1
EARTHandLIFESciences
Learning Modules(GRADE 11)
2nd Quarter
for Senior High School
(Core Subject)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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No:
PART
Page
II
Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Lesson
1
The Beginning of Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Bioenergetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Perpetuation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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How Animals Survive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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How Plants Survive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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EVOLUTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Interaction and Interdependence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Lesson
2
Lesson
3
Lesson
4
Lesson
5
Lesson
6
Lesson
7
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PART II
3
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 1-Week 1
Life Sciences
Introduction
Part I was devoted to Mother Earth. Part II dwells on life from the tiniest microorganisms to the
largest animal on Mother Earth. It begins with a discussion on how life began.
Life Sciences are the branches of science that study living things. A student who studies the life
sciences would be learning more about plants, animals, human beings or even tiny microscopic organisms.
Biology is the foundation of the life sciences. It’s defined as the study of life and how living things survive and
change. Because biology covers so many aspects important to life, many scientists consider biology and life
sciences to synonymous terms.
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while
botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as
anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, such
as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things,
such as bio-engineering. While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in
molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.
The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in
health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.
Below are some fields in the life sciences. With the introductory nature of the course and given the
limited time, they may not all be included in this book. However, you may find these fields interesting and
you may want to consider one of them as a career. Look for the meaning of each term:
Anatomy\Anthropology
Genetics (introduction)
Astrobiology
Gerontology
Biochemistry
Immunology
Biogeography
Limnology
Biological engineering
Marine biology
Biophysics
Microbiology
Behavioral neuroscience
Molecular biology
Biotechnology
Neuroscience
Botany
Paleontology
Cell biology
Parasitology
Conservation biology
Physiology
Cryobiology
Radiobiology
Developmental biology
Soil biology
Ecology
Sociobiology
Ethnobiology
Systematics
Ethology
Toxicology
Evolutionary biology (introduction)
Zoology
This part of the module is only an introductory to life science. Do not expect that all the life sciences
aforecited will be covered exhaustively. But it is good that you get to know what each means to get a wholistic
picture of life sciences.
The entire course, Earth Science and Life Sciences, is supposed to give you a general background of
Mother Earth and life in this planet before you go into an in depth study of biology, chemistry and physics for
those Senior High School .
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 1-Week 1
Lesson 1: The Beginning of Life
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of the historical development of the concept of life;
the origin of the first life forms; and the unifying themes in the study of life. The learners shall be
able to appreciate and value life by taking good care of all beings, humans, plants and animals.
Learning Competency
 The learners will be able to explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of
evidence (S11/12LT-IIa-1); describe classic experiments that model conditions which may have
enabled the first life forms to evolve; (S11/12LT-IIa-2); and describe how unifying themes (e.g.
structure and function, evolution and ecosystems) in the study of life show connections among
living things and how they interact with each other and with their environment; (S11/12LT-IIa-3)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Discuss the historical development of the concept of life including theories, experiments and
evidences;
 Describe the conditions on early Earth that made the origin of life possible and the first life forms;
and
 Discuss the unifying themes of life and how they are interconnected
Let’s us Learn!
How Life Began?
The universe is about 4.6 billion years old. The formation of the Earth along with other planets of our
solar system is believed to have occurred some 4.5 billion years ago. Life on Earth, however, probably began
only between 3.5 and 4.0 billion years ago. The important question is how was life first formed?
Evidence from fossil records show that the oldest fossil resembled the one-celled organism like
bacteria.
Do the following activities:
1.
Analyze the pictures that follow.
Timeline
Pieces of evidence on the evolution of life
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2. What do you think are some conditions which may have enabled the first forms to evolve? Explain?
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How did life on Earth begin?
For some then the origin of life could be explained by the spontaneous generation theory which states
that life forms can be generated from inanimate objects. This belief had been around since the time of
Aristotle.
Francesco Redi was able to disprove the spontaneous generation theory when he experimented by
placing meat in all the jars, but covered four of the jars with muslin. Maggots developed in the open jars but
did not develop in the muslim-covered jars.
In the late 1700’s LazaroSpallanzani likewise tried to disprove the spontaneous generation theory by
performing a controlled experiment with broth. He put broth into two flasks (glass containers) and sterilized
them both by boiling the broth. One of the flasks was left open to the air. The other flask was sealed up to
keep out any organisms that might be floating in the air. Microorganisms developed only in the uncovered
flask. From this, Spallanzani concluded that: 1) the microorganisms did not come from the broth, but were in
the air that entered the flask; 2) therefore, not even microorganisms came from nonliving things.
In 1953, Alexander I Oparin, a Russian scientist hypothesized that the atmosphere of primitive earth
contained gases like ammonia, methane, hydrogen and water vapor. He explained that energy of lightning
and ultraviolet rays from the sun caused these gases to combine and form chemical compounds. As they
mixed with rain and hot seas, they formed complex organic molecules which were similar to living things are
made of.
An American scientist, Stanley I. Miller performed an experiment using a mixture of the gases
suggested by Oparin. He introduced electrical sparks into the mixture. After a few days, molecules similar to
amino acids that are found in all living things were formed. His experiment proved that the first organic
molecules could have been formed from the primitive earth. Living cells may have arisen on early earth
through a series of chemical combinations of these organic compounds.
The Cellular Basis of Life
The systematic study of the cellular basis of life was started when Robert Hooke first tiny
compartments in a sliced piece of cork from a mature tree. He gave them the latin name cellulae (meaning
small rooms) hence the oprigin of the biological term “cell”. By 1839, the zoologist Theodor Schwann reported
the presence of cells in animal tissues. Mathias Schailden concluded that cells are present in all plant tissues.
Then these observations came to be known as the first two principles of cell theory.
The cell theory states that:
1) All living things are structurally made up of cells.
2) The cell is the fundamental unit of organizations for all organisms.
3) Cells come from the division of preexisting cells. Not only was cell viewed as the smallest living
unit, the continuity of life was now seen to be arising directly from the division and growth of
single cells.
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Some contributors to the cell theory:
1) Robert Hooke coined the term cell and was responsible for the beginnings of cytology.
2) Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to see individual cells and recognized them as living units.
3) Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann introduced the concept that all plants and animals are
made up of cells.
4) Rudolf Virchow found out that cells divide to form new cells.
5) Robert Brown discovered the presence of nuclei within cells.
Cytology is the study of cells. All living things are made up of cells. Life starts from a cell- a fertilized egg
or zygote. A zygote divides into two and each newly formed cell subdivides. Further divisions form a
multitude of cells which organize into tissues into organs and organs into organ systems.
