GLOSSARY 60 WORDS - - - - - - - - - (Proto)-Indo-European: This is a genetical classification of languages. Indo-European is the best-known language family. Some of the major Indo-European groups are IndoIranian, Italic, Celtic and Germanic. English belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic subfamily. An unattested (reconstructed) language is indicated by the term proto. Aboriginal languages: The languages spoken by Aboriginal Australians before the arrival of English colonisers. Aboriginal English is the technical name given to a continuum of varieties of English ranging between standard Australian English and creoles used by Aboriginal Australians. Acculturation: It is a gradual process in which changes in the individual or group’s language, culture and system of values occur through interaction with another majority group with a different language, culture and system of values. A process of acculturation typically accompanies language learning/acquisition and the desire to absorb features of the prevailing culture, including the language. Acquisition: This term refers to the ways in which knowledge is gained through unconscious observation and exposure to the language. Learning is typically contrasted with acquisition as it includes the types of knowledge that can be intentionally grasped, knowledge that can be consciously memorised. Acrolet (x2): When decreolisation takes place a range of varieties are formed. A continuum appears in the language and the speakers in the speech community show a range of different pronunciation features usually associated with social stratification. The acrolet is the variety which is closer to the standard language and further away from the creole. The acrolet can evolve into a New English. African American vernacular: It refers to the language spoken in black communities in the United States. Some linguists consider it a significantly different linguistic situation from the standard dialect since it does not conform to its pronunciation, grammatical structure, idiomatic usage, vocabulary, etc. In the 1960s it became a source of concern as it was perceived that black students performed below average in schools. Analytic language: Languages can be classified into typological categories based on how words are formed. An Analytic language is one in which words tend to be on syllable long with no affixes, such as Chinese or Vietnamese. Analytic languages are also known as isolating languages. and communication infrastructures. Ascendant bilingualism (x1): It occurs when someone whose ability to function in a second language is developing due to increased use, so it represents an expansion of his/her linguistic repertoire. It generally occurs when both languages continue to be useful and valued. The opposing term is recessive bilingualism where there is a decrease in an individual’s linguistic competence. Auxiliary language (x2): A language that is used for a specific purpose and has, among others, a specific functional goal. Pidgins are auxiliary languages but there are also instances of auxiliary languages such as Esperanto, Business English, Maritime English and Air-Traffic control English. These languages sometimes have a specialised jargon which tends to be the most difficult part as they are not very complex from a syntactic point of view. - - - - - - - - - Balanced bilingual: This term refers to people who master two different languages in various contexts and situations. Balanced bilinguals are supposed to be equally fluent in both languages across various contexts. This concept is debated due to the difficulty of encountering similar levels of language competency in any context. They can also be called “equilinguals” or “ambilinguals”. Basilect (x3): When decreolisation takes place a range of varieties are formed. A continuum appears in the language and the speakers in the speech community show a range of different pronunciation features usually associated with social stratification. The basilect is the bottom variety which is closer to the creole and further away from the standard language. Bidialectal: This term is closely related to bilingualism, someone who can use two dialects can be considered bidialectal. Being bidialectal implies that the differences between the concerned codes is not so great as to prevent mutual intelligibility. Black English Vernacular (or African American Vernacular English): This term refers to the non-standard English spoken by lower-class African Americans in US urban communities. In the UK, Black English Vernacular is the result of the linguistic change from creole languages spoken by Afro-Caribbean immigrants which were influenced by English as a dominant language in the UK. This language has also become more English-like for the UK-born descendants of these former immigrants. Borrowing (x3): This term is used to refer to words or phrases which have spread from one language or dialect and are used in another. It is caused for different reasons such as close contact between two or more language codes in multilingual situations, the domination of some languages by others, a sense of need because of technological or cultural advances or a sense of prestige associated with words or expressions coming from other languages. Communicative competence (x1): This term was introduced by Dell Hymes who considered that speakers have other types of linguistical knowledge about how to use language properly in society apart from the knowledge of grammar, pronunciation and lexicon. It