Media &
Globalization
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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
•
Identify the evolution of Media.
•
Compare and contrast different forms of media.
•
Analyze and evaluate one’s own experience of Media.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT – Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.
True
False
Statement
Social Media is a space for entertainment and nothing
more.
Examples of media are T.V, radio and your face.
Media and Globalization are interconnected concepts.
Television and Radio are two-way media.
Media literacy among Filipinos are high.
2
Media is everywhere. When you wake up, you probably reached out to your phone either to
check any messages or check the time. ‘It’s 6:05 AM!’ and you have a class at 7:30 AM. You
hurried to the bathroom, realizing that your parents are already awake and is listening to
the news on the television or the radio. Moving out of the restroom, your mom calls you
and handed the money that you requested last week. It is for the book that you have to buy
for your major subject. While travelling to school, you surf the net and sees a good meme.
Knowing yourself, you shared it to your classmates who are also travelling albeit from
various places. You arrived at your class exactly 5 minutes before the time.
It is lunch time; your friends are eating at your favorite cafeteria while discussing the
memes that you all shared earlier in the morning. One of your friends named John,
interjected and told the group that one of the memes that your friend shared seems to be
normalizing rape culture. He explained that even though the intention is to get a good
laugh, the meme is bordering on insensitive, sexist and violent undertone which for him
should not be shared altogether. One of your ‘pa-cool’ friend who shared the meme dismiss
it and said “Dami mo naman alam, mag-enjoy ka na lang!” You, being a young adult who is
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about to turn eighteen and supposed to be mature enough to take criticisms and
productive discussion, calmly deflected your ‘pa-cool’ friend. “Well, the problem is with
people who passively allow these kinds of things. For you it might be simple sharing of memes,
but it goes beyond that. Violence in any shape or form should be denounced entirely. The
media, or social media for that matter seems to be a simple and innocent undertaking for
many of us. It is not always like that!” Your ‘pa-cool friend’ being a mature being and not let
his ego get to him, nodded and admitted his mistake. “I should have thought it through
before commenting and posting. I’ll do better next time.” No one took things personally –
because that is what informed and open-minded individuals do. Your group proceeded to
eat and went to your next class. After a while your friends are throwing jokes again.
Many treat media (social media) as something
you use in connecting with your friends or as
someone’s source of entertainment. There is
nothing wrong with that. You are right when
you said that media is not always a simple
lighthearted activity. The things you share in the
digital space may be partaking in a much larger
problem in the society. Among them being the
rape culture and violence. The problem is when
we passively sit and allow these things to
happen without saying a word or worse
partaking on these thoughts and actions
ourselves. What we see and hear in the digital
space may be slowly influencing on how we perceive the things around us. Therefore, the
purpose of this course material is to get a grasp on how media shapes our thinking and our
culture under the globalizing forces.
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Speech and Languages: Evolutionary Advantages
Before we arrive on the internet and digital media, media have evolved from the most basic
and primitive forms. At the physiological level, humans are endowed with our capacity to
communicate in advance signs and codes from hand gestures to languages. This is an
important evolutionary advantage as humans alone can’t defend themselves against much
larger and more adept predators like tigers, lions and sharks etc. Humans then have to
band together and work to hunt down preys. To work in groups, communication is a must.
Speech and simple sign language coordinate the activities of the group. For example, a
group of early human hunters have to slowly approach their prey. This requires advance
sign and gestures that needs efficient collaboration. One miscommunication may allow the
unsuspecting prey to notice their presence and immediately escape.
Hunters use their hands and face as medium to transfer messages. The main
hunter of the group might signal “go” using his hand or a pouted lip to show the
direction.
Thousands of years past and humans form tribes and later on large civilizations. From
hunter-gatherers they settled into one place and cultivate lands. Once a reliable food source
is established, humans have more time to find new activities. This resulted to developing
new practices that formed their cultures. Unique adornments were made, weapons more
elaborate, and varying practices to honor their deities or gods. Humanity’s progress may be
slow had it not due to of our capacity to transfer knowledge from one another, even in the
next generations. Local myths and stories are passed down orally. Ways on how to
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effectively farm and domesticate animals are told from fathers and mothers to their off
springs. The knowledge that was acquired by the predecessors will live on to the next
generation through communication. This becomes the basis of humans ascending on top of
ecosystem as the most complex and advance species in the planet.
