilege of being considered normal by society. Individuals living comfortably outside of
typical female or male expectations and identities are found in every region of the globe (Baum
and Westheimer, 2015).
The sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation are key indicators of the demographic diversity
in the United States. Sex and gender are often conflated under the assumptions that they are
mutually determined and do not differ from each other. Sex, gender, and sexual orientation are
Core aspects of identity that shape opportunities, experiences with discrimination, and
outcomes through the life course. Therefore, it is Crucial that measures of these concepts
accurately capture their complexity (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine, 2022).
The term of sexual orientation used to describe patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual
attraction and sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions. sexual orientation
exists with exclusive attraction to the opposite or the same sex. if a person's sexual and
emotional attraction to people of the same gender is called homosexual orientation. if attraction
towards opposite sex called heterosexual orientation and if the attraction towards both gender
is called bisexual orientation people. the gender identity is referring to a person's experience of
self-expression in relation to social constructions of masculinity of femininity. and a person
may have a male or female gender identity with the typological characteristics of the opposite
sex (Tanweer, 2019).
2.4 Definitions of relationship between age and attitudes
According to the article the impacts of age and behaviors attitudes and identity on the
study.com website updated on 13th of May 2022, the relationship between age and attitudes is
stated as follows.
Accordingly, age has a remarkable impact on an individual's attitude. Psychological research
has demonstrated that younger individuals are more open to new ideas. They are also more
likely to accept people who are acting in different ways than they do. As people grow older,
they become less open to new ideas (The Impact of Age on Behaviors, Attitudes & Identity,
2022).
There are differences between the age groups and the attitudes that go along with those
generations. for example, the younger generation is often claimed to be a generation with
selfish attitudes. the older generation is often viewed as hardworking, experienced, and
responsible. they are waved as slow, elderly, and unattractive. but the young generation
considers it as a fast, attractive, and a strong generation. The identity motivations of a
generation influence the positive attitudes of that generation. people become more mature
people with age. The attitudes of the younger generation may not be more logical. the attitudes
of the older generation may be more logical than the younger generation however, based on
cultural and social factors, age group attitudes held by a community of belonging can be
positive or negative. It is believed that because the older generation is closer to death than the
younger generation, they deal with the more positive self-perception. according to
experimentally confirmed factors, the older generation should contribute to improving positive
attitudes towards the younger generation (Weiss and Zhang, 2020).
According to the research report public attitudes towards homosexuality and gay rights across
time and countries conducted by the University of Chicago in 2014, several countries have
reported changes in attitudes towards homosexuals and their rights. in Britain, there is
acceptance of same-sex relationships. for example, in June 1970 the first gay pride parade was
held in the United States attracting over 1,000,000 people (Smith, Son, & Kim, 2014). Through
that research, changes in public acceptance of homosexuality and their rights have been studied
overtime and across countries. the combined role of individual and country level variables in
making attitudes has focused on factors such as homosexuality and gay rights. This research
has been conducted on the attitudes of 30 to 65+ age groups. Countries selected for the research
include Italy, Australia, Ireland, Germany, France, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark. all those countries are European countries.
Journal report of change in social attitudes towards LGBT in Vietnam in 2022, conducted by
Hoa Sen University and HUTECH University in Vietnam. This journal report has attempted to
transform social attitudes towards the lesbian gay bisexual and transgender community in
Vietnam following this establishment of civil society organization in the late 2000s. the
normalization of homosexuality in Vietnam, along with the activity of social activities and
media sources, has been expected people to view sexual orientation in a more positive and open
direction (Pham, Ho, Vo, Diep, & Truong, 2022).
Changes in social attitudes have been identified with the influence of culture. along with the
establishment of civil society organizations fighting for LGBT rights and their activities, the
impact on Vietnamese politics, society, and media. Steps taken to transform negative attitudes
into positive ones are mentioned in this journal report.
2.5 History of homosexuality and transgenderism in the world
The existence of an old history of homosexuality and transsexuality can be recognized by the
research reports presented by researchers in the countries of the western world. In addition,
information about transgenderism and homosexuality is also reported in Asian countries.
