SMART VEHICLE BRAKING SYSTEM
PROJECT REPORT
Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B.V.Bhavana(O162081)
Under the supervision of
Mr. Prabhu Kiran
(Asst. Professor)
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering
RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF KNOWLEDGE
TECHNOLOGIES,ONGOLE CAMPUS,
April,2022
i
RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF KNOWLEDGE
TECHNOLOGIES
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “SMART VEHICLE BRAKING SYSTEM”
submitted by , Roll No: Bhavana B.V, Roll No: O162081 to the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies , RGUKT Ongole Campus, during the
academic year 2021-2022 is a partial fulfillment for the award of Under graduate degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering, is a bonafide record carried out by her
under my supervision. The project has fulfilled all the requirements as per as regulations of this institute and
in my opinion reached the standard for submission.
Mr. K V Sri Harsha
Mr. Prabhu Kiran
Head of the Department
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE
Dept. of ECE
RGUKT Ongole,
RGUKT Ongole,
Ongole – 523001.
Ongole – 523001.
Date:
Place: Ongole
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APPROVAL SHEET
This project report entitled “Smart Vehicle Braking System” by
___________________________ is approved for the degree of ___________________________.
Examiners
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Supervisor(s)
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Chairman
___________________________
Place:
Date:
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DECLARATION
I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where others' ideas or
words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. I also declare that I
have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or
falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be cause
for disciplinary action by the Institute and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not
been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.
Signature
___________________________
Name of the Student
___________________________
Roll No.
___________________________
iv
Abstract
Driving is a common activity for most of the people. The number of vehicles is increasing day by day. Now a
days, the technology has got vast changes which leads increase in speed. The speed plays a vital role to maintain
time for longer distances. But, this speed also getting a major problem for causes of road accidents.The common
braking is not sufficient for avoidance of accidents when driver is not active. Further improvement has to done in
braking system in order to brake a vehicle when driver is not able to brake i.e., it may needs automatic braking
system. This automatic braking system allows the vehicle to brake without support of the driver.
This project is designed with ultrasonic sensor,Arduino UNO R3 board with PIC microcontroller, DC gear
motor and Buzzer. The Ultrasonic Sensor generates a signal with particular frequency.It is transmitted through
ultrasonic transmitter. The ultrasonic receiver is used to receive the reflected wave present in front of the vehicle,
then the reflected waves is given to the ultrasonic wave generator unit in which the incoming wave is amplified
and compared with reference signals to maintain a constant ratio and this signal is given to microcontroller and
through which the working of DC gear motor takes place, which results in application of brakes.
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INDEX
Table of Contents
Page number
Abstract
3
1. Introduction
5-6
2.Review of Literature
8
3.Materials and methodology
9-34
3.1 Approach and Block Diagram
10-11
3.2 Arduino UNO
11-14
3.3 Ultrasonic Sensor
15-18
3.4 Buzzer
19-21
3.5 DC Gear Motor
22-26
3.6 L293D Motor Driver IC
27-31
3.7 Circuit diagram & Connections
32-33
3.8 Code Implementation
34-35
3.9 Working
36
3.10 Advantages
37
4.Results and Discussions
38-42
4.1 Simulation Result
39-42
5.Summary and Conclusions
43-44
5.1 Conclusion
44
5.2 Future Scope
44
5.3 References
45
6.Appendix
46-48
6.1 Appendix-I
47
6.2 Appendix - II
48
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig1.1.
Smart Vehicle Braking System
PageNo:7
Fig3.2.
