QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
Module 15
Competencies
Cognitive Perspective:
Problem Solving and Creativity Theory
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. describe problem solving and creativity:
2. explain the
creativity,
stages/processes
of problem
solving
and
3. cite situations manifesting barriers to problem solving and
creativity and;
4. cite classroom applications of theories related to problem
solving and creativity
Discussion
Problem Solving
Ana's food catering
business
has
been
profitable, as there is no
competitor Lately, a new
catering group was put up,
offering as good services
similar to hers. With the
presence of the competitor,
some clients have shifted to the new provider. Ana inquires on how
to sustain her customers' loyalty. This situation illustrates a
problem.
A problem arises when there is a difference between where
you are now (e.g., the presence of Ana's competitor) and where you
want to be (e.g., Ana's desire to sustain customer loyalty). A
distinguishing feature of a problem is that there is a goal to be
reached through some action on your part, but how to get there is
not immediately apparent. There is an obstacle or a gap between
where you are now and where you want to be (Robertson, 2015). In
Ana's case, her goal is to sustain the customer clients, but the
solution is not there yet (current state).
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an
obstacle or block toward the attainment
of that goal. For this reason, problemsolving happens when an individual
strives to eliminate the obstacle that
hinders the attainment of the desired
goal. "If no obstacle hinders progress
toward a goal attaining the goal is no
problem" (Reese, 1994).
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
Figure 11 illustrates the elements of a problem scenario.
Current State
Block/Obstacle
Desired Goal
Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at
achieving goal for which the problem solver does not initially know
a solution method (Mayer, 2015). This definition consists of four
major elements (Mayer, 1992, Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), namely:
1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem
solver's cognitive system and can only be inferred indirectly
from the problem solver's behavior (including biological
changes introspections, and actions during problem solving)
2. Process – problem solving involves mental computations in
which an operation is applied to a mental representation,
sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental
representation.
3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge
of the problem solver so that what is a problem for one problem
solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows a
solution method.
Types of Problems
Problems
can
be
classified in many ways. For
one, it could either be welldefined or ill-defined problem.
Robertson (2015) described a
well-defined problem as one
that "provides all the information required to solve it."" Jonassen
(1997) considered it as a problem requiring the application of a
definite number of concepts, rules, and principles being studied to
a constrained problem situation. The problem tells you everything
you need to know to solve it or whether you need to work out for
yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you
whether or not there is only one answer or solution or there are
many solutions.
For example, in the problem 4+3 7, you are certain that you
are to add the two numbers and there is only one correct answer.
You also know that you are 100% right or wrong. Nevertheless,
there are instances that you have everything to know to solve the
problem, but you cannot still arrive at the answer. In Mathematics,
for instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication, division,
addition, and subtraction) rule, but applying them may not be
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
clear to you.
An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial
state of the problem is given but what the goal state looks like is
not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and
emergent from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the
problem scenario are not well specified, the problem descriptions
are not definite, or the information needed to solve it is not
expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985). Because
of this situation, there may be many correct answers as the
learners have divergent circumstances and experiences related to
the emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is, "You
notice that the population of your town is tremendously increasing
and you are alarmed of the consequences. What could you do?"
This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution
to the problem is multifaceted as there is an interplay of social,
political, religious, and psychological issues to consider in arriving
at the solution. The solution is one town varies to another
town as their circumstances are different. Thus, there is the
possibility of getting many correct responses.
Approaches to Problem Solving
Several approaches have been advanced to explain the
problem-solving abilities of individuals (Anderson, 1996). One is
the behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous behavior to solve
a problem. A person faced with a problem situation is likely to use
the same solution previously used and was effective in the past. To
prepare the garden before planting, pick mattock is traditionally
used because the Crop
Science teacher told it so.
