CHAPTER TWO: Forest Management
Forest management is the process of planning and implementing practices for
the stewardship and use of forests to meet specific environmental, economic,
social and cultural objectives. It deals with the administrative, economic,
legal, social, technical and scientific aspects of managing natural and planted
forests. It may involve varying degrees of deliberate human interventions,
ranging from actions aimed at safeguarding and maintaining forest
ecosystems and their functions, to those favouring specific socially or
economically valuable species.
Conti..
A globally agreed definition of sustainable forest
management (SFM) is impractical beyond a very
general level because of the huge diversity of forest
types,
conditions
and
socioeconomic
contexts
worldwide. In general, however, SFM can be viewed as
the sustainable use and conservation of forests with the
aim of maintaining and enhancing multiple forest
values
through
human
interventions.
Forests
have multiple functions that are interdependent. A forest
may be assigned a primary management function, such
Natural forest mgt
In simplest terms, natural forest management
(NFM) involves the harvesting of trees in such
a way as to allow the forest to regenerate
naturally before the next round of extraction.
In other words, NFM relies on the inherent
regenerative powers of the forest as opposed
to extensive silvicultural intervention.
Conti….
Several forest mitigation options exist:
Afforestation/reforestation, Deforestation and forest
degradation, forest management for carbon stocks and
wood products. The IPCC notes that when properly
designed and implemented, these forestry mitigation
options should provide substantial co-benefits in terms
of employment and income generation opportunities,
biodiversity and watershed conservation, provision of
timber and fiber as well as aesthetic and recreational
services.
NFM
➢ Forest/ Woodland is an essential ecosystem’s part: it
provides clean air and water, is home to wild animals,
and contains resources that we consume every day.
➢ Deforestation
and
the
resulting
environmental
degradation is a major problem in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and a key factor
challenging food security, community livelihood and
sustainable development
Conti…
Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is a
mechanism to protect forests and enhance the
livelihoods of communities who use and benefit
from them in the process. PFM was first
introduced to Ethiopia thirteen years ago but the
approach is expanding to cover more and more
hectares of forest across the country.
Conti…
➢ There are many reasons for introducing
PFM, depending on whom you ask. The
main
two
objectives
environmental.
mitigation
of
The
are
social
one
biodiversity
and
emphasizes
loss,
forest
degradation and deforestation; while the
other views a concern for livelihoods in
forest neighboring areas as well as the rights
to utilize forest resources legally.
There are many reasons for introducing
PFM, depending on whom you ask. The
main
two
objectives
environmental.
The
are
one
social
and
emphasizes
mitigation of biodiversity loss, forest
degradation and deforestation; while the
other views a concern for livelihoods in
forest neighboring areas as well as the
rights to utilize forest resources legally.
Composition of natural forest
Forest composition refers to all plant
species found in a stand or landscape,
including trees, shrubs, forbs, and grasses .
It also refers to forest communities at the
stand or landscape level whose canopies
may be dominated by a single tree species
or contain a mixture of species.
Logging of natural forest
Logging, or commercial logging, involves selective cutting
of trees for sale as timber or other purposes.
The process of logging may focusing on the intended
objectives of the harvested log and the purpose of the
process.
If the seam or log is required for a specific purpose the
matured one should be cut, where as if the purpose focused
of to reduce the competition of resource, the dwarfed and
deformed trees should be removed from the stock.
Enrichment of forest
➢ Enrichment of forest land is the process of
planting the seedlings or sawing the seeds in
the space that is found on the midst of forest to
replace the logged or missed trees.
➢ The process by which one plants trees to
increase the population density of existing tree
species or increase tree species richness by
adding tree species to a degraded forest.
Chapter three; Seed collection and production
Morphology of Fruit and Seed;
❖The seed develops within the ovary which is part of the pistil, a female reproductive organ
of the flower.
❖The expanded and ripened ovary is referred to as the fruit. Commonly, the enlarged ovary
becomes the edible portion of the fruit.
❖A fruit, in the botanical sense, is the ripened ovary together with the seeds within the ovary.
❖The word fruit conjures up images of colorful, juicy, and tasty platter full of fruits. Most of
us love to have fruits. In this lesson, you will learn about fruits from the perspective of
biology. You will learn about the structure of fruits and about different types of fruits.
Conti…
Seed
➢Ovules develop into seeds after fertilization. A seed is composed of a seed coat and an
embryo.
