1
History,
Theories,
and Methods
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accessible website, in whole or in part.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Relate the history of the study of human
development
2. Compare and contrast theories of human
development
3. Enumerate key controversies in human
development
4. Describe ways in which researchers study
human development
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HDEV5 | CH1
2
The Development of the Study of Human
Development
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3
Developmental Psychology
LO 1
• Studies development of humans in the
following areas:
•
•
•
•
Physical
Cognitive
Social
Emotional
• Focuses on the influences on behavior
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4
History of the Study of Child Development
LO 1
• In ancient times and in the Middle Ages,
children were seen as innately evil and
discipline was harsh
• Writings of John Locke and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau marked the transition to modern
thinking about children
• Locke believed that children came into the world
as a blank tablet
• Rousseau argued that children were inherently
good
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5
History of the Study of Child Development
LO 1
(continued 1)
• During the Industrial Revolution, childhood
was seen as a special time of life
• In the 20th century, laws were passed to
protect children from abuse by parents and
other adults
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6
History of the Study of Child Development
LO 1
(continued 2)
• Various thoughts about child development
merged into a field of scientific study
• G. Stanley Hall founded child development as an
academic discipline
• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the
first standardized intelligence test
- To identify children who were at risk of falling
behind their peers in academic achievement
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7
LO 1
Life-Span Perspective
• View that human development occurs
throughout the individual’s lifetime
• Trends in abilities throughout adulthood
• Young adulthood - Time of peak physical
development
• Individuals perform at their best on complex
intellectual tasks during midlife
• People are most well-adjusted during late
adulthood
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8
Theories of Development
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9
Behaviorism and Maturation
LO 2
Behaviorism
• Founded by John B. Watson who supported the
nurture theory
• View that science must study observable behavior
only and investigate relationships between stimuli
and responses
Maturation
• Idea held by Arnold Gesell
• Unfolding of genetically determined traits,
structures, and functions
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10
LO 2
Perspectives on Human Development
Psychoanalytic
perspective
Learning
perspective
Cognitive
perspective
Biological
perspective
Ecological
perspective
Sociocultural
perspective
Human
diversity
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Psychoanalytic Perspective
LO 2
• Consists of stage theories
• Stage theory: Theory of development
characterized by distinct periods of life
• Child’s experiences during early stages
affect the child’s emotional and social life in
the future
• Theories
• Theory of psychosexual development
• Theory of psychosocial development
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12
LO 2
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
• Psychosexual development: Process by
which libidinal energy is expressed through
various erogenous zones at different stages
of development
• Focused on:
• Emotional and social development
• Origins of psychological traits
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13
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
LO 2
(continued 1)
• Parts of personality
• Id
- Present at birth
- Unconscious
- Represents biological drives and demands
instant gratification
• Ego
- Conscious sense of self
- Seeks gratification by avoiding social
disapproval
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Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
LO 2
(continued 2)
• Superego
- Internalizes the wishes and morals of a child’s
caregivers and behavior of ego
- Person is filled with guilt and shame when the
judgement is in the negative
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15
LO 2
Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral stage
• Oral activities such as sucking and biting brings
gratification
Anal stage
• Gratification is obtained through discarding and
controlling waste products
Phallic stage
• Development of parent–child conflict over
masturbation
Latency stage
• Sexual feelings stay unconscious, and children’s
attention shifts to schoolwork and playmates
Genital stage
• Biological changes in adolescence result in the
desire to engage in intercourse
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16
Evaluation of Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual
Development
• Positives
• Child-care workers
recommend that toilet
training should not be
started too early or
handled punitively
• Educators are more
sensitive to emotional
reasons behind a child’s
misbehavior
LO 2
• Criticisms
• Theory is based on
Freud’s contact with adult
patients
• Emphasis is placed on
basic instincts and
unconscious motives
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17
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
LO 2
• Focuses on:
• Development of emotional life and psychological
traits
• Social relationships
• Places emphasis on ego or the sense of self
• Each stage is characterized by social
relationships and physical maturation
• Early experiences affect future developments
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18
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development (continued)
LO 2
• Successful resolution of early life crises bolsters
a sense of identity
- Life crisis: Internal conflict that attends each
stage of psychosocial development
• Concept of identity crisis has affected the
way parents and teachers deal with
teenagers
• Identity crisis: Period of inner conflict during
which one examines one’s values and makes
decisions about one’s life roles
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19
Evaluation of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
LO 2
• Emphasis on the importance of human
consciousness and choice
• Portrayal of human beings as prosocial and
helpful
• Positive outcomes of early life crises help
put people on the path to positive
development
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20
LO 2
Learning Perspective: Behaviorism
• Classical conditioning
• Original neutral stimulus elicits the response
brought forth by a second stimulus
- Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the
second stimulus
• Operant conditioning
• Organism learns to engage in behavior that is
reinforced
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21