Chemical basis of Life
The cell which is the structural unit of life consists entirely of chemical substances. Of the 105 known
elements today, only four constitute about 98% of living matter. These elements are hydrogen (H) 63%,
oxygen (O) 25.5%, carbon © 9.5% and nitrogen (N) 1.4%. The remaining 2% consists of calcium ©,
phosphorous (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sodium (N2), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl) and a few others in
minute amounts.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen are among the highest and most abundant elements of the
early Earth. Hydrogen is the most abundant elements of the early Earth. Hydrogen is the most reactive
element which combines with oxygen to form water, nitrogen to form ammonia, and carbon to form
methane.
In the laboratory a mixture of ammonia and methane, heated with hydrogen and carbon dioxide and
energized with electrical discharges generated several chemical compounds. Some included amino acids,
sugars, fatty acids and nucleotides which are characteristics chemical substances found in living matter.
Chemical Composition of Organisms
The two main classes of compounds found in organisms are the organic and inorganic compounds.
The organic compounds contain the element carbon while the inorganic compound rarely contains carbon.
The inorganic compounds found in living systems are four main types, namely acids, bases, salts, and
water. Water is the most abundant and is considered a universal solvent. The four main classes of organic
compounds are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
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SELF CHECK / ASSESSMENT:
Lesson 1:
8
The Beginning of Life
Earth and Life Science
Duration:Module 1-Week 1
Name: ________________________________________________________ Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
Direction: Reflection/Essay: Answer the given question legibly. Each question has 20 points.
A. Explain when and how life began. Include the experiments early scientist performed.
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B. Make a graphic organizer of a unifying theme in the study of life that shows the connections among
living things and how they interact with each other and with their environment.
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 2-Week 2
Lesson 2: Bioenergetics
2.1 Bioenergetics Structures and Functions of Cells
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of the cell as the basic unit of life, the different cell
organelles, and their functions.
Learning Competency
 The learners shall be able to explain how cells carry out functions required for life. (S11/12LT IIbd - 4)The learners shall be able to explain how photosynthetic organisms use light energy to
form energy-rich compounds. They will be able to trace the energy flow from the environment to
cells. (S11/12LT - IIbd - 5 and S11/12LT - IIbd - 6 )The learners describe how organisms obtain and
utilize energy. They also recognize that organisms require energy to carry out functions required
for life. (S11/12LT-IIbd-7 and S11/12LT-IIbd-8).
Specific Learning Outcomes
 Describe the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Explain the functions of various cell structures/organelles
 Enumerate structures unique to plant cells/animal cells/bacteria
Let’s us Learn!
The Cell
The cell is a dynamic machine.
It has parts that help to carry out its
functions. A cell has three fundamental
parts: The cytoplasm where the main
metabolic life activities take place, the
cell membrane which surrounds the
cytoplasm and the nucleus where the
genetic material is located.
Do this activity!
Encircle the parts of a cell found in the table below. How many words have you listed? Compare your
list with the given list of words.
CELL
CELL MEMBRANE
CYTOPLASM
NUCLEUS
MITOCHONDRIA
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
VACUOLES
PROKARYOTES
CELLS
RIBOSOMES
GOLGI COMPLEX
VESICLES
EUKARYOTES
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LYSOSOME
PLASTIDS
MICROTUBULES
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Parts of the Cell
1.
Cell membrane, also called Plasma membrane
The cell membrane functions as:
a) The boundary between the cell and its external environment.
b) As a structure that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
It is a semipermeable membrane which allows the entry of some substances like water, oxygen,
and ions and prevents the entry of others. Toxic or useless by-products of metabolism can exit
through it.
The cell membrane is described as a fluid-mosaic model composed of two layers of fats with
proteins and carbohydrates scattered all over. The liquid layer is called phospholipids.
The cell membrane allows the cell to change its shape when needed. The cell wall is an additional
boundary aside from the cell membrane, surrounding the cells of plants, fungi, bacteria and other
protozoans. It is made up of cellulose which provides support and protection from injury. Cellulose is
a good source of fiber in our diet.
2. Cytoplasm
It is found inside the cell membrane surrounding the nucleus. It is where most life processes
occur. It is made up of fluid like substance where organelles are located. It is composed of
water, salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals.
Some organelles found in the cytoplasm and how they function:
a) Mitochondria – is thepowerhouse of the cell. It converts food molecules into energy.
The energy produced is important for the vital activities of cell, such as growth and
reproduction.
b) Ribosomes – are involved in the production of proteins, a process called protein
synthesis.
c) Endoplasmic Reticulum – are folded membranes that divide the cell into
compartments. They serve as channels through which the materials are transported in
the cell.
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d) Golgi Complex- serves as the packaging factories of the cell.
e) Lysosomes - are spherical sacs that contain powerful digestive enzymes. They destroy
bacteria and other microorganisms that invade the cell.
f) Plastids – are energy converters. They harvest solar energy and produce food in the
process of photosynthesis.
g) Vacuoles – for the storage of food, enzymes, and other materials needed by cell. Plant
cells contain cell sap.
h) Vesicles – carry substances in and out of the cell like food particles.
i) Microtubules – provide support and movement to the cell.
3. Nucleus
The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell. It contains the deoxyribose nucleic acid
(DNA) which contains the hereditary materials of the organism transmitted from one
generation to another. During cell division, the chromatids form structures called
chromosomes. The nucleus also contains ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Within the
nucleus is the nucleolus which is the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA.
Plant Cells and Animal Cells
Plant cells have cell wall, chloroplasts, and central vacuole which are absent in animal cells.
Animal cells have centrioles, cilia and lysosome.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are the two basic cell types.


Prokaryotes cells – lack a true nucleus. Ex; are those belonging to Kingdom Eubacteria and
Erohaea.
Eukaryotes cells – possess a true nucleus and possess nuclear materials (DNA) and is
surrounded by a membrane.
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SELF CHECK / ASSESSMENT:
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Earth and Life Science
Lesson 2:
Bioenergetics
Duration: Module 2-Week 2
2.1 Bioenergetics Structures and Functions of Cells
Name: ________________________________________________________ Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
Carefully read the paragraph on Cell Analogy and answer the exercises below.
A. Cell City Analogy
In a faraway city called Light City, the main export and production product is the steel
widget. Everyone in the city has something to do with the steel and widget making and the entire
town is designed to build and export widgets. The city hall has the instruction for widget making.
Widgets come in all shapes and sizes and any citizen of Light City can get the instructions and begin
their own widgets. Widgets are generally produced in small stores around the city. These small
stores can be built by the construction engineer’s union (whose headquarters are in city hall). After
the widget in constructed, they are placed on special parts which can deliver the widget anywhere in
the city. In order for a widget to be exported, the carts take the widget to the postal office, where the
widgets are packaged is labeled for export. Sometimes widgets don’t turn out right, and the rejects are
turned to the scrap yard where they are broken down for parts or destroyed altogether. The city
powers the widget shops and carts from hydraulic dam. The entire city is enclosed by a large wooden
fence. Only the postal trucks and citizens with proper documents are allowed inside the city.
Match the parts of the city (underlined) with the parts of the cell.
