PSYCHOLOGY –HANDOUT 2
Psychology, scientific study of behaviour and experience—that is, the study of how human beings and other species sense,
think, learn, know, communicate and interact. Modern psychology is devoted to collecting facts about behaviour and
experience and systematically organizing such facts into psychological theories. These theories aid in understanding and
explaining people’s behaviour and sometimes in predicting and influencing their future actions.
Psychology, historically, has been divided into many subfields of study; these fields, however, are interrelated and frequently
overlap.
Physiological psychologists, for instance, study, among other things, the functioning of the brain and nervous system and the
role of hormones in the endocrine system in behaviour; developmental psychologists are interested in the whole process of
development, both physical and behavioural, from birth to old age.
Social psychologists examine the ways in which people influence one another and the way they act in groups. Industrial
psychologists study the behaviour of people at work and the effects of the work environment.
Educational psychologists help students make educational and career decisions, and diagnose and treat those with learning
difficulties. Clinical psychologists assist those who have problems in daily life or who are mentally ill.
HISTORY
The science of psychology developed from many diverse sources, but its origins as a science may be traced to ancient Greece.
A Philosophical Beginnings
Plato and Aristotle, as well as other Greek philosophers, took up some of the basic questions of psychology that are still under
study: those to do with whether people are born with certain skills, abilities, and personality, or whether these develop as a
result of experience. They ask how people come to know the world and how we can account for the manifest differences
between people.
Such questions were debated for many centuries, but the roots of modern psychological theory are found in the 17th century in
the works of the French philosopher René Descartes and the British philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Descartes
argued that the bodies of people are like clockwork machines, but that their minds (or souls) are separate and unique. He
maintained that minds have certain inborn, or innate, ideas and that these ideas are crucial in organizing people’s experiencing
of the world. Hobbes and Locke, on the other hand, stressed the role of experience as the source of human knowledge. Locke
believed that all information about the physical world comes through the senses and that all correct ideas can be traced to the
sensory information on which they are based.
Most modern psychology developed along the lines of Locke’s view. Some European psychologists who studied perception,
however, held on to Descartes’s idea that some mental organization is innate, and the concept still plays a role in theories of
perception and cognition (thinking and reasoning). It is also seen in Noam Chomsky‘s theory of language, and in Carl Gustav
Jung‘s more speculative theory of personality. More generally, current research is revealing in detail how much “nature”
contributes to the causes of behaviour, as compared to “nurture”.
B Scientific Developments
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud was responsible for developing the basis of psychoanalysis, including theories of human
sexuality and interpretation of dreams. His work, published in the late 1800s, was quite controversial during his day, although it
was accepted later in his life. Much of Freud’s research centred on the way in which latent tendencies in young children and
adults manifest themselves in the everyday world of the individual.
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Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was responsible for developing the basis of psychoanalysis, including theories of human sexuality
and interpretation of dreams. His work, published in the late 1800s, was quite controversial during his day, although it
was accepted later in his life. Much of Freud’s research centred on the way in which latent tendencies in young
children and adults manifest themselves in the everyday world of the individual.
Against this philosophical background, the field that contributed most to the development of scientific psychology was
physiology—the study of the functions of the various organ systems of the body. The German physiologist Johannes Müller
tried to relate sensory experience both to events in the nervous system and to events in the organism’s physical environment.
The first true exponents of experimental psychology were the German physicist Gustav Theodor Fechner and the German
physiologist Wilhelm Wundt. Fechner developed experimental methods for measuring sensations in terms of the physical
magnitude of the stimuli producing them. Wundt, who in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 founded the first laboratory of
experimental psychology, trained students from around the world in the new science.
This experimental tradition rested on the assumption that the basic mechanisms and units of behaviour could be identified, in a
way analogous to the physical sciences. Human beings, however, are essentially individuals, differing from each other in
important ways. The scientific measurement of individual differences (psychometrics) can be said to take as its starting point
the work of Francis Galton, in particular his book Hereditary Genius (1869). He also showed how, in principle, the origins of
these differences could be traced to the relative effects of heredity and environment.