Figure 1.1
LO 2
Schematic Representation of Classical
Conditioning
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22
Learning Perspective: Behaviorism (continued)
LO 2
• Reinforcement: Process of providing stimuli
following responses that increase its
frequency
• Positive reinforcers: Increase the frequency of
behaviors when they are applied
• Negative reinforcers: Increase the frequency of
behaviors when they are removed
• Extinction: Results from repeated performance
of operant behavior without reinforcement
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Figure 1.2
LO 2
Positive versus Negative Reinforcers
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Figure 1.3
LO 2
Negative Reinforcers versus
Punishments
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25
LO 2
Learning Perspective: Social Cognitive Theory
• Cognitively oriented learning theory that
emphasizes observational learning
• Occurs when children observe behaviors of other
people
• Models - People after whom individuals pattern
their own behavior
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LO 2
Evaluation of Learning Theories
• Learning theories allow people to explain,
predict, and influence aspects of behavior
• Have influenced teaching approaches used in
educational TV shows
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27
LO 2
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Child’s abilities to mentally represent the
world and solve problems are a result of:
• Interaction of experience
• Maturation of neurological structures
• Advanced by Jean Piaget
• Concepts
• Scheme: Action pattern or mental structure
involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (continued)
LO 2
• Adaptation: Interaction between the organism
and the environment
- Assimilation: Incorporation of new events or
knowledge into existing schemes
- Accommodation: Modification of existing
schemes to permit the incorporation of new
events or knowledge
• Equilibration: Creation of a balance between
assimilation and accommodation
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Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
operational
Formal operational
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accessible website, in whole or in part.
LO 2
HDEV5 | CH1
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LO 2
Evaluation of Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Piaget may have underestimated the ages
when children are capable of doing certain
things
• Many cognitive skills may develop gradually
and not in distinct stages
• Theory provides an essential foundation for
researchers concerned with sequences in
cognitive development
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31
Information-Processing Theory
LO 2
• Cognitive process of:
• Encoding information
• Storing information in long-term memory
• Retrieving information or placing it in short-term
memory
• Manipulating information to solve problems
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32
Biological Perspective
LO 2
• Directly relates to physical development
• Theories
• Evolutionary psychology
• Ethology
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Ethology
LO 2
• Study of behaviors specific to a species that
are inborn
• Mutations - Genetic instruction leading to
variations among individuals due to sudden
changes
• Individuals better adapted to environments are
more likely to survive
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34
LO 2
Evolutionary Psychology
• Deals with the ways in which humans’
historical adaptations to the environment
influence behavior and mental processes
• Instinctive/species-specific behavior patterns
help an organism to survive and reproduce
- Aggressive behavior and mating strategies
• Fixed action pattern (FAP)
- Stereotyped pattern of behavior evoked by
releasing a stimulus
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The Ecological Perspective
LO 2
• Ecology
• Branch of biology that deals with the
relationships between living organisms and their
environment
• Ecological systems theory
• Explains child development through reciprocal
influences between children and environmental
settings
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36
Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Human
Development
LO 2
Microsystem
• Immediate settings with which the child interacts
Mesosystem
• Interlocking settings that influence the child
Exosystem
• Community institutions and settings that indirectly influence the child
Macrosystem
• Basic institutions and ideologies that influence the child
Chronosystem
• Environmental changes that occur over time and affect the child
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Sociocultural Perspective
LO 2
• Developed by Vygotsky
• Focuses on transmission of information and
cognitive skills from generation to
generation
• Humans are social beings affected by their
cultural environment
• Views the child’s functioning as adaptive to
social and cultural interactions
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Sociocultural Perspective: Key Concepts of
Vygotsky’s Theory
LO 2
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• Range of tasks that a child can carry out with
the help of someone more skilled
• Scaffolding
• Temporary cognitive structures or methods of
solving problems that help the child function
independently
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39
LO 2
Human Diversity
• Awareness of diversity helps understand
individuals
• Issues that affect various ethnic groups
•
•
•
•
Bilingualism
Ethnic differences in intelligence test scores
Prevalence of suicide
Patterns of child rearing among parents of
various groups
• Expectations of females and males are
polarized by cultural expectations
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Controversies in Development
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Nature–Nurture Controversy
LO 3
• Nature: Processes within an organism
guiding it according to its genetic code
• Nurture: Environmental factors that
influence development
• Natural causes of development
• Genetics, functioning of the nervous system, and
maturation
• Environmental causes
• Nutrition, cultural and familial backgrounds, and
educational opportunities
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LO 3
Continuity–Discontinuity Controversy
• Continuous perspective - Development is a
process where effects of learning increase
steadily with no sudden qualitative changes
• Discontinuous perspective - A number of
rapid qualitative changes usher in new
stages of development
• Biological changes provide the potential for
psychological changes
• Freud and Piaget were discontinuous theorists
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Active–Passive Controversy
LO 3
Active perspective
• Children are naturally engaged in their
development
Passive perspective
• Children are passive and the environment acts
on them to influence development
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44
How Do We Study Development?
