UNIT 4
Beyond the Rivers of Babylon:
Enslavement and Freedom of West
Africans in the Caribbean
The Hunted Slaves Source: http://tinyurl.com/qjbvqez Be careful when you fight the monsters, lest you
become one.
By Friedrech Nietzsche
Overview
The terms “slavery” and “slaves” are loaded ones that often make us sad as we reflect on the
horrible conditions under which slaves were forced to work. We need to understand though
that, even though unpleasant, slavery has always been associated with all human civilisations
and its occurrence has been well documented throughout most parts of the world. This
statement means that human slavery existed in such diverse areas as Greece, China, India,
Africa and even in England itself. This last location may come as a shock to many of us as we
often associate this form of servitude with dominated colonies. However, human slavery
existed in different forms and by different names at different times and locations throughout
the entire world. For example, in some systems, the right of the enslaved person to liberty was
severely curtailed while in other systems the enslaved person was allowed much autonomy of
movement and responsibility. (John Thornton, 1992, p.74)
The unifying point in all these systems of slavery however, was the procurement of captive
labour – working without wages and usually under compulsion. In this session, we will
examine how West Africans were used in Caribbean chattel slavery and the legacy they left to
the present day Caribbean Civilisation.
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 1 Learning Objectives
By the end of this Unit you will be able to:
1. Elaborate on the meaning of “Caribbean Chattel” Slavery
2. Discuss how enslavement affected the demography of Caribbean Civilisation.
3. Value the legacy of West Africans through their inclusion into the Caribbean.
This Unit is divided into one session as follows:
Session 4.1: The introduction of West Africans into the Caribbean and their subsequent
contributions.
Reading Resources
Required Reading
Campbell, J. F. (2015). “Fixed melancholy”: Suicide on an 18 Century British West Indian plantation.
– (Unpublished work available on the FOUN1101 course page)
th
Additional
Spencer, (2013).The Mighty Sparrow Slave [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://tinyurl.com/np5arcb
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 2 Session 4.1
The Introduction of West Africans into
the Caribbean and their Subsequent
Contributions
Introduction
When focusing on the practice of enslavement in Africa, one notes the variations among
scholars’ views concerning its creation and spread. Scholars note especially the instituting of
codes of conduct to limit abuses on the enslaved people. On the one hand, this was seen as good
as it sought to protect some of the rights of the enslaved but, at the same time, by creating laws
for slavery it sought also to legitimise the practice and made it easier for the system to spread as
a legitimate (codified) system of labour exploitation. This came about largely because of the
modifying influence of Islam on its early implementation in Africa. Therefore, in order to
properly understand Caribbean chattel slavery, we will need to understand also its antecedents
in West Africa and how these antecedents affected the West Africans that were brought to the
Caribbean as enslaved people.
Caribbean ‘Chattel’ Slavery
The sugar planters of Barbados, Jamaica, and the Leeward Islands were the first English people
to practice slavery on a large scale. They had no real antecedents or laws to go by to direct the
institution of slavery in the Caribbean. The practice that subsequently resulted and the laws
that were created to guide the sugar planters only emerged out of necessity. Since the planters
themselves were central to the laws that were made, and since the enslaved person had no
rights whatsoever in the spirit and letter of the law, what emerged was a system that did not
even recognise the enslaved West African as a person. The term ‘chattel’ slavery has often been
used to describe the type of enslavement practiced in the Caribbean. Within this system the
enslaved West Africans were ‘chattel’, i.e. property that could be bought and sold with
impunity. As property, they had no rights before the law and could be murdered or raped
without any form of redress. The most that was done on the death or mutilation of an enslaved
person was that some form of compensation was given to owners for the destruction of their
property in case of death or injury to the West African by another white person. As a result, the
reality of enslavement on a Caribbean sugar estate was, in fact, the destruction of the person
both mentally and physically.
On arrival in the Caribbean, and after being displayed and subjected to inspection by potential
buyers, the enslaved people were sold and taken to the sugar plantations, in many cases never to
leave alive. On the plantation a necessary process of social de-personification continued, which
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 3 was engendered to keep the enslaved people tractable and amenable to the dictates of
1
management. Daily floggings, brutal and unregulated till the nineteenth century, and the
possibility of mutilations and death, meant that enslaved life was always an unpleasant and risky
affair. Indeed, even when laws were brought to regulate the treatment of enslaved people, these
were implemented to protect and preserve ‘property’ in the colonies rather than for genuinely
humane reasons. Whatever the intent of the sugar planters however it is clear that the large scale
importation of millions of Africans added to the demographic diversity of the region as this race of
people have continued to diversify the region to this very day.
