DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES Q3 Academic Year 2022-2023 Supplementary Material for Midterm Exam MODULE 1: DISCIPLINES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES I. Brief Background on the Social Sciences Social Sciences - Scholarly study of the complexity of human society and its relationships with the environment and technology - Studies related to individuals, human groups, and their sociophysical environment - Implies two important contexts o It involves the scientific process o It enquires about the social space - Social studies and its disciplines involve a scientific and methodological study of humans and society II. The Discipline of Sociology Sociology - Coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte o Father of Sociology - socius meaning “companionship or friendship” + -ology or “the study of” - The study of humans and their relationships within a society - Looks at the social behavior and historical development of humans against social institutions - Uses empirical methods to investigate different facets and functions of society - Aims to provide an understanding of ourselves and others as members of society Important Personalities in Sociology - Auguste Comte o Developed Sociology in 1838 (sociology is the youngest of all social sciences) in a series of texts called A Course on Positive Philosophy o His theory aimed to make the structural components of the society (government, family, and economics) comprehensible through systematic empirical observation and classification - Herbert Spencer o Applied biological concepts into sociology through his theory of organic analogy o His work Principles of Sociology compared development and activity of society to a living organism § Society grows and develops in a gradual process and passes through stages of complexity § Society has institutions that have specific functions - Emile Durkheim o French sociologist, social psychologist, and philosopher - - III. § Focused on the study of suicide o One of the founding fathers of modern sociology o His research on suicide demonstrated how a scientific study of society can be done § Findings: an individual is less likely to commit suicide when they connect more with society • Sociology could be adapted to observe such and other social phenomena Max Weber o Another founding father of modern sociology o Inquiries revolved around his idea of social action § Sociology must aim to determine motivation behind these actions and why and how these actions are done o Attributed actions to particular ways of thinking or rationality § Four types of social interaction • Zweckrational action: actions done in order to achieve a distinct goal • Wertrational action: actions done that are motivated by the idea of value • Affective action: acts done as an emotional response • Traditional action: acts done in order to follow traditions and customs Karl Marx o Also considered a founding father of modern sociology o Moved away from Hegelian dialectical idealism § Marx thought that the truth is in the realm of matter § His inversion of Hegel is called dialectical materialism o Truth about society is not found in abstract ideas and principles but found in the observable and knowable world o Dialectics is a process wherein an idea (thesis) is met by its opposite idea (antithesis) and its combination makes a new idea (synthesis) § Used dialectics to describe the materialist view of the world o Society evolves due to the necessary material goods required for human living and that social order is established around the concept of producing these goods The Discipline of Anthropology Anthropology - Anthropos meaning “human” + logos “study” - Information about humans from biological and evolutionary pasts to ways of life, and traditions they uphold Important Personalities in Anthropology - Before anthropologists, the earliest individuals who inquired and investigated about “other” cultures were museum collectors, physicians, and historians - Edward Burnett Tylor - - - o Father of Cultural Anthropology o Defined anthropology as the “science of culture” o Argued that culture should be objectively studied with proper methodology and a theoretical framework o “Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” o In his work Primitive Culture (1871), he introduced the concept of unilineal cultural evolution § A culture believed to have progressed from one stage to another § As the intellectual capacity of humans increase, their capacity to explain social realities also increases in complexity Lewis Henry Morgan o A lawyer by training and profession who became fascinated with the land disputes between the United States government and American Indian people or the Iroquois § Successfully documented the kinship systems of the Iroquois o Embraced the social Darwinist approach pervading in the academe through discourses on social and physical evolution § His version of social evolution had three stages of societal development based on the progression of their technological capacity • Savagery o Savage societies chiefly utilized crude technology like fire, bow, and pottery • Barbaric o Practiced metallurgy, domestication of animals, and agriculture • Civilized o Development and a system of writing o Critiqued that his brand of evolutionary anthropology was Eurocentric in its approach § Non-Western colonized people were considered savage Both Morgan and Tylor proposed unilineal tracks of evolution o This presupposed that all societies evolve from simple to complex § Refuted by later scholars on the basis of multiple factors that could affect the shift in the cultural system of a human group Franz Boaz o One of the key figures who did not use science to justify racism o Argued that culture is not a by-product of a human group’s physical characteristics but of social learning affected by different factors o Pioneered the importance of fieldwork instead of armchair anthropology § Armchair anthropology: sitting and reading accounts that have already been written by travelers, missionaries, and explorers about other cultures o Later regarded as the Father of American Anthropology § Considered archeological, biological, cultural, and linguistic