1) Nucleus - ______________________________
2) Nucleolus - ____________________________
3) Mitochondria - _________________________
4) Cell Membrane - _______________________
5) Ribosomes - ____________________________
6) Lysosomes - ____________________________
7) Protein - _______________________________
8) Endoplasmic Reticulum - __________________________
9) Golgi Apparatus - _________________________________
B. Answer the following questions using complete sentences. (Each question has 10 points.)
1) Pick any 3 of your answers and explain how these organelles match with the part of the city.
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2) Do you think this city represents a plant or animal cell? Explain.
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____________________________________________________________________________________ .
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2.2 Bioenergetics Photosynthesis and Energy Flow
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Review the forms of energy
 Describe the energy Pathways in the Cell
 Explain the Photosynthesis
i.
light reactions
ii.
dark reactions
Let’s us Learn!
Energy Pathways in the Cell
Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat. Work is directed motion. Plants perform work
by increasing the length of their roots and stems. Heat is produced by rapidly moving molecules. Energy is of
two types: potential energy or stored energy and kinetic energy or energy in motion.
Cell processes in cell must obtain food and water and eliminate waste products in order to keep at
equilibrium. This state is called homeostasis.
ATP is a nucleotide composed of adenosine and three phosphate group joined together by bonds
where energy is stored. It is generated in the mitochondria. When food molecule is broken down, energy is
given off. A molecule of ATP joining a molecule of adenosine disphosphate (ADP) is a process known as
phosphorylation.
In our cells, ions, water, food, and waste products naturally pass through the plasma membrane due
to differences in concentration. If molecules pass through plasma membrane, this is called passive
transport.
The two kinds of passive transport are diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the tendency of ions, food
and other dissolved substances to spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
Differences in concentration may affect the cell. A solution with more solute than water is described as
hypertonic, if with less solute and more water, it is called hypotonic solution. Water tends to move from
hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution. The diffusion of water from hypotonic to hypertonic solution
across a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis. Such a membrane allows the passage of water; but
hinders other molecules.
Active transport
Plasma membrane opens only when energy is provided. The cell break down ATP for the power, and
since its operation requires the expeditions of energy, the process is called active transport. Since it requires
a lot of energy, cells contain a lot of mitochondria.
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FIRM UP your Understanding
Do the following activities given below.
Instructions: Complete the diagram of photosynthesis as shown below.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
From the given figure, illustrate how photosynthetic organisms use light energy to combine carbon
dioxide and water to form energy-rich compounds.
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the entire process of capturing light energy to produce food. Plants, algae, and other
chlorophyll-bearing organisms capture light energy and use it to produce energy-rich organic molecules from
carbon dioxide.
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Photosynthesis is summarized in the following equation.
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy -------------------------> C6 H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide water
chlorophyll sugar oxygen
It consists of two sets of chemical reactions: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent.
During photosynthesis, plants carry out three vital energy conversions:
1) Conversion of light energy to electron energy.
2) Conversion of electron energy to short-energy storage (ATP)
3) Conversion of ATP to long-term energy storage (sugars).
1.) Light-dependent Reactions
This reaction can take place
only in the presence of light (solar
energy) light-dependent reactions
are also known is energy-capturing
reactions, they capture solar energy
and store it in molecules that will
supply the energy necessary for the
next reactions to occur.
Following are the steps:
a) Conversion of light energy
to electron energy.
Plants use a collection of
pigments called solar collectors
to gather light, each contains
chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyll
absorbs all wavelengths of light
except green, which is why
leaves are green. When light
strikes chlorophyll an electron
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gets extra energy and is said to be excited, thus the conversion has taken place.
b) Splitting of Water
The excited electron causes the splitting of water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas.
This process known as photolysis. Oxygen is given off as a waste product. The oxygen we breathe comes
from the splitting of water during photosynthesis.
c) Conversion of electron energy into chemical energy in ATP
The energy from the excited electrons causes adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to combine with a
phosphate group forming ATP. (adenomina triphosphate).
2.) Light-independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
They do not require light in order to take place. These reactions convert short-term energy storage
(ATP) to long-term energy storage (sugar).
The following are the steps:
a) Carbon Dioxide Fixation
The reaction occurs when carbon dioxide enters the leaf. With the rid of an enzyme, RuDP
carbonless, carbon dioxide is attached to ribulosediphosphate (RuDP), an orgfanic compound containing
5-carbon atoms.
b) Carbon Dioxide Reduction
The 6-carbon molecule splits into two molecules of phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). Each in a series of
chemical reactions is reduced to phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) a molecule that can be converted to
sugar.
c) Glucose Formation
Two PGAL molecules have their atoms rearranged to form a 6 carbon sugar. Eventually glucose is
formed.
Light-independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle) Diagram
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Lesson 2:
Bioenergetics
2.2 Bioenergetics Photosynthesis and Energy Flow
17
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 2-Week 2
Name: ________________________________________________________ Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
A. Each of the numbers has corresponding letters in the alphabet. Find out from the given words which
describe the images in the Pyramid of energy. Write the correct words corresponding to each figure.
1) 8+5+18+2+9+22+15+18+5+9 = _____________________________________
2) 3+1+18+9+22+15+18+5 = __________________________________________
3) 6+15+15+4
3+8+1+9+14 = _______________________________________
4) 6+15+15+4
23+5+2 = ___________________________________________
5) 5+3+15+19+25+19+20+5+13 = ______________________________________
6) 20+18+15+16+8+9+3
12+5+22+5+12 = _________________________________
7) 16+18+15+4+21+3+5+18+19 = ______________________________________
8) 3+15+14+19+21+13+5+18+19 = ______________________________________
9) 16+18+15+20+15+19+25+14+20+8+5+19+19 = _____________________________
10) 18+5+19+16+9+18+1+20+9+15+14 = _________________________________
B. Essay: If all photosynthesis on earth stopped, will human life continue? Yes or No? Justify your
answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________ .
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 3-Week 3
Lesson 3: Perpetuation of Life
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of plant and animal reproduction; how genes work;
and how genetic engineering is used to produce novel products.
Learning Competency
 The learners describe the different ways of how plants reproduce (S11/12LT-IIej-13)
 The learners illustrate the relationships among structures of flowers, fruits, and
 seeds (S11/12LT-IIej-14)
 The learners describe the different ways of how representative animalsreproduce (S11/12LT-IIej15)
 The learners explain how the information in the DNA allows the transfer ofgenetic information
and synthesis of proteins (S11/12LT-IIej-16)
 The learners describe the process of genetic engineering(S11/12LT-IIej-17)
 The learners conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modifiedorganisms and evaluate
the benefits and risks of using GMOs(S11/12LT-IIej-18 and S11/12LT-IIej-19)
Let’s us Learn!