The System of Enslavement in West Africa
Empowered Man
Source: http://tinyurl.com/p9we4zb
Slavery existed in West Africa long before it was brought to the Caribbean. However, surviving
evidence shows that in many cases the nature and tone of traditional West African slavery
differed remarkably from the type of enslavement instituted by the sugar planters in the
Caribbean. As pointed out by John Thornton (1992), “... slavery was rooted in deep-seated legal
and institutional structures of African societies, and it functioned quite differently from the way
it functioned in European societies” (p.74). Thornton’s point concerned the extensive and
influential role of the enslaved person as steward of the master’s business and recognition of
kinship ties and autonomy that respected the right of personhood, even within the context of
worker/master subordination.
Note: African Slaves Were Treated Differently from Atlantic/Caribbean Slaves
Thornton’s assertion was based on first person accounts of the West African system of African
slavery and is a good comparative view for us, especially in the context of what would emerge later
in the Caribbean as ‘chattel’ slavery. These accounts are in the form of records left by contemporary
observers of the West African practice like Giacinto Brugiotti da Vetralla and Valentin Fernandes
1
Although ordinances were passed as early as 1823 (which included the abolition of the whip), the
implementation of these laws in sugar colonies like Jamaica was impossible because of the strenuous
objections of the resident planter class. Williams (1961, p. 197).
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 4 who recorded African slave customs in Central Africa and Senegambia around the sixteenth and
eighteenth centuries. Their observations led them to believe that African slaves were “slaves in name
only” (p 88).
To be noted here is that traditional West African slavery, in all periods, differed from
Atlantic/Caribbean “chattel” slavery in that there was no dominant race factor to it. Since
master and slave shared the same skin colour, the basis for enslaved status was more
determined by other social, political and economic criteria. One way that a person obtained
enslaved status was by birth. In this regard, and unlike Caribbean systems of enslavement,
“being born into slavery provided the slave with some added rights and protections in
comparison to those enslaved after birth …” Manning (1990) p.88. Slaves were sometimes the
result of debt payment by masters or by the enslaved themselves. In this sense a form of
voluntary enslavement was common. Slaves were also the result of the transfer of people, as
slaves, from one lineage group to another through pawning (short term loans) or bride price
(permanent) (Manning 1990).
Enslaved people were also criminals who became slaves as a punishment for their crimes or
witchcraft. Above all, warfare was the chief means by which enslaved people were obtained.
Slaves were also obtained through kidnapping on an individual level; witchcraft accusations in
which persons were enslaved for carrying on illicit supernatural activities; exaction of tribute, in
which tributaries were required to render up some of their own to a higher authority; and selfenslavement or sale of one’s kin in the wake of famine or epidemic. (Manning, 1990)
The very nature of enslavement in West Africa meant also that enslaved people were not just
traded commodities to be worked to death, but were also skilled producers in agriculture,
crafts, mineral processing, domestic activities and animal rearing. Although the mode of
production was similar, the social relationships that underpinned the productive mode differed
between West African and Caribbean practices. This is not to say that in West African slavery
there were no abuses to the system. Rather, the point is that, in general, unlike Caribbean
slavery, enslaved people in West African society were also valued as social beings as well as
economic factors.
In West Africa, therefore, the value of the enslaved person was understood beyond capital
terms. African slave masters knew that enslaved people were the basis of their wealth and, in a
society where land did not have the private value that it commanded in Europe, emphasis was
transferred to the value and person of the enslaved within the economy. West African laws and
customs allowed a more relaxed appreciation of the enslaved person within the society. Islamic
law, for example, decreed that the children of slave mothers were to be freed and historical
evidence showed that even caliphs (traditional rulers) were born of slave mothers/concubines
(Lovejoy 1986).