According to the Gayle Zive's 'A brief history of western homosexuality' article can identify
the ideas expressed about homosexuality in the Western countries of the world. He said, many
people consider homosexuality to be a modern-day phenomenon. Gayle did not agree with it.
He said, it could not be further from the truth. Homosexuality has been documented in western
society as far back as the ancient Greeks. Virtually every civilization since has had some record
of the presence of homosexuality, from Ancient Greece to Rome to Victorian England, right
up to the present day. Gayle have stated as Ancient Greeks regarded homosexuality is normal
part of life, but only within certain parameters. With the collapse of Roman Empire, the nature
of homosexuality has changed again. In many areas there were no laws against homosexuality
at the time. But in the later times, the Judaism made laws and homosexuality prohibited along
with Judaism. Zive said about Plato wrote, "Homosexuality", is regarded as immoral by
barbarians and by those who live under despotic governments just as philosophy is regarded as
immoral by them, because it is apparently not in the interest of such rulers to have great ideas
engendered in their subjects, or powerful friendships or romantic love-all which homosexuality
is particularly apt to produce (Zive, 2022).
United State of America (USA)
The second chapter of Susan Stryker's autobiography, Transgender History, has been reported
on America's transgender history under the title 'A hundred years of transgender history'.
According to Susan in the 19th century crossdressing was prohibited by law in America. It is
an offence for a person to appear naked in a public place or to be dressed in clothing that does
not belong to his or her sex, indecent or indecent clothing. If convicted, they will be pay a fined
not more than $500. Based on the attitudes of the people the challenges faced by the transgender
community are mentioned in this book. Susan said, “transgender” is a word that has come into
widespread use only in the past couple of decades, its meanings are still under construction
(Stryker, 2008).
People celebrate the 48th annual Gay and Lesbian Pride Parade on June 25th of 2017 in Chicago.
A rainbow flag is places on the Marquis de Lafayette Statue as LGBT members and
their supporters protest outside the White House during the Equality March for Unity &
Pride Parade in Washington DC, on June 11th of 2017.
India
According to the 2018 journal report LGBT rights in India by Indian writer Amber Tanweer
said, the literature drawn from Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, and modern fiction also testifies the
presence of same-sex love in various forms. Ancient texts such as the Manu Smriti,
Arthashastra, Kamasutra, Upanishads and Puranas refer to homosexuality. Also, there are
reports that same-sex activities are common among sannyasins, who cannot marry. So, the
instances of homosexuality are available in historical and mythological texts world over and
India is not an exception to this. The Cultural residues of homosexuality can be seen even today
in a small village Angaar in Gujarat where amongst the Kutchi community a ritualistic
transgender marriage is performed during the time of Holi festival. Transgender marriage is
performed during the time of Holi festival. This wedding, which is being celebrated every year,
for the past 150 years is unusual because Ishaak, the bridegroom and Ishakali the bride is both
men. Whereas in the past 10 years world over, for the lesbian and gay rights, we find that the
legal initiatives have shifted from the right to be privately sexual. That is the right to have
same-sex relationships at all, to protected from discrimination in the workplace and in the
provision of services, and toward the right to have relationships given status by the law
(Tanweer, 2018). Accordingly, it can be said that there is no objection to homosexuality and
transgenderism in India.
Pakistan
Humaira Jami and Anila Kamal said that the attitude of the public towards transgenderism and
homosexuality is at negative level when considering the history of Pakistan. Pakistan is an
Islamic Republic where homosexuality is not legal or socially accepted, and where prison
sentences of up to ten years are issued for LGBT relations, makes the LGBT community live
in secrecy. According to them, Hijras are marginalized and stigmatized sexual minority in
Pakistan. Recently, hijras have attained third gender status at the State level in Pakistan. Main
objectives of the present study were to develop a valid and reliable scale for measuring attitudes
towards hijras of hijra community and then making role of gender and the religiosity in these
attitudes. Pakistan still uses the same laws and Penal Code as that formerly introduced by the
British Empire to India, 73 years after gaining independence. The situation regarding
transgender people in Pakistan can be identified as a favorable one compared to homosexual
or same-sex companions. While introducing laws to protect transgender rights, Pakistan’s
government has forbidden some apps such as Grindr and Tinder, for example, which are
considered relevant to LGBT matters. The LGBTIQ community classifies those dating apps as
important to the LGBT community, providing a safe platform for them to meet and interact
with each other without putting them at risk (Jami and Kamal, 2015).