Block Diagram
PageNo:10
Fig3.2.1
Arduino UNO
PageNo:11
Fig3.2.2
Schematic Diagram
PageNo:13
Fig3.3.1
Ultrasonic Sensor
PageNo:15
Fig3.3.2
Detection of object through ultrasonic waves
PageNo:16
Fig3.3.3
Calculation of Distance
PageNo:17
Fig3.4.1
Buzzer
PageNo:19
Fig3.4.2
Circuit Diagram of Buzzer
PageNo:20
Fig3.5.1
DC Motor
PageNo:22
Fig3.5.2
Specifications of DC Motor
PageNo:22
Fig3.5.3
DC Gear Motor
PageNo:23
Fig3.5.4
Movement of Wheel based on motor
PageNo:26
Fig3.6.1
Pin Diagram
PageNo:27
Fig3.6.2
Duty Cycle
PageNo:28
Fig3.7.1
Circuit Diagram
PageNo:29
Fig3.7.2
Hardware Connections
PageNo:30
Fig4.1.1
Stimulation Circuit
PageNo:36
Fig4.1.2
Output(Case-1)
PageNo:37
Fig4.1.3
Output(Case-2)
PageNo:38
Fig4.1.4
Output(Case-3)
PageNo:39
vii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1
1. Introduction:
When compared with olden days life span of human is reduced. Death rate due to accident
is drastically increased because vehicles usage is increasing by day byday. Due to brake failure so many
accidents are occurring so when we control the brake by automatically we can reduce the effect of accident
The main target of the ultrasonic braking system is that, vehicles should automatically brake when the sensors
sense the obstacle. This is a technology for automobiles to sense an imminent forward collision with another
vehicle or an obstacle, and to brake the vehicle accordingly, which is done by the braking circuit. This system
includes two ultrasonic sensors viz. ultrasonic wave emitter and ultrasonic wave receiver. The ultrasonic wave
emitter provided in front portion of an automatic braking system vehicle, producing and emitting ultrasonic
waves in a predetermined distance in front of the vehicle. Ultrasonic wave receiver is also provided in front
portion of the vehicle, receiving the reflected ultrasonic wave signal from the obstacle. The reflected wave
(detection pulse) is measured to get the distance between vehicle and the obstacle. The DC gear motor is
connected to the wheels of vehicle and power input is given to it from Arduino board. Then microcontroller is
used to control the Dc motor based on detection pulse information and the motor in turn automatically controls
the braking of the vehicle. Thus, this new system is designed to solve the problem where drivers may not be able
to brake manually exactly at the required time, but the vehicle can stop automatically by sensing the obstacles to
avoid an accident.
2
Fig 1.1 Smart vehicle braking system
3
CHAPTER – 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
We have used the word Target detection in our project. Generally, we use such words in military applications.
But here in our project, this word plays a crucial role.
Target detection is the word which means identifying a target in regular use.
Here, in our project the main concern is about avoiding the accidents by calculating the distance from nearest
objects/vehicles. So, in order to detect an obstacle/object/vehicle we can use many sensors and components. But
we used Ultrasonic Sensor which identifies any object by sending and receiving ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic
sensor generally consists of a transmitter and receiver .The transmitter part transmits ultrasonic sonic waves.
Later,the receiver receives the ultrasonic signal.The sensor analyzes the received signal and by comparing the
transmitted and received signal,it identifies whether it has touched any obstacle/vehicle/object in the mean
while.If any thing is being identified,it calculates the distance from the sensor to where it is situated.In this way,it
identifies the target and also calculates the distance between them and gives us the output on the arduino Screen.
Another important term used is speed controlling.
Based on the distance calculated above, the device needs to control its speed in order to obtain the proper
output.We are using a motor driver to control the speed of the motor.Generally, a motor can turned on or off with
the help of a relay.But,here as we have to obtain many things like reducing the speed,making the speed zero by
automatically applying the breaks.The speed needs not be changed if the object/vehicle is situated far away.This
motor driver based on the distance measured controls the speed of the motor.
5
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAS AND METHODOLOGY
6
3.1. Approach:
First of all, We need to interface ultrasonic sensor and other components with the microcontroller(Arduino). So
that the microcontroller can control the devices.Initially we have to set the instructions for the microcontroller
regarding the readings of different sensor in order to control the DC gear motor .
The Ultrasonic Sensor generates a signal with particular frequency.It is transmitted through ultrasonic
transmitter. The ultrasonic receiver is used to receive the reflected wave present in front of the vehicle, then the
reflected waves is given to the ultrasonic wave generator unit in which the incoming wave is amplified and
compared with reference signals to maintain a constant ratio and this signal is given to microcontroller and
through which the working of DC gear motor will takes place, which results in application of brakes and
controlling of speed.
Block Diagram :
Fig 3.1.1 Block diagram
7
Hardware Components :

Arduino UNO

Ultrasonic Sensor

Buzzer

Dc motor

L293D Motor Driver IC
3.2 Arduino UNO:
Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists of both a physical
programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated
Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and upload computer code to the physical
board.
The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with electronics, and for good
reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the Arduino does not need a separate piece of
hardware (called a programmer) in order to load new code onto the board – you can simply use a USB cable.
Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn to program. Finally,
Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a more
accessible package.
Fig 3.2.1 Arduino UNO
8
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 20 digital input/output pins (of
which 6 can be used as PWM outputs and 6 can be used as analog inputs), a 16 MHz resonator, a USB
connection, a power jack, an in-circuit system programming (ICSP) header, and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer (or appropriate wall power
adapter) with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware and software. It consists of a
circuit board, which can be programed (referred to as a microcontroller) and a ready-made software called
Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is used to write and upload the computer code to
the physical board.
The key features are:

Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different sensors and turn it into an
output such as activating a motor, turning LED on/off, connect to the cloud and many other actions.


