Cables and Connectors Remarks: Basic Cable
Construction and Testing
Lab Report 1
Faria Shoaib
F20604022
Supervisor: Engr. Adeel Ijaz
Department of Computer Engineering
National University of Technology
November 20, 2022
Table of Contents
Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................4
1. Objectives ............................................................................................................5
2. Tools ....................................................................................................................5
3. Introduction..........................................................................................................5
4. Procedure .............................................................................................................9
5. Post lab tasks........................................................................................................9
5.Conclusion ............................................................................................................15
6. References ..........................................................................................................16
Table of figures
Figure 1 Coaxial Cable ................................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2 Fibre Optic Cable ........................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3 UTP cable ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4 STP Cable ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 5 RJ 45 Connectors ............................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 6 Colour Coding for Straight Through Cables .................................................................................. 8
Figure 7 Colour Coding scheme for Crossover Cable .................................................................................. 9
Abstract
The aim of this report is to discuss and analyze the different cables, their
construction, and color coding to connect them. Furthermore, the procedure to
construct the cable is discussed. The protocols and standards for the ethernet by
IEEE were described too.
1. Objectives
• To be familiar with the type and construction of different cables used in data
networks and connections.
• To make your own ethernet cable.
2. Tools
The following tools will be needed to perform this experiment.
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Ethernet Cable
Crimping Tool
RJ45 Connectors
Cable Tester
3. Introduction
A conductor or collection of conductors used in electrical and electronic systems to
transport electrical power or telecommunication signals from one location to another
is known as a cable. The part you attach to the end of a cable so it can plug into a
port, or an interface of an electrical system is called a cable connector. The size,
topology, and protocol of a network all influence the kind of cable that is used for it.
The following list includes several typical network cables. That are:
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Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optic Cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A form of copper cable known as coaxial cable is specifically designed with a
metal shield and other signal-blocking components. Cable TV providers employ it
to link their satellite antenna installations to customer residences and places of
business.
The connection between central offices and phone poles close to clients is
occasionally employed by telephone providers. Coaxial cable is also used in some
homes and workplaces, but the widespread usage of twisted pair cabling as an
Ethernet networking medium in businesses and data centres has replaced it.
Figure 1 Coaxial Cable
The real glass layers that make up fibre optic cable are the cladding, which
surrounds the core, and the core, which carries the actual light transmission.
The refractive index of the cladding is lower than that of the core. The core
experiences Total Internal Reflection as a result. Most fibres work in duplex
pairs, where one fibre is used for transmission and the other for reception.
Nevertheless, it is possible to send both signals via a single thread. Fibre
optic cables come in two primary varieties: Single Mode Fibre (SMF) and
Multi-Mode Fibre (MMF). The size of the core is really what is effective.
The broader core of MMF enables the propagation of numerous modes (or
"rays") of light.
Figure 2 Fibre Optic Cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is known as UTP. A 100-ohm copper cable
called a UTP cable has 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs that are encased in
an outer jacket. They do not have a metal shield. As a result, the wire has a
small diameter yet is not shielded from electrical interference. Its resistance
to EMI and electrical noise is increased by the twist.
Figure 3 UTP cable
In some commercial installations, shielded twisted pair (STP), a specific variety of
copper telephone and local area network (LAN) wire, is employed. It upgrades
standard twisted pair wiring by adding an external covering or shield that serves as
a ground.
The common copper wire known as twisted pair is used to link many computer
networks to the telephone provider. Two insulated copper wires are wound around
each other in a spiral pattern to minimise electromagnetic induction or crosstalk
between pairs of wires. Twisted pair signals require both wires to run.
Figure 4 STP Cable
RJ-45 is the common name for the connectors used on the ends of Ethernet cables.
According to the 802.3 wiring standards, these connectors are officially known as
"8P8C," which stands for "eight positions, eight connectors." This plastic connector
resembles a sizable telephone connector. The RJ-45 can only be inserted one way
into a slot.
Figure 5 RJ 45 Connectors
The wired pins of a straight-through cable line up. One wiring standard is used for
straight-through cables; either T568A or T568B is used on both ends.
