IR THEORIES ASSIGNMENT
Q. The difference between theory and ideology?
Ideology
An ideology is a collection of ideas or beliefs shared by a group of people. It may be a
connected set of ideas or a style of thought. It is not something proven like theory. It is a body
of beliefs. For example, Nationalism is an ideology.
Theory
Theory is a set of ideas that attempts to explain a phenomena or any particular scenario like the
events of WW1. Theory is based on hypothesis and therefore tested. It attempts to explain the
cause of phenomenon like the very first liberal theory attempts to explain the cause of WW1.
Unlike ideology, another key difference between two is that theory is conditional that is, it
adopts through changing environment, like liberal theory that faced massive criticism by realists
and evolved to neo-liberalism came and so on. While ideology is absolute.
Q. Historically who is the main actor in the study of IR?
Historically the main actors in the study of IR were sovereign states. But with passage of time
theories of IR evolve that keeps developing IR and main actors alongside of sovereign states
are: international institutions like UN, WTO etc. Ecological movements even international
terrorist organizations are included for example Al-Qaeda.
Q. Which question has been the central question in the study of IR?
A creation of an international order to avoid wars in future, maintain peace and a way that
international institutions and states would comply with it its defining principles.
Q. Which theory of IR is the most renowned in terms of theory and practice both?
Liberalism, Realism, Neo-liberalism and Neo-realism.
Q. What role has the debate over science played in the discipline of IR historically?
Debates over science has played significant role in IR, because of incorporation of this idea in
discipline the philosophy of IR evolved-every time the debate between two school of thoughts
over science resulted in new ideas which then refuted by later debates and presented with
more refinement which ultimately contributed to growth of discipline of IR philosophy and in
turn the theories which made events of politics more easy to understand.
Q. Is IR a science or an art? What is at stake in this debate what does the scientific study of
world politics entail?
If seen through meta theoretical debates IR is a science involving scientific methods human
behavior is analyzed on scientific lines. At stake in this debate is the reality or knowledge which
also include beliefs, ideas perceptions which are not incorporated in scientific knowledge. The
scientific study of world politics would entail a total objective account of world independent of
many other important factors which will be not enough to explain the worldly phenomena.
Q. How we conceptualize the role of theory in the discipline? What do different conceptions
of theory have to offer?
Role of theory in discipline can be conceptualize in number of ways but in a nutshell, theory
helps us understand the complexity of world though different perspectives, theory makes the
discipline of IR different from journalism and enable us to ask ‘why’ and ‘what if’ questions.
Different conceptions of theory offer different theoretical perspectives and draws out attention
to different ways in which world can be seen otherwise.
Q. Can we have value neutral knowledge of world politics?
No, we cannot have value neutral knowledge of world politics because first, every knowledge
we have already involve biases and secondly it is analyzed through a theory after which we
arrive at a conclusion which always involve our biases.
Q. Can we judge some theories to be better than others? If so, what is involved in making
such judgements?
No we cannot judge some theories to be better than others because every theory offer its own
perspective of world politics which we cannot judge. Secondly, we do not have such merits to
judge theories to better among each other. every theory offers its own account of world which
for its followers is the best account so it is we who can choose among theories to follow but
cannot judge.
Q. How significant is the fourth debate in the contemporary discipline of IR? Has it, and
should it be transcended?
Fourth debate Positivists vs post-positivists has played a major role in development of IR
philosophy and in turn contributed towards making of theories which are still contemporary
today. Therefore, it should be transcended so that we may get new theories new approaches.
Q. What is the significance of meta-theoretical debates for IR theory and research?
Debates of meta theory are very significant for research methods in IR and in IR theory.
Debates over science played a major role in research methods-whether to follow positivist
account or post-positivist, debates of conformation and refutation etc. which in turn resulted in
theories which were more relevant to contemporary issues. These debates offer a philosophical
background for theories.
Q. Differentiate between truth and objectivity in IR.
Objectivity is a philosophy in IR to find out the reality-truth. It sees the truth/reality
independent of human construction. While truth, outside the realm of objectivity, involves
many phenomena like emotions, ideas etc.
Q. Difference between positivism and neo-positivism?
Positivism: Burrel and Morgan define positivism as an epistemology, which seeks to explain and
predict what happens in the social world by search for regularities and causal relationships.
Neo-positivism: it sought to prevent confusion rooted in linguistic ambiguities and distinguish
between all claims of verifiable from unverifiable.it brought the question of ethics in to
philosophical discussion. It claimed only verifiable knowledge is scientific. Unlike classical
positivists which included statements that were inherently laden with several unclear language
and unverifiable claims.