Plant Reproduction
Specific Learning Outcomes
 Explain the different ways on how plants reproduce
 Differentiate asexual reproduction from asexual reproduction
 Learn the advantage and disadvantage of both types of reproduction
Reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which all living organisms produce one of their kinds to ensure the
survival of the species.
Activity #I. Analyze the different figures below:
A.
B.
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C.
D.
1.) List down the different plants that you see. How do these plants reproduce?
a. ______________________________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________________________________________________
2.) What is the relationship among structures of flowers, fruits, and seeds of plants?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Plant Reproduction
The reproductive organ of plants is the flower. A flower has four sets of organs, namely sepals,
petals, stamens, and pistils. Petals are collectively called corolla, sepals are called calyx.
A flowerthat has all four sets of organs is said to be complete, and one that lacks one of these organs
is described as incomplete.
The pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary. The stamen has the anther and the
filament.
Sexual reproduction in Plants

Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower. If the
transfer involves the same flower, it is termed self-pollination, if the transfer is from on flower of
one plant to another plant, it is called cross-pollination. Agents of pollination are insects, wind,
water, birds, and humans.

Fertilization
The pollen grain that lands on the stigma develops a pollen tube that grows down through the
style and into the ovary where the ovule is located. The sperm travels down the pollen tube
and fertilizes the egg cell inside the ovule. The fertilized egg called the zygote develops into
the embryo. The ovule becomes the seed. The ovary swells up and ripens to form a fruit. Inside
the seeds plant embryo is located.
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Asexual reproduction in Plants

Runners – a strawberry plant can reproduce by sending out horizontal stem. Along the runners, new
roots and shoots develop at every node.

Vegetative Propagation – the type of reproduction in plants from its vegetative parts such as stem,
roots, and leaves. Ex: new plants grow from the eyes of potatoes, cloves garlic bulbs and runners of
Bermuda grass, tubers of potatoes, and rhizome of ginger.
Other methods of vegetative propagation:
 Cutting - wherein pieces of stem or roots are cut and planted in soil, ex; Cassava.
 Budding, Grafting and Marcotting – wherein small stems from one plant are attached to larger
stems or roots of another plant are done with some fruit or nut trees.
 Underground roots – examples are carrots and potatoes.
 Tuber- potato, camote, and ube are one of the examples of vegetative propagation.
Let’s us Learn!
Animal Reproduction
Specific Learning Outcomes
 Identify the different ways how plants reproduce.
 Differentiate asexual reproduction from asexual reproduction.
 Learn the advantage and disadvantage of both types of reproduction.
 Relate how animal reproduction impacts ecosystem imbalance
Firm your understanding
Activity #II: Can you recognize the different organisms in the picture?
A.
B.
C.
D.
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1) List down the different animals that you see and discuss how they produce.
a) __________________________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________________________
d) __________________________________________________________________________________
2) Why do the offspring of the animals look like their parents?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3) Explain how information in the DNA allows the transfer of genetic information?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Animal Reproduction
Like plants, animals need to reproduce in order to increase the chance of the perpetuation of their
species. But unlike plants, there is an assumption that animals reproduced only through the process
offertilization, or the fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell. Actually, like plants, some animals also used
asexual or sexual or both methods of sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction is the process of joining the haploid gametes (sex cells) to form a diploid cell
called a zygote. A zygote eventually becomes an embryo and later on develops into an organism. The female
gamete is an egg cell, is usually non-motile, to ensure survival of the embryo by storing energy. The
malegamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to search for the egg cell for fertilization. In asexual
reproduction,fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell does not occur; reproduction is mainly through mitosis
which createsa clone of the parent.
Asexual reproduction has the different following methods:
a) Budding- occurs when individuals arise throughout the outgrowths from a parent. This can create
a colony of individuals attached to a parent, such as in corals.
b) Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of approximately same size.
This is usually observed in animal-like protists.
c) Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body breaks into different
parts, which later regenerate to form several individuals. Sponges, annelids, cnidarians and
tunicates are examples of this mode of reproduction.
d) Parthenogenesis- is like apomixes in plants, where the egg cell develops without fertilization. This
is exhibited by bees, wasps, lizards, sharks.
Just like in plant reproduction, sexual reproduction is disadvantageous in terms of energy expenditure
but is advantageous due to the genetic variation it creates. It allows organism to perpetuate in an unstable
environment where factors such as diseases can decrease the survival rate of the population. Meanwhile,
asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction which lessens energy expenditure in animals, as fully
formed individuals is produced, increasing the chance of survival.
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Let’s us Learn!
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Describe the central dogma.
 Explain the process of replication.
 Explain the process of transcription.
 Explain the process of translation.
 Synthesize the implication of the central dogma
Firm your understanding
The Central Dogma
The central dogma or the directional command of creating proteins from genetic information
(DNA)was dubbed by Francis Crick in 1956. It summarized in a simple illustration below:
DNA
RNA
PROTEIN
Here, the information from the DNA is transcribed into an RNA which is later translated into a
protein.The protein produced has implication on a trait inherited or a particular cell function such as in the
production inflammatory agents and other protein molecules. The central dogma in prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells do not differ greatly, difference lies mostly in the site of the process and the characteristics of
the genetic information.
As shown from the illustration above, the nuclear compartment allows for further processing of the
mRNA, which is critical in the creation of proteins. To ensure the constant creation of proteins, whenever the
cell or body needs it, the cell should be able to replicate the information which will determine the creation of
the protein. DNA replication ensures that the information for a particular protein synthesis will not be lost.
The double helix structure which was discovered by Watson and Crick with thehelp of X-ray
crystallography by Rosalind Franklin allows the efficientreplication of DNA, preventing information lost.
Different proteins andenzymes help in the process of replication. Once a DNA segment is ready, itwill be read
and transcribed in the process called translation.
The different DNA sequence characterized by the Nitrogenous bases cytosine(C), guanine (G),
thymine (T) and adenine (A) are read and transcribed bydifferent proteins and enzymes. These bases pair
together, formingcomplementary strands of DNA (for Replication) or RNA (for Transcription) InDNA, C-G
and A-T form pairs, while in RNA, T is paired to Uracil (U) in itscomplementary strand.
The process of transcription involves various processes of converting DNAsegments into RNA,
splicing of these segments and joining in order to from anmRNA (or messenger RNA) which will carry the
message from the DNA to theribosome for translation of the message to a particular protein. With the helpof
a tRNA or a transfer RNA in a ribosome, message carried by the mRNA istranslated to particular amino acid
sequence which makes a protein.