is acquired by native speakers of a language but also needs to be acquired by non-native speakers along with linguistic competence. Compound bilingual (x4): This term describes a situation in which one language has been learnt after the other and, through the first one. Both languages are closely connected as they may be composed of a single meaning system with two words or labels for a single meaning. This raises the question of whether both languages develop together or separately in the brain. Consecutive bilingualism (x1): Acquisition of a second language after the age of three. A typical situation is that of children who are schooled in a different language to their mother tongue or those who move to another country or language context. The first language may influence the way they learn and use their second language. It can also be called sequential bilingualism and is used in contrast with the term simultaneous bilingualism. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): An approach to second language learning based on the use of that language as the medium for instruction for the teaching of curricular content areas. It entails a double focus: the development of nonlinguistic knowledge at the same level as in mainstream education and the acquisition of a second language aided by scaffolding and other specific teaching techniques. - - - - - - - - - - Content-based ESL (x3): A teaching/learning approach in which the contents are taught in a foreign language with the aim of developing the language skills of the learners in that foreign language at the same time as they are learning the contents required in the curriculum. It aims to develop the students’ language and academic skills and its main advantage is the provision of meaningful contexts for communication in the classroom. Co-ordinate bilingual: This term refers to someone who has learns two languages in different contexts and keeps them distinct. This probably entails the existence of two meaning systems with two different words and raises the question of whether both languages develop together or separately in the brain. Corpus planning (x4): Actions undertaken in order to partially modify the nature or characteristics of a language in some way, such as pronunciation, the incorporation of new vocabulary or the syntactic or morphological patterns. It is closely related to status planning which refers to whether the status of a language could or should be raised or lowered. Cultural awareness (x4): The understanding and respect for differences between people from different countries or different cultural or linguistic backgrounds. It is supposed to break down national, ethnic and language stereotypes and widen the understanding of different kinds of societies, this is increasingly important as the world becomes more of “a global village”. Such awareness may best be achieved through simultaneous language learning. It is an advantage of the learning of second or third languages. Dialect (x1): Geographical variation affects languages in the form of dialects. People who speak a dialect often use different words or pronunciation for the same word, this might also affect syntactic and intonation patterns. The distinction between language and dialect is not always clear as socio-political factors may play an important role in the decision and variation is diminished due to the homogenising effect of the media Dialectology (x1): It is the study and search for idiosyncratic features in language use within a geographical area. Dialectologists usually analyse the typical vocabulary, pronunciation, intonation patterns and other characteristics which they try to match to specific geographical areas. They draw lines (isoglosses) on maps to try and visualise areas where certain language features are used. Discourse analysis: This field of research refers to the analysis of linguistic units above sentence level (texts or conversations). By analysing written or aural texts, discourse analysists explore the different functions of language in social interaction. Discourse marker (x1): Words, phrases or sounds that have no content meaning but play an important role in making conversational structure, signalling conversational intentions and assuring cooperation on the part of listeners. The types and uses frequently change across languages. Domain: The combination of social and situational factors that influence the speaker’s choice of code (dialect, register, style…). The same speaker uses different styles depending on the situation. This concept is frequently used in studies of codeswitching in multilingual contexts where various languages, styles or dialects are employed in different social settings. Dormant bilingual: A bilingual who no longer uses their languages but who acquired them in the past and reached a comprehensive knowledge and command. - - - - - - - - - - - - Endangered language (x3): A language that is at risk because the number of speakers has decreased. This can be the result of many factors, but it can normally be attributed to bad language planning. The lack of importance of a language for business can cause its death. English-lexifier creole: (also see Lexifier) This term refers to any creole which is English-based and therefore has a vocabulary heavily influenced by English. Due to the post-creole continuum, that language may still be receiving words from English. Ethnography of communication: A term that in addition to the definition of the ethnography of speaking includes nonverbal