Thailand
Performative genders, perverse desires: A Bio-History of Thailand same-sex and transgender
cultures written by Peter Jackson has reported information about the history of LGBT
community in Thailand through the article. According to Peter Jackson, homosexual and
transgender behavior has historically been ignored by Thai religious and legal authorities. Since
the 1960s doctors and psychologists in Thailand have come together to use western medicine
to control then suppress both cross-dressing and homosexuality. The later decades of the 20th
century have seen a proliferation of transgender women and men, as well as same-sex identity
groups. Thailand is a Theravada Buddhist country. But it has been popularized as a ‘gay
paradise’, having relatively accepted the LGBT community Thailand’s vocabulary is enriched
with words relevant to gender and sexual non-normativity, for example, ‘kathoey’ or ‘ladyboy’
in English, ‘tom’, and ‘dee’. The present Thai constitution protects the LGBT community as
“all citizens are entitled to receive protection from the state regardless of their gender”.
(Jackson, 2003).
Transgenderism in Thailand: ‘kathoeys’, or ‘ladyboys’, have become marginalized and
discriminated against more than lesbians or other gay men, still being therapeutic and not
allowing them to change their gender on their passports or identity cards. LGBT discrimination
in Thailand today, some positive improvements toward the LGBT community can be identified
such as a plenty of gay bars, gay saunas, a ladyboy show and a ladyboy pageant, and facilities
for sex reassignment surgeries, for example (Gamage, 2020).
Korea
Gowoon Jung has conducted the research on the attitudes of people in Korean society and the
effects on transgenders and homosexuals through it. It includes information on the nature of
attitudes toward homosexuality or transsexuality, its impact on the community, legal scope,
and history. A statement of one person who obtained information while conducting that
research is stated in the article as follows.
Yeojin a fashion designer in Korea, has said in the Bible, there are verses about the sexual
relationship between a man and a man like in Sodom. In (pastor’s) preaching about these verses
they said that it is sin that God does not like, but they have not talked about how we should
respond and react if those people come to church. I have not heard how we should respond.
South Korea does not a strong & visible lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender social movement
in the public. The LGBT movement has had a difficult time growing South Korea. In modern
day Korea, there is a lack of visible LGBT culture in society. Although, active issue advocacy
organizations, political representation from the Democratic Labour Party, and popular
television shows that portray LGBT characters and themes. The LGBT movement has had a
difficult time growing in South Korea because, as some have argued South Korea has long
been ignorant about homosexuality and awareness of ‘gay’ had not been discovered until the
early 1990s (Jung, 2020).
Taiwan
The research conducted in Taiwan called perception of attitudes of the general population for
homosexuality in Taiwan has shown how people's attitudes affect the LGBT community.
According to this report the stigma that lesbian, gay, and bisexual people have to face in their
daily lives is high, because of the prevailing attitudes of the general population towards for
homosexuality. It is tragedy that the stress, discrimination, and harassment faced by the
minority population due to problems in the attitudes of the general population. There is a
problem of social justice and equality in the country because of ground based protest. They
have the opinion that some program should be implemented in the society to remove the
influence of the nonpositive attitudes of the common people. Taiwan's Constitutional Court
reached a landmark decision that marriage should be opened to same-sex couples within two
years in May 2017 to making Taiwan potentially the first country in Asia to realize marriage
equality (Lin, H. C., et al. 2021).
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, homosexuality is not accepted, and the country has not implemented any legal
pathways to legalize same-sex marriage. LGBT people in Bangladesh face stressful life
experiences including discrimination, criminalization, stigma, and financial burdens.
Statistically, the number of lesbians and the bisexual people is still unknown, while there are
only rough estimates as to the number of gay and transgender people. As in Pakistan and India,
transgender people are accepted in Bangladesh society openly while lesbians, gay men, and
bisexual identities live in secrecy, unidentified by the government. Lesbians cannot be
regularly identified in Bengali society. However, at present women activists are beginning to
organize their rights. Historically Bangladesh was a tolerant and open-minded Islamic country
for all minorities. However, presently the situation is changing drastically to become a country
which is most conservative about gender and sexuality. LGBT activists face life-threatening
verbal and physical assaults from organized religious and cultural groups who oppose
homosexuality and third gender identity (Gamage, 2020).