Figure 6 Colour Coding for Straight Through Cables
As the name implies, a crossover cable crosses over or swaps while travelling from
one end to the other. Instead, then using one wiring standard on both ends like patch
cable, crossover cable employs two: one end uses the T568A wiring standard and
the other end uses the T568B wiring standard.
Figure 7 Colour Coding scheme for Crossover Cable
4. Procedure
1. Remove the outer sheath of the Ethernet cable by two inches.
2. Untwist the pairs but stop after the exposed portion. The more cable that is
untwisted, the more issues you may meet.
3. Arrange the colored wires in accordance with the wiring schematics shown
above.
4. Cut the wires all the same length, leaving about one-half" to 3/4" of the sheath
exposed.
5. Connect the wires to the RJ45 plug, making sure they are all fully entered and
arranged in the proper order. The crimp will secure the Ethernet cable's sheath,
which should protrude into the plug by about one-half".
6. Using the crimper tool, crimp the RJ45 plug.
7. Check that the wires are arranged in the proper sequence, extend to the RJ45
plug's front, and set up excellent contact with its metal contacts.
8. Cut the Ethernet cable to the proper length, making sure it is long enough to
meet your demands.
9. For the second RJ45 plug, repeat the same procedure.
5. Post lab tasks
• What is Power over Ethernet (PoE)?
By the IEEE 802.3af and 802.3at standards, the networking functionality known as
Power over Ethernet (PoE) is described. With PoE, Ethernet connections may power
network devices while using the same existing data connection.
Power sourcing equipment (PSE), powered devices (PDs), or occasionally both, can
be PoE-capable devices. A PSE is a device that transfers power, whereas a PD is a
device that is powered. Network switches or PoE injectors designed for use with
non-PoE switches make up most PSEs. VoIP phones, wireless access points, and IP
cameras are typical instances of PDs.
a. PoE saves you money by allowing you to power and transmit data over the
same cable, which is ideal for VoIP phones and networking equipment.
b. In buildings where it is too expensive or inconvenient to install additional
power lines, PoE greatly simplifies and reduces the cost of creating or
expanding a network.
c. You can mount devices using PoE in locations where it would be difficult to
install electricity, like drop ceilings.
d. In a cramped equipment room or wiring closet, PoE can reduce the number of
cables and electrical outlets required.
• Explain the following Protocols and Standards
i.
10Base-T
→IEEE 802.3
10BaseT uses unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable. The cable is flexible and
easy to work with. The cable has a characteristic impedance of one hundred
ohms. There are two pairs of twisted wires used with 10BaseT. Separate Rx
(receive) and Tx (transmit) pairs are used. The lines are balanced lines to
minimize noise and there are a Rx+ & Rx- pair and a Tx+ & Tx- pair. The
nodes are connected to an MPR (multiport repeater) also called a Concentrator
or Hub. The cables are wired as straight-through cables meaning the Node's Rx
& Tx lines connect directly to the Hub's Rx & Tx lines, respectively. Two
nodes can be directly connected bypassing the Hub by using a Cross-over (Xover) cable. In an X-over cable, the Tx and Rx lines are crossed so that one
node's Tx lines go to the other nodes Rx lines and vice versa. To minimize noise
on the segment, the cable is a balanced line with Rx- & Rx+ and Tx- & Tx+. There
is no shielding and any noise that appears on the Rx+ wire will appear on the Rxwire. When the 2 signals are combined, the noise cancels due to Rx- & Rx+ being
180 degrees out of phase.
The physical layer and MAC sublayer of the data connection layer of wired
Ethernet are defined by the IEEE 802.3 protocol standards. In accordance with
IEEE 802.3, access is provided via Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) at various speeds and through a range of
physical media. Ethernet at 10 Mbps is covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard.
ii.
