Around the World
Developments in Africa and the Americas: the impact of Cuban
intervention in Angola and Ethiopia; the impact of US intervention in
Latin America and the Caribbean including Chile, Grenada and Nicaragua
US in South America
• 1946 - US Army School of Americas founded, based in Panama then
Georgia: trained 10 of the right-wing, autocratic leaders which would
take power in South America (the “military juntas”).
• Accused of instilling torture methods, death squads, drug cartels etc.
• Failed: e.g. Noriega of Panama, who was trained at the school, is overthrown
with support of the US themselves in Dec. 1989.
• Operation Condor (1968-89):
• Officially launched in November 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships of South
America. Estimated roughly 60-80,000 deaths are associated to it. US
presidency and the CIA provided heavy support and was involved in the
planning and funding of these plans.
Nicaragua
• Right-wing Somoza government riddled with political inequality +
corruption -> rise of left-wing FSLN in 1961, inspired by Castro.
• 1972-78: Civil war between US-trained National Guard and FSLN, in which
National Guard torture, murders and kidnaps. Triggered by Somoza
funnelling aid for earthquakes to powerful officials.
• Feb. 1979 – Carter seizes aid payments to Somoza and asks other countries to seize
support to the FSLN.
• By July, FSLN ousts Somoza. US offer support to new government but FSLN turn to
Communist powers -> Cuba helps setup Sandinista government. Carter recognised
the government and provides funding (tries to retain influence).
• 1981 – Reagan authorises operation in Nicaragua. CIA founds Contras
(Argentinian terrorist group) who sell cocaine in US to fund a resistance.
• 1986 – After worsening Soviet-US relations, UN declare the intervention
illegal. Civil war ends in 1989.
Football War
El Salvador
Honduras
• Civil war from coup in Oct. 1979 to 1991
between:
• ‘Banana Republic’ – heavy presence of the US
United Fruit Company.
• 1969 – Football War, 300,000 El Salvadorians
expelled from Honduras. War lasted JulyAugust, coincided with rioting during a FIFA
WC qualifier. Ended August 1969, mediated
by the OAS (c. 1948).
• Military dictatorship ends after the coup
against Melgar Castro.
• US backed Córdova (right-wing) during
elections, provided financial aid and quashed
leftist uprisings.
• US military presence acted as a pivot to back
the Contras.
• FMLN (left-wing), whom US claimed was backed
by Cuba + USSR.
• JRG (right-wing) backed by Carter/Reagan.
Aimed to depose Romero’s dictatorship and
formed death squads of priest/children to
combat FMLN.
• Provided ~$1.2m per day to JRG.
• Massive human rights abuses from both
sides, inc. recruiting children into JRG squads.
70,000 out of 75,000 deaths caused by the
US.
• FMLN revolt inspired by events of Nicaragua
Grenada
• Gained independence from UK in 1974, by 1979 Maurice Bishop
(communist) seized power (‘New Jewel Movement’).
• 19th Oct. 1983 – Bishop arrested and executed after power struggle,
Bernard Coard comes to power.
• 23rd – East Caribbean States appeal to UN. US invade with 7600 troops, to
protect 600 US medical students there.
• Swept through in 3 days with little resistance. Coard government collapses, replaced
by pro-US government.
• UN condemned the invasion, demanding they withdraw and allow free
elections. Alienated the British (as it was in the Commonwealth).
• Soviets respond by removing negotiators from Reagan’s first proposal of
START at Geneva in June.
Chile
• US economic interests (mining + telecommunications industries).
• US Covert involvement in every election from 1963-73.
• E.g 40 Committee spent $3m campaigning against him in 1964. $8m from 1970-73.
• Sept. 1970 – In response to high polling, Nixon gives order to overthrow Allende,
inc. kidnapping and murdering his top general.
• 40 committee (1970-76) who oversee these operations were not included.
• Nov. 1970 – Allende democratically elected.
• US’ withdrawal of aid/obstruction of World Bank crippled economy under Allende.
• CIA instigate strikes, amplify civil unrest due to economic crisis.
• Justified by claiming “protection for US”.
• Failed coup in July, but Allende died in coup in September 1973.
• Rise of Augusto Pinochet, though US had no hand in the coup. Despite human rights abuses
by this right-wing leader, US continued to provide material aid for his 25 year rule.
Other Latin & South American States
• Argentina: US involved in supporting 1976 coup replacing Isabel Perón. Kissinger
met in Oct. 1975, urging the dictatorship to coup quickly before outcry against
human rights abuses reached US.
• Supported genocide (1976-83) against any socialist or left-wing activist (30,000 killed).