Lesbianism cannot be regularly identified in Bengali society. However, at present women
activists are beginning to organize their rights. The first homosexual women’s group is
“Shawprowa”, introduced in 2007, although the country has given them a lower position in
both private and public lives due to religious and cultural influences. Historically Bangladesh
was a tolerant and open-minded Islamic country for all minorities. However, presently the
situation is changing drastically to become a country which is most conservative about gender
and sexuality. LGBT activists face life-threatening verbal and physical assaults from organized
religious and cultural groups who oppose homosexuality and third gender identity. The First
LGBT magazine named ‘Roopbaan’ in 2016 (Gamage, 2020).
Australia
In the history of 50 years LGBT activism in Australia has grown from small and localized
organization to national campaigns. Over the past 50 years, the issues and activist strategies
have evolved, there have been two persistent patterns. The most organizations have been state
based & have drawn on international influences. Campaign Against Moral Persecution
(CAMP) and Gay Liberation are organizations in Australia. Both organizations recognized the
importance of visibility in order to change societal attitudes and influence law reform.
HIV/AIDS was an important reason that generated grassroots activism within LGBT
communities. In 2017 the commonwealth government held a postal survey asking Australian
voters whether they supported same-sex marriage. This was an unprecedented exercise in
Australian polity that was divisive (Riseman, 2019).
2.6 Identification of homosexuality and transgenderism in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is a country of high cultural diversity with different religions and different beliefs
(Gamage, 2020). Also, it is a country of hegemonic heterosexuality and heteronormativity with
cultural, religious, and legal values and norms. They affect discrimination against the LGBT
community (Samaraweera & Samarasinghe, 2016).
'Towards a Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transsexuals and Transgendered (LGBT) Stigma and
Discrimination Index for Sri Lanka' research conducted by EQUAL GROUND organization in
2010. It is based on the information obtained from 119 people through an interview.
Accordingly, estimates of the LGBT community in Sri Lanka. They are categorized as follows
according to the age groups of the respondents.
Table 1: Age distribution of interviewees
Ages
Frequency
Percent
Adult aged 18-24 years
22
18.49%
Adult aged 25-29 years
34
28.57%
Adult aged 30-39 years
34
28.57%
Adult aged 40-49 years
19
15.97%
Adults aged 50+ years
10
8.40%
Total
119
100.00%
Source: EQUAL GROUND – 2010
EQUAL GROUND organization conducted research in 2021, 'Mapping LGBTIQ identities in
Sri Lanka'. The study captured information about LGBT people on the sample of 4019 people
who self-filled information to the questionnaire. The structure of this sample is as follows.
North Central and
North-western (750)
North and East
(511)
Central (515)
Uva (255)
Southern (467)
Western (1229)
Sabaragamuwa
(292)
The data table related to the above distribution is as follows.
Table 2: LGBTIQ community representation - Provincial & Age Distribution
Percentages are rounded
Total
18-29 years
30-44 years
45-65 years
Base
4019
1198
1405
1416
Bisexual
8.0%
10.4%
7.5%
5.9%
Gay
0.5%
0.9%
0.4%
0.3%
Lesbian
0.5%
0.3%
0.9%
0.5%
Transgender
1.0%
1.2%
1.4%
1.0%
Other
2.0%
2.4%
1.4%
1.7%
88.0%
84.8%
88.4%
90.6%
off to the nearest number
Non-LGBTIQ
Source: EQUAL GROUND – 2021
'Rapid Situation Assessment of Transgender Persons in Sri Lanka' research conducted by
Institute for Participatory Interaction in Development (IPID) in 2016. According to this
research, HIV/AIDS being an acquired syndrome tend to affect some sections of the population
more than others. The most vulnerable sections of the population that are affected by HIV are
the transgender communities and other sexual minorities. Gender evolution and development
process is universal, but the individuals, such as transgender persons, who break the rigid
boundaries of identifying with genders other than the one assigned at birth, tend to face
discrimination to a humiliating, lethal degree, and sometimes violent. Because the transgender
community is a very sensitive community, information has been collected about transgender
people through the questionnaire presented in this research. Thus, the transgender community
in Sri Lanka has been statistically estimated. As of 2016, the number of transgender people
visiting clinics for treatment has been ascertained together information on the transgender
population in Sri Lanka. according to this research, there are 350 transgenders who attended
gender clinics in Colombo and 10 in Kandy. by that time, only Colombo and Kandy Have
become the two main cities where treatment is provided to the transgender community.