A codon or a sequence of three DNA or RNA nitrogenous base is the information needed in the
creation of an amino acid. The 20 amino acids in the biological systems are created through the different
information formed by the sequence of the base pairs, below is a table which shows the different amino acids:
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Thus, a particular DNA
segment has implication on the
particular protein which a cell
will produce. A problem, such
as deletions, insertions or
inversions in one or more of the
bases in the DNA can changethe
protein that will be decoded
during translation. The case of
sickle cell anemia is an example,
where,
The illustration shows the great implication of a change in the DNA or genetic information in
anorganism. Structurally, the red blood cell changed from a donut shape to a sickle-like shape even if onlyone
amino acid was changed. More importantly, a difference in the middle base pair is the culprit in thechange in
the amino acid which later caused a change in the protein structure. Imagine, huge differencein larger
segments in the DNA or RNA sequence exists, what will be its implication on a proteintranslated?
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Let’s us Learn!
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Relate their knowledge of the central dogma on genetic engineering
 Know the process of genetic engineering
 Describe the definition of genetically modified organism
 The learners conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modifiedorganisms and evaluate
the benefits and risks of using GMOs
Firm your understanding
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a general term used to describe the modification of biological processes through
human intervention.
This may be done through genetic engineering aimed at improving traits of certain organisms. They
can choose and isolate a single gene for a desired trait and transfer such gene from one organism to another.
The recipient becomes is called a GMO or a transgenic organism.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineeringis also known as genetic modification. It is the science of identifying, isolating
and altering genes. The introduction of a gene from one organism into another is called recombinant DNA
technology. To isolate a gene, scientists use a technique called gene slicing. The organism bearing the
recombinant DNA is referred to as genetically modified organism (GMO).
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Genetic engineering is the process in which genetic material is transferred from one organism to
another. Artificial selection is the most traditional form of genetic engineering, wherein specificity of
synthesis of target DNA sequence is less than current genetic engineering technology. It has application on
the pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural, medical and other industries. Below is an example wherein
genetic information from a firefly and a jellyfish for bioluminescence is transferred to a tobacco and a pig.
This has application for medical technology, especially in tracking cell activities.
Genetic information is transferred via a vector. A vector can be bacteria, through its circular DNA
called a plasmid, or a virus. Above is a diagram of genetic transfer through the use of bacterial plasmid. A
specific target genetic segment is spliced into a bacterial plasmid andallowed to be replicated. This gene can
then be transferred to a target organism, such in the case of pest-resistant crop, or proteins can beharnessed,
such as in the case of insulin.
Applications of Genetic Engineering
Scientists have explored ways of genetic modification to give desirable characteristics of food crops.
Through genetic engineering we have produced plants that are:
1) Resistant to insecticides and to drought;
2) Fruits and vegetables with improved taste, texture, size and color; and
3) Grains with improved protein contents. Among the GM foods successfully produced include
the tomato to improve taste, the seedless watermelon, tomatoes and cantaloupes with
modified ripening characteristics, protein-enriched potatoes, and corn with enriched lysine.
Corn and cotton plants with resistance to insects and other pests have been produced.
Environmental benefits and Risks of GM crops
1) GM crops can help us conserve our natural resources. For example, GM crops resistant to pets reduce
the need to use pesticides will reduce harmful effects on water quality which results to surface water
being contaminated of leaching of pesticides residues. Farmlands can again be made productive
through pest-resistant GM crops. This could also result in conservation of remaining forests and
habitats.
2) Significant benefits include higher crop yields, increased farm profits, and reduced farm cost and
improvement in the environment.
Risks of Genetically Modified Crops
1) The main risk is the potential GM crops in mating or crossing with weeds, creating new weeds,
resulting in weediness or invasiveness of crop plants.
2) Another risk is the positive development of insect resistance.
3) The possible impact on nontarget organisms of the GM crops is another risk.
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Lesson 3:
26
Perpetuation of Life
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 3-Week 3
Name: ________________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
A. Essay
Direction: The following are guide questions you need to answer legibly.
1) Create poster or slogans on the implication/s, both positive and negative, of GMO in the
Philippines. Paste or Draw it in a given answer sheet.
2) What are the positive impacts of GMOs?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3)
What are the negative impacts of GMOs?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4) What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5) Which of the topics interest you the most? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 4-Week 4
Lesson 4: How Animals Survive
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of nutrition, specifically as to howfood gets
into cells.
Performance Standard
 The learners shall be able to make a presentation of some diseases that areassociated with
the various organ systems
Learning Competencies/Outcomes
1) Explain the different metabolic processes involved in the various organ systems.
2) Analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ systems in
ensuring animal survival.
Let’s us Learn!
Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the human body, it is helpful to
consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are assembled into larger structures. It is
convenient to consider the structures of the body in terms of six fundamental levels of organization that
increase in complexity: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organisms.
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Organs Systems of Animals
Several major organ systems of animals work together in keeping them alive in specific environments.
1) Nutrition
Animals feed on solid and liquid food obtained from plants or other animals. The processes
that convert food substances into living matter are known as nutrition. It involves the following: a.)
feeding-the intake of food; b.) digestion- large food molecules are broken down into soluble
molecules;
2) Digestive System
Involves physical digestion, the breakdown of food into smaller particles which occurs in the
mouth and stomach. Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules such as protein, starch
and fats.
3) Circulatory System
Transports blood from the heart to the lungs, to oxygenate the blood. Systematic circulation
carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to organs and tissues.
4) Respiratory System
Supplies body cells with oxygen; water and carbon dioxide as waste, products. The organs
involve heart, blood vessels, blood, and lymph nodes.
5) Excretory System
Removes waste from the body. The organs functioning are kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters
and urethra.
6) Nervous System
Regulates behavior, maintains homoeostasis, and controls sensory and motor functions.
Organs are sense organs, spinal cord and brain.
7) Reproductive System
Involves the production of new individuals. The organs needed are testes and penis in males
and ovaries, and uterus in females.
8) Endocrine System
Regulates body temperature, metabolism, and development; maintains homoeostasis;
regulates other organ systems.
9) Musculatory System
Moves limbs and trunk, moves substances through the body, provides structure and support.
Organs involved are the skeletal system, smooth and cardiac muscles.
10) Skeletal system
Protects and supports the body parts, determination of body shape, blood cell production
sites, and calcium and phosphorus storage sites. Bones and joints are involved.
11) Immune System
Defends the body against pathogens and diseases. White blood cells, lymph nodes and skin
are involved.
12) Integumentary System or body covering
Protects the skin from external environment, protection from loss of internal fluids, body
temperature regulation, elimination of some wastes, reception of external stimuli. Skin, nails and hair
are the organs involved.
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29
Lesson 4:How Animals Survive
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 4-Week 4
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
A. Figure it Out!
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
List down the different organ systems represented in the figure and their specific functions.
A. ________________________________________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________________________________________
D. ________________________________________________________________________________________
E. ________________________________________________________________________________________
F. ________________________________________________________________________________________
G. ________________________________________________________________________________________
H. ________________________________________________________________________________________
I.
________________________________________________________________________________________
J.
________________________________________________________________________________________
K. ________________________________________________________________________________________
L. ________________________________________________________________________________________
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 5-Week 5
Lesson 5: How Plants Survive
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of nutrition, specifically as to how food gets
into cells.