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Techniques Used to Gather Information
LO 4
• Naturalistic observation
• Scientific method in which organisms are
observed in their natural environments
• Case study
• Carefully drawn account of an individual’s
behavior
• Use questionnaires, standardized tests, and
interviews
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LO 4
Correlational Method
• Correlation coefficient
• Number ranging from +1.00 to -1.00 that
expresses the direction and strength of the
relationship between two variables
- Positive correlation
- Negative correlation
• Limitations
• Does not show cause and effect
• Selection factor leads to misunderstanding of
results
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Figure 1.5
LO 4
Examples of Positive and Negative
Correlations
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LO 4
Experiment
• Scientific investigation that questions
cause-and-effect relationships
• Introduces independent variables and observes
their effects on dependent variables
• Tests a hypothesis
• Hypothesis: Proposition to be tested
• Independent variable: Scientific condition
that is manipulated to observe its effects
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Experiment (continued)
LO 4
• Dependent variable: Measure of an
assumed effect of an independent variable
• Experimental group: Subjects who receive a
treatment
• Control group: Subjects who do not receive
the treatment
• All other conditions are comparable to those of
the experimental group
• Subjects should be assigned on a chance or
random basis
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LO 4
Longitudinal Research
• Study of developmental processes
• Repeatedly measuring the same group of
participants at various stages of development
• Typical time of study spans across months
or a few years
• Researchers must enlist future researchers
to continue the study
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Cross-Sectional Research
LO 4
• Study of developmental processes
• Measures participants of different age groups at
the same time
• Cohort effect
• Similarities in behavior among a group of peers
that stem from the fact that group members
were born at the same time in history
• Challenge to cross-sectional research
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LO 4
Cross-Sequential Research
• Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional
methods
• Monitors individuals of different ages for
abbreviated periods of time
• Breaks up the full span of the ideal
longitudinal study into convenient
segments
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LO 4
Cross-Sequential Research (continued)
• Minimizes the number of years needed to
complete a study
• Uses time-lag comparisons
• Time lag: Study of developmental processes by
taking measures of participants of the same age
group at different times
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Figure 1.6
LO 4
Example of Cross-Sequential Research
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Ethical Considerations
LO 4
• Researchers are not to use methods that
may cause physical or psychological harm
• Participants must be informed of the
purposes of the research and its methods
• Participants must provide voluntary consent
to participate in the study
• Participants may withdraw from study at
any time, for any reason
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Ethical Considerations (continued)
LO 4
• Participants should be offered information
about the results of the study
• Identities of participants are to remain
confidential
• Researchers should gain approval of their
colleagues and the committee’s before
proceeding
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KEY TERMS
• Developmental
psychology
• Life-span perspective
• Behaviorism
• Maturation
• Psychosexual
development
• Stage theory
• Psychosocial
development
• Life crisis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identity crisis
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer
Negative reinforcer
Extinction
Social cognitive
theory
• Cognitivedevelopmental theory
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KEY TERMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Scheme
Adaptation
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibration
Ethology
Evolutionary
psychology
• Fixed action
pattern (FAP)
• Ecology
• Ecological systems
theory
• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem
• Chronosystem
• Zone of proximal
development (ZPD)
• Scaffolding
• Nature
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KEY TERMS
•
• Nurture
•
• Empirical
•
• Naturalistic
observation
•
• Case study
•
• Standardized test
•
• Correlation coefficient
• Positively correlation •
• Negative correlation •
• Experiment
•
• Hypothesis
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Experimental group
Control group
Longitudinal research
Cross-sectional
research
Cohort effect
Cross-sequential
research
Time lag
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SUMMARY
• Developmental psychology studies the
physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development of humans
• Psychological theories combine statements
about behavior and biological processes
• Important debates regarding development
• Nature–nurture, continuity–discontinuity, and
the active–passive controversy
• Development can be studied through
gathering sound information and
conducting research
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