Therefore, it has been reported that people from other areas also come to Colombo for treatment
(Institute for Participatory Interaction in Development, 2016).
2.7 Identification of non-LGBT people's attitudes about LGBT community
in Sri Lanka
Most of the research conducted in Sri Lanka has identified the discrimination and stigma that
the LGBT community has to face, and the research have reported information about the
physical and mental problems that LGBT people have to face. But there are a few numbers of
research on whether the public attitudes towards this community are positive or negative and
whether their age affects those attitudes. The EQUAL GROUND is a nonprofit organization
seeking political and human rights for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and
Questioning (LGBTIQ) individuals in Sri Lanka.
This organization, established in 2004, claims to be the first organization in Sri Lanka that
welcomes people of all sexual orientations and gender identities. Early search problem of
'Mapping LGBTIQ community in Sri Lanka' research conducted in 2021 are Sri Lankans
supportive of LGBTIQ rights, people who do not belong to this community have recorded
information about the attitudes of individuals and their age groups. It is generally accepted that
the non-LGBT community tends to look down on the LGBT community. according to this
research regardless of geographical location, people's mentality, conservation behavior, old
beliefs affect the acceptance of the LGBT community in Sri Lankan culture. Furthermore, they
show that different age groups and their influence are not limited to a geographical place or a
culture but have different attitudinal differences. But a logical analysis of whether there are
attitudinal differences between them according to age groups has not been presented.
Comments from non-LGBT people are presented in that research. Accordingly, one person has
thought that such things are normal in Western countries, because after a certain age, the
children stopped the relationship with their parent's lives. But those things do not suit the
culture of Sri Lanka. The bond between parents and children in Sri Lanka is very strong. In
their research, some respondents in Polonnaruwa are of the opinion that this is a recent
phenomenon. This research has reported that they are not aware that there was such different
sexual orientation in the past. another community is of the opinion that such people were in the
villages then, but these things were not talked about in those days (EQUAL GROUND, 2021).
2.8 Global organizations that advocate for the LGBT community
It is a possible to identify large number of organizations that have been created globally about
the LGBT community. They have been created by different countries. Those who hold religious
opinions, members of LGBT community etc., have various forms of organizations. Details
about some of organizations as follows. Includes global organizations that have made it their
mission to support, represent, and advocate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT)
groups.
Organization Name : Advocates for Youth
Country
: Columbia, USA
Phone Number
: (202) 419-3420
Website Link
: https://www.advocatesforyouth.org/
Description
: This organization partners with youth leaders, adult allies, and youth-
serving organizations to advocate for policies and champion programs that recognize young
people's rights to honest sexual health information, affordable sexual health services, and the
resources and opportunities to create sexual health equity for all youth.
Organization Name : CenterLink
Country
: Florida, USA
Phone Number
: (954) 765-6024
Website Link
: https://www.lgbtqcenters.org/
Description
: This is a nonprofit organization that works to help build the capacity
of many national organizations to advance the rights of LGBT individuals and to provide
LGBT community centers with information and analysis of key issues. Additionally,
CenterLink offers several programs and services; YouthLink is the newest program that works
to bring a stronger youth voice to policy issues at the national level while also providing support
and technical assistance to Centers in the CenterLink membership network.
Organization Name : Equality Federation
Country
: Oregon, USA
Phone Number
: (929) 373-3370
Website Link
: https://www.equalityfederation.org/
Description
: Equality Federation is the national alliance of State-based lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) advocacy organizations.
Organization Name : Sappho for Equality
Country
: Eastern India
Phone Number
: +91 33 2441 9995
Website Link
: https://www.sapphokolkata.in/
Description
: Sappho for Equality is the only registered organization in Eastern
India. It works for the rights, and social justice of individuals with non-normative gendersexual orientations, identities, and expressions, especially persons assigned gender female at
birth.