100Base-TX →IEEE 802.3u
The formal name for Fast Ethernet over twisted pair wires is 100BASE-TX. In
local area networks, it is the most common type of Fast Ethernet, transporting data
traffic at 100 Mbps (Megabits per second) (LAN). In 1995, it was introduced as the
IEEE 802.3u standard. Here, one hundred stands for the maximum speed (100
Mbps), BASE for baseband transmission, and TX for twisted pair connections used
in fast ethernet.
One of the most popular types of Ethernets is IEEE 802.3u Fast Ethernet, which is
100Base-T. Because of how simple it is to use and the fact that systems can
determine whether 10Base-T or 100Base-T speeds are being utilized, it is
frequently regarded as universal for LAN applications. Under the 802.3u family of
standards, 100BaseT Ethernet is established. Each node within a 100BaseT
network shares the network's 100Mbps bandwidth. The first figure in the name for
100Base-T is the designation for the speed in Mbps, which is taken from the
standard format for Ethernet connections. The letters denote the cable or transfer
medium, and the base denotes the baseband the system operates at.
iii.
1000Base-T →IEEE 802.3ab
1000Base-T is a type of gigabit Ethernet networking technology that uses copper
cables as a medium. 1000Base-T uses four pairs of Category 5 unshielded twisted
pair cables to achieve gigabit data rates. The standard is designated as IEEE
802.3ab and allows 1 Gbps data transfer for distances of up to 330 feet. 1000BaseT came into wide use in 1999, gradually replacing fast Ethernet for wired local
networks simply because it was ten times as fast. Equipment and cables are
remarkably like previous Ethernet standards and by 2011 were very common and
economical. These were the biggest factors that ensured this standard's wide
acceptance.
iv.
2.5GBase-T →IEEE 802.3bz
A new data rate called IEEE 802.3bz 2.5 gigabit was created to bridge the gap
between gigabit Ethernet and ten gigabit Ethernet. The specification is known as
2.5GBase-T. 2.5GBase-T, formerly known as 802.3bz and developed by the IEEE,
is meant to function over current Category 5e and Category 6 infrastructure. It makes
use of all four pairs of the cable, just like gigabit Ethernet. It uses the entire 0-100
MHz band, unlike the slower gigabit Ethernet, making it appropriate for Category 6
infrastructures but potentially problematic for Category 5e ones. It is severely
distance limited, just like 10-gigabit Ethernet, which can operate over some
Category 6 cables. As the installation will affect actual performance, it can be used
with Category 6A infrastructure, which offers higher performance.
v.
5GBase-T
→IEEE 802.3bz
Ethernet over twisted pair is supported by the IEEE 802.3bz, NBASE-T, and
MGBASE-T protocols at 2.5 and 5 Gbit/s rates. These have faster speeds while
still using the same cable as Gigabit Ethernet, which is widely used.
vi.
10GBase-T
→IEEE 802.3an
A kind of Ethernet signalling known as 10GBASE-T offers twisted-pair cable
speeds exceeding 1 Gigabit per second (Gbps) over distances of up to one hundred
metres.
Over Cat5e and Cat6 cables, this IEEE 802.3an® standard can deliver 2.5 and 5
Gbps. Signals may be able to travel at new speeds of up to 10 Gbps depending on
the network infrastructure. The NBASE-T Alliance's concentrated work led to the
recent ratification and standardisation of 10GBASE-T.
vii.
25GBase-T
→IEEE 802.3bq
A kind of Ethernet signalling called 10GBASE-T offers speeds over twisted-pair
cabling that are greater than 1 Gigabit per second (Gbps) for lengths of up to one
hundred metres. Over Cat5e and Cat6 cable, this IEEE 802.3an® standard has
speeds of 2.5 and 5 Gbps. Signals may be capable of reaching up to 10 Gbps in
speed, depending on the network infrastructure. Focused work from the NBASE-T
Alliance led to the recent ratification and standardisation of 10GBASE-T.
viii.
40GBase-T
→IEEE 802.3bq
There are indications of the 40GBASE-T pillars. The emphasis is on data centre
infrastructure, which over the following few years will inescapably need to
transition to 40 Gigabit Ethernet. The required capacity could be provided using
fibre optic or Twinax cabling. However, conventional twisted-pair copper wiring,
preferably with the versatile, useful RJ45 style for communication technologies,
continues to be the more affordable and adaptable option.