Claiming of Falklands Islands in April 1982 to rally their people: worked, but lost of war and
economic failure (900% inflation) led to fall of dictatorship.
• Bolivia: US supported the August 1971 coup by Hugo Banzer and provided
economic aid + censorship for his dictatorship.
• Brazil: US provide military support for coup in April 1964.
• Dominican Republic: US supply assassination of right-wing Trujillo and back
socialist Juan Bosch to replace him. However, in the coup against Bosch in Sept.
1963, US unlawfully invade (1965) to prevent his supporters from rebellion.
• Costa Rica: Sandinistas formed in Costa Rica (domino theory?)
Angola
• 1961 – Civil war of independence breaks out until November 1975 when Portugal
grants Angola independence. MPLA seize control.
• MPLA: left-wing, backed by Cuba and USSR. Led by Agostinho Neto.
• FNLA: centre-right, backed by US and China. Led by Holden Roberto. China’s involvement was
to oppose USSR (after S-S splits) and as they were allied with Zaire.
• UNITA: centre-right, backed by US, China and later SA. Led by Jonas Savimbi.
• June 1974 – China send 120 MA, July 1975 – Kissinger persuades Ford to send
$25m in supplies/$16m in arms to FNLA.
• Dec. – Kissinger expresses that US-China have ‘parallel aims’. William Colby, director CIA,
insists US involvement is only to oppose the Soviets.
• July 1975 – Zaire invade Angola to back the FNLA.
• Oct. 1975 – SA send 2,000 troops, captures 5 provincial capitals.
• In response, Cuba increases from 230 MA to 18,000 troops, 36,000 by 1976.
• SA withdraw in March 1976 after defeat by Cubans. FNLA collapses militarily.
Angola cont.
• As SA increased support, US and China withdrew support to avoid being
associated with the Apartheid regime.
• Nov. 1975 – following MPLA proclaiming Angolan independence, FNLA +
UNITA merge with Savimbi and Roberto as leaders
• US support UNITA as Soviets support MPLA (William Colby, Dec. 1975),
China and USA have “parallel views” (anti-Soviet)
• Oct, 1976 – USSR-MPLA friendship treaty for 20 years. Pressures détente.
• May 1977 – Cuba aid Neto in suppressing a coup by Nito Alves. The coup
had been supported by the USSR -> Raul Castro sent to support.
• 1988 – Tripartite Accords, mediated by US. Cuba and SA withdraw, UNITA
rebel but less legitimate as MPLA win elections. US pressure SA to release
control of Namibia and end the South African Border War.
• 4.28m people died.
Cold War Consequences of Angola
• Rise of smaller nations playing a role in international politics,
especially as non-aligned nations.
• Emphasis of Sino-Soviet split (China siding with US against them).
• Shows the Cold War as less ideological, and more anti-Soviet (by
siding with China).
• US accuse Cuba of acting as Soviet proxy, breaking the terms of
détente.
• Humanitarian crisis in Angola (4.28m died).
Somalia and Ethiopia
Somalia
• Independence in 1960 from Britain,
non-aligned.
• 1969 – coup by Mohammed Siad
Barre, socialist republic.
• 1974 – USSR/Somalia treaty of
friendship + cooperation.
• Also backed by NV, Cuba, NK & Yemen
Ogaden Region: divided between Muslim Somali and
Christian Ethiopians. Officially granted to Ethiopia, so
Muslim majority had motivation to capture it. Barre
wished to prove the military strength of the Somalis.
Ethiopia
• US supported Emperor Haile Selassie,
from 1928-74.
• Deposed in Sept. 1974 due to failure
to combat famine/ethnic disputes, by
the Derg, a grassroots movement.
• Mengistu Haile Mariam establishes
Marxist-Leninist dictatorship, purges
rivals.
• Begins widespread land reform.
Ogaden War
• USSR technically backed both sides, but their favour of the Ethiopians
(1978 friendship treaty) led to the alienations of the Somalians -> turned
towards US and expels Soviets from Ethiopia, dissolve 1974 agreement.
• US do not aid Somalia due to Barre’s left-wing policy + to use Horn of Africa as a test
for 3rd world détente.
• July 1977 – entire Somali army move into Ogaden (23-72,000).
• August – 60% of the region taken by Somalis + 16,000 Cuban troops.
• Jan. 1978 – Ethiopian counter-attack w/ Soviet air support.
• USSR airlifted troops behind Somali line, SNA retreat (though many ignored Barre
and fought to their death).
• By March 1978, all Somalis had left Ethiopia.
• From 1982, the US provided $100m/year to the Somalis. Somalis also
backed with ‘token’ aid from China (Sino-Soviet split).