data to understand culture § § § IV. • Became the four fields of American anthropology Developed this theory of historical particularism in the United States Founded the first department of anthropology in the U.S. at Columbia University Trained future influential scholars of the discipline The Discipline of Political Science Political Science - Study of political power relations, behavior, and activities as well as systems of government from a domestic, international, and comparative perspective - Politics is derived from the Greek word politikos meaning “of, for, or relating to citizens” or in Aristotelian terms, “affairs of the cities” - Theory and practice of influencing other people Classical Political Thinkers - Hammurabi o In 1754 BCE, Hammurabi, king of Babylon, provided a set of laws (Code of Hammurabi) that has been preserved in life-sized clay and steel slabs o Analysis of the code shows that it’s divided into mainly two categories § Property § Persons o In contrast to modern laws, most of the Code can be deemed unconventional, and many punishments would be deemed crude, if not barbaric or inhumane § Having an in-depth knowledge and appreciation for history would lead one to understand why these laws were enacted - Confucius o Ancient Chinese philosopher from the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history o Principle of zhengming (rectification of names) has been the core of Confucius’ political philosophy § There will be a just and orderly society when roles are fulfilled § Corruption shall prevail when someone acts contrary to his or her role • Emperor should always think of the people - Plato o Political philosophy was influenced by the idea of a just state or republic o In his Republic, people were divided into three classes § Merchants § Soldiers § Philosopher-kings o Justice is achieved when each person acts according to the functions of his or her class o Corruption occurs when a person acts in a manner opposite to what is required from one’s class o Philosopher-kings must rule and provide guidance and not seek to acquire wealth (role of merchants) or to fight in wars (role of soldiers) - - Aristotle o Aristotelian political philosophy focused on interest § Self-interest must give way to the common interest in order for society to exist § It is the government’s duty to protect the common interest of its people o Made a distinction between true and despotic forms of government § True • Monarchy o Society ruled by one • Aristocracy o Society ruled by few • Polity o Society ruled by many § Despotic • Tyranny • Oligarchy • Democracy o Aristotelian democracy is a society governed by mob rule § All governments have the capacity to be either true or despotic • What makes a government true is how it protects the interests of its people Niccolò Machiavelli o Italian politician, historian, and philosopher o During his time, Italy was divided into different kingdom and states o Wrote The Prince § His vision was to have a ruler capable of uniting Italy by any means possible § Unlike his contemporaries, he developed his treatise not through interpretation and study of classical or Christian philosophies but by the use of historical and contemporary information Types of Political Systems - Democracy o Citizens govern themselves either directly or indirectly o Greek meaning “rule of the people” o Direct (or pure) democracies: people make their own decisions about policies and distribution of resources that affect them directly o Representative democracies: people elect officials to represent them in legislative votes on matters affecting the population o Defining feature of democracy: voting in elections § People have more freedom than those in other types of governments - Monarchy o Power resides within a single family that rules from one generation to the next § Traditional authority o Example: The late Queen of England § Largely ceremonial position in this day and age - - - V. • Compared to her predecessors who wielded much power o Two types § Absolute monarchies • Royal family claims a divine right to rule and exercises considerable power over their kingdom § Constitutional monarchies • Royal family serves a more symbolic and ceremonial role • Enjoys little, if any, real power o Executive and legislative branches are run by prime minister and the parliament Oligarchy o Power held by a small, elite group § In contrast to a monarchy, members of an oligarchy need not achieve their statuses based on ties to noble ancestry • May ascend to positions because of political, economic, or other powers Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism o General terms for nondemocratic political systems ruled by an individual or group of individuals who are not freely elected by their populations o Authoritarianism § Individual or group of individuals hold power, restricts or prohibits popular participation in governance, and represses dissent o Totalitarianism § Include all the features of authoritarianism but is even more repressive • Try to regulate and control all aspects of citizens’ lives and fortunes • People can be imprisoned for deviating from acceptable practices or maybe even killed if they dissent in the mildest of ways o Compared to democracies and monarchies, authoritarianism and totalitarianism are more unstable politically § No legitimate authority • Power rests on fear and repression Socialism o Encompasses a range of economic and social systems o Social ownership of means of production § Emphasizing on democratic control • Examples: workers’ self-management vs. private ownership o In theory, based on public benefits § The greatest goal is common wealth o Reduces disparity in wealth not only in different areas, but in all social ranks and classes The Discipline of Geography Important Personalities in Geography - Erastosthenes - o Used geometry to accurately calculate the circumference of the earth § 40,233 kilometers § His measurement was only 151 kilometers off the current measurement made using satellite technology Ptolemy o Compiled and summarized Geographike Hyphegesis (Guide to Geography) o One of his most important contributions was the formulation of map coordinates by utilizing and developing latitude