Medical practitioners who became concerned with mental illness also contributed to the development of modern psychological
theories. Thus, the systematic classification of mental disorders developed by the German psychiatric pioneer Emil Kraepelin,
which was the original method of classification, is still in use. Far better known, however, is the work of Sigmund Freud, who
devised the system of investigation and treatment known as psychoanalysis. Freud called attention to instinctual drives and
unconscious motivational processes that determine people’s behaviour. His stress on the dynamics of behaviour—that is, what
makes people do things—and on the importance of early childhood, exerted a strong influence on the course of modern
psychology, although most of his detailed theories have not been well supported by later research.
C 20th-Century Psychology
In both the United Kingdom and the United States, psychology was influenced greatly by practical considerations, with
practitioners applying psychological methods in school and business settings. In America, in particular, experiment and theory
came to be dominated, until about 1960, by the behaviourist movement led originally by John B. Watson. This paid little
attention to mental processes, focusing instead on observable behaviour.
A much more sophisticated version of the experimental analysis of behaviour was developed by Burrhus F. Skinner. This was
overtaken, however, by the growth of a new cognitive psychology movement, which restored mental processes to their central
role, drawing in particular on work in artificial intelligence (AI) and the computer simulation of behaviour.
Even more recently, a great deal of research has appeared in, on the one hand, cultural and developmental factors in
behaviour, and on the other, behavioural genetics—that is, the inherited factors. At the same time applications of psychology
have proliferated.
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D Psychological Approach and Methods
Skinner's Theory of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner as an alternative to Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Skinner learned
through experimentation that behaviour can be conditioned by using both positive and negative reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement conditions the mouse to find the end of the maze in this illustration. The mouse is rewarded with food
when it reaches the first turn in the maze (A). Once the first kind of behaviour becomes ingrained, the mouse is not
rewarded until it makes the second turn (B). After many times through the maze, the mouse must reach the end of the
maze to receive its reward (C). Skinner’s research on operant conditioning led him to conclude that simply rewarding
small acts can condition complex forms of behaviour.
Skinner's Theory of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner as an alternative to Pavlov’s
classical conditioning. Skinner learned through experimentation that behaviour can be conditioned by using both positive and
negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement conditions the mouse to find the end of the maze in this illustration. The mouse
is rewarded with food when it reaches the first turn in the maze (A). Once the first kind of behaviour becomes ingrained, the
mouse is not rewarded until it makes the second turn (B). After many times through the maze, the mouse must reach the end
of the maze to receive its reward (C). Skinner’s research on operant conditioning led him to conclude that simply rewarding
small acts can condition complex forms of behaviour.
Popularly, a psychological approach is sometimes equated with a “soft” approach, or thought to be concerned merely with
thoughts and feelings. In fact, psychologists seek the most effective means of dealing with human problems, whatever they
may be, based on hard facts and what has been proved to work. Similarly, theories must be tested continually against evidence.
Obtaining such evidence is often not easy. People are extremely diverse and changeable, and many methods of investigation
are ethically or practically impossible. It is also the case that human behaviour is very rarely a simple result of one factor; it
almost always has multiple causes, a situation often ignored by those who urge one simple cure for crime or educational failure,
for example. This complexity means that sophisticated statistical methods have to be used to tease out the effects of multiple
variables.
Where possible, experiment is the preferred method of collecting data; some factors are held constant, and others varied.
Sometimes a “natural” experiment can be used, as in twin studies: identical twins effectively share the same heredity, whereas
non-identical ones are no more alike than any pair of siblings. Sometimes it is simply a matter of establishing the views or
attitudes of a specific group of people, as in consumer research, perhaps using interviews, questionnaires, or group discussions.
Even then there will probably be sub-groups, such as men and women, or older and younger people, that need to be analysed
separately. Other techniques often used include systematic observation of natural behaviour, such as children’s play, and
introspection, that is, asking a person to say what is going through his or her mind, for example, when solving a problem.
Physiological psychology uses physical recording techniques, for example of the electrical activity of the brain, hormone levels,
and heart rate.
E Tests and Measurements
Tests, especially intelligence tests, are perhaps the psychological technique that is most often met with in everyday life. “Tests”
is in fact an unfortunate term, as it implies success or failure. Most psychological measures are simply intended to give an
accurate picture of an individual or group, compared to others, on characteristics that are likely to be relatively permanent.