Performance Standard
 The learners shall be able to make a presentation of some diseases that are associated with
the various organ systems
Learning Competencies/Outcomes
1) Describe the structure and function of the different plant organs.
2) Explain the different metabolic processes involved in the plant organ systems.
Let’s us Learn!
Plant Organs Their Functions
To maintain life, plants need water and minerals from the soil, carbon dioxide and oxygen from the
air and light energy from the sun. To obtain these needs each organ must be structurally designed to perform
one or more vital functions.
Plant organs are classified into the following: vegetative organs which function for growth and
development and reproductive organs.
1) The vegetative organs are:
a. Leaves, b. stems and c. roots.
Firm your understanding
Activity #: 1 Draw a compound leaf. Label its parts.
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It is generally an expanded and flattened lateral outgrowth of the stem, elevated to an aerial position
to receive light energy. Light, water, and carbon dioxide are needed by the leaves to manufacture food by
photosynthesis. Food produced is transported to the rest of the body. Oxygen, a by-product is released
through the stomata.
The blade is the expanded portion of the leaf and is usually colored green. The petiole extends from
the blank. Veins support the tissues and serve as conducting channels through which water, minerals, and
food are transported. Xylem vessels carry water, phlegm vessels carry the food substances.
Transpiration is a function of leaves to release water through vapor. Transpiration is employed by
plants to maintain favorable body temperature even under the heat of the sun.
Stems
Stems are between roots and leaves and provided with nodes. Stem functions for support of branches,
leaves, flowers and fruits. Another important function is conduction of substances. Water travels from the
roots and up the stem and leaves through the xylem. Stem is for the conduction of food as well.
Stem holds up the leaves and exposes them to sunlight.
Activity #2: Draw a mature root system. Label its parts.
The first root that grows out of the embryo plant is called the primary root. It produces lateral
secondary roots. The growth of root hair increases the absorbing ability of plants.
The two important functions are for anchorage firmly to the ground, and for absorption of water and
minerals from the soil.
2) The Reproductive organs
Flowering plants have organs that are essential for sexual reproduction.
a.) Stamen represents the male sexual reproductive organ. It is made of anther which contains the
pollen grains and the filament.
b.) Pistil which represents the female sexual reproductive organ, consists of the ovary and the ovule
which bears the egg cells.
c.) Stigma is the uppermost part of the pistil.
Steps
a. Pollination
The pollen grains drop on the stigma of the pistil through the wind.
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b. Pollen germination
Carrying the sperm cells is a long cylindrical extension called a pollen tube which enters the
micropyle of the ovule.
c. Fertilization
The zygote undergoes a series of division producing the embryo. After fertilization the ovary
develops into a fruit. The ovule becomes a seed.
d. Seed germination
As the seed germinates the hypocotyls of the embryo grows into the primary root. The epicotyl
develops into the shoot and leaves.
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Lesson 5: How Plants Survive
33
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 5-Week 5
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
Study the figure and answer the question in the table below.
Write the function of each plant organ and explain the different metabolic processes in the plant
organ system:
Plant Organ
Function
Roots
Stem
Leaves
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Metabolic processes
34
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 6-Week 6
Lesson 6: EVOLUTION
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of the various pieces of evidence that support
evolution and how the current system of classification is based on evolutionary
relationships.
Performance Standard
 The learners shall be able to describe specific pieces of evidence that support evolution
such as homology, DNA/protein sequences, plate tectonics, fossil record, embryology, and
artificial selection/agriculture and how the present system of classifying organisms is
based on evolutionary relationships.
Learning Competencies/Outcomes
1) Describe the evidence of evolution such as homology, DNA/protein sequences, plate
tectonics, fossil record embryology, and artificial selection/agriculture.
2) Explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to change over time
showing patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the
diversity observed today.
3) Describe how the present system of classification of organisms is based on evolutionary
relationships.
Let’s us Learn!
Evolution is the gradual change in species over many generations resulting from their genetic
adaptation to the environment.
Firm your understanding
Activity #1: Study the picture below then answer the questions that follow.
Picture A
1.
What did you observe from the two groups of organisms?
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Picture B
35
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2. Describe the changes overtime.
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3. Look at the pictures below and describe how these animals acquired these features.
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4. How are their features adapted to their surroundings?
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A. Evidences of Evolution
1. Fossils
A fossil is the remain or evidence of a living thing. The most common fossils are bones,
skills, and seeds of pollen grains. Most fossils are formed when the whole or part of an
organism becomes buried in sedimentary rocks, which provide the most important evidence
about the evolution of plants and animals. Petrified fossils are formed through petrification.
Imprints are formed when soft body structures such as feathers and leaves leave impressions
in soft sediments such as mud. Molds and cast as are formed with the same shape as the
original organisms.
Scientists determine the absolute of rocks and fossils by using radioactive dating
techniques.
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2. Embroyological evidence
The growth and development of an embryo is controlled by its genes. Similarities in
the early stages of embryo development are further evidence that living things have evolved
from earlier living things and they share common ancestry.
3. Homologous structures
The age of fossils is used to determine by taking note of the characteristics of the layers
of the sedimentary rocks in which the fossils are found. Similarities in the shape and
arrangement of bones show they evolved from the same ancestors. Analogous structures also
determine through anatomy.
4. DNA and protein sequence are the chemical evidence, which shows that two or more organisms
are closely related when they have similar sequence of DNA molecules. The same is true with the
specific structure of protein. Variations in protein structure of one group as it evolves into another
group show relationship in organisms.
5. Vestigial structures
A vestigial structure is a body part that is reduced in size and does not seem to have a function.
Example is the tiny leg bones of snakes which suggest that they evolved from an ancestor that had
legs.
B. Theories of Evolution
1. Theory of Acquired Traits
Jean Baptists de Lamarck, in 1809, observed that fossils of invertebrates bore certain
similarities with modern invertebrates.
This theory can be summarized into:
1. Organisms desire to improve themselves and become more advanced.
2. The effort to improve causes same body structures to be constantly used, others are not
used. The frequently used body structures develop, while unused structures weaken and
eventually disappear. This is known as the principle of use and disuse.
3. Modifications of structures due to use or disuse are inherited by the offspring. This is
called the principle of inheritance of acquired characteristics. The example is the giraffe’s
neck becomes longer to get food.
2. The Theory of natural Selection
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1822) is credited with developing the theory of natural selection,
or “Survival of the Fittest”
Briefly his explanation goes:
1. The number of offsprings is usually greater than the available resources necessary for
survival.
2. Every organism must struggle to survive.
3. Some variations allow members to survive and reproduce better than others.
4. Organisms that survive and reproduce pass their traits to their offsprings and helpful traits
gradually appear in more and more. These variations enable them to “fit” into their
environment and those who lack these are eliminated.