You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board
via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software).


Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra piece of hardware
(called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto the board. You can simply use a USB cable.


Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn to program.

Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions of the micro-controller into a

more accessible package.
9
Fig 3.2.2
Schematic Diagram
Pin Description of Arduino UNO :The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of
which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power
jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. Each of the 14 digital pins can be used as an input or output, using pin
Mode(), digital Write (), and digital Read () functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive
20 mA as recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 2050k ohm. A maximum of 40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent
damage to the microcontroller.In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
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•
Serial: 0(RX) and 1(TX). Used to receive (RX) and Transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
•
External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a
rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
•
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write() function.
•
SPI: 10(SS), 11(MOSI), 12(MISO), 13(SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
•
•
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13.
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the wire library.
The UNO has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution. By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, through is it possible to change the upper end of their
range using the AREF pin and the analog Reference () function.
There are a couple of other pins on the board.
•
 AREF Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference.
•
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields
which block the one on the board.
Arduino UNO board is used in the following applications
●
Weighing Machines.
●
Traffic Light Count Down Timer.
●
Parking Lot Counter.
●
Embedded systems.
●
Home Automation.
●
Industrial Automation.
●
Medical Instrument.
●
Emergency Light for Railways
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3.3. UltraSonic Sensor:
Ultrasonic ranging and detecting devices use high-frequency sound waves to detect the presence of an object and
its range. The systems either measure the echo reflection of the sound from objects or detect the interruption of
the sound beam as the objects pass between the transmitter and receiver.
Fig 3.3.1 UltraSonic Sensor
ULTRASONIC SENSOR
An ultrasonic sensor typically utilizes a transducer that produces an electrical output in response to received
ultrasonic energy. The normal frequency range for human hearing is roughly 20 to 20,000 hertz. Ultrasonic
sound waves are soundwaves that are above the range of human hearing and thus, have a frequency above about
20,000 hertz. Any frequency above 20,000 hertz may be considered ultrasonic. Most industrial processes,
including almost all source of friction, create some ultrasonic noise.
The ultrasonic transducer produces ultrasonic signals. These signals are propagated through a sensing medium
and the same transducer can be used to detect returning signals. Ultrasonic sensors typically have a piezoelectric
ceramic transducer that converts an excitation electrical signal into ultrasonic energy bursts. The energy bursts
12
travel from the ultrasonic sensor, bounce off objects, and are returned toward the sensor as echoes. Transducers
are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, or vice versa. The transducer converts received
echoes into Analog electrical signals that are output from the transducer.
Fig 3.3.2 Detection of object through ultrasonic waves
Ultrasonic sensing and control:
Ultrasonic signals are like audible sound waves, except the frequencies are much higher. Our ultrasonic
transducers have piezoelectric crystals which resonate to a desired frequency and convert electric energy into
acoustic energy and vice versa. The illustration shows how sound waves, transmitted in the shape of a cone, are
reflected from a target back to the transducer. An output signal is produced to perform some kind of indicating or
control function. A minimum distance from the sensor is required to provide a time delay so that the "echoes"
can be interpreted. Variables which can affect the operation of ultrasonic sensing include, target surface
angle, reflective surface roughness or changes in temperature or humidity. The targets can have any kind of
reflective form - even round objects.
Calculation of distance in Cm:
Sound travels at approximately 340 meters per second. This corresponds to about 29.412µs (microseconds) per
centimeter. To measure the distance the sound has travelled we use the formula: Distance = (Time x
13
SpeedOfSound) / 2. The "2" is in the formula because the sound has to travel back and forth. First the sound
travels away from the sensor, and then it bounces off of a surface and returns back. The easy way to read the
distance as centimeters is to use the formula: Centimeters = ((Microseconds / 2) / 29). For example, if it takes
100µs (microseconds) for the ultrasonic sound to bounce back, then the distance is ((100 / 2) / 29) centimeters or
about 1.7 centimeters.
Fig 3.3.3 Calculation of Distance
Pin Description :It consists of 4 pins.
• VCC - The Vcc pin powers the sensor, typically with +5V
• GND - This pin is connected to the Ground of the system.
• Echo - Echo pin is an Output pin. This pin goes high for a period of time which will be equal to the time
taken for the US wave to return back to the sensor.
• Trigger - Trigger pin is an Input pin. This pin has to be kept high for 10us to initialize measurement by
sending us wave.