The embryo is composed of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one or two cotyledons.
Benefits of Seeds:
➢The formation of seeds is a big evolutionary step for plants.
➢A seed can remain dormant for many years and the seed will germinate only under
favorable conditions.
➢This ensures the proliferation of seed-bearing plants all over the world. Seeds can be
useful for identifying a tree’s species since they may be around all year, whether on
the tree or on the ground near it.
Conti…
Types of seed:
➢ seeds are an essential element of sexual reproduction in plants. It is formed as the
end product of sexual reproduction in plants and is exclusive only to angiosperms and
gymnosperms.
➢Gymnosperms have no fruits or flowers; hence, their seeds are exposed or “naked”.
On the contrary, angiosperms, have matured ovules that develop within the fruits
after fertilization.
➢Angiosperms are classified as monocots or dicots depending on the number of
cotyledons present in the seed.
Angiosperm vs Gymnosperm seeds
Conti…
Depending on the number of cotyledons, the seeds in angiosperms have been
classified into two categories.
1. Monocotyledonous seeds/monocot: Monocotyledon is a classification of
flowering plants that are characterized by only one embryonic leaf. E.g.
Corn, wheat, maize, rice, ginger, barley, coconut, orchids, daffodils, lilies,
2. Dicotyledonous seeds/dicot: Dicotyledon is a classification of flowering
plants where the seed possesses two embryonic leaves or cotyledons e.g.
Peas, beans, lentils, daisy, peanuts, tomatoes, mint, oak, lettuce, rose.
Conti…
Conti…
Seed Collection
2.1.1 Pre-collection planning
❖Preliminary Survey;
➢Flower survey is not only enough as many of the flowers
might not develop into seeds, but failed due to fertilization or other
environmental factors might also happen.
The information in this seed survey:
➢Checking existing stock,
➢Check the seed as it is sound (Not attacked by insects, or diseases…),
➢High proportion of its viable when harvested,
20
Conti….
➢Be sufficiently large for collection of reproductive material
➢Be composed of a community of potentially interbreeding trees of similar
genetic constitution
➢High proportion of its viable when harvested,
➢Assess any competitors for seed collection in the area e.g. monkeys, rats,
birds, insects,
➢Estimation of forest seed yields for storage,
➢Shape and height of tree,
➢Check the maturity of seeds
21
Conti,,,,
Time for seed collection; Harvesting of seeds should take place after the
seeds have accumulated sufficient reserve materials and should also be
delayed until the state of ripeness is such that harvesting is facilitated.
➢ In other words we should not harvest under- and over-matured seeds.
Seeds or fruits should be collected just as they reached full maturity and
before natural dispersal begins.
➢The period varies considerably in the different tree species; and with local
climatic conditions.
Conti…
How to check the maturity of the seed?
1. Field observation Methods:
A . Color
Seeds/fruits turn from green to grey, shades of yellow, brown, or reddish when
matured.
➢Fleshy and pulpy fruits commonly lose their hardness and become soft when
matured.
➢ However, color is not a reliable way of telling the maturity of seeds.
Conti…
B. Cutting test
It is one of the best ways to see if a fruit/seed is ripe; in a simple way and practical.
✓Some species of fruits can mature without containing any sound seeds at all due to
different factors.
✓It also helps to see the soundness (viability and insect attack).
✓The cutting test gives more information than simply the color
✓Most embryos and endosperm have a ‘milky’ appearance when immature followed
by a ‘dough’ stage.
✓Mature seeds have a fully developed and firm embryo and endosperm.
Conti…
C. Specific gravity or density of fruits- When seeds are mature the specific gravity
becomes lower.
2. Laboratory methods:
I. Maximum dry weight of seeds, when they reach maturity (i.e., physiological
maturity).
II. Chemical analysis (based on the contents of fat, protein, and carbohydrate;
increase during maturity).
III. Moisture content of fruits- Water loss of maturing cones and fruits occurs
closely related to the maturity of the seed.
Conti…
The various seed collection methods could be classified into the following:
1. Collection of fallen fruits/seeds from the forest floor.
2. Collection from the crowns of felled trees.
3. Collection from standing trees with access from the ground.
4. Collection from standing trees with access by climbing.
Collecting mature seeds is advisable- and has higher germinative energy and
greater longevity in storage than immature seeds.