In contrast to the
reproductive
approach
advocated by behaviorists,
the Gestaltist approach to
problem
solving
is
a
productive process. Kohler's
experiments
with
apes
underscored the role of insight in the restructuring of a person's
representation of the problem. As the individual ponders upon how
to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind, which
eventually provides the best solution to the problem. This situation
illustrates the Eureka moment, the "moment a person realizes or
solves something." A Science student saw a rural folk using
akapulko extract (Cassia alata Linn.), locally known as andadasi
(Iloko), as an antifungal treatment. The extract was used on his
face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment, the extract
did not only treat the main problem, but it also peeled off dead
cells in the face. The student concluded that the plant extract also
has exfoliating effect.
Problem-solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill,
but rather an overlapping of some thinking skills, as logical
thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation,
sequencing, decision making, research, and prediction are likely to
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
be involved (Teare, 2006). Metacognitive thinking , creativity, and
transfer of learning interplay in the process. These cognitive and
metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed
to undertake problem solving.
The IDEAL model (Bransford Stein 1993) is adopted to
explain the process of problem solving.
Identify problems
and opportunities
Look back and learn
Anticipate
outcomes and
act
Define goals
Explore possible
opportunities
Figure 12 indicates the specific steps to solve a problem.
Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.
Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential
problems. Determining the causes of the problem is necessary to
pinpoint the major cause to prioritize in resolving the problem.
Considering problems with a positive outlook serves as
opportunities to do something creative. When problems are treated
as opportunities, the result is often an unexpected solution or
invention. It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify
problems that have gone unnoticed. People who identify important
problems and treat them as opportunities are often among the
most successful in their fields.
For instance, your parents have informed you that in the
next semester you will stop for the meantime as they are
financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester
more; just the Practice Teaching that you need to fulfill to finish
your degree. The problem is how would you financially support
your last semester in school. This dilemma is the current state of
the situation.
Step 2: Define goals.
The second aspect of the model requires you to carefully
define your goals in the problem situation. This is different from
identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of people
could identify the existence of a general problem and agree that it
represents an opportunity but still disagree about what their goals
should be. Different goals often reflect differences in how people
understand a problem. For the problem situation above, the goal is
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
to continue with your college education because it is just one
semester before graduation. Another student with the same
problematic situation may have a different goal. Different goals can
lead people to explore very different strategies for solving a
problem.
Step 3: Explore possible strategies.
This step involves looking back at your goals and finding
possible strategies to solve the problem. It entails the recall of
procedural knowledge from long-term memory. As you think of
alternative ways to solve the problem, ascertain that the chosen
alternative fits the goal set. Bransford and Stein (1993) argued that
even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they often fail to
use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem solving are
very general and apply to almost any problem, whereas there are
strategies that are very specific and applicable only to a few or
limited cases.
Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving
easier; however, the two main strategies used are heuristic and
algorithm. Heuristic is a "rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that
works for solving a problem.” especially those about decisionmaking tasks. Although there is no 100% certainty that the
strategy is successful or adequate to solve the problem, it is most
of the time effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of
its efficiency, heuristic can lessen the time to solve and can reduce
cognitive load. A student who is always late to class may use the
alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time to wake up. It may
work effectively at times, but if one is in deep slumber, the person
may not be awakened by the alarm. In another example, a
Mathematics student may know the application of the mnemonics
FOIL (First Outside - Inside Last) and can solve problems involving
simple numbers, but may not be able to answer correctly because
he or she does not know the multiplication rules of signed
numbers.
Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general
problem-solving heuristics for moving from a given state to a goal
state: random trial and error, hill climbing, and means-ends
analysis. Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a
legal move and applying it to create a new problem state and
repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random trial
and error may work for simple problems but is not efficient for
complex ones. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal move that
moves the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will
not work for problems in which the problem solver must take a
move that temporarily moves away from the goal as is required in
many problems. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals
and seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot
be directly accomplished, a sub-goal is created to remove one or
more obstacles.
The second major strategy is an algorithm, the use of a
series of steps to solve a problem. The elements of an algorithm
include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs,
results, and preconditions. Computer programming is a classic
example using an algorithm. The use of "If…then..." propositions
tells the precondition for the next step to progress. If the next step
does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
goal. Doing the standard algorithms for the fundamental
operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps
repeatedly with each place value column in a given problem. For
instance,
3012
+1224
4236
In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps
presented should be followed one at a time to arrive at the correct
art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one
needs to follow the electronic cues to succeed.
Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.
Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what
outcomes will likely be. The expectation is the solution to the
problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person
acts or implements the planned strategy. For example, a learner
anticipates that the answer to the problem 23 x 21 should be more
than 400 but not 500. It should not be less than 400 because 20 x
20 is already 400. This assurance gives the person the confidence
to implement the planned strategy. When a person withdraws
money through the ATM, the anticipation is that money will be
churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow
the steps as cued by the machine.
Step 5: Look back and learn.
What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the
problem is proof of its effectiveness. In metacognition, this step is
the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the
results give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good and
effective. If the answer is wrong, then metacogitively ask, "What
went wrong? The answers could be in the details missed during
the analysis of the probem, the inappropriateness of the heuristic
or algorithm strategy, or in the miscalculations. Realizing the
errors committed along the way will make the person understand
the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make
the person more careful next time a similar task is given.
Barriers to Problem Solving
In the search for
alternative strategies to
solve the problem, the
individual finds difficulty in
coming up with a potential
solution because of varied
reasons. Anderson (1996)
listed some of these and
they are as follows.
1. Mental set. The
situation when the person
becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that previously produced
the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application.
In metacognitive thinking, this is conditional knowledge. An
English language learner may be fixated on the rule that the past
tense of the verb is usually formed by adding -d, -ed to the base
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO, the answer given could
be "goed. Moreover, a Mathematics learner could not get the sum
of three-digit numbers that require carrying over because he or she
is fixated to the addition of numbers without carrying over.
2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when
individuals fail to recognize that objects can have other purposes,
aside from the traditional use they were made for. A learner may
think that a spoon is only used for eating. However, in instances
when no bottle opener is available, a spoon is usually used to open
a bottle of soda drink.
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant
information. This happens when a situation arises during the
analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the
relevant information needed in planning the strategy to solve a
problem. When the irrelevant information is given more emphasis
in the process, it will lead to a wrong solution to the problem. An
example is a problem of what to include in a bulletin
announcement to help someone who lost a bunch of keys.
Children were asked which details to include were relevant, like
where and when it was lost, how many keys were there in the
keyholder, which keys were these, who owned it, where the key
holder was bought, when it was bought. Some children may not be
able to identify the relevant from the irrelevant ones.
Creativity in Problem Solving
As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and
functional fixedness are stumbling blocks in problem solving.
These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways
to solve a problem. They illustrate the
lack of creativity on the part of the
person. Theorists agree that creative
problem solving must be taught and
encouraged among learners.
What is creativity? Plucker et al.
(2004) defined creativity as "the
interaction among aptitude, process, and the environment by
which an individual or group produces a perceptible product that
is both novel and useful as defined within a social context." The
definition underscores the role of aptitude, process, product,
novelty, and use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g., openness,
tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in thinking, perseverance,
motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as well as
abilities pertaining to the creative process, that can be shaped by
experience, learning, and training (Grohman & Szmidt, 2013).
Others call aptitude as creative attitude.
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt
et al., 20O10). One is the developmental theory, which advocates
that creativity develops over time (from potential to achievement).
It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It
emphasizes the influence of the place and family structures-the
role of play and support during the transitions.
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that
ideational thought processes are foundational to creative persons
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote association,
and are good at divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual
combination and metacognitive processes are more likely to be
more creative. The stage and componential process of creativity
point out that creative expression proceeds through a series of
stages or components .The process can have linear and recursive
elements. It highlights the importance of preparation, incubation
and insight, and verification and evaluation in creative thinking.
One of the first models of creativity was advanced by
Guilford (1967). He considered creativity as a divergent thinking
act. He claimed that creativity is the result of several processes:
fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. Fluency is defined
as the ability to produce a great number of ideas or problem
solutions in a short period. In solving problems related to solid
wastes, a learner can give novel ideas on recycling a plastic water
container more than the other learners, which demonstrates
fluency. Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a variety
of approaches to a specific problem. In recycling a plastic water
container, a learner can suggest many ways of using them. It can
be used as food container, wall decoration, and insect trap, which
shows that the learner has flexibility of ideas.