and longitude VI. The Discipline of History Important Personalities in History - Herotodus o Father of History o Compiled and systematically arranged his collection of works in The Histories § Discussed events which took place during the Greco-Persian War - Thucydides o Greek philosopher, historian, and general o Father of Scientific History § History of the Peloponnesian War - Leopold von Ranke o German historian o Founder of the modern study of history o First to provide historical seminar where he elaborated on methods and techniques of studying history § Emphasized a strict empirical approach and adherence to primary sources in conducting historical research - Jacob Burckhardt o Swiss historian o One of the Fathers of Cultural History o The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy depicted the interconnectedness between art and its effects on society and social institutions § Art as an important aspect through which history could be understood VII. The Discipline of Linguistics Important Personalities in Linguistics - Ferdinand de Saussure o Swiss linguist and semiotician o Father of Structural and Modern Linguistics o Structural Linguistics § Studies language as a system of contrast and equivalents § The meaning of a word is understood only in its relation to other words in the system o Language is structural therefore freeing it from any social, cultural, political, or historical associations - - - The Prague School o Established in 1926, the Prague Linguistic Circle (or Prague School) was a group of Czechs and other linguists that held regular meetings and published Travaux du cerle linguistique de Prague, a journal on linguistics § Focused on phonological theory and syntax o Inquiry led the group to the notions of different elements § Theme • What the discourse is about § Rheme • What is said about the discourse § Given • What the addressee knows about the discourse § New • What information was provided by the addressee o Notable members of the Prague School were Nikolai Trubetzkoy, Vilém Mathesius, František Daneš, and Jan Firbas o Most influential member was Roman Jakobson § Theorized functions of language and its corresponding model Sapir and Whorf o Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf: American linguists who developed the principle of linguistic relativity § Sapir-Whorf hypothesis § Pioneered linguistic determinism • The idea that language influences the way people think and shapes the way people perceive the world Noam Chomsky o American linguist, philosopher, and social justice activist o Established a number of objectives that continue to direct linguistic studies until today o Well-formed sentences: central idea in generative grammar § Linguistic theory which states that human beings are capable of forming and distinguishing well-formed (grammatically correct) sentences Principal Components of Linguistics - Sound o Phonetics § Human speech sound o Phonology § Principles governing sound systems of languages - Structure o Morphology § Language structure from its morphic roots (root words) o Syntax § Sentence structure such as grammar - Meaning o Semantics § Logic and meanings of words and phrases o Pragmatics § Use of language and its effects on society VIII. The Discipline of Economics The Development of Economic Thought - Chanakya o Economic ideas were circulating as early as 350 BCE o Published treatise called Arthashastra (The Science of Wealth) § Proposed methods that could be used to effectively manage an economy under the dictatorial regime • Concepts include welfare state, labor inequality, economic diversification - St. Thomas Aquinas o Italian theologian o Discussed “just price” in Summa Theologica § Merchants should sell their products at fair or just prices to make them affordable to their consumers • Attained by lowering the margin of profit without sacrificing the labor cost - Thomas Mun o English economist o A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies § England should increase prices in order to gain more profit from its economic activities • Importation of raw materials • Exportation of products § Chief critic of government intervention on economic affairs was Adam Smith - Adam Smith o Arguably the most influential and popular classical economist o Produced first modern work of economics, The Wealth of Nations § Promoted the concept of free market § Self-interests of individuals promote a healthy competition in the market IX. The Discipline of Psychology Important Personalities in Psychology - Hippocrates o Main contribution is the Hippocratic Oath § Separated magical or religious thinking from the practice of medicine - Imam-Razi o Islamic philosopher o Theorized that sentimental attachment to material objects could be a cause of mental illness when the object is lost, or the person is separated from it - - René Descartes o French philosopher, mathematician and scientist o Theorized the dualism of the mind and body § Mind is separate from the body and body functions similarly to machines § Mind and body can interact, but the mind can exert more effort into the body § Mind is made up of immaterial substance • Referred to as consciousness Sigmund Freud o Austrian neurologist o Father of Psychoanalysis o Developed techniques for mental illness using free association and transference § Free association • Allows patients to express himself or herself through words free of inhibitions, logic, and even coherence • Primary goal: allow patient’s repressed memories to resurface and be dealt with § Transference • Ability of both patient and therapist to influence each other o Important for the therapist to allow their patient to talk freely without any form of interruption by either words or actions o Other famous concept: three elements of personality § Id • Unconscious aspect of personality § Ego • Realist aspect § Superego • Moral and ideal aspect Freud’s Three Levels of Mind - Preconscious Mind o Consists of anything that may be brought into the conscious mind o Contains all the things that you are actively aware of o Acts as a guard § Controls the information that is allowed to enter into conscious awareness - Conscious Mind o Contains all thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment o Aspect of mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally § May include memory • Not exactly part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily - Unconscious Mind o Reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories outside the conscious awareness o Has the contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant § X. Feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict The Discipline of Demography Important Personalities in Demography - Kingsley Davis o American sociologist and demographer § Produced theories about society and populations o The Population and India and Pakistan and World Urbanization o Coined and defined zero population growth § Phenomenon when the birth rate is equal to the death rate of a population MODULE 1: DISCIPLINES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES I. Structural Functionalism - Society is composed of a system of interconnected parts that have their own particular functions - Societal living is shaped and guided by social structures o Patterns of social relationships between groups or individuals Key Concepts in Structural Functionalism - Manifest and Latent Functions o Manifest function § Predicted, intended, expected, and knowable effect of a social structure § Example: People go to churches to pray and hear mass o Latent function § Unintended outcome of social structure § Example: People go to church to gather in one place and reinforce the sense of community o Both bring about positive effects or outcomes - Manifest and Latent Dysfunctions o Manifest dysfunction § Predicted, expected, and knowable disruptions of a social structure o Latent dysfunction § Unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of social structures o Both bring out negative effects or outcomes II. Marxism (Social-Conflict Theory) - Social, political, and economic philosophy by Karl Marx o Context was he lived through the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century § Before the Industrial Revolution, primary source of livelihood was farming and agriculture-related work § Introduction of machines enabled quick advancements in production process • Faster trade and consumption of goods § Cycle of production and capitalism created an economy which became known as industrial capitalism • Created two classes in society o Bourgeoisie § The factory owners and capitalists § Controlled the means of production • Factories • Machines • Land o Proletariat § The industrial workers or laborers § Do not have means of production, so they supply labor in exchange for wages o Relationship between bourgeoisie and proletariat is a form of exploitation § Bourgeoisie gains profit from the labor and services of the proletariat Key Concepts in Marxism - Social Inequality o Oppression and exploitation are among the inequalities that exist between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat § Marx argued that profit from goods should be equally divided among laborers since they are the ones who work to produce such goods • Capitalists steal by taking the profit from themselves o Since means of production is central to Marx’s sociological perspective, its control denotes control over society § Those with economic power have control over the political system and other institutions of society - Class Conflict o Also called class struggle o Arises from the oppression of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie § Happens when a society has a stratified and hierarchical class division o A communist society is characterized by a classless society having common ownership of property and resources (means of production) III. Symbolic Interactionism - Focuses on the individual’s interactions with objects and other people - Perceives reality though the composition of social interactions and the understanding of meanings of these social interactions that provide a perspective on social order and social systems - Basic premise: behavior and materials are influenced and can only be examined through social interactions - Explores social dynamics between people and how they assign meanings to things o Actions are guided by these meanings - Goes down from superstructures of society to the very individual and the objects that inhabit it Key Concepts in Symbolic Interactionism - Interaction-based Meaning o Meaning is not monopolized by a single person or perspective § Something an have different meanings because there are different perspectives o Actions are determined by the meanings people associate with things - Human Agency o Humans are perceived to be active social actors who willingly negotiate their roles and identities within and through the system § Emphasizes the capacity of humans to project and plan their actions based on certain goals formed for the betterment of their conditions o Individuals can be seen as active players in the interpretation and modification of the structure’s rules and processes Bibliography Charlotte Nickerson. “Means of Production.” Means of Production - Simply Sociology. Accessed January 20, 2023. https://simplysociology.com/means-of-production-insociology-definition.html. Cherry, Kendra. “The Structure and Levels of the Mind According to Freud.” Verywell Mind. Verywell Mind, December 9, 2020. https://www.verywellmind.com/the-conscious-andunconscious-mind-2795946. Gonzalez, Maria Carinnes A. Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences. Makati: DIWA Learning Systems, 2020. Linda Williams, Lumen Learning. “International Business.” Reading: The Benefits of Socialism | International Business. Accessed January 20, 2023. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-internationalbusiness/chapter/reading-the-benefitsof-socialism/. [Author removed at request of original publisher]. “Types of Political Systems.” Introduction to Sociology Understanding and Changing the Social World. University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing edition, 2016. This edition adapted from a work originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that it not receive attribution., April 8, 2016. https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/soci101/chapter/14-2-types-of-political-systems/.