14
HC-SR04 Sensor Features:• Operating voltage: +5V
• Theoretical Measuring Distance: 2cm to 450cm
• Practical Measuring Distance: 2cm to 80cm
• Accuracy: 3mm
• Measuring angle covered: <15°
• Operating Current: <15mA
• Operating Frequency: 40Hz
Advantages of Ultrasonic Sensors:• Not affected by color or transparency of Objects
• Can be used in dark environments
• Low-cost option
• Not affected by dust and High-Moisture Environments
• Ultrasonic sensors are easy to use and not dangerous to nearby peoples, objects or equipment
• Ultrasonic Sensors easily interface with microcontrollers or any type of controller
Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors: -
● Roll diameter, tension control, winding and unwind
● Liquid level control
● Through beam detection for high-speed counting
● Full detection
● Thread or wire break detection
● Stacking height control
● 45° Deflection; inkwell level detection; hard to get at places
● People detection for counting
● Contouring or profiling using ultrasonic systems
15
● Irregular parts detection for hoppers and feeder bowls
● Presence detection
● Box sorting using multi-transducer ultrasonic monitoring system.
●
Robotic sensing
3.4 Buzzer:
An audio signaling device like a beeper or buzzer may be electromechanical or piezoelectric or mechanical type.
The main function of this is to convert the signal from audio to sound. Generally, it is powered through DC
voltage and used in timers, alarm devices, printers, alarms, computers, etc. Based on the various designs, it can
generate different sounds like alarm, music, bell & siren
Fig 3.4.1 Buzzer
The pin configuration of the buzzer is shown below. It includes two pins namely positive and negative. The
positive terminal of this is represented with the ‘+’ symbol or a longer terminal. This terminal is powered
through 6Volts whereas the negative terminal is represented with the ‘-‘symbol or short terminal and it is
connected to the GND terminal.
A buzzer is an efficient component to include the features of sound in our system or project. It is an extremely
small & solid two-pin device thus it can be simply utilized on breadboard or PCB. So in most applications, this
component is widely used.
16
There are two kinds of buzzers commonly available like simple and readymade. Once a simple type is powerdriven then it will generate a beep sound continuously. A readymade type looks heavier & generates a Beep.
Beep. Beep. This sound is because of the internal oscillating circuit within it.
This buzzer uses a DC power supply that ranges from 4V – 9V. To operate this, a 9V battery is used but it is
suggested to utilize a regulated +5V/+6V DC supply. Generally, it is connected through a switching circuit to
switch ON/OFF the buzzer at the necessary time interval.
Buzzer Circuit Diagram:-
The circuit diagram of the water level indicator using the buzzer is shown below. This circuit is used to sense
or detect the water level within the tank or washing machine or pool, etc. This circuit is very simple to design
using few components such as a transistor, buzzer, 300K variable resistor, and power supply or 9V battery.
Fig 3.4.2 Circuit diagram of buzzer
Once the two probes of the circuit are placed in the tank, it detects the level of water. Once the water level
exceeds the fixed level, then it generates a beep sound through a buzzer connected to the circuit. This circuit uses
a BC547B NPN transistor owever we can also use any general-purpose transistor instead of using
2N3904/2N2222.
This water level sensor circuit working is very simple and the transistor used within the circuit works as a
switch. Once the two probes notice the water level within the tank, then the transistor turns ON & the voltage
begins flowing throughout the transistor to trigger the buzzer
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There are many ways to communicate between the user and a product. One of the best ways is audio
communication using a buzzer IC. So during the design process, understanding some technologies with
configurations is very helpful. So, this article discusses an overview of an audio signaling device like a beeper or
a buzzer and its working with applications.
Specifications:The specifications of the buzzer include the following.
Color is black
The frequency range is 3,300Hz
Operating Temperature ranges from – 20° C to +60°C
Operating voltage ranges from 3V to 24V DC
The sound pressure level is 85dBA or 10cm
The supply current is below 15mA
Applications:The applications of the buzzer include the following.
Communication Devices
Electronics used in Automobiles
Alarm Circuits
Portable Devices
Security Systems
Timers
Household Appliances
Electronic Metronomes
Sporting Events
Annunciator Panels
Game Shows
18
3.5 DC Gear Motor:
DC geared motors are essentially a DC shunt motor which has been specially designed for low inertia,
symmetrical rotation and smooth low-speed characteristics. Geared motor is a motor with a closed feedback
system in which the position of the motor will be communicated back to the control circuit in the motors. Geared
motors are formed from four different elements: a DC motor, a position-sensing device (a potentiometer), a gear
reducing part and a control unit. All of these components work together to make the motor to accept control
signals that represent the desired output of the motor shaft and power the DC motor until its shaft is turned to the
right position. The shaft in geared motors doesn’t rotate as freely as those in regular DC motors; it is only able to
rotate around 200 degrees in both directions. The position- sensing device in a geared motor determines the
rotation of the shaft and thus the way he motor needs to turn in order to arrive at the desired position. The sliding
mode control is robust to plant uncertainties and insensitive to external disturbances. It is commonly used to get
good dynamic performance of controllable systems. Even then, the chattering phenomena due to the finite speed
of the switching devices can affect the system behaviour significantly. Besides, the sliding control needs the
knowledge of mathematical model of the system with bounded uncertainties. Reduced chattering may be
achieved without sacrificing robust performance by combining the attractive
Fig:- 3.5.1 DC Motor
Specifications of DC gear Motor
DC Gear Motor
19
Fig : 3.5.2 Specifications of DC Motor
DC Motor:
A direct current (DC) motor is a type of electric machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. DC motors take electrical power through direct current, and convert this
energy into mechanical rotation.