Forms of Communication
We established that oral communication had dramatically assisted humans in their
everyday life since time immemorial. However, the use of oral communication has its own
shortcomings. Oral communication is often unrecorded and sometimes imprecise. Due to
the fact that people only have to rely on what others have heard from another. This might
be lost in translation as the messages passes from and to different persons. The original
message is now distorted, and the receiver might have a totally different message from the
original source. Rumors are a good example of this. Before you know it, the people in your
streets have been talking about you due to an incident that they might have misinterpreted.
Broken Telephone Game or locally known as pass the message game is a good
illustration on how oral communication could be imprecise.
To solve this inaccuracy, humans used an alternative form of communication – written
communication. This form of communication directly supplants what the oral
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communication is lacking – preciseness and documentation. Your love letter is the same
message as you have written it when you give it to your crush. Most importantly, written
communication is good in traveling time and space. Your grandparents decades ago might
be sending letters even from abroad and still retain the same message. These letters could
be revisited in the future as a nostalgic piece! Recipes are like this as well. Your great
grandparent may have had a secret recipe with whom it is passed down from generations
to generations. The same content might be the same, but it is up to the inheritors if they
want to alter some parts of it or retain it. Still, it is recorded, and the main ingredients and
techniques therein are still intact.
Both oral and written communications are the driving forces to which our civilizations
have progressed. However, the effectiveness of these forms is still dependent on the
medium through which it is carried out. Media (medium for singular) are the means of
communication such as papers, books, radio, television, magazines, internet, etc. through
which our messages are used to transfer. However, as we have earlier mentioned your own
body could be a medium as well. Your hand gestures, facial expressions, body posture etc.,
sends signals and messages.
7
Media and Society
Media and globalization have worked hand in hand. Alongside new advancements in
information communication technologies, the spread of information and ideas are carried
out in various platforms in varying degrees throughout history.
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Paper: Most reliable written medium of communication
Early civilizations have developed various written media. One of the most common is
writing on a clay which then forms tablets. Archeologists and historians have discovered
one of earliest styles of writing in human history – Cuneiform (3200-3000 BCE) found in
Mesopotamia which today covers Iraq, parts of Turkey and Syria. This discovery had led to
the translation of Epic of Gilgamesh which according to Mark J. (2018):
This translation allowed other cuneiform tablets to be interpreted which
overturned the traditional understanding of the biblical version of history and made
room for scholarly, objective explorations of history to move forward.
What this means is we have an idea that the biblical texts which were thought to be
original, have actually been in part adapted and referenced into cuneiform stories carved
into the stones they have found. Accordingly, biblical events such as The Fall of Man, The
Great Flood as well as the Garden of Eden are now understood as myths derived from the
Mesopotamian origins.1 Just like in any other local or national myths, stories might have
different versions and adaptations from other sources.
Cuneiform Writing used in Mesopotamia (3,500 – 3,000 BCE)
While stone tablets could withstood the test of time in the right conditions, it is hard to store and
carry around. Imagine a king or pharaoh in the ancient times writing to his/her acquaintance and
the stone is carried from place to place! In other words, stone tablets are not practical in distance
1
From “Cuneiform” by Mark, J. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/cuneiform/
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communication. Therefore, they have to find a way how to easily get around this. In ancient
Egypt, the most widely used form of writing material is the papyrus- This is the origin word
which the word paper is derived from. It is used as early as 3,000 BC. Papyrus are produced
using papyrus plants which grew in Ancient Egypt along the Nile River. While it is produced
exclusively by Egypt, ancient Greeks and Romans used it widely as evidenced by the
archeological findings.
(Left)Papyrus Plants;
(Right) How ancient
Egyptians make the
papyrus into ‘paper’
Many of the Egyptian, Roman, Greek and Arabic cultures have been written in papyrus.
However, it ceased to be widely used as it is not pliable enough to be fold and it is too fragile
that it could easily wear off due to excessive dryness and moisture. In Europe it was replaced by
parchments and vellum which are animal skins or membrane chiefly of goats, sheep and calves.
Parchment is stretched, scraped, and dried under tension. The hides are not tanned. This process
stretches the fibers of the skin creating a durable, flat material.2
(Left) Stretch parchment; (Right)
improvement on the medium to be
thinner and durable had occurred over
hundreds of years.