aspects of communication (eye contact, distance between speaker and hearer, etc.). Ethnography of speaking (x2): This branch of sociolinguistics studies the norms and rules for using language in social situations in different cultures. It deals with aspects like the different types of language to be used under different circumstances; how to make requests, grant permission or ask a favour; the degree of indirectness, etc. Researchers hope to provide insight into and improve cross-cultural communication. Ethnomethodology: The branch of sociology which deals with the content of what is being said rather than the way it is being said. Ethnomethodologists study what is being said and what is not being said because of shared knowledge or common-sense. Family language planning (x2): A family’s deliberate efforts to influence the acquisition of their child’s language. This choice may take the form of a tacit understanding or of a conscious strategy about with what language to use with the child. It can be very useful to initiate, establish and maintain childhood bilingualism and is a determining factor in maintaining minority languages. Heritage Language (x2): This is a language spoken by an immigrant group or individual in another country. It has to be distinguished from Indigenous Language which also refers to a minority language but in this case is native to that land. Heritage language bilingual education (x4): A bilingual education model which allows minority language children to receive instruction in their native, home or heritage language. Its goals are to develop full bilingualism and to preserve the ethnic language and culture of a community. Content is taught through the minority language which is the students’ home language and also the majority language. Hypercorrection (x6): A manifestation of linguistic insecurity. It can manifest itself by the overuse of the socially desired forms in careful speech or reading, especially in an attempt to speak or write in an educated manner. English – [h] Informant: Any person who provides information to be analysed and is therefore a source of data for the researcher. This can be anyone from a native speaker to a student attending a class where research is gathered. Interference: In language teaching and learning this term is used to refer to any negative influence that one languages exerts over the other. It usually hinders the learning process and causes a problem for the language learner whereas positive interlinguistic influence helps the language learner. International schools (x1): Private, selective and independent schools usually found in large cities which provide instruction in a majority language and other national or international languages depending on their location and goals. They offer a curriculum which is different from the national one, normally to prepare students for entry into European and North American universities. Students usually share a high social/economic status. - - - - - - - - - - Language Academy (x2): In some countries there are institutions which play a role in safeguarding standards by trying to regulate the evolution of the language by limiting unwanted foreign influence and by trying to control how the language changes. It is more likely to be successful in written language, but the task is difficult due to the influence exerted by the media and globalisation. Language attrition (x2): Gradual language loss in an individual. This can refer to the loss of a mother tongue that has been acquired and due to lack of use is gradually forgotten. This is often the case among second and third generation immigrants. It can also refer to a language that was learnt through formal instruction by gradually forgotten after a period of disuse. Language conflict (x1): In multilingual situations there is usually some type of conflict regarding the language due to ideological, political or economic reasons. Decisions regarding the selection of an official language or the choice of language for formal education, among others, are typical generators of problems. Many current language conflicts arise from different social statuses and the government’s preferential treatment of the dominant language. Language election/selection: At some point, most developing countries need to make a decision regarding their socio-political evolution and their international recognition. These decisions are usually made for practical reasons either because of the need of an agglutinative language to overcome a wide linguistic variety and/or because of the advantages in adopting a Language of Wider Communication (LWC). Language functions: Language is frequently described as having three main functions: descriptive (carries factual information), expressive (speaker’s personal feelings, preferences, etc) and social (maintaining social relations). Language loss (x2): This term refers to a situation where language shift in a speech community ends in the total shift to another language. If a language shift ends with the total loss of a language from the world it is considered language death. In the area of individual bilingualism, it can occur in cases in which the minority language is still unstable, and the dominant language occupies most domains. Language of Wider Communication (LWC) (x1): This term is equivalent to lingua franca, that is a language used by speakers of different languages to communicate with each other. English became a LWC after World War II. Language Policy Division: This department of the EU is located