‘
DC motors use magnetic fields that occur from the electrical currents generated, which powers
the movement of a rotor fixed within the output shaft. The output torque and speed depends upon
both the electrical input and the design of the motor.
DC motors utilise magnetic fields to process electrical energy into mechanical energy, and by
using brushless motors, DC motor ceiling fans can be operated from standard household AC
electricity. The only real downside to the DC motor fan is its cost, but the energy savings easily
offset this.
Although fans traditionally use AC motors, there are an increasing number of DC motor ceiling fans hitting the
market. These fans are gaining in popularity as they are far more economical than their AC equivalent, thanks to
the way in which they operate.
20
Fig 3.5.3 DC Gear Motor
Application of DC Series motor
DC series motor is suitable for both high and low power drives, for fixed and variable speed electric drives.
This type of motor has simple construction. Also, it is easy for design and maintenance.
Because of its high starting torque, this motor uses in the cheap toys and automotive applications such as,
•Cranes
•Air compressor
•Lifts
•Elevators
•Winching system
•Electric traction
•Hair drier
•Vacuum cleaner and in speed regulation application
•power tools
•Sewing machine
•Electric footing
Application of DC Shunt motor
We all know that Dc shunt motor provides the constant speed. This type of motor mostly uses in the constant
speed application from no load to full load. The applications are,
•Wiper
21
•Automatic windscreen
•Drills
•Conveyors
•Fans
•Boring mills
•Shapers
•Blowers
•Spinning and weighing machine
•Centrifugal pumps
Application of Permanent Magnet DC motor
The permanent magnet DC motor is the special type of motor where we use a permanent magnet to create the
required magnetic field. As this motor does not need to control the speed, it uses in the applications like,
•Washer
•Windshield wiper
•Automobiles as a starter motor
•Personal computer disc drives
•Toys
•Wheelchairs
•Blowers in heater and air conditioners.
Application of Compound DC motor
As we discussed, there are two types of Compound DC motor. One is Differential and other is Cumulative
compound motor. The differential compound motor has poor torque characteristics because the motor increases
the speed with increase in load. so this motor is not suitable for any practical application.
On the other hand, the cumulative compound motor has high starting torque characteristic. Also, it has good
speed regulation at high speed so it uses in,
•Presses
•Electric shovels
•Reciprocating machine
•Conveyors
•Stamping machine
22
•Elevators
•Compressors
•Rolling mills
•Heavy planners
Application of Brushless DC motor
As the brushless motor does not have any brushes, it has high efficiency, high speed and electronic control.
Mostly this motor uses in the,
•Hand held power tools
•Consumer electronics
•Heating and ventilation
•for small cooling fans
•Transport
•Vehicles ranging from aircrafts to automobiles
•For gramophone record in direct drive turntables
•In computer peripherals like disk drives, printers etc
Fig 3.5.4 Movement of wheel based on motor
3.6 L293D Motor Driver IC :
The L293D is a popular 16-Pin Motor Driver IC. As the name suggests it is mainly used to drive motors. A
single L293D IC is capable of running two DC motors at the same time; also the direction of these two motors
can be controlled independently. So if you have motors which has operating voltage less than 36V and operating
23
current less than 600mA, which are to be controlled by digital circuits like Op-Amp, 555 timers,digital gates or
even Micron rollers like Arduino, PIC, ARM etc.. this IC will be the right choice for you.
Fig : 3.6.1 Pin diagram
Working of L293D :
There are 4 input pins for l293d, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15 ,10 on the right as shown on the pin diagram. Left
input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected across left side and right input for motor on the right
hand side. The motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs provided across the input pins as LOGIC 0 or
LOGIC 1.
In simple you need to provide Logic 0 or 1 across the input pins for rotating the motor.
PWM – For controlling speed :
The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by varying its input voltage. A common technique for doing this is to
use PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
PWM is a technique where average value of the input voltage is adjusted by sending a series of ON-OFF pulses.
The average voltage is proportional to the width of the pulses known as Duty Cycle.