With the increasing demand for enslaved people to fuel the labour demand of Caribbean sugar
estates, the system of traditional West African slavery was disrupted. ‘Disruption’, in this sense,
meant that a greater emphasis was placed on securing particular types of enslaved people and
disruption also occurred in the attempt within the Caribbean to strip these enslaved persons of
their cultural, religious and social legacies (Campbell, 2012) Thankfully however and, as our
study of Caribbean Civilisation shows, this total stripping away of their humanity ultimately….
never fully succeeded. As a result their legacy can be found in every island of the West Indies
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 5 where their descendants not only practiced their traditional cultural artifacts like, dancing,
cooking, music, funeral and birth observances etc, but today their descendants take prominent
roles in all spheres of our Caribbean societies. For example, many West African people exist in
our contemporary society as successful businessmen, lawyers; teachers, doctors, priests,
politicians, nurses, soldiers etc. Indeed even socio economic systems that foreshadowed many
of our common day institutions like Credit Unions and Banks were legacies brought by the
West Africans. Many even exist to the present day in their original forms as “su-su/lend hand”
and death and funeral societies. Additionally many religious based movements and
lodges/secret societies are also reflective of this early West African influence.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.1
Examining Caribbean Chattel Slavery (Video ) (2 hours)
Instructions: The following video will allowed you to understand issues
surrounding the creation of Caribbean Chattel slavery and the role of the
West Africans at that time.
SLAVE
URL Link: Spencer, (2013).The Mighty Sparrow Slave [Video file].
Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/np5arcb
As you listen to the recording consider the following questions and make
blog entries on the course page. You need to make one original posting and
respond to two other student postings.
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 6 1. How does the Mighty Sparrow portray the conditions of enslavement?
2. How does the Mighty Sparrow describe the beginnings of Calypso in the
Caribbean?
3. Do you find his description interesting? Justify your perspective.
4. Identify in your national library or your national museum any primary and
secondary sources of historical information related to Caribbean
enslavement and discuss the role of the artifact in the furtherance of your
knowledge of West Africans and their contribution other than music,
dance and economic forms in the Caribbean.
I asked a lawyer friend of mine to explain to me the meaning of the term “chattel”. I did this because I was told that the term was a legal one and commonly used by lawyers. After some research he sent me back an email in which he explained the meaning of the term. When I read it Control I understood a lot about Caribbean chattel slavery. Source: http//tinyurl.com/pxpcl2s Here is the meaning he sent to me: “chattel: something (such as a slave, piece of furniture, tool, etc.) that a person owns other than land or buildings.” After reading this definition I understood how chattel slavery in the Caribbean was meant to dehumanize the West Africans sent there. However, the fact that they were PEOPLE, ultimately meant that this definition would not de-­‐personalise them. In fact although they came with no physical items of culture they were able to reproduce much of their family customs, language, games, song and community living, in the Caribbean! FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 7 Please complete the weekly activity below before moving on.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.2
The Coming of the West Africans (Research) (2 hours)
Instructions: Read as much as you can about the transferal of the West
Africans to the Caribbean. In particular, pay attention to the term “The
Middle Passage” which describes their sea journey between the West
African coast and the Caribbean. How much can you find out about this
journey? Your response should be no more than 500 words; it should
reference at least 3 journal articles and should be placed in your course
portfolio. In your answer, please link the treatment of the enslaved during
this voyage to the “chattel” form of slavery that would later emerge in the
Caribbean.
West African Contributions to the Caribbean after Enslavement –
to the Present Day
The freedom enjoyed by the enslaved people, in an economic sense, came (for example) from
the fact that they were able to participate in a money and barter economy which, technically
was the kind of activity the Europeans only attributed to “civilized people”. This is an
important point to note because under the system of chattel slavery the enslaved were not
supposed to be recognised as people but as property. (Campbell 2012)
Additionally, by being given provision plots on the estate, they (the enslaved) had rights of
ownership, which became so entrenched in custom that after the end of enslavement, problems
were created when the plantation owners attempted to take these plots away from them. Not
only did the enslaved gardens afford them the rights of people in terms of economics but in a
real way, it also afforded the possibility, though rare, of the enslaved being able to save enough
to buy complete freedom.