Conti…
❖The time of seed collection differs according to species.
❖Most trees produce seed each year but some don’t, so we have to know the
interval between seed years. Many conifer trees in the natural forests produce
seed every 3- 4 years.
Mother tree selection
➢Prior to seed collection, you will need to select and mark good mother trees.
➢These are the trees you will use as sources of high-quality seed.
➢Varied according to the objectives of the seed to be collected.
Conti..
How to select good mother trees?
Major characteristics that determine a good mother tree:
✓Fulfill the objective,
✓Healthy and free of diseases and insects,
✓Nearly mature,
✓Good producers of the desired product,
✓Growing in the midst of a healthy stand of the same species,
✓If you want straight trunks,
choose a straight-trunked mother tree.
✓For a multi-trunk fodder tree, select multi-trunk mother trees.
Cont’d…
For fodder, good mother trees should:
➢Be fast-growing,
.
➢Have many branches,
➢Have several trunks,
➢Grow new leaves quickly after fodder harvesting,
➢Ability of the tree to recover after cutting.
oTrees that have leaves all year round produce more fodder than those which
lose their leaves part of the year.
29
Seed extraction:
• After collection, fruits are generally packed in sacks to facilitate transportation
to places where they will be subjected to further treatments. The extent to
which sacking can be done before deterioration sets in is dependent on the
nature of the species.
• Generally, however, immediate transportation after sacking is highly
supported. It is vital to label each container/sack thus:
i) Kind of forest tree seed ii) Date of collection iii) Place/area in which the seed
was collected iv) Name and address of the collector.
Conti…
• In general seed extraction has the following advantages:
• Reduce weight and volume,
• Enable more rapid drying,
• For storage under low risk of fungi attack,
• Eliminate the negative impact of fruit chemistry on germination.
Seed storage: Seed storage normally refers to any prolonged safekeeping of seed
material for the aim of maintaining viability. If excellent precaution for storage
activity is done, there is no significant decline in viability within the operational or
potential storage duration (10–15 years) for some orthodox species.
Conti…
Factors affecting the viability of stored seeds in storage:
• Moisture content, Seed maturity, Initial viability, Fungi, bacteria, insect,
Temperature, and Oxygen.
Seed Grading
• While the objective of seed cleaning is to improve purity by eliminating nonseed material and foreign seed from the seed lot
• The purpose of grading is to improve the average physiological quality of the
seed lot by removing seeds of the same species with low quality. Such seeds
may be empty seeds, immature seeds, damaged or dead seeds, or seeds
developed after self-fertilization.
• Often large seeds tend to germinate faster and produce larger and more
vigorous seedlings than small seeds of the same species.
CONTI…
• Grading according to size can be useful to assure a more uniform germination
speed and seedling growth within each grading class.
Labeling the Crop
All seeds need to be properly labeled and identified when stored or transported.
Labels should include the species location seed was collected including latitude
and longitude environmental factors such as rainfall, temperature range, elevation
number of trees, collected date, collector’s name, the number recommended
scarification techniques, germination percentage, the weight of seed in each
container, and insecticide or fungicide treatment.
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Designer is a subscription-only feature. If you have an Office
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new presentation.
How to use PowerPoint Designer
How it works:
1
Start a new presentation by going to File > New > Blank
Presentation.
2
On the very first slide, add a picture: Go to Insert > Pictures or
Insert > Online Pictures and choose the picture.
Hint: You need to be online when you add the picture.
3
When PowerPoint asks your permission to get design ideas,
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4
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Morph
Morph makes smooth animations and object movements in your
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on one slide.
Play the video on the right to see a quick example.
Morph is a subscription-only feature. If you have an Office 365
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slide.
Setting up Morph
Try it yourself with these two simple “planets”:
1
Duplicate this slide: Right-click the
slide thumbnail and select
Duplicate Slide.
2
In the second of these two identical
slides, change the shapes on the
right in some way (move, resize,
change color), then go to
Transitions > Morph.
3
Return to the first of the two slides
and press Slide Show button and then
select Play to see your circle morph!
Hint: Effect Options gives you even more
options for Morph.
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3
…and the part of the slide they're
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2
Type animation in the Tell Me box, and then
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3
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what happens.
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Try it:
1
Right-click in the word office in the
following phrase: office
furniture
2
Choose Smart Lookup, and notice that
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3
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