Cold War and US intervention
• US shocked by Soviet/Cuban involvement in the Horn of Africa. Sets the
scene for future disagreements (e.g. Afghanistan, Yemen, Zaire etc.)
• NSC divided:
• Zbigniew Brzezinski (Hawks) proposed Soviet containment.
• Cyrus Vance (Doves) feared jeopardising détente.
• Involvement in Africa made Congress fear progress on SALT.
• Following Dec. 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, Carter withdrew from SALT II > many blamed Ogaden.
• E.g Brzezinski: “SALT lies buried in the sands of Ogaden.”
• Elevation of Cuba on the world stage.
• Lack of US response emboldens Soviets (fall of détente).
Iran and Iraq
Iran
• 1953 coup previously (Mossadegh
coup)
• Shah Reza Pahlavi – autocratic,
censorship, secret police (SAVAK).
Modernised Iran with US support.
• Jan. 1978 – protests begin due to
rapid inflation, leniency on premarital
sex/alcohol/gambling, ties to US.
• Feb. 1979 – Shah flees, Ayatollah
Khomeini establishes Islamic Republic
(theocratic).
• Leads to oil shock.
Iraq
• 1958 – pro-US monarchy (Shah)
overthrown. Civil unrests leads to
Ramadan Revolution in 1963.
• July 1968 – Ba’athist coup seizes
power: socialist, seeking pan-Arabism.
• 1972 – Treaty of Friendship with the
USSR.
• 1979 – Saddam Hussein (socialist)
comes to power.
• US concerned of Iraq’s instability harming
oil exports + a pan-Arab state.
Iran Hostage Crisis
• Causes: anti-US sentiment during revolution + Carter allowed entry of
exiled Shah for cancer treatment.
• November 4th 1979 – students storm US embassy, 52 hostages taken.
• US appeals rejected, US freeze Iranian assets (November) and place trade
embargo. April 1980 – Operation Eagle Claw fails embarrassingly -> Regan
wins by a landslide in November 1980, Cyrus Vance resigns.
• 20th Jan. 1981 – Algiers Accords, release of hostages after 444 days in
exchange of lifting economic sanctions.
• Iran lost all international support in Iran-Iraq war + $1.97bn assets still
frozen (failed to achieve concessions).
Iran-Iraq
• Causes: Khomeini encourages rebellion by Shia Muslim majority in Iraq. SH
wanted to control Khuzestan, Iran’s oil rich province + undermine Khomeini.
• Sept. 22nd 1980 – Iraq invades Khuzestan, citing Iran bombing on Sept. 4th as the
initiation of their war.
• Israel appreciate it as it limits pan-Arabism -> sells arms to Iran.
• USSR ‘strict neutrality’ as both sides socialist. Gains by Iran (1982), promising to
depose SH, Soviets provide arms to SH despite use of chemical weapons ->
enables 1988 offensive which ends the war. Feared losing Iraq to the West + Iran
exporting Islamic Revolution in Central Asia.
• US provide $2bn + their intelligence to Iran, stop when they threaten to close the
Strait of Hormuz. NSC collaborate with Israel to provide weapons to Iran, in return
for release of US hostages in Lebanon taken in 1984. Contra Affair: revenue from
arms sales used to fund Contras in Nicaragua, exposed in 1986.
• Ceasefire (1988) by the UN, not favouring either superpower.
Yom Kippur War (October 1973)
• 6th-26th October 1973 (UN Ceasefire)
• Oct. 6th – Egyptian forces cross the Suez Canal + Syrian forces cross into Golan
Heights, aiming to gain territory.
• US support of Israel: following Eisenhower Doctrine (Jan. 1957).
• Nasser (Egyptian leader) – nationalist, pan-Arabist, not Communist but US
interpreted them as a threat to their influence, a transparent ploy to
maintain Western power.
• Oil embargo leads to stagflation (high unemployment high inflation), lack
of US imports as Japan (Reverse Course 1947-52)/South Korea dominates
industries.
• Prices soared - $3 to $11 dollars per barrel over the war
• Leads to Nixon shock – 90-day wage/price freeze and removal of dollar from Gold
Standard.
Camp David Accords (September 1978)
• Between Carter, Sadat (Egypt) and Begin (Israel).
• Led to a peace treaty in the following year, first Arab country to
recognise and make peace with Israel.
• Egypt drift from Soviet Union following the treaty.
• Egypt normalise relations with Israel and open the Suez Canal to Israeli ships.
• Carter devotes a whole two-week period to negotiating this.
• Made US a major player in US, decline of USSR in the region.
• Acting unilaterally and without consulting USSR places détente at risk.