Organization Name : Humsafar Trust
Country
: New Dilhi, India
Phone Number
: +91 22 2667 3800
Website Link
: https://humsafar.org/
Description
: The Humsafar Trust was founded in April 1994 by journalist Ashok
Row Kavi, media professional Suhail Abbasi and filmmaker Sridhar Rangayan, to reach out to
LGBTQ communities in Mumbai Metro and surrounding areas.
Organization Name : LGBTIQ+ Health Australia
Country
: Australia
Phone Number
: 02 7209 6301
Website Link
: https://www.lgbtiqhealth.org.au/advocacyreports
Description
: This is the national peak health organization in Australia for
organizations and individuals that provide health-related programs, services, and research
focused on LGBTIQ+ people and communities.
Organization Name : Consortium
Country
: United Kingdom
Phone Number
: 020 7064 6500
Website Link
: https://www.consortium.lgbt/
Description
: It is a national specialist infrastructure and membership organization.
Work to build the resource, sustainability, and resilience of LGBT+ groups, organizations and
projects so that they can deliver direct services and campaign for individual rights.
2.9 Sri Lankan organizations that advocate for the LGBT community
Information about some of the non-government organizations that representing the LGBT
community in Sri Lanka.
Organization Name : EQUAL GROUND
Country
: Colombo,Sri Lanka
Phone Number
: +94 112 806 184
Website Link
: https://www.equal-ground.org/
Description
: EQUAL GROUND the nonprofit organization seeking economic,
social, cultural, civil, and political rights for the LGBTIQ community of Sri Lanka. They are
committed to creating a safe space for all LGBTIQ individuals and providing opportunities for
self-help including mental, well-being, economic, social, and political empowerment, access
to health, education, housing, and legal protection for the LGBTIQ community.
Organization Name : Companions on a Journey (COJ)
Country
: Colombo, Sri Lanka
Phone Number
: +94 114 851 535
Email
: coj.admn@gmail.com, coj.mithra@gmail.com
Description
: COJ is an LGBT organization founded in 1995. It has been a pioneer
in addressing the issues related to LGBT rights in Sri Lanka and strives to create and facilitate
an environment where society will accept, respect and support people with non-conforming
sexualities to live with freedom and dignity. Their work focuses on advocacy for protection of
the rights of LGBT people and decriminalization of consenting adult homosexuality;
networking; and providing peer-based outreach services. They operate two drop-in centres in
Colombo and Kandy.
Organization Name : Venasa Transgender Network
Country
: Thalawathugoda, Sri Lanka
Website Link
: https://www.astraeafoundation.org/stories/venasa-transgender-
network/
Description
: The Venasa Transgender Network growth in 2015 to promote the legal,
health, and social well-being of LGBTQ people mainly focusing on transgender persons.
Organization Name : COUNTRY OF ORIGIN SPECIALIST,
Ms. Rosanna Flamer-Caldera, Executive Director, Equal Ground
Country
: Colombo, Sri Lanka
Website Link
: https://sydneyworldpride.com/rosanna-flamer-caldera/
Description
: Ms. Rosanna Flamer-Caldera is an internationally recognized LGBT
rights activist based in Sri Lanka. Ms. Flamer-Caldera is the Executive Director of EQUAL
GROUND, a non-profit Trust founded by her in 2004, advocating LGBT rights in Sri Lanka.
Ms. Rosanna Flamer-Caldera
2.9 Chapter summary
When conducting research, it is important to examine the previous research that has been done
in connection with the field of research. Since the early 1960s, the LGBTIQ community has
organized and campaigned for their rights with scholars, researchers, and activists supporting
them with evolving theories and movements. Being a sexual and gender non-normative
individual has not been easier. People's attitudes affect the psychological level and survival of
a minority community. Western countries, including the UK, have decriminalized same-sex
relationships while giving the most equal rights to the gender variant minority. According to
this chapter, I got an understanding of how the LGBT community has spread in Sri Lanka and
the challenges faced by them in society. Sri Lanka, an islander country, has been influenced
by India for a long time. However, when considering homosexuality and third gender identity,
Sri Lanka has not yet reached the attitudinal development of Western countries.