Growth and Development
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
According to Erickson, a human being must go through a series of psychosocial
developmental stages that must be balanced throughout the lifespan.
Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial conflict that must reach a
resolution to allow the individual to go on the next phase of development.
Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs Mistrust: Infancy (birth to 18 months)
Task: attachment to the mother/caregiver
Successful outcome: feeling of trust
Unsuccessful outcome: mistrust, suspicion, uncertainty of the future
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Early childhood (18 months to 3 years)
Task: develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and sense of
independence
Successful outcome: feeling of self-control, self sufficiency
Unsuccessful outcome: lack of independence, feelings of self-doubt
Initiative vs Guilt: Late childhood (3 to 6 years)
Task: become purposeful and directive
Successful outcome: sense of purpose
Unsuccessful outcome: sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative
Industry vs Inferiority School age (6 to 12 years)
Task: develop physical, social, and learning skills
Successful outcome: self-confidence, competence
Unsuccessful outcome: feelings of inferiority, poor self concept
Identity vs Role Confusion: Adolescence (12-20 years)
Task: develop sense of self and personal identity
Successful outcome: sense of strong identity
Unsuccessful outcome: self-confusion
Intimacy vs Isolation: Early adulthood (20-35 years)
Task: form intimate, loving relationship with other people
Successful outcome: strong relationship
Unsuccessful outcome: loneliness, isolation
Generativity vs Stagnation: Middle adulthood (35 to 65 years)
Task: achieve life goals and creating positive change for the benefit of others
Successful outcome: feelings of accomplishment
Unsuccessful outcome: inability to grow as a person
Integrity vs Despair: Late adulthood (65 years to death)
Task: reflection on life
Successful outcome: sense of fulfillment and integrity
Unsuccessful outcome: regret, bitterness, dissatisfaction with life
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The theory focuses on concepts of language, scientific reasoning, memory, and
moral development.
According to Piaget, to progress from one stage to the next, the child
reorganizes his or her thinking process to bring them close to reality.
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
Present at birth, the infant/child uses reflexes like sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening to gain an understanding about the environment.
Object permanence (objects continue to exist even though it can no longer be seen
or heard) and separation anxiety develops in this stage.
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
The child begins to use language and think symbolically.
Egocentrism (inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view) is
evident in this stage.
Comprehends simple abstract but thinking is usually concrete and literal
Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
The child can think logically but can only apply it to physical objects.
The child starts to use concepts of number, time, space, and volume.
Formal operational stage (11 years to adulthood)
Individuals demonstrate the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and draw
conclusions.
Can engage in hypothetical thinking and scientific reasoning.
SIGMUND FREUD's PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
According to Freud, the child’s development goes through a series of
psychosexual stages in which the child’s desires become focused on a particular body
part.
Each stage is presented with a conflict that will help build or suppress growth
depending on how they are resolved.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
Mouth is the center of gratification through sucking, chewing, swallowing,
breastfeeding, and biting.
Improper resolution in this stage, may lead to oral fixation habits such as nailbiting, thumb sucking, smoking, and excessive drinking.
Anal stage (1 to 3 years)
Child finds pleasure and sense of control through retention and defecation of
feces
Toilet training is present that provides the child a sense of self-control.
Parents that are too lenient during toilet training will result in an anal-expulsive
personality which includes being messy, disorganized, rebellious, and careless.
Parents that are too strict or start toilet training too early will result to anal-retentive
personality which includes being overly obsessive, and rigid.
Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)
Interest in the genital area and masturbation are sources of pleasure in this stage.
Awareness of sexual difference can result in Oedipus complex (Electra complex in
women), an unconscious desire for the parent of the opposite sex while
developing a conflict for the parent of the same-sex
Latent stage (6 to 12 years)
Sexual urges diminish and children start to channel their sexual energies in
honing their values and developing their new skills to form relationships with other
people.
Fixation in this stage can lead to immaturity and a failure to form
relationships as an adult.
Genital stage (12 years to adulthood)
Starts with the onset of puberty when physical maturity prepares the body for
reproduction.
Individuals starts to develop sexual and emotional interest towards the opposite
sex.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg believed that a person can acquire knowledge of moral values through
active thinking and reasoning.
Stages of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 0 (birth to 2 years). Egocentric Judgement: no concept of right or wrong
Stage 1 (2 to 3 years). Obedience and Punishment: behavior driven by avoiding
punishment.
Stage 2 (4 to 7 years). Individualism and Exchange: behavior is driven by rewards or
have favors returned.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3 (7 to 10 years). Good Boy- Nice Girl Orientation: behavior is determined by
social approval.
Stage 4 (10-12 years). Law and Order Orientation: social rules and laws determine
behavior.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality
Stage 5: Social Contract and Legalistic Orientation: rules and laws exist for the
greater good of all.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation: development of own moral
principles even if they conflict with the law of the society.
Physiologic Growth and development
Weight. Most babies doubled their weight at the rate of 5 to 7 ounce weekly for 6
months and tripled at 12 months.
Length. A growth of 1.5 to 2.5 cm is seen monthly from birth to age 6 months while a
growth of 1 cm per month is expected from ages 6 to 12 months.
Fontanel. Anterior fontanel closes by 12 to 18 months of age; Posterior fontanel closes
by the end of the second month.
Head circumference. The average head circumference of a newborn is about 33 to 35
cm, 2 to 3 cm more than chest circumference.
Teeth. Lower front teeth normally appear by the age of 5 to 9 months while upper
front teeth begin to appear by 8 to 12 months. All deciduous teeth (20 in total) will
erupt by the 2 ½ years of age.
Developmental Milestones
2 to 3 months
Begin to smile
Coos, makes gurgling noises
Turn head toward sounds
Follow objects with eyes
Hold head and chest up when prone
4 to 5 months
Smile spontaneously
Cooing and babbling when spoken to
Grasp objects
Rolls over by self
Hold head steady, unsupported
6 to 7 months
Recognize familiar faces and begins to show fear of strangers
May say vowel sounds when babbling (oh oh) and imitate sounds
Responds when own name is heard
Sit with support
Rolls back and forth and vice versa
Show feelings of joys and annoyance
8 to 9 months
Say first words such as (ma-ma-ma, ba-ba-ba)
Uses index finger and thumb to pick up objects
Can sit securely unsupported
Crawls
Stands, holding on
Begin to stand without help
10 to 11 months
Use simple gestures such as waving “bye-bye”
Walk with support while holding onto objects
Stand alone
12 months
Say simple words like “mama” or “dada”
Get to a sitting position with no help
Can drink from a cup and hold spoon to feed self
15 to 18 months
Say several single words
Understand and follow simple instructions
Can point to one body part
Walks alone
Walk up and down stairs while holding on
Can help undress oneself