C. How Populations of Organisms Change Through Time
1. Mutation
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Changes in the chromosomes of organisms that are heritable and are permanent are called
mutations or chromosomal aberrations. These mutations could be changes in quantity or quality.
Mutations are responsible for the evolution of a group of organisms, for its is transferred from one
generation to another. Examples include albinism, sickle cell anemia, Roven’s syndrome, cystic
fibrosis and others.
2. Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is evolution by change. It refers to an increase or decrease in the relative
abundance of different cells through successive generations, simply by chance. It is a random
fluctuation in allele’s frequencies over time. Generally traits that get established in a population
are those that are beneficial. However, some traits manage to get established and stay by chance
since they are not harmful to the organisms.
3. Gene Flow
A change in allele frequencies due to immigration (new individuals enter the population) or
emigration (some individuals leave). Gene flow among organisms is based on the physical
dispersal of a alleles, and tends to decrease divergence t5hat might arise through other
evolutionary factors.
4. Natural Selection
In any population, more offspring tend to be productive that can survive to reproductive age.
Members of the population very in form and behavior. Some heritable traits are more adaptive
than others; they improve chances of of surviving and reproducing under prevailing
environmental conditions.
5. Specification
A new species is formed when the individuals of a population continues to breed among
themselves over a long period of time and eventually accumulate a new set of traits unique to
them. Set traits are already different from those of the original species. This is how a new species
evolves from an older one.
6. Adaptation
Adaptation refers to the process whereby a species is able to tolerate the environmental
conditions of a place and efficiently compete with other species. If environmental conditions
would change drastically, only those species that process adaptations to new conditions will
survive. Those that are not adapted will perish and their distribution will be limited to that place.
D. Classifying
Organisms Based on
evolutionary
Relationships
Modern
classification
started with the work of
Carolus
Linnaeus
in
classifying all known and
unknown
organisms
according to the greater
or lesser extent of their
similarities.
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SELF CHECK / ASSESSMENT:
Lesson 6: EVOLUTION
38
Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 6-Week 6
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
A. Answer the following questions:
1.
Briefly discuss the evidences of evolution.
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2. Why is evolution helpful in classifying organisms?
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3. Give an example of a part of an organism and explain how that part changes over a period of time.
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Earth and Life Science
Duration: Module 7-Week 7
Lesson 7: Interaction and Interdependence
Content Standard
 The learners demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles of ecology.
Performance Standard
 The learners shall be able to prepare an action plan containing mitigation measures to
address current environmental concerns and challenges in the community.
Learning Competencies/Outcomes
1) Discuss the principles of the ecosystem
2) Categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e.g. diseases,
availability of food, predators) that affect population explosion.
3) Describe how the different terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are interlinked with one
another.
4) Discuss how human activities affect the natural ecosystem.
Let’s us Learn!
Meaning of Ecosystem
Ecosystem refers to an interacting group of natural elements and the organism in a given
environment. It is a unit of interrelationships between and among the living things and non-living things.
According to British ecologist Arthur Tansley (1935), “An ecosystem is a system that arises from the
integration of all living and non-living factors of the environment.”
ECOSYSTEMS
1) The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit that is studied in ecology
2) They involve important interactions between biotic and abiotic factors
3) An ecosystem can support itself and is stable (not much change) when three conditions are met:
a. There must be a constant supply of energy (the sun is this source for all life on earth)
b. There must be living organisms that can convert the energy into organic compounds (plants-autotrophs-photosynthesis)
c. There must be a recycling of materials between organisms and the environment.
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Levels of Organization
1.
Population - includes all the members of a species in a given area. Example: All toads (including
tadpoles) in a pond is a population.
2. Community - All populations in a given area. Example: Toads, tilapia, guppies (fish), water lilies,
Hydrilla, and other populations in the pond.
3. Ecosystem – composed of the living (biotic) community and the nonliving (abiotic) physical
environment functioning together is an ecosystem
4. Biosphere - is the portion of the earth in which LIFE exists and is is made up of many complex
ecosystems. All ecosystems together make up the biosphere.
With a few exceptions, all ecosystems depend on solar energy as a primary energy source. This energy
(called Primary Productivity) is the result of energy captured by producers. Some of this energy is lost when
producers, such as plants, use energy for respiration. Only a portion of the energy captured by producers is
passed on to consumers. Consumers also lose energy due to respiration. Note that the energy flow through an
ecosystem is one way; it is not recycled. All the energy taken in by producers is ultimately lost as heat
through respiration. Autotrophs must continue to capture the sun’s energy for ecosystems to persist.
Most energy is lost as heat because of the LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
a. 1st Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Conservation of Energy; “Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, they are transformed from one form to another”
b. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Entropy; the entropy of the world only increases and never
decreases – so during transformations, energy in form of heat is lost.
c. Teacher Tip – Leave the 3rd Law to Physics
NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
AUTOTROPHS or PRODUCERS – are organisms that can synthesize organic molecules from
inorganic molecules; also called producers; can be either photosynthetic or chemosynthetic
HETEROTROPHS – are organisms that cannot manufacture organic molecules. They are the
“consumers”; there are 5 types of heterotrophs:
1) Herbivores – Organisms that eat only producers (plants); also called a primary or first-level
consumer; Examples are the ruminants – cows, goats, carabaws.
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2) Carnivores – Organisms that eat only other animals; can be a secondary/tertiary/quarternary
consumer; Examples are members of Order Carnivora – Dogs, cats, bears, wolves.
3) Omnivores –Organisms that eat both plant and animal material; Example – Humans
4) Scavengers– Organisms that eat only other animals after they are already killed; Example - vultures,
hyenas
DECOMPOSERS – They 'recycle' dead organisms and waste (feces) into non-living elements by reducing
these feces into chemicals such as nitrogen and carbon. Those chemicals become part of the soil and those
nutrients can then be used by living plants and the animals that consume them.
1. Saprophytes - The main groups of decomposer organisms are bacteria and fungi that cause decay at a
microscopic level. Saprophytes cause decay by releasing enzymes onto the dead animal or plant,
breaking down complex compounds into simple soluble ones that can be absorbed by decomposers.
2. Detritivores - Other larger organisms, called detritivores, help speed up decay by feeding on
mdetritus. Detritus is dead and decaying material and detrriivores break it down into smaller pieces,
so increasing the surface area for the bacteria and fungi. Detritivores include earthworms that help
break down dead leaves, maggots that feed on animal tissue, woodlice that break down wood.
SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS - SYMBIOSIS and PARASITISM
SYMBIOSIS - an interaction among different species in an ecosystem that where they live in a close
association with each other where at least one member of the association benefits (gains) by the association.
1.
Mutualism - a symbiotic relationship in which BOTH organisms benefit from the association.
Example: Termites and its intestinal parasite; giant clams and its symbiotic algae; nitrogen fixing
bacteria that live in nodes on the roots of legumes; shrimp and goby (fish).