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 8 Farm Source: http://tinyurl.com/pftkchr Enslaved “Provision grounds” or “Slave gardens” offered the enslaved person the opportunity
to produce goods to sell at market. These opportunities, to meet other enslaved people at slave
markets and also during the preparation of the slave gardens, were crucial for resistance
planning as well as social adjustment. This socialising could sometimes lead to procurement of
a mate; however, it always allowed the enslaved people the opportunity to talk shop and to
plan revolt. Additionally, and perhaps most importantly, through enslaved gardens and the
associated tasks of market, the enslaved people had time away from the plantation and the
‘cracking’ tempo of sugar production. (Beckles, 869-77) Indeed the activities associated with
traditional West African markets such as “huckstering” and “vending” are today commonplace
in many of our Caribbean islands.
The End of Enslavement
There has been much debate over the reasons why the horrendous system of Caribbean
enslavement eventually came to an end in 1838. The leading historian in this debate, the late Dr.
Eric Williams, argued convincingly that the ending of the system of enslavement came about
largely because the system was no longer profitable for the English market. (Williams, 1994).
This was as a result of cheaper sources and types of sugar entering the English market than that
offered by the Caribbean sugar planter. He also pointed out that the ending of the system was
in no small way the result of the constant opposition of the enslaved people themselves to bring
down the system throughout the entire time of its operation.
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 9 Session 4.1 Summary
This session compared the social and economic structures behind various systems of slavery,
focusing on West African slavery and Caribbean chattel slavery. It was noted that, in general,
the West African system allowed for better integration of enslaved people into society and even
with ‘slave’ status many people were skilled producers and artisans.
The dehumanising aspects of Caribbean chattel slavery, that distinguish this system from other
forms of slavery was discussed. These included the legal structures that allowed Caribbean
planters to treat enslaved people as nothing more than property and the economic framework
that supported the form of chattel slavery. Ultimately however it was pointed out that even
though initially brought under compulsion the descendants of these enslaved Africans today
contribute significantly to our contemporary Caribbean civilisation.
Unit 4 Summary
In this Unit, we established that the period of Caribbean enslavement was one of the most
horrific periods within any civilisation’s history. However we were clear to point out that while
Caribbean Chattel slavery was indeed cruel, the ultimate transplanting of millions of West
Africans to the Caribbean and to every island in it, resulted in contributions to the region’s
diverse culture and economy. Results which are evident even to this day.
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 10 References
Beckles, H. (2000). Caribbean anti-slavery: The self-liberation ethos of enslaved blacks. In
Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World: A Student Reader. Edited by V. Shepherd Beckles.
London & Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers Ltd., pp. 869 – 877.
Campbell, J. F. (2000). How free is free? The limits of manumission for enslaved West Africans
in 18th century British West Indian sugar society. Manumissions in the Atlantic World.
College of Charleston. S. Carolina, US.
Campbell, J. F. (2001). Reassessing the consciousness of labour and the role of the confidentials
in slave society: Jamaica 1750 –-1834. The Jamaican Historical Review XXI, (2001): 23 – 30.
Control [Online image]. Retrieved from http//tinyurl.com/pxpcl2s - public domain image
Lovejoy, P (1986). Fugitive Slaves: Resistance to Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate carried in Gary Y
Okihiro ed. In Resistance. Studies in African, Caribbean, and Afro-American History The
University of Massachusetts Press. USA 1986,78.
Shepherd, V. (n.d.). Rejecting Slavery; Stages in the development of anti-slavery; Slave narratives and
resistance;
gender;
resistance;
emancipation
processes.
Retrieved
from:
http://courses.sta.uwi.edu February 2004.
Sheppard, V. (n.d.). The Trade in and Sources of African Captives. Retrieved from:
http://courses.sta.uwi.edu February 2004.
The Hunted Slaves [Online image]. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/qjbvqez -Public domain
image
Empowered Man [Online image]. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/p9we4zb - Public domain
image.
Farm [Online image]. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/pftkchr - Public domain image
Thornton, J. (1992). Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680.
Cambridge University Press. USA.
Lovejoy. P. E. (1986). Fugitive Slaves: Resistance to Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate carried in Gary Y
Okihiro Ed. In Resistance. Studies in African, Caribbean, and Afro-American History the
University of Massachusetts Press. USA.
Spencer, (2013).The Mighty Sparrow Slave [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.quietyoutube.com/watch?v=oVHF3spGbXg&feature=youtu.be
Williams, E. (1994). Capitalism and slavery. The University of North Carolina Press
FOUN1101 Caribbean Civilisation Unit 4_Version 1 Page 11