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These characteristics are usually either abilities (such as general intelligence, or specialized abilities for, for example,
mathematics, music, or sport) or personality traits, such as introversion-extroversion, that is, how inward-looking or outgoing a
person may be.
Methods of measuring these, like all scientific measurements, must be both valid and reliable. Reliability means that the same
score will result under the same conditions, just as a thermometer must always give the same reading when the temperature is
identical. Validity means that it is known what is being measured; a thermometer must respond to temperature, but not to, for
instance, air pressure.
Psychological measures have an added difficulty in that norms have to be established based on some sample of the population;
it is impossible to measure all the human race. This has led to controversy over intelligence tests in particular, when it appears
that some groups perform, on average, better or worse than others. The reasons for this are still not well understood. There is
also argument over what “intelligence” means; but technically, it refers simply to the fact that performances on a range of
cognitive (roughly, “thinking”) tasks tend to correlate.
III MAJOR AREAS OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATION
Modern psychological research overlaps with many other sciences, both biological and social, and new hybrid areas continually
emerge, such as cultural psychology, neuropsychology, and forensic psychology. There is no sharp distinction between research
and application: nearly all research has practical implications, and practitioners rely on research methods and findings in
tackling everyday problems. Similarly, the areas listed below are not sharply distinct. For example, sexual behaviour and
attitudes have physiological, developmental, social, and other aspects.
A Physiological Psychology
Human Nervous System
Physiological psychology involves studying physiological aspects of the human mind. Researchers look for links between
mental disorders and abnormalities in the nervous and circulatory systems of patients. Many psychiatrists believe that
abnormal levels of dopamine, a chemical secreted by neurons, may be connected to schizophrenia.
Human Nervous System Physiological psychology involves studying physiological aspects of the human mind. Researchers look
for links between mental disorders and abnormalities in the nervous and circulatory systems of patients. Many psychiatrists
believe that abnormal levels of dopamine, a chemical secreted by neurons, may be connected to schizophrenia.
The aspects of physiology most closely related to behaviour are the brain, nervous system, and senses; the hormone system;
and the mechanisms of genetics. All of these interact, and not only provide the basis of individual behaviour but actually
influence it in particular directions. At the same time they interact with social factors. Physiological psychologists believe that
sexual roles are decided in the first instance by genetic make-up: individuals are born either biologically male or female or, in a
very small number of cases, not clearly either (usually corrected by surgery).
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Memory
Even at this level, however, it is not simply an either/or situation: every individual is somewhere on a male-female dimension.
This is further affected by the hormone system. In the uterus (womb), the foetus is influenced by the hormonal environment, in
particular by the amount of testosterone present, which it is thought can have the effect of “masculinizing” or “feminizing” the
developing brain to some degree. According to this branch of psychology, men and women differ not only in basic physiology
but in inclinations and aptitudes: for example men tend to be better at spatial tasks than verbal ones and more interested in
occupations that deal with things rather than with people. This is partly because of physiological factors, but their behaviour is
the outcome of these interacting with environmental factors such as family, education, social conformity and conditioning, and
opportunities.
B Cognitive Psychology
This term is now generally used to cover a number of topics, including perception, learning, memory, thinking and reasoning,
and language, all of which are closely related, as well as indicating a general approach to psychological problems. Some of the
early studies concentrated on rote learning of nonsense syllables, and on classical conditioning, the way in which a neutral
stimulus can become a trigger for a natural response, as when the sight or thought of food makes a person salivate. Operant
conditioning refers to learning when an action is rewarded or reinforced. A great deal of human behaviour is more complex
than this, and the stress now is largely on meaning and organization. For example, when a child learns to talk, he or she must
do far more than acquire a list of words: it is the structure of the language that is important, so that new thoughts can be
expressed, often in ways that have never actually been used before by the child.
C Developmental Psychology
This branch of psychology is based on the notion that the origins of behaviour lie in the combination of genes which is present
at the moment of conception, and that it continues to develop throughout life, as the inherited potential is modified by both
physical and social factors. The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget led the way in showing the complexity of intellectual
development as children develop the capacity for independent rational thought. Children that are gifted, average, or have
disabilities all need a stimulating and supportive environment to make the most of their potential, while in old age abilities both
physical and mental can be maintained by active use. Developmental psychologists explore these processes in detail.