2
From “Parchment” by Sigunik Studio. Retrieved from www.sigunik.com/about_parchment.html
10
Parchment was used for 2,000 years around the Mediterranean basin due to its inherent
durability. However, problem in the mass production arouse as it would require hundreds of
goats and the like to be skinned in order to produce hundreds of ‘pages’. Therefore, parchments
are scarce and may be limited in production.
The paper that we know today could traced in China. In 105 C.E, a more advance and durable
plant-based paper product was invented by Cai Lun. He presented his invention before the
Emperor of Han Dynasty who are needing documentation. The emperor adapted his technique in
paper-making due to the demand in the civil-service officials who needed a lot of paper. Hence,
it is only logical to mass produce it. 3 Unlike parchments, Chinese papers are more practical to
produce as plants and trees could be easily planted and harvested (provided that there is an
immense land to do so). As such the process of ancient paper-making is done below:
From ‘Chinese Paper-Making’ by Dorling Kindersley. Retrieved from
https://www.dkfindout.com/us/history/ancient-china/chinese-paper-making/
3
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Silk Road: It’s not always about Silk!
As China ramps up its production of paper. It became a highly sought commodity. This together
with Chinese products like the porcelain, tea, and of course silk. In fact, the diffusion of paper
occurred westward as Chinese papers are slowly becoming priced possessions by Arabs,
Persians, Greeks, Romans due to “because of its durability and convenience” 4 While blank
papers travel around the silk road, so does the commercial, religious and scholarly texts. This led
to the spread not only of the medium but ideas in the silk road. In fact, the Chinese paper-making
technique is caught on by the Islamic world whom they adopted and improved on – In fact, as
one scholar noted – “Only after the Muslim world started to adopt paper did paper start to take
on its modern bleach-white form”5
When the Muslim region and empires made their own paper, it led to different intellectual and
contributions in the world. Many of the Muslim scholars translated the classical antiquity works
written in Greek, Chinese, Egyptian, Persian, Indian and Phoenician. They translated these to
Arabic and Persian which had preserved the contents. Had it not for this, the works from
classical antiquity may have been lost forever. This era saw the development of Algebra,
Geometry, Trigonometry, Calculus with which today’s students love so much! ;) . Many
4
5
From “The Silk Road: A New History” By Hansen, V. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 137.
From “Paper before Print” by Bloom, J. (Yale University Press, 2001)
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advancements in Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and Biology had also occurred and the findings
are all documented in the papers by the Muslims that was later on used by Europeans.
Printing Press and the Information Revolution
It is important to note that while ideas and information spread amongst the empires and
civilizations, only few people have access to such. This is only limited to the local leaders and
families, nobles, rich merchants and most importantly religious groups and leaders. In fact, the
ability to read and write is only reserved to these rich and well-acquainted groups. In Europe,
writing and reading has mostly been a religious activity (except on some commercial
undertakings). The Catholic priests shapes the discourse – what to talk, what not to talk about.
This is in middle ages, where the church reign supreme. Where the rules of kings and queens are
based on the power of vested to them by the God in heaven. (Recall Divine Rights of Kings and
Queens).
However, as we have discussed in the history of globalization, the church power and dominance
is slowly ebbing. The bubonic plague (black death) had killed hundreds of millions of people in
Europe. Distrust and frustration against the Catholic church is all time high. To worsen the
situation, growing corruption among church officials have been clear. For hundreds of years,
none have dared to question the church. Not until Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door
of Wittenberg Castle Church in 1517. Accordingly,
The 95 Theses, which would later become the foundation of the Protestant Reformation,
were written in a remarkably humble and academic tone, questioning rather than
accusing. The overall thrust of the document was nonetheless quite provocative. The first
two of the theses contained Luther’s central idea, that God intended believers to seek
repentance and that faith alone, and not deeds, would lead to salvation. The other 93
theses, a number of them directly criticizing the practice of indulgences.