Q. Define institutionalism and differentiate old from new institutionalism.
Institutionalism is simply an approach to study the role institutions in politics.
Old institutionalism is study of politics through formal institutions of government. It emphasizes
on the need of institutions. While neo-institutionalism is a theory which focuses on the way the
institutions interact and their effect on society. It provides a sociological view of institutions. It
explores how institutional structures rules norms and culture constrains the choices and actions
of individuals when they are part of political institutions.
Q. How to explain the role of institutions in the role of political decisions and outcome?
Institutions play a significant role in a political decisions and ultimately outcome. For example,
elitist who have substantial influence over institutions through their power vested in political
support or other means control institutions which in turn shape the political outcome like
economy. Similarly, media during Iraq war America used its power over media to create a
narrative against Iraq which ultimately shape the political decision to attack Iraq.
Q. How institutionalism poses challenge to RCT?
Institutionalism negates the RCT claim of individual’s pursuit of material self-interest.
It claims that individual’s choices and actions are shaped by the culture of institutions thereby
challenging RCT claim of individual’s hierarchy of choice for material gain, since on cannot
always pursue the hierarchy when his actions are influenced or constrained. Secondly, RCT itself
lacks the attention towards institutional contexts in which rationality is exercised.
TASK A
With which statement you would agree and why?
1. Marx, in the opening passage of eighteenth Brumaire, ‘men make history but not in
the circumstance of their own choosing.’
2. Anthony Giddens: ‘social structures are both constituted by human agency, and yet at
the same time are the very medium of its constitution.’
3. Roy Bhashkar: ‘society is both the ever present condition and the continually
reproduced outcome of human agency.’
I would agree with the second statement because human themselves construct their social
structures based upon their beliefs, experiences, ideas norms. And at the same they are also a
part of their own structure they construct. This statement reflects our contemporary social
structure.
TASK B
Taking sides: Understand the global war on terror and explain the following…
A) Global war terror is production of structure or structural factors we need to look in to
context.
If Global war on terror is looked through structural factors it can be seen as the
structure guiding the actions of USA which lead to war since there was the question of
their security.
B) Global war on terrorism is production of agency: ideational factors: we need to look in
to conduct/intentions.
More or less the event of 9/11 is always questioned. Global war on terror involve more
the agential factors pursuing ideal interests.
C) Global war on terrorism is result of both A & B.
Read the mandatory text and write a short note on the following:
Interdependence Liberalism: theory which constitutes a phenomena of globalization today. It
argues for cooperation among the states in terms of trade which will reduce the chances of
conflict among states and in turn will reduce the chance of war.
Republican Liberalism: it is an IR theory which claims that liberal democracies seldom (if ever)
go to war fight each other and therefore in this sense are more peaceful. However, in any case
the theory does not propose anything about democracies being more peaceful than non-
democracies as many democracies are engaged in wars with non-democracies. But the theory
holds the reason for this intrademocratic peace is rooted in the regime type of these countries
and the existence of similar domestic political culture common moral values economic
cooperation and interdependence.
Neo-liberal institutionalism: is defined as the principal view on the role that international
institutions ought to have in international relations among states, both economically and
politically. Globalization have connected the world thereby creating interdependence across
the globe. Since now stated are connected and interdependent a watchdogs are required to
maintain the cooperation and connectedness and this is where role of institutions comes in like
UN, IMF, WTO etc. that provides guidance, advice and help to countries in need and solve
disputes among states.
Democratic peace theory: this theory unlike others seeks to answer why nations do not go to
war. It says that two democracies are unlikely to go to war against each other. The concept that
democracies do not go to war was first time clearly came in the writing of German philosopher
Immanuel Kant. He was a supporter of representative government and also seen American
revolution as it unfolds and consequently published his famous writing ‘perpetual peace’ in
which he argued that nations with constitutional republic govt would be very cautious about
going to war.
Transnationalist theory: Transnationalism refers to the diffusion and extension of social, political,
economic processes in between and beyond the sovereign jurisdictional boundaries of nation-states.
International processes are increasingly governed by non-state actors and international organizations.
Robinson (1998) states that, just as “social structure is becoming transnationalized; an epistemic shift is
required in concurrence with this ontological shift.” The major topics addressed by transnational studies
include: economic globalization, the transnationalization of the state, classes, political processes, and
culture, and the current integration processes taking place around the world through formal
organizations such as NAFTA and the European Union
A constructivist liberal theory of cooperation: this theory argues that as liberal’s advocates
cooperation so this cooperation that exist between two states is a constructed idea. If you
deconstruct this idea and construct a new idea of rivalry this cooperation will turn in to rivalry.