2. Commensalism –a symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits (+) and the other organism is
not harmed (0). Example, a remora attaches itself to the underside of a shark – The remora gets a free
ride and free food (from eating shark’s food scraps) while the shark does not get any benefits and
harmed.
PARASITISM – One organism, the parasite, benefits (+), while the host is harmed (-). Example:
tapeworm in the intestine of pigs; ticks on dogs and others.
BIOACCUMULATION / BIOMAGNIFICATION
BIOACCUMULATION - Bioaccumulation is the gradual build up over time of a chemical in a living
organism. This occurs either because the chemical is taken up faster than it can be used or because the
chemical cannot be broken down for use by the organism (that is, the chemical cannot be metabolized).
While the amount of pollutant might have been small enough not to cause any damage in the lowest levels of
the food web, the amount might cause serious damage to organisms higher in the food web.
This phenomenon is known as bio magnification.
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
A pyramid-shaped diagram representing quantitatively the numbers of organisms, energy
relationships, and biomass of an ecosystem. It depicts the number of individual organisms at different trophic
levels of food chain. This pyramid was advanced by Charles Elton (1927), who pointed out the great difference
in the number of the organisms involved in each step of the food chain. Successive links of trophic structure
decrease rapidly in number until there are very few carnivores at the top. The pyramid of number ignores the
biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the energy transferred or the use of energy by the groups
involved. The lake ecosystem provides a typical example for pyramid of number.
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The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time forms the pyramid of the
biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease of biomass in each tropical level from base to apex. For
example, the total biomass of the producers ingested by herbivores is more than the total biomass of the
herbivores in an ecosystem. Likewise, the total biomass of the primary carnivores (or secondary consumer)
will be less man the herbivores and so on.
When production is considered in terms of energy, the pyramid indicates not only the amount of
energy flow at each level, but more important, the actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of
energy. An energy pyramid illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upwards to support the next
trophic level.
The pyramid is constructed according to the rate at which food material (in the form of energy)
passes through the food chain. Some organisms may have a small biomass, but the total energy they
assimilate and pass on, may be considerably greater than that of organisms with a much larger biomass.
Energy pyramids are always slopping because less energy is transferred from each level than was paid into it.
In cases such as in open water communities the producers have less bulk than consumers but the energy they
store and pass on must be greater than that of the next level.
Firm your Understanding
Activity #1: List down some living things and non-living things that you see inside the classroom. After listing
down your answers, describe briefly about it.
Living Things
Description
Non-Living Things
Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
“If our earth has no sun and moon and also does not have a day and night. What would you think
about all the living things and non-living things on earth?”
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Biotic Components of an Ecosystem:
1. Producers – green plants and some bacteria which manufacture their own food.
2. Consumers – animals which obtain from producers
i.
Herbivores – animals that graze directly on plants and algae
ii.
Carnivores – feed on other animals
iii.
Omnivores – animals that feed on both plants and animals
iv.
Scavengers – feed on dead remains of animals and also plants that have recently
decomposed.
3. Decomposers – bacteria, fungi and mushrooms that breakdown dead inorganic matter.
Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sunlight-primary source of energy
Temperature – measure of hotness or coldness of a body
Water – universal solvent and basis of life
Wind - movement of air parallel to the earth’s surface
Atmospheric gases
Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance
Activity #2:
Look at the pictures. Tell something about each picture, the number of different individuals and
species and how many would we normally see.
1.
What do you notice of the pictures?
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2. Under normal condition, how many offspring’s would be reproduced by each organism?
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3. Give some factors that control the increase population.
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4. Discuss how many organisms can really inhabit a particular ecosystem?
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
Biotic Potential – rate at which organisms reproduce when they have ideal circumstances that
would promote successful reproduction.
This depends on the following factors:
1. Usual numbers of offspring per reproduction
2. Chances of survival age of reproduction
3. Age at which reproduction begins
4. How often each individual reproduces

Environmental Resistance – factors that can limit the increase of a population such as
predators, competitors, diseases, lack of food and water and suitable habitat.

Carrying Capacity – maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can support.

Limiting Factors – are biotic and abiotic factors that prevent the continuous growth of a
population.
 Food
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
 Water
i.
ii.
iii.
 Space
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Competition
Predators
Parasites
Disease
Climate changes
Pollution
Flooding
Weather changes
Human intrusions
Fire
Hurricanes
Overcrowding
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Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem
Activity #3:
Arrange the jumbled letters given for each picture.
1.
TRCCAI DRTNUA =
3. DDOEICUUS FSTOER =
5. PLTLCIORLA FRSTAIRNOE=
2. GTAAI =
4. SSGLDSNAAR=
6. TSEEDR=
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1) Tundra – region that lies in the Arctic and extends across North America. The soil frozen and covered
with permafrost for a large portion of the year. Vegetation is limited to lichens, mosses, grasses,
sedges and low growing shrubs. Animals include polar bears, ox, and arctic foxes.
2) Taiga – cold climate forest found in the northern latitudes. Pines are the dominant vegetation.
Animals include herbivores such as moose and omnivores such as bears.
3) Deciduous Forest – region that make up the eastern half of North America and large part of Europe.
Numerous species of trees, shrubs and flowers inhabit these forests with a variety of wildlife such as
deer, foxes and bear.
4) Grasslands – are found in the interior North America, Asia, South America and Africa. Grasses are
the dominant form of vegetation and for animals that include lions, elephants, giraffes and other
grazing animals.
5) Deserts – occur in regions that are hot and too dry. Plants include cacti and presence of burrowing
animals such as lizards, snakes and rodents.
6) Tropical Rainforest – found in areas around the equator. Tress are abundant with many epiphytes
(orchids and ferns). Mammals and reptiles are also abundant in a tropical reinforest.
7) Marine Biome – This includes oceans where organisms are sessile and lived attached to the ground.
8) Freshwater Biome-includes the running water (streams and rivers) and standing water (lakes,
ponds, swamps and bogs) where different organisms thrive such as salamanders, turtles and snakes.
Similarities between Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The ecosystem of communities is made up of variety of species.
Interdependence exits between species.
There are populations at different trophic levels.
Stratification occurs in both ecosystems.
Very few major changes are observed in undisturbed ecosystem.
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SELF CHECK / ASSESSMENT:
47
Earth and Life Science
Lesson 7: Interaction and Interdependence Duration: Module 7-Week 7
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Grade Level/Track-Specialization: _________________________Section:______________Score: ____________
A. Describe the pictures that you see below and answer what is asked for.
1.
A.
B.
C.
D.
As may be picked up from the pictures, list down the different human activities that affect the
ecosystem.
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b.___________________________________________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________________________________________
d.___________________________________________________________________________________
2. List down some ways that can prevent these activities in order to protect our environment.
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B. In your personal capacity, how can you help protect our environment?
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