Martin Luther quickly gains supporters across Germany and Europe. However, this does not
happen because people are well-aware of the corruption. Someone or something have to inform
them about the gross situation. Martin Luther is in the perfect time to do so. Less than 70 years
ago, Printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440. In those decades, the new
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technology had spread across Europe and had enabled people to became literate (The ability to
read and write). For the first time in human history, knowledge and information is not only
accessible to the elite but to the masses as well. Before, books are so expensive due to the
production. It would require days of handwriting a single copy. The reason that it is only
available to the elite. Because it is easier to produce, mass production is possible. This made
books cheaper that even lower economic class could have access to the very same materials. This
led to the information revolution. Teachings and messages from the antiquity and news from
other parts of the country is now accessible. The people does not have to rely solely on what the
government says or the what church tells them to believe. They can think and assess the merits of
their claims based on other sources – books and newspapers.
(Left) Writing copies of books take a while. This meant that extensive labor comes at a high price.
(Right) Printing press had enabled copies to be produced hundreds and even thousands in short
span of time. High supply, lower price.
To go back to what Luther did, copies of 95 theses circulated around Europe. Many people were
awoken by the fact that the Catholic Church at the time has been abusing its powers for
economic gains. This led to many countries to convert into Protestants, and denounce the
Catholic teachings altogether. In the end, the information revolution had larger consequences.
This inspires freer thinking, critical assessments devoid of any religious restraints that middle
ages church impose. As you may have guessed it, the invention of printing press had made it
easier for ideas and information to travel. This succeeded Renaissance, Age of Enlightenment,
Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution – a paradigm shift had occurred!
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Paradigm Shift: Free Thinking to Secularization
As we have previously discussed, the process of changing the attitudes and thoughts of the
people has been gradual, but impactful. The disassociation of many people from the church
teachings as the center of their lives had prompted them to go find new frontiers. Find new
interests and endeavors. This is known as secularization – “the process by which religious
thinking, practices and institutions lose social significance.” 6 The place of religion has then
replaced by scientific pursuits. Albeit, existing and practiced for thousands of years. Scientific
practice has never been free and recognized. This led to the creation of new machines and
inventions that had later own contributed to the integration of people around the world.
Electronic Age: The Rise of Energy-powered Communications Technology
Telegraph and Telephone
As noted by many observers, The electric telegraph did not burst suddenly upon the scene but
rather resulted from a scientific evolution that had been taking place since the 18th century in the
field of electricity.7 The steam engine and later on advance forms of power, particularly
electricity had enabled people to undertake more complicated technologies of the time. Rapid
transmission of information started in a form of morse code developed Samuel Morse. Each
short dots or dashes and its permutations represents different letters and numbers in the alphabet.
This code was used primarily to transmit messages through telegraph, a contemporary invention
alongside the morse code. The telegraph send electrical signals from one station to another using
the morse code.
From ‘What is Secularization?’ by ReviseSociology. Retrieved from
https://revisesociology.com/2018/08/21/what-is-secularization/
7 From ‘Telegraph’ by McGillem, C. Retreived from https://www.britannica.com/technology/telegraph
6
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Telegraph enabled quicker transfer of message from long distances, compared to postal mails or
letters. Industrializing societies with much wider reach needed faster ways of transmitting ideas.
Due to fast-changing landscape and new inventions and innovations coming up from here and
there, telegraph was later replaced with a much better medium of communication – Telephone.
The famous Alexander Graham Bell is credited on devising telephone, however, earlier
prototypes much the same as his were invented. He was recognized as the one who popularized
and commercialized telephone. In a span of decades, telephone access grew immensely. “By
1900 there were nearly 600,000 phones in Bell's telephone system; that number shot up to 2.2
million phones by 1905, and 5.8 million by 1910...” Additionally, “By 1948, the 30 millionth
phone was connected in the United States; by the 1960s, there were more than 80 million phone
hookups in the U.S. and 160 million in the world.” More than ever, communication has been
simpler and reachable from across the globe. We can now easily communicate with others from
far flung places, from the West to East and vice versa.
Television and Radio: Audio-Visual Medium
Out of all the media inventions, none have as much as impact as the radio and television. Both
mediums had enabled mass communication. Communicating to thousands and millions of people
at times. While telephone was increasingly becoming accessible, the invention of radio by
Guglielmo Marconi and Nikola Tesla, both of whom are still debated on who ‘invented’ radio.
Nonetheless, both are key figures in the early conception and invention of this medium.
Unlike telephone, radios are like newspaper – delivering messages and information to a lot of
people all at once. News had now entered into the waves where it was only available in the
newspapers before. This is crucial as the world wars had made people tuned in and are equally
well-aware of the happenings around the world.