24
The higher the duty cycle, the greater the average voltage being applied to the dc motor(High Speed) and the
lower the duty cycle, the less the average voltage being applied to the dc motor(Low Speed).
Fig : 3.6.2 Duty Cycle
Software used:
Arduino IDE:The Arduino IDE is an open-source software, which is used to write and upload code to the Arduino boards. The
IDE application is suitable for different operating systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It supports
the programming languages C and C++. Here, IDE stands for Integrated Development Environment.
25
The program or code written in the Arduino IDE is often called as sketching. We need to connect the Genuino
and Arduino board with the IDE to upload the sketch written in the Arduino IDE software. The sketch is saved
with the extension '.ino.'
The Arduino IDE will appear as:
Arduino IDE
Let's discuss each section of the Arduino IDE display in detail.
Toolbar Button
The icons displayed on the toolbar are New, Open, Save, Upload, and Verify.
It is shown below:
Arduino IDE
Upload
The Upload button compiles and runs our code written on the screen. It further uploads the code to the connected
board. Before uploading the sketch, we need to make sure that the correct board and ports are selected.
We also need a USB connection to connect the board and the computer. Once all the above measures are done,
click on the Upload button present on the toolbar.
The latest Arduino boards can be reset automatically before beginning with Upload. In the older boards, we need
to press the Reset button present on it. As soon as the uploading is done successfully, we can notice the blink of
the Tx and Rx LED.
If the uploading is failed, it will display the message in the error window.
We do not require any additional hardware to upload our sketch using the Arduino Bootloader. A Bootloader is
defined as a small program, which is loaded in the microcontroller present on the board. The LED will blink on
PIN 13.
Open
The Open button is used to open the already created file. The selected file will be opened in the current window.
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Save
The save button is used to save the current sketch or code.
New
It is used to create a new sketch or opens a new window.
Verify
The Verify button is used to check the compilation error of the sketch or the written code.
Serial Monitor
The serial monitor button is present on the right corner of the toolbar. It opens the serial monitor.
It is shown below:
Arduino IDE
When we connect the serial monitor, the board will reset on the operating system Windows, Linux, and Mac OS
X. If we want to process the control characters in our sketch, we need to use an external terminal program. The
terminal program should be connected to the COM port, which will be assigned when we connect the board to
the computer.
Menu Bar
File
When we click on the File button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list will appear. It is shown below:
Arduino IDE
Let's discuss each option in detail.
New
The New button opens the new window. It does not remove the sketch which is already present.
Open
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It allows opening the sketch, which can be browsed from the folders and computer drivers.
Open Recent
The Open Recent button contains the list of the recent sketches.
Sketchbook
It stores the current sketches created in the Arduino IDE software. It opens the selected sketch or code in a new
editor at an instance.
Fig 3.6.3 Arduino IDE
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3.7 Circuit Diagram:
Fig 3.7.1 Circuit Diagram
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Hardware Connections:
1.Connect Ground and VCC pins of ultrasonic sensor to the Ground and 5v pins of Arduino respectively.
2. Connect echo(input) pin of ultrasonic to the digital pin 7 of arduino.
3.Connect ground of buzzer to the ground of arduino.
4.Connect the buzzer positive terminal to the digital pin 13 of arduino.
5.Connect the enable pin of L293d driver to the digital pin 3 of Arduino.
6. Connect the motor driver input pins in1 and in2 to the Arduino digital pins 4 and 5
respectively.
7. Connect the supply voltage pin of motor driver to the 5v pin of arduino.
8.Connect the ground pins of motor driver to the ground pin of Arduino.
9..Connect the one output pin of motor driver Ic to the positive terminal of motor and the second
negative terminal .