Meanwhile, originality refers to the ability to produce new,
original ideas, as well as products .If there is no other learner who
gave the same idea or product of another learner, that idea is
original, as there is only one learner who could think of it. Lastly,
elaboration is the ability to systematize and organize the details of
an idea ih one's head and carry it out. If the learner could pick one
solution to solve a problem and give specific details to implement
the same, he or she is manifesting elaboration.
The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002;
Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith, 2015). It includes preparation,
incubation, illumination, and verification (see Figure 13).
Preparation
(Gathering
materials
Incubation
(Subconscious
working on the
idea
Illuminatio
n (Eureka, AHA,
lightbulb
moment)
Verification
(Idea into form
Figure 13. Stages of the creative process
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It
involves becoming passionate about an idea, which motivates you
to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information
gathered seeps into your sub consciousness, eventually remaining
there momentarily. The next step is incubation, the period where
you unconsciously continues to work on the idea, but there is no
active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until
an idea takes form. In the next step illumination, a sudden idea
pops out in your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the
connection with the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and
Eureka moments. Once the idea is concretized, it needs to be
verified. Verification is the final stage of the creative process,
involves working with the idea into a form that can be tested and
proven, it could be communicated to others.
A research conducted by Calubaquib (2013) illustrates the
creative problem solving. One time he heard from a fellow teacher
about the parents' personal experience about the potency or cat’s
whiskers as anti-hypertension treatment. As it sounded interesting
to her, she read more about the plant and the use of its extract.
She wondered about what other studies be made out of the plant
extract. At this stage, she was in the preparation stage.
While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract,
she was informed by the fellow teacher after two weeks that not
only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that
there were intestinal worms in her stool. This phase was the
incubation stage.
As Calubaquib was intrigued, a bright idea came to her
mind. Balbas pusa cannot only act as antihypertension but also be
an antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized
about the possibility of using the plant extract to expel internal
parasites. Following that idea, she planned using swine as
experimental animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and
efficacy of the plant extract, a study for her master's degree in
chemistry. This is the verification stage of the creative problemsolving process.
Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity
Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve
declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional
knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving task
requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if
the learner has mastered algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even
if the problem-solving tasks require divergent thinking, if there
have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to
answer such task, solving them could be successfully done.
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems
are carried over or used in solving new problems is referred to as
the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized into
the following
1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply
their knowledge and skills in situations and contexts
that are very close to those in which the learning
occurred, it is near transfer. when learners perform a
skill in a context very much different from the context it
was learned, it is far transfer (Johnson, 1995). Learners
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
find it easier to add three-digit numbers after they have
learned the lesson (near transfer). However, they find
difficulty employing the same skill when the task is
transformed into a word problem solving (far transfer).
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use
their prior knowledge or experience in solving a new
problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the
previous learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a
new skill or the solving of a problem, it is negative
transfer. Using a new model of the same brand of
Android mobile phone is easy as the features are most
likely the same (positive transfer). However, when a new
phone using 1OS technology is bought, there will be
difficulty in using it the first time (negative transfer).
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners
use their learning at a lower level to perform a higher level of
cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the
spiral progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners
use the same skill to solve a related but different problem
comparable to level of difficulty after learning it , lateral
transfer happens. For example, Ruben finds it easy to add
five-digit numbers as he has mastered adding numbers
with or without carrying over in the previous grade (vertical
transfer). Likewise, Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding
ratios in Mathematics in acquiring the skill of finding the
seed germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral
transfer).
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past
learning or prior experience does not enhance or hinder the
acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.