As a result, 40GBASE-T is the preferred standard. A transmission channel with
two connectors and a 30-metre length will be specified by the IEEE. With a margin
of error of up to 2000 MHz, the transmission frequency will be increased to 1600
MHz
• Why are cables twisted in UTP/STP?
The twisting is done to aid in the cancellation of external electromagnetic
interference. Interference from other pairs within a cable can cause crosstalk. Each
twisted pair cable has its own bandwidth and data rate parameters.
• Explain firewall and the difference between the hardware and software
firewall? Describe at least ten features of the hardware firewall.
On a computer or server, firewall software is installed as security software.
An independent device with its own CPU, memory, operating system, and
software is a hardware firewall. The router also includes several hardware
firewalls that are embedded into it.
An application that is installed on a computer or server is a firewall. The
Windows VPS proprietary firewall, which can be accessed via the Windows
Security Settings screen or Pfsense for Linux VPS, is one of the most widely
used software firewalls. Additionally, security software providers like
Kaspersky, Panda, and others create their own firewalls that often come in
several versions. Some of them are made for use with personal computers,
while others are made to be installed on network servers and in business
settings.
Because otherwise, it should be valuable to every computer linked to the
network, it is so that with just one installation on the server, other network
machines will be under its security umbrella. Purchase and set up a standalone
security system, which will cost a lot of money and take a long time to setup
and run across dozens or even hundreds of machines. Some software firewalls
can watch outgoing network traffic in addition to receiving network traffic.
Additionally, software firewalls are typically more adaptable and have more
security settings and possibilities.
The hardware firewall is located at the network boundary, i.e., between the router
and the outside world (Internet or other networks). Therefore, it is the first line of
defense at the entrance to the network. Any data must go through the hardware
firewall before it reaches the router and then the computers on the network.
Another advantage of a hardware firewall rather than a software firewall is that it
hides the computer or local area network from the outside world. So, the external
monitor sees only a hardware device instead of the network that has an unfamiliar
operating system (because it was said that the operating system of the hardware
firewalls is proprietary). This method of secrecy is called network address translation
(NAT). Of course, this measure does not work against the entry of e-mail viruses.
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VPN: This is critical if an extremely secure Firewall is required. VPN
provides site-to-site encryption. This will make the user invisible to even the
hackers as he will be only seen as using a VPN Server.
·High Availability: with the secondary Firewall taking over the security in
case of the primary Firewall breaking down. This is important for critical
data-centric organizations.
Packet Filtering: a device like a router is sufficient for smaller companies.
Stateful inspection: Firewalls which investigate the information in the data
packets are required for the medium enterprises.
Proxy Firewall: This hides the origin of the user and gives anonymity.
·Host-based Firewall: They operate on a single computer. For more
systems, each one will need to have an individual Firewall.
Network Firewalls: This is required for a network made up of many
computers.
Enterprise Firewalls: These incorporate most of the sophisticated features
like VPN, which are required for top-end security in large corporations.
6. Conclusion
In this introductory lab, we were familiarized with the type and construction of
different cables connectors and the colour coding to connect them used in
networks. We learnt to construct a cable. Diverse types of cables, standards of
protocols for the ethernet over the years and PoE were being discussed too.
7. References
1. https://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/blogs/archive-posts/95046918-what-is-unshieldedtwisted-pair-utp-cable
2. https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/shielded-twisted-pair
3. https://www.plcacademy.com/how-to-make-an-ethernet-cable/
4. https://kb.netgear.com/209/What-is-PoE-Power-over-Ethernet
5. https://zymitry.com/fast-ethernet-specification-ieee-8023u/
6. https://operavps.com/hardware-or-softwarefirewall/#:~:text=Firewall%20software%20is%20a%20security,and%20are%20integrate
d%20into%20it.
7. https://www.jigsawacademy.com/blogs/cyber-security/hardware-firewall/
8. https://www.versatek.com/what-is-10gbase-t/