International context
1921 – 2 Washington Naval Conference (5 power Treaty); which controls Naval arms
to a 5:5:3 ratio, the 4 Power Treaty and 9 Power Treaty return Shandong to China and
affirm the American commitment to an ‘Open Door’ policy in China. Very unpopular
in Japan, whose military see it as a retreat.
1924 – 27 Shidehara’s policy of ‘Internationalism’ – which aimed to improve Japans
standing through compliance with the Western Powers. Ended following passivity
over the Nanking Incident, and a series of financial scandals led to his resignation.
Start of military intervention in Japanese politics, initially through the Sakurakai and
Kodo-ha factions, which favoured a traditionalist approach of Monarchical absolutism
and anti-Communist.
1926 - 28
Northern Expedition. Chiang’s Nationalist Army succeeds in uniting most of urbanised
China (although the peripheries remain out of control). However, his policy of ending
foreign dominance threatens Japans. During the Expedition, tensions between China
and Japan result in several serious incidents at Nanking, Hankou (both 1927), and
most importantly Jinan 1928, in which several hundred Japanese civilians are killed,
and Chinese and Japanese soldiers engage each other at Battalion strength.
1927- 29
Chinese Civil War 1927 on and Sino – Soviet War 1929. Failure of Chiang to eradicate
the Communists leads to a 10-year period of Civil War, and distracts Chiang, who calls
them a ‘cancer of the heart’. He also tries to reassert control over the Mongol
Railway, promised by return, but the USSR now under Stalin’s control, reneges. A
short War results in Chinese humiliation, but many militarists in Japan are alarmed by
the USSR’s growing strength, and sense of ’time becoming short’ for expansion.
Economic context
 Effects of Industrialisation on Japanese society – rural to urban migration, poverty
and politics - socialism
 Japans export driven economy; resources and markets
 Long – term decline of Rural economy and poverty (emergence of middle class)
 Social constription (social unrest)  social
Effects on Politics
 Increased importance of Japan’s Zaibatsu and state industries
 Political imbalance, Zaibatsu presence in government
 Increased interest in Socialism among urban working classes. Frustration of
ordinary people at the development of politics for the few, evidence of corruption,
which in turn led to calls for radical reform – especially towards the left.
 Lack of reform,
Effects on Foreign policy;
 Need to maintain growth and to find resources (which Japan doesn’t have) to
maintain pace of industrialisation to compete with the West, and therefore
inevitably, military spending - – but ultimately led to heavy industry of the
Zaibatsu looking for monopolies in China and Korea.
Japanese Military / Political context
Operation and ideology
Known to have carried out the assassination of Manchurian Warlord Zhang Zhoulin in
1928 by blowing up his railway cart, due to worries about his loyalty. The Kwantung
Army started to display increasingly independent behaviour and policy, heavily
influenced by ultra-nationalist officers, many of whom had fought in Russia as part of
the intervention against Bolshevik Russia on behalf of the White (Pro Tsar) armies.
The Sakurakai (Cherry Blossom Society) was established by these officers with an
avowed goal of overthrowing the liberal government and replacing it with a military
dictatorship and empowering the Emperor.
By the early 1930s officers in the high command had become split into two main
informal groups: the Kōdō-ha "Imperial Way" faction and the Tōsei-ha "Control"
faction. The Kōdō-ha emphasized the importance of Japanese culture, spiritual purity
over material quality and the need to attack the Soviet Union while the Tōsei-ha
officers, who were strongly influenced by the ideas of the contemporary German
general staff, supported central economic and military planning (total war theory),
technological modernization, mechanization and expansion within China.
The Kōdō-ha was dominant in the army during Araki's tenure as Minister of War from
1931–34, occupying most significant staff positions, but many of its members were
replaced by Tōsei-ha officers following Araki's resignation