In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated
that "the problem-solving process involves several aspects from
which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver s
representation of the problem, the solver's background
experiences, and the solver s understanding of the problem." They
explained that the learner begins the problem-solving process as
soon as enough information about the problem space is generated
to gain an understanding of the problem. The process involves
association concepts from previous experiences to solve a similar
problem. The learner is prompted by the potential answer when he
or she recognizes similarities between the previous experience and
the new task.
Several theories explain how learning is transferred from
one situation to another (Woolfolk 2017). The theory of identical
elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality of transfer
depends on the identical elements that are common in both past
and new situations. If the content, method, goal and attitude in the
two situations are similar, the transfer is facilitated. The theory of
generalization developed by Judd, states that skills learned are
transferrable to other situations. It argues that if the learner has
fully understood the lesson and mastered the competency, there is
a greater likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
situation. Meanwhile, the theory of configuration, anchored on
Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of perception in
the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one
situation can be shifted directly to another situation only when
similarity in content, method, or attitude of the two situations is
perceived by the learner .
Classroom Applications
Learning Theories
of
Cognitive
Teachers can benefit from the
teaching
principles
associated
with
cognitive learning theories. Along with
problem
solving,
Woolfolk
(2017)
recommended the following:
1. Ask students if they understand
the problem. Let them separate relevant
from irrelevant information. Test their
awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the
problem by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the
problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different
angles. Suggest several different possibilities yourself, and then
ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and
defending different points of view on an issue.
3 Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer
individual problems as well as group problems, so that each
student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students
have good reasons for wrong solutions to problems. If students are
stuck, resist the temptation to give too many clues. Let then think
about the issue overnight.
4.Help students to develop systematic ways of considering
alternatives. Tell them to think out loud as they solve problems.
Ask: "What would happen if?" Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to
solve problems.
In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended
the following strategies in teaching learners:
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce
attempts at unusual solutions to problems, even if the
final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for
projects or modes presentation (written, oral, visual or
graphic, using technology).
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting
opinions, Make sure that nonconforming students
receive an equal share of classroom privileges and
rewards.
3.Encourage students to trust their judgment. When
students ask questions that you answer, rephrase or clarify the
questions and direct them back to the students, Give assignments
from time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some
form, Avoid describing great artists or inventors as if they were
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
superhuman accomplishments. Recognize creative efforts in each
student's work. Have a separate grade for originality on some
assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative
projects, Here are some examples : collect” found” materials for
collages and creations, buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric,
beads, seeds, drawing tools, clay-and try flea markets and friends
for donations. Have mirrors and pictures tor drawing faces. Make a
well-lighted space available where children can work on projects,
leave them, and come back to finish them. Follow up on
memorable occasions (field trips, news events, holidays) with
opportunities to draw, write, or make music.
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class
brainstorming sessions whenever possible. Model creative problem
solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems.
Encourage students to delay judging a particular suggestion for
solving a problem until all the possibilities have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students to use
free apps to create visual maps of ideas and share their ideas with
others.
To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning
strategies are helpful (Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child's curriculum so they
can support their learning. At the beginning of units or major
projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the
major assignments, and some common problems that students
have in learning the material for that unit. Ask parents for
suggestions about how their child's interests could be connected to
the curriculum topics.
2.Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children
to practice, extend, or apply what they learn from school. Ask
family members to include their children in some project that
require school learning.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of
school. Ask families to talk about and show how they use the skills
their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or community
involvement projects.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on
one learning strategy at a time. Ask families to simply remind their
children to use a particular strategy for a homework that week.
SUMMARY
Learners have differences in learning, owing to the variances
in their ways to solve problems, their levels of creativity, and their
ability to transfer their learning to new contexts. Studies have
shown that these skills can be taught and enhanced. Many
students experience difficulties in solving applied physics
problems. A study tested the effectiveness of PhysHint, a studentcontrolled computer program that supports students in developing
their strategic knowledge in combination with support at the level
of content knowledge (Pol et al., 2008). The program allows
students to ask for hints related to the episodes involved in solving
a problem. Data revealed that a program succeeded in improving
strategic knowledge by allowing for more effective practice time for
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
the student (practice effect) and/or by focusing on the systematic
use of the available help (systematic hint-use effect).