D Social and Cultural Psychology
The origins of social behaviour can be seen in other species, especially other primates such as gorillas, but it is far more complex
in human beings. In social psychology, human beings are essentially social animals, starting with a long childhood in which they
are almost totally dependent on others. Most of what is recognized as typically human involves interaction with others, and is
shaped by social norms and social demands; much time is spent in trying to understand others. Attention has focused, among
other things, on how people form impressions of each other, often on scanty or even irrelevant information, as when an
individual is judged in terms of a stereotype, a general impression of a group that may or may not be accurate. Other areas of
research focus on how people adapt to, for example, social and gender roles.
E Psychopathology and Clinical Psychology
What counts as normal behaviour may vary from one culture to another. Very approximately one may distinguish three broad
groups of disorders.
Psychotic disorders or psychoses are typically marked by loss of contact with reality, so that sufferers may not be aware of who
or where they are, and may be unable to function in everyday life. There may be hallucinations such as hearing voices, or
delusions of persecution. The best-known diagnostic term here is schizophrenia, but this is almost certainly a group of disorders
with similar symptoms. In at least some of these there is probably a genetic predisposition, but the causes are still not well
understood.
Some psychoses on the other hand may be caused by organic dysfunction, as when acute alcoholism leads to deterioration of
the brain. Non-psychotic disorders or types of neurosis do not usually involve a break with reality but make life painful,
unhappy, or ineffective. Such are phobias or irrational fears, for example of open spaces, crowds, or spiders; obsessivecompulsive behaviour, such as compulsive hand-washing or other acts; amnesia with no apparent physical cause; and some
sexual disorders such as impotence or frigidity (again when there is no physical disorder).
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Third, there are personality disorders. Individuals with these disorders are often called sociopaths or psychopaths. Their
behaviour seems to be marked by a failure to learn the normal rules of behaviour, such as treating others with respect,
generally keeping within the law, and so on. In extreme cases violence or murder may be committed, often apparently without
thought or feeling for the consequences or concern for the victims.
F Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychologists deal with the whole range of abnormal behaviour, in both diagnosis, often using psychological tests, and
in treatment, by both physical means such as drugs (in conjunction with medical personnel) and individual or group
psychotherapy. A special contribution of clinical psychology is behaviour therapy, which is based on principles of conditioning
and learning, and behaviour modification. A patient with a phobia about dogs, for example, might be “desensitized” by a series
of rewards for getting closer and closer to dogs in non-threatening situations.
There is a clear professional distinction between psychology on the one hand, and on the other psychiatry, which is the medical
specialism dealing with abnormal behaviour, and psychoanalysis, which strictly should be used only for the lengthy treatment
devised originally by Freud. “Psychotherapy” is a general word for any non-physical treatment.
G Educational Psychology
Educational psychologists deal with all sorts of individual problems, such as slow at learning, dyslexia, various sorts of
disabilities, school phobia, and so on. Like clinical psychologists, they often use tests in diagnosis—but are perhaps less often
concerned with treatment, which may rather involve remedial teachers, social workers, and nurses or doctors.
Educational problems may arise from many causes. Some may have physical origins, such as poor hearing, and there may be
cognitive deficits such as low intelligence, medical disorders, or social factors such as stress or deprivation in the home.
Educational psychology is also applied to the whole range of ability: those at the upper “gifted” end also need special
consideration to meet their needs, or they risk becoming frustrated or isolated.
More generally, educational psychologists may advise on educational programmes, methods of selection and examination, and
so on, or conduct research into methods of teaching and learning.
H Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Psychologists in industry serve many roles. They may work on hiring staff through testing and interviewing, on developing
training courses, and on maintaining good employee relations and communications. They may function as management
consultants, advising on structures and procedures within an organization, or they may be involved with ergonomics (the
design of machines and workplaces to make them more suitable for people).
A rather different sort of application of industrial psychology is consumer research. This may be for marketing purposes or
involve sampling attitudes and opinions, often for the mass media or for political parties or the government. Consumer
research is by no means an exclusively psychological activity but psychologists are often engaged in it.
Further reading
Psychology is applied in many other areas and new specialisms are constantly developing; some of these are counselling
psychology, forensic and criminal psychology, and sports psychology.
Prepared by Dr Waweru Muriithi
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