Television like radio and telephone are all product of industrial revolution. In a span of decades,
radio quickly became an alternative news medium. Television had a lot of improvements from
dozens of inventors across the world. But, its impact is wide and far-reaching. While television
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and radio relied heavily on oral forms of communication. Television brings visual experience to
the masses. We cannot only hear but also see what is going on to far reaches of the world. The
people could now experience the views of the people on the ground without ever going to such
places. Without ever going out to the comfort of their homes.
Television was mainly treated for its entertainment value. A medium where people could check
on their favorite celebrities, new released movies, songs and fashion trends. However, television
had also become a medium for education – people are seeing the gravity of the situation on areas
unknown to them. The wars in the Vietnam, in Africa, in Asia. Worsening environmental
disasters due to rapid industrialization. As such, many movements have emerged.
The development of the media throughout history coincided with the spread of globalization.
Recall that when Manfred Staeger defined globalization as the expansion and intensification of
social relations and consciousness across world-time and world-space, he is pertaining to how
the world has increasingly become interconnected by becoming well-aware of their
surroundings, even from places away from them.
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The Digital Age: The Internet and Smart Devices
As we have all discussed, World War II had inspired many states to invent technologically
advanced devices that could assist them in the war efforts. The Electronic Numerical Integrator
Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC), was built to do ballistic calculations for the US Military
during World War II.8 It was solely accessible by the military and is humongous compared to the
sizes of computers today.
ENIAC, and the earliest succeeding computers since 1950s is huge that it could occupy
entire rooms and needed dozens of individuals to operate it.
Just like how the earliest computers where built, the internet was intended for military use
particularly the United States as a weapon in the Cold War. The United States being alarmed
with the potential destruction and disconnection of telephone lines to communicate on the entire
nation in an event that the Soviet Union nuclear attacks. One scientist from MIT and ARPA
named J.C.R Licklider proposed a workaround on this problem: A galactic network of computers
From ‘Invention of PC’ by History.com Editors. Retrieved from
https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/invention-of-the-pc?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-history
8
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that could talk to one another. 9 This network will be able to allow government to communicate
even if the telephone lines were to be disrupted.
From the military to research centers, another scientist in the name of Tim Berners-Lee wrote a
proposal for the World Wide Web. By the end of 1990, Tim Berners-Lee had the first Web
server and browser up and running at CERN, which is an advanced research institute working
on physics and engineering in Geneva, Switzerland 10 This invention enabled CERN-affiliated
researchers from around the world to share information regardless of their locations.
The diffusion of technology from military, to research centers to the people is fast. The personal
computer started to roll out when “three preassembled mass-produced personal computers were
introduced: Apple Computer, Inc.’s (now Apple Inc.) Apple II, the Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80,
and the Commodore Business Machines Personal Electronic Transactor (PET). 11 Since then,
succeeding companies emerged to developed and innovate from the existing technologies, going
breakthroughs after breakthroughs – until we have devices that could fit on our pockets.
From Personal Computers to Personalized Contents in the Digital Media
As personal computers started to be a household essential, traditional media such as television,
radio, books, magazines and newspapers remain the main media for communication, education
and entertainment. We know this because we grew up idolizing the Power Rangers, Naruto,
Katniss Everdeen, Harry Potter etc.. Some of you had imagine yourselves on the shoes of the
characters you read on the books or you watched on the television.
Up until this point, the content creation is linear – from producers to consumers. The producers
of the traditional companies such as ABS-CBN, GMA, Viva Entertainment, Star Magic, 20th
From ‘The Invention of Internet’ by History.com Editors. Retrieved from
https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/invention-of-the-internet?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcwhistory
10 From ‘A Short History of Web’ by CERN Editors. Retrieved from
https://home.cern/science/computing/birth-web/short-history-web
11 From ‘Personal Computer’ by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/technology/personal-computer
9
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Century Fox, CNN etc. These media companies decides which contents to be produced and
published. The audiences are treated as consumers, and are unable to make their own content.
The emergence of social media had changed this traditional format. The rise of Facebook in
2004, YouTube in 2005 and Twitter in 2006 had ushered an era of self-made content. According
to Castells (2007), this gave rise to what he called as mass self-communication which he defined
as self-generated in content, self-directed in emission, and self-selected in reception by
many that communicate with many.12 Social Media had enabled people to become their own
artist, their own model, their own celebrity. People who would not be in the limelight had it not
due to social media.