If creativity is one of the desired learning goals, then teacher
capacity is pivotal in teaching for creativity (Tan et al., 2016).
Meanwhile, Davies et al. (2012) identified from a vast creativity
literature that pedagogical practice is one of the key environmental
features in molding students creativity. Among the practices found
are: designing learning tasks that are novel to stimulate students
creativity; planning for a structured yet flexible, self-directed
learning experience, setting a mutual respect atmosphere; open
dialogue; and collaborative activities.
A study on the value of transfer of learning (Brion &
Cordeiro, 2018)) indicated that most of the transfer of learning
happen in areas not requiring mindset and behavioral changes.
The facilities in which the training took place, the facilitators'
dispositions and knowledge, the adequacy of the materials, as well
as the testimonials and certificate of completions enhanced the
transfer of learning.
Enrichment
Activities
Direction: Answer the problem statement. Place it in a separate
sheet in either bond paper or yellow paper. Write the question
before the answer. DO NOT FORGET to write your name, year
level, section, Module No. & title, and date of submission.
1. Jerry submitted to his Arts teacher a drawing titled "Fishes,"
with only sea wavés seen at the bottom of the frame. When the
teacher questioned the title because she could not see any fish in
the drawing, Jerry answered that they were under the water. If you
were the teacher, how would you react? Why?
Comprehen
sion Check
Direction: Write the letter of your answer in a separate sheet .
_______1. Which of the situations below illustrates a child's actual
potential?
A. He can solve simple problems on his own.
B. He can count through the teacher's cueing.
C.He can listen to a lecture intently.
D. He can hear different sounds around.
_______2. Which parental support is effective in enhancing mental
development among children?
A. exposing them to situations that stimulate curiosity
B. supplying them with expensive toys they can play with
C. creating a happy environment that inspires them
D. integrating play in all home and farm activities
_______3. Which of the following is the correct form of assisted
learning as conceived by Vygotsky?
A. provide help in the beginning, then gradually withdraw
B. let students work alone, then give advice when they ask
C. have students explain their answer, then give a score
D. inspire the children to try first, then hold gradually
_________4. Which practice best illustrates the application of
transfer of training/learning in the class?
A. Provide tasks that are similar to the situations where
learners would apply the task.
B. Teach as many concepts in one hour so that they see
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
their connections.
C. Let students describe their feeling and reflection about
the concepts.
D. Show the connections between the present lessons and
lessons of the past.
______5. To enhance the ability to transfer problem-solving ability
from one situation to real-life contexts, teachers should
_____________________
A. provide meaningful ways to teach the use of certain
strategies
B. focus instruction on one particular type of problem until
students "get it"
C. anticipate that students will make connections if the
solution is obvious
D. have study drills to remember the right strategy
References
Bulusan, Ferdinand, et.al. 1st Ed 2019. Facilitating LearnerCentered Teaching. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Sadler-Smith, E. (2015). Wallas' four-stage model of the creative
process: More than meets the eye?, Creativity Research Journal,
27(4), 342-352.
Schunk, D. (2016). Learning theories: An Educational Perspective
(7th Ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Slavin, R. (2014). Making cooperative learning powerful.
Educational Leadership, 72(2), 22-27.
Slavin, R. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice
(12th Ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Tan, L.S. Lee, S.S., Ponnusamy, L.D., Koh, E.R. & Tan, K.C.K.
(2016). Fostering creativity in the classroom for high ability
students: Context does matter. Education Sciences 6 (36).
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1 135612
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
….promoting pedagogical excellence
ASSESSMENT PAGE
Direction: Write your answer/s in the enrichment activities and
Comprehension Check in this page. Please detach this page and submit to
your instructor for checking and recording purposes . Please feel free to attach
additional papers if necessary.
NAME: __________________________________________
Date:
MODULE No._____ Module Title: _________________________________
Course: ____________________
Year Level : ______________ Section: _______
Enrichment Activities:
Comprehension Check :
Note: You can use additional paper if needed. Happy Working!
VISION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
MISSION
Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”