Liberal intergovernmentalism: it is a theory of regional integration. Where integration is seen
as the outcome of three stage process: (1) national interests or goals arise in the context of
domestic politics; (2) governments bargain with each other to further their national interest;
and (3) governments make an institutional choice to secure credible commitment once a
substantive agreement has been reached.
What smith means by ‘indivisible hand’ and ‘natural economy’: smith coined the phrase ‘the
indivisible hand’ to illustrate the consequences of competitive, self-interested individual actions
in the market which, while intended by the individuals that performed them to promote their
own interests, have a fortuitous outcome for the wider society.
Natural economy was the idea given by Smith and other liberal thinkers which meant no
governmental intervention in private businesses and is sole domain of individuals.
David Ricardo theory of comparative advantage: his theory can be seen as a 2*2 model where
there is assumed free trade between 2 countries producing two commodities. Here the
principle of comparative advantage is that under free trade the two countries, each producing
one commodity for which it has comparative advantage than the other and will then export to
each other. In this way both countries will benefit.
John Rawls Theory of justice: His theory of justice as fairness describes a society of free citizens
holding equal basic rights and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system.
Immanuel Kant: categorical imperatives…deontological approach vs consequentialist or
teleological approach: an unconditional moral binding in all circumstances and is not
dependent on a person’s inclination or purpose for e.g. do not commit murder because it is
wrong. In ethical theory to judge an action as wrong in itself because it violates general guiding
principle is deontological approach. In contrast there exist teleological approach which judge as
right or wrong on basis of it consequences.
Elitist liberalism and its impacts on liberalism: elitist liberals are the power or influential elite
that can influence the political outcomes. In initial development they played role in its ideas
and development.
Define the concept of ‘democide’ and why it is important to liberals: Democide is a murder or
mass murder by state or government of a person or people. It is argued that an alliance of
democratic states would a most effective method in eliminating democide and war
Keynesian ideas social economic liberalism: Keynesian economics is the idea that capitalist is
good economic system where people earn money from their work and then spend it the way
they like. John Maynard Keynes basically rejected the idea of ‘natural economy’ and argued for
governmental intervention for the support and upholding of capitalist system.
John Ruggie’s ‘embedded liberalism’: feature of global economic system. This system was set
up to support a combination of free trade with the freedom for states do to enhance their
provision of welfare and regulate their economies to reduce unemployment. The term was first
used in 1982 by john ruggie. Mainstream scholars generally describe it as involving compromise
between two desirables but partially conflicting objectives.
Q. Mainstream IR theories Criticism on Constructivism.
Constructivism sees the ontology and epistemology of the world as socially constructed. It
means whether there is anarchy in international system (realists) or cooperation (liberals) it is
all our construction. They view every phenomena of world as construction and offers no real
solution whereas liberalism offers solution of cooperation or realists explain the phenomena as
anarchic which helps one understand better about world events.
Prisoners dilemma: it is a standard example that shows why two completely rational actors not
cooperate with each other. It is a decision paradox in decision analysis that two individual
acting in their own interest will not produce an optimal outcome. Example of this is tragedy of
the commons.
Relative gains: Relative gain, in international relations, is the actions of states only in respect to
power balances and without regard to other factors, such as economics
Negative sum-game: The ‘lose-lose’ situation where all participants lose or the sum of winnings
or loses are less than zero.
Positive sum-game: A positive sum game refers to the outcome of a decision or a policy or a
negotiation involving at least one agent. And in this outcome a positive sum game occurs when
no one wins at someone else's expense
Zero sum-game: a situation where the loss or gain of one participants is exactly balance out by
the loss or gain of the other participants
National interests: it is referred to as country’s goals or ambitions in terms of economy,
military, security, peace etc.
Anarchy: in realist theory it is an idea that world lack any sovereign or higher authority. It is
referred to as chaos or disorder.
Sovereignty: it is the authority if the state to govern itself without intervention from outside
forces. Protection of sovereignty is the most vital national interests of states as its breach lead
to war.
Power: ability to influence others to act in your favor or meet your interests.
Power maximization: the increasing of power of states whether the soft power or hard power
in IR it is usually done by states to ensure state’s survival.
Security Maximization: increasing security by strengthening military.
Alliance: it is mutual agreement between two or more states to help or cooperate in case of
say, war.