Fig 3.7.2 Hardware Connections
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pin to the
3.8 Code Implementation :
Ardunio IDE code:
//Initializing the datatypes of variables
long distance=0;
int echo = 7;
int buzz = 13;
int EnableA= 3;
void setup()
{
//setting up the pin modes
pinMode(9,OUTPUT);
pinMode(buzz,OUTPUT);
pinMode(EnableA,3);
}
void loop()
{
long duartion;
pinMode(echo, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(echo, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(echo, HIGH);
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delayMicroseconds(5);
digitalWrite(echo, LOW);
pinMode(echo,INPUT);
duration=pulseIn(echo, HIGH);
distance=(duration/29)/2
Serial.println();
Serial.println(distance);
delay(100);
if(distance<70)
{
analogWrite(EnableA,0);
digitalWrite(4,LOW);
digitalWrite(5,LOW);
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
}
else if(distance>70 && distance<100)
{
analogWrite(EnableA,64);
digitalWrite(4,HIGH);
digitalWrite(5,LOW);
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
}
else if(distance>100 && distance<150){
analogWrite(EnableA,255);
digitalWrite(4,HIGH);
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digitalWrite(5,LOW);
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
}
}
3.9 Working :
The Ultrasonic Sensor generates a signal with particular frequency.It is transmitted through ultrasonic
transmitter. The ultrasonic receiver is used to receive the reflected wave present in front of the vehicle, then the
reflected waves is given to the ultrasonic wave generator unit in which the incoming wave is amplified and
compared with reference signals to maintain a constant ratio and this signal is given to microcontroller and
through which the working of DC gear motor will takes place, which results in application of brakes and
controlling of speed.When the distance is less than 70cm .The motor speed will become zero(Brakes will be
applied so that vehicle will be stopped).The buzzer will show indication by making some sound.When the
distance is greater than 70cm and less than 150cm ,then the motor will run with slow speed(speed of the vehicle
will be reduced as the distance decreases).When the distance is more than 100cm,then the motor will run with
normal speed(The vehicle will maintain its constant speed when the distance between the other vehicles is more
than minimum distance.)
We have made this to reduce accident rates and to make driving safe.The complete project is based in the
working of ultrasonic sensor.Ultra sonic sensor basically works on sensing of the objects through ultra sonic
radiation.The main use of this sensor is to calculate the distance.UltraSonic transmitter transmits Ultraviolet
radiation and it travells and again the ultrasonic sensor
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3.10 Advantages :
● The technology minimises risk of your wheels getting locked up and preventing your vehicle from
skidding,particularly in slippery conditions.
● It helps drivers to maintain control and steer the vehicle to avoid an accident.
● It can stop the vehicle at a shorter distance than the normal brakes,giving the driver better control in
potentially dangerous scenarios,The system also helps avoid uneven tyre wear by preventing the wheels
from locking up.
● Drivers whose cars are equipped with an automatic braking system don’t drive thier cars any differently
than any other car.It is there,but it doesnt bother the driver, and if it comes down to it,it doesn’t even need
driver’s input to react.
● Sadly,only about 40% of driverw react appropriatlely and hit the brakes in crashes.
● It is important to note that the driver “still has the abolity to either push the brake or swerve around.
● “We want to keep the decision to the driver.But only if the driver doesn’t react at all,the final action is
autonomous braking”.
● When it comes to driver’s “sins”,such as distracted driving,inattentiveness,sleepiness,lack of full
concentration or using a mobile phone while driving,and even poor driving conditions,visiblity and road
surface problems, an automatic braking system can not only help reduce property damage in case of an
accident,but more importalnly , save lives.
● The great safety net most of the drivers will probably never use still,it is a comfort for drivers for all
drivers to know that even if they fail in protecting themselves,theor vehicle won’t.
● Automatic braking systems play a huge role in preventing those crashes.Their primarly use in precrash
and collision avoidance systems, and adaptive cruise control.
As we are having many advantages as mentioned above,we have done this project to reduce the accident rates
and to save the lives of people.In the growing world,because of increase in population,the usage of vehicles has
been increased rapildy.Almost,every home will have one or two vehicles.Due to which traffic is being
increased .So,the drivers are loosing patience and are being careless. During night times,the one who drives may
fall asleep or might be in a situation where he can’t control the vehicle.In all such cases,accidents occur and
many people will loose their lives.So,in order to avoid these accidents and to protect the lives of people,we have
implemented this project.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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4.1 Simulation Results:-
Fig 4.1.1 Simulation circuit
We have simulated this circuit with the help of tinker cad.
Tinkercad is a free-of-charge, online 3D modeling program that runs in a web browser.Since it became available
in 2011 it has become a popular platform for creating models for 3D printing as well as an entry-level
introduction to constructive solid geometry in schools
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Tinkercad uses a simplified constructive solid geometry method of constructing models. A design is made up of
primitive shapes that are either "solid" or "hole". Combining solids and holes together, new shapes can be
created, which in turn can be assigned the property of solid or hole.In addition to the standard library of
primitive shapes, a user can create custom shape generators using a built-in JavaScript editor.
Shapes can be imported in three formats: STL and OBJ for 3D, and 2-dimensional SVG shapes for extruding
into 3D shapes. Tinkercad exports models in STL or OBJ formats, ready for 3D printing.
Tinkercad also includes a feature to export 3D models to Minecraft Java Edition, and also offers the ability to
design structures using Lego bricks.

When the distance is less than 70cm .The motor speed will become zero(Brakes will be applied so that
vehicle will be stopped).The buzzer will show indication by making some sound.
Fig 4.1.2 Output (Case -1)
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
When the distance is greater than 70cm and less than 150cm ,then the motor will run with slow
speed(speed of the vehicle will be reduced as the distance decreases).