The past years saw
the rise of Social
Media ‘Influencers’
Social media influencers like Mimiyuuuh and Cong popularity is a testament of the changing
media landscape. Both of these influencers were not recruited nor featured to any of large
media companies who previously had the sole power on who should become ‘celebrity’ or
‘famous.’ Unlike the one-way linear format of traditional media, social media is a two-way
format. The people are both consumers and producers. Anyone could post their cover of a
famous song, a trending dance, or any antics in the social media. You could become your
own model – posting fierce pose in the Instagram, showcasing your own talent in Tiktok.
12
From ‘Communication, Power and Counter-Power in the Network Society’ by Castells, M. (2007)
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This what scholars termed as creative autonomy. People have control over what they
want to post or share. Accordingly, this autonomy was enabled by advancements in
Information Communication Technologies (ICT). Castells (2007) echoed “the development
of the technology of self-communication is also the product of our culture, a culture that
emphasizes individual autonomy, and the selfconstruction of the project of the social actor.”13
The recent Vogue Trend of using the vogue frame to be the
face and cover of vogue magazine is one great example.
Many individuals may not be “models” in the traditional
sense of the world, but they produce and publish their own
contents as if they are one!
The idea of creative autonomy in Social Media may not
always result to positive impacts. Since virtually anyone
could publish their own content, some people could also
Images courtesy of Deanne Meneses and
Rhyven Franco from Youtube.
post and share fabricated and/or misleading information.
Many Filipinos have become victim of manufactured information known as Fake News. The ‘tuob’
or Steam Inhalation had gained traction as the solution to Covid-19. Many medical experts
debunked this, however, many Filipinos insist that it is in fact working. The social media is also
used to revise history as we know it. Many so called ‘self-proclaimed historians or experts’ try to
dismiss former president Marcos’ corruption and human rights violations, instead try to give him a
good positive image. Historical revisionist try to twists the facts of the matter by posting news
which are completely fabricated, or misleading. Adding information that are too good to be true,
fake news which are pleasing to the eyes and music to the ears.
Civilizations rise and fall, media however evolved with it. From the use of stone tablets, to
paper to radio then social media, we have come a long way. The contemporary world now is
filled with information – too much information. The challenge is how are you going to discern
a fact from fiction.
13
Ibid.
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ACTIVITY
INSTRUCTION: Answer the question in one MS word file. Kindly rename the file as –
Lastname_FirstName_Section_Media. The format would be 1” all sides / 12 font size /
Cambria or Times New Roman / 500 – 900 words. Do not forget to include at least one
reference which is properly cited.
•
Rank the top three media (Paper, Printing Press, Telephone, Radio, Television, Social
Media) which made biggest impact in the world, and compare why.
•
How did media influence you? What media content (story, series, songs, movie, poem,
etc.) made a huge impact on your life, your views and opinions? Give one example
and elaborate.
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REFERENCES:
Bloom, J. (2001). Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World.
Yale University Press.
Castells, M. (2007). Communication, Culture and Power and Counter-Power in Network
Society. International Journal of Communication, 238 – 266.
CERN Editors (n.d.). A Short History Web. In home.cern. Retrieved July 2020
https://home.cern/science/computing/birth-web/short-history-web
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (n.d.). The Invention of Internet. In Britannica.com.
Retrieved July 2020 https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/invention-of-theinternet?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-history
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (n.d.) Personal Computer. In Britannica.com.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/technology/personal-computer
Hansen, V. (2012). The Silk Road: A New History. Oxford University Press.
History.com Editors (n.d.) Invention of PC. In History.com Retrieved July 2020
https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/invention-of-thepc?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-history
Mark, J. (2018). Cuneiform. In Ancient.eu. Retrieved July 2020
https://www.ancient.eu/cuneiform/
McGillem (n.d.) Telegraph. In Britannica.com. Retrieved July 2020
https://www.britannica.com/technology/telegraph
Revise Sociology (n.d.). What is Secularization. In revisesociology.com. Retrieved July 2020
https://revisesociology.com/2018/08/21/what-is-secularization/
Sigunik Studio. (n.d.). Parchment. In Sigunik.com. Retrieved July 2020
www.sigunik.com/about_parchment.html
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