Polarity: distinction or wide disparity between two things. In IR polarity is divided into three
categories: unipolarity, bipolarity and multipolarity.
Balance of power: theory in IR that both states are equal in terms of military capabilities that
no state can dominate the other.
Balance of threat: to balance out the threat of a more powerful state or the dominating state.
E.g. Pakistan and India.
Band wagoning: when the interests of small power is aligned with the larger power for its
security and benefits
Free rider: a person getting advantage without actually working for it
Offshore balancing: a strategic concept in realist analysis in which great powers used favored
regional powers to keep check on hostile powers.
Buck passing: the passing of responsibility or interests to other states.
Explain realism as the ‘billiard ball model’: according to realism international system is
anarchic there is no higher authority… same model is seen in billiard ball where there is no
order and balls hit each other in an anarchic manner.
Balance of power theory: it is theory in IR which says that if two powers have equal resources
or equal power they will deter each other and thus will not go to war because of the potential
damage the other might do.
Alliance theory: it is a method of studying friendly relations. It attempts to explain the question
of IR and what constitutes the society.
Power transition theory: is a theory about nature of war. according to this theory peace is
preserved when there is imbalance of national capabilities. It focuses on how powerful sets the
rule of the game its theorists examine the order of power in international system and how
states are satisfied or dissatisfied with power distribution.
Q. what is right way to deal with China (offensive realism)?
Through offensive realism china cannot rise peacefully and the right way to deal with it is USA
counter china by deploying multiple military in areas near china and handle some things
thorough off shore balancing. While it must have more military for its defense also so that it
counter china’s rise.
Q. Is there any key difference between theory ‘Paradigm’, ‘Perspectives’,
‘Discourses’, ‘School of thought’, ‘Images’ and ‘Traditions.’
Difference between ‘Theory’ and ‘Paradigm’
A theory is a general principle that explains a phenomenon, particularly in study of IR theory is
quite significant, it acts as a lens that helps us understand different aspects of same
phenomenon. According to traditional definition it is a systematic way of studying things.
While on the other hand, ‘Paradigm’ is a model that consist of theories, research methods etc.
Paradigm provides the background or the framework that allows the theory to be tested and
measured. A paradigm can have number of theories and allows the theorists to look at the
situation and investigate the theory from every angle. It shows what is to be observed and how
the observation is to be conducted. It is a set of standards, theories, research methods etc.
while theory is based on hypothesis.
Difference between ‘Theory’ and ’School of thought’
School of thought is basically a particular idea or a set of ideas held by a specific group, any idea
that a specific group strongly believe in be it through practicing this idea in their everyday life or
through fighting for its adoption can be considered a school of thought. By considering the
definition, we can easily differentiate between ‘theory’ and ‘school of thought.’
Since theory is just simply a set of ideas that develop through time. When these ideas gain
support from people or being adopted by people or a group of people who believe in those
ideas it becomes a school of thought. Theory does not necessarily require people to believe or
practice it but when a group of people do so it gives rise to school of thought. For example,
liberalism, at first it came as theory of IR but now it is a ‘school of thought.’
Difference between ‘Theory’ and ‘Traditions’
Traditions and theory are quite different from each other. Traditions are customs or beliefs that
can be seen as continuously transmitted past from generations to generations. There are two
main elements that makes difference between the two:
1) Traditions look to the past; the contents of every tradition have or are believed by its
participants to have originated some considerable time in the past.
2) The element of continuity in the transmission of traditions.
Now, theory never come in to existence solely because of believes, let alone customs! Theory is
a set of ideas based on observations and research looking in to the causes of the events that
had taken place in the past and deals with present and future. It is not fixated on the past.
Secondly, since theory is never absolute so it keeps on evolving with time and events. Unlike
traditions that are being transmitted through generations exactly the same way as it were may
be decades ago.
Difference between ‘Theory’ and ‘Discourse’
Discourse is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written or vocal language
to describe our understanding of a particular phenomenon. Similarly, in discipline of IR political
discourse is of main interests. It may refer to the use of language pertaining to political topics
and issues.
Images
General impression that a person organization or products presents to the public. It is basically
the representation of the actual form.
Perspectives
Perspective is a point of view, an aspect, it is a particular attitude towards or a way regarding
something. In discipline of IR, there can be numerous perspectives of one phenomenon. It is
actually how a person views or express his ideas on any subject.