in Strasburg and is responsible for the progress of language education policies within the EU member states. It is in charge of the elaboration of guidelines and policies related to language learning and the development of policy planning regarding linguistic diversity. Language revitalisation (x5): Language planning efforts made in order to revive a language that because of social or economic reasons has decreased in number of speakers or which was lost. A language shift can lead to the spread of a dominant language and the loss of the minority language. The reasons can vary but are often caused by a group’s search for cultural and/or ethnic identity. Language spread (x5): This consists of an increase in the use of a language or language variety for a given communicative function by a specific social or ethnic group. It can refer to a traditional language within a speech community or a language that is adopted as lingua franca or LWC. Languages can also spread within a nation as a new mother tongue instead of as an additional language. - - - - - - - - - Lexifier (x2): (also see English-lexifier creole) This term refers to the language from which most of the vocabulary has been taken to form a pidgin or creole. Common lexifiers are English, French, Spanish and Portuguese due to their colonial exploits. The contact between these European languages and native languages led to the development of pidgins and creoles. Lingua franca (x4): This is commonly used by speakers who have different mother tongues but need to communicate with each other. They have existed since antient times but nowadays the most remarkable example is English, for some it is their mother tongue and for others a second or foreign language, but it is used for international and intercultural communication. The speaker’s knowledge varies depending on the domains and contexts where it is used. Linguistic competence: It refers to lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and other dimensions of language as a system, independently of the sociolinguistic value of its variations and the pragmatic functions of its realisations. It refers to the range and quality of knowledge but also to cognitive organisation and the way this knowledge is stored. Longitudinal study (or observational study): A research method involving repeated observation of the same variables and the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. They involve data retrieval at different intervals over a period of time. This is particularly useful when studying the effectiveness of an educational program and for gaining insight into cause and effect processes and observing patterns of change. Macro-sociolinguistics (x1): The study of sociolinguistics aspects in large groups of speakers. It deals with the relationship between sociological factors and language. It is an umbrella term for a type of research, rather than an area of study itself; so, studies looking at the Sociology of Language can generally be described as macrosociolinguistic because of their scale. Mesolect (x1): When decreolisation takes place a range of varieties are formed. A continuum appears in the language and the speakers in the speech community show a range of different pronunciation features usually associated with social stratification. The mesolect is the intermediate variety, with the acrolet and the basilect marking the extremes of the creole varieties. Micro-sociolinguistics: The study of sociolinguistic in relation to small groups of speakers, speech communities or the speech of individuals. This term is used in opposition to macro-sociolinguistics which refers to larger scale study of language in society. Minority language: Languages often at risk due to another culturally dominant language mostly as a result of political or social factors and they are often excluded from certain spheres such as administration, education or mass media. Minority language speakers are often bilingual. Language planning and language policies are ways of promoting these languages. Irish, Welsh and Scottish Gaelic are clear examples. Native speaker (x1): A person who has spoken a language since early childhood. This term can be controversial because of assumptions made on the capacity of a native speaker to determine correct or deviant usage. Native and non-native are not clear cut homogeneous categories. In second-language learning native speakers have traditionally represented a “model to follow” but this has been proven to be an inefficient approach. - - - - - - - - - - New Englishes (x1): This term refers to any of the varieties of English that have emerged because of the ample spread of this language during the colonial period (Kenya, India…). It is also known as World English and does not emphasise the dichotomy between native and non-native use but embodies the recognition of English as an international language in multilingual and multicultural contexts. Observer’s paradox: This term was coined by Labov to refer to the observation of language without the speakers knowing that you are doing so. This is a methodological problem for the gathering of sociolinguistic data because speakers often change their production when they realize they are being observed. Pragmatic competence: This term is concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources used in aural communication or scripts of interactional exchanges. It also concerns the mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the identification of text types and forms, irony, parody, etc. Pragmatics: This is a branch of linguistics that studies the use of language in communication for example the relationship between utterances and the context and situations in which they are used. Proficiency: This is someone’s skill in using a language, generally as a second language. It describes the degree of skill that someone has attained in a language and his/her ability over the four basic skills: speaking, reading, writing and listening. Sabir: This was a lingua franca used in the Mediterranean area from the middle ages to the twentieth century. It was kept stable for centuries despite just being a contact language. Some specialists suggest that all pidgins based on European languages derive from this lingua franca. Semilinguals (x1): Bilingual speakers who display quantitative and/or qualitative deficiencies in the command of their languages in comparison with monolingual speakers. Traditionally, this term has had negative connotations since it is used to define someone who lacks competency/proficiency in either language. It is also used for people who have acquired several languages at different times but have not developed a level of proficiency. Simultaneous bilingualism (x3): Acquisition of two languages from the early stages of childhood, usually within the family and before the age of three, a person who is a simultaneous bilingual usually goes from speaking no languages to speaking two. If the languages continue to be equally developed, the result is usually quite balanced bilinguals with the proficiency of a native speaker in both languages. It is also referred to as “infant bilingualism” or “bilingual first language acquisition”. Sociolinguistic competence (x1): This term refers to the sociocultural conditions of language use. Through its sensitivity to social conventions, the sociolinguistic competence of language affects all linguistic communication between representatives of different cultures, and of the same, even though participants are often unaware of its influence. Sociolinguistic interview (x1): This is a technique to collect speech samples to gather information about a given speaker or group of speakers within a speech community. It is a qualitative method of research that provides the sociolinguist with face-to-face interaction with the informant and allows recording for previous analysis and is therefore of prime importance for the researcher. - - - - - - - - - Sociolinguistic relativity (x1): When people from different social and linguistic backgrounds interact, they tend to analyse and judge each other’s speech by taking their own as a reference. The more a speaker interacts with different cultures, dialects, registers, etc. the more referents a speaker will have and the more capable they will be of perceiving their culture and way of thinking as just one of many. Sociolinguistic relativity entails the acknowledgement of sociolinguistic diversity. Sociology of language: It is a branch of sociolinguistics that studies large scale processes of interaction between language and its use in society. It is also referred to as macro-sociolinguistics and some of the issues it studies are language planning, multilingualism and language shift. Speech act: An utterance that represents a functional unit in interaction. They can have a locutionary meaning (literal) and/or illocutionary meaning (effect of the speech act or text on listener or reader). Status planning (x3): Actions aiming at raising or lowering the status of a language or dialect and which basically refers to decisions regarding the selection of particular varieties for particular purposes or communicative functions. It is closely related to corpus planning as language planning policies can never be solely corpus-orientated or status-orientated. Synchronic variation: This term refers to the instances and characteristics of variation which occur at the present time in language, the way variation affects language and a given point in history (gender, style, register…). It is the opposite of Diachronic variation which studies language change through time. Synthetic language (x2): Synthetic languages have a number of suffixes with carry different meanings, such as tense or case, and vary their shape according to the word they are added to. They are also known as inflectional languages. A singles suffix can express a number of different grammatical concepts, such as in Latin. Trilingualism: Use or ability to use three languages. In young children, trilingual acquisition largely follows the path of bilingual acquisition. Early trilingualism is rarer than trilingualism achieved through schooling. Nowadays some experts prefer to talk about multilingualism. Turn-taking (x2): In conversation analysis this term describes the fundamental mechanisms on which the conversation is bases, the right and/or obligation to speak with the interlocutor. General conversational patterns are arranged in a way that only one speaker speaks at a time, but this organisation depends on specific cultural features. Conversation needs to be two-way otherwise it turns into a monologue. Variety (x1): This term refers to a sort of language that is considered a separate entity for some reason, but which generally shares a great deal of common features with some standard or other varieties. A given dialect, accent, style or register can be considered a variety but not a different language. They can be widespread and standardised (Australian or American English) but also very localised (Cockney or Scouse).