Q. What difference has the theory made to what is being studied?
Whatever we study in IR, theory makes difference in number of ways. Firstly, it makes political
analysis different from journalism, it is employed not only to describe a particular event but
also enable us to ask ‘why’ and how particular event happen and also enable us to think about
the likely implications of particular outcomes and observations. In political analysis it is not
enough to establish ‘what is’ (and so provide a descriptive analysis) we need to establish why
something might be the case. Why do certain set of facts appear as they are? And to ask ‘how’
and ‘why’ questions theories are used, they enable us to ask such questions instead of simply
providing descriptive analysis of ‘what a particular event is’
Secondly, it is making a more or less difference in simplifying the world especially political
phenomenon so that we can analyze it.
Thirdly and the most important difference it made in the study of IR is that through critical
evaluation of the theory we are able to see what is missing from our analysis-are there other
factors which we should pay attention to? This in turn enable us to provide for more
sophisticated analysis in later WWII that led to series of failings and its inability to predict
outbreak of WWII or the collapse of communism.
Fourthly, it contributes by adhering to scientific approach to politics. It enables us to ask ‘what
if’ questions. Theory is used to generate hypothesis to be tested. It enables us to explore
(counter factual) (e.g. if A happens then B might happen).
Fifth theory, can also provide us with a way in which we can generate social and political
transformation.
Seventh, theory gives us a language, a community with which to share that language with, a
vocabulary through which to discuss issues with other scholar in the community.
Another important difference that theories make in the IR studies is that it makes us aware of
differing theoretical perspectives and sees the world as we do and draws our attention to
different perspectives and ways in which people understand the world. Hence, theories make
number of differences in our study.
Q. what is meant by the terms positivism/post-positivism, explaining/understanding,
rationalism/reflectivism?
Positivism vs post positivism:
Positivism: Burrell and Morgan define positivism as an epistemology, which seeks to explain
and predict what happens in the social world by search for regularities and causal relationships.
It only includes that knowledge which can be experienced through five senses and proved
through empirical methods.
Post-Positivism: A philosophy which came as critique to positivism and is defined as an
epistemology which explains the world as a reflection or interpretation of an
observer/researcher. It holds that reality is observer dependent it is reflection of the observer’s
personal experiences, beliefs and ideas unlike positivists who believe that reality is observer are
independent.
Explaining vs understanding:
Explaining: it is an attempt by explanatory theorists to imitate the natural science in following
scientific methods. Scientific knowledge for explanatory theorists, require empirical
justification. Therefore, they do not take into account (unlike understanding advocates) the
ideas beliefs, meaning, reasons etc. because they cannot be incorporated into a scientific
framework of analysis and without such justification, the knowledge claims can be nothing
more than a mere speculation.
Understanding: advocates of understanding on the other hand focus on the analysis of the
internal meaning s, reasons and belief actors holds and act in reference to. For them social
meanings, language and beliefs constitute the most important (ontological) aspect of social
existence.
Rationalism vs reflectivism:
Rationalism: this label of rationalism is directly associated from rational choice theory which is
essentially a methodology constructed from commitment to a positivist account of science.
Hence, rationalism is about considering only that knowledge that is observable through five
senses and can be justified through scientific methods.
Reflectivism: reflectivism is understood through post positivist account of science. That every
reality or knowledge we see or know is subjective because it is ultimately a reflection of the
observer’s beliefs or ideas and whatever his ideas or beliefs are they are in turn the reflection of
experiences and social surroundings.
Q. Should we think of meta-theoretical debates in IR (between positivism/post-positivism,
explaining/understanding and rationalism/reflectivism) as debates between mutually
incompatible positions?
no we cannot because each debate holds its own position in philosophy. And gives us very
comprehensive account t of scientific knowledge within its own paradigm.
Q. What are the key assumptions of scientific realism? What is the significance of scientific
realism in disciplinary debates?
KEY ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC REALISM:
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There should not be one method for acquiring scientific knowledge as each science must
arrive at its own mode of operation on the basis of the object domain under study. Hence,
epistemologically they relativists.
For scientific realist, a scientific knowledge is based upon its contents not its mode
generation.
Methodologically, they have pluralistic approach as they claim the social world is
ontologically highly complex so it’s better not to restrict methods a priori.
Scientific realism is important in disciplinary debates as it attempts to construct a middle
ground between rationalism and reflectivism-it adopts positivist ontology and post-positivists
epistemology and pluralistic methodology which gives a more diverse scientific knowledge with
concrete evidences (which may have been left out in either positivists account or post
positivist) it covers a greater aspect of social world. It has also played major role in the
development of constructivism.