Fig 4.1.3 Output(Case -2)

When the distance is more than 100cm,then the motor will run with normal speed(The vehicle will
maintain its constant speed when the distance between the other vehicles is more than minimum
distance.).
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Fig: 4.1.4 Output(Case 3)
The above three mentioned are the three sample cases to explain the boundaries of the project.
It clearly explains how the sensor detects the object,calculates the distance and based on that how will the motor
react is the major consideration.
So,based on the distance limits set by us ,the motor will act accordingly.
Here,the safety distance has been set to 70 cm.
So,if any object is identified with an distance of 70 cm,the device will apply the breaks automatically and the
motor speed will be reduced to zero.It also alerts the people by using buzzer.
If the object is in between 70-100 cm,it reduces the speed of the vehicle by using motor driver
If the object is in a distance which is greater than 10 cm,there will be no change in the motor driver and circuit.
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CHAPTER – 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
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5.1 Conclusion :
We have been working on the fabrication of automatic braking system model prototype and this project
presents the implementation of an Smart Braking System for Forward Collision Avoidance, intended to use in
vehicles where the drivers may not brake manually, but the speed of the vehicle can be reduced automatically
due to the sensing of the obstacles. It reduces the accident levels and tends to save the lives of so many people.
By doing this project practically we gained the knowledge about working of automatic braking system and with
this future study and research, we hope to develop the system into an even more advanced speed control system
for automobile safety, while realizing that this certainly requires tons of work and learning, like the programming
and operation of microcontrollers and the automobile structure. Hence we believe that the incorporation of all
components in Smart Braking System will maximize safety and also give such system a bigger market space and
a competitive edge in the market.
5.2 Future Scope:
The future scope is to design and develop a control system based on an automotive braking system is called
“Smart vehicle Braking System”. The Automatic Braking System with ultrasonic sensor would alert the driver
when the distance between vehicle and obstacle is in within the sensing range zone then the brakes are applied.
This is the new function in this prototype design that could be possibly used for all the vehicles. By making it
safer, this system will provide better guarantee for vehicle’s safety and avoid losses. Therefore, the safety system
of vehicles will be developed and may have more market demands.
It can be further used for large type of heavy vehicles like buses, trucks, cranes, tractors, etc. We can surely get
the information about the obstacle detection sense zone according to vehicle condition. It is verily useful to
public sector and users. It is also avoids the accidents in large or metropolitan cities. So we feel it is a better idea
for automatically braking of vehicle with moderate cost.
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5.3 References :
[1]. https://ijisrt.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Automatic-Braking-System-Using-Ultrasonic-Sensor.pdf
[2]. https://www.arduino.cc/
[3]. Arduino : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino
[4]. Ultrasonic Sensor: https://learn.adafruit.com/ultrasonic-sonar-distance-sensors/pinouts
[5]. L293D Motor Driver : https://components101.com/ics/l293d-pinout-features-datasheet
[6]. Geared DC motor: https://www.engineersgarage.com/insight-how-geared-dc-motor-works/
[7] Tinker Cad : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinkercad
https://www.tinkercad.com/
[8]Buzzer : https://www.elprocus.com/buzzer-working-applications/
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CHAPTER 6
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX-I
Abbreviations:IDE-Integrated Development Environment
LED-Light Emitting Diode
USB-Universal Service Bus
AREF- Analog Reference
Tx - Transmitter
Rx - Receiver
ICSP - In Circuit Serial Programming
RST - Reset pin
GND - Ground pin
Hz - Hertz
DC - Direct Current
mm – Milli metre
Gm-Grams
RPM-Revolutions Per Minute
Kg-Kilograms
Cm- Centi metre
V-Volts
AC-Alternating Current
IC- Intergrated Circuit
mA- milli Amperes
Op-Amp – Operational Amplifier
PIC-Peripheral Interface Controller
PWM- Pulse Width Modulation
IDE – Integrated Development Environment
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APPENDIX-II
Micro Controller – An integrated circuit that contains a microprocessor along with memory and associated
circuits and that controls some or all of the functions of an electronic device (such as a home appliance) or
system.
USB cable - The term USB stands for "Universal Serial Bus". USB cable assemblies are some of the most
popular cable types available, used mostly to connect computers to peripheral devices such as cameras,
camcorders, printers, scanners, and more. Devices manufactured to the current USB Revision 3.0 specification
are backward compatible with version 1.1.
Analog signal - Analog signals can be defined as continuous signals whose time-varying features (also known
as their variables or their variable features) are representations of some other time-varying quantity. In other
words, analog signals are analogous to some other time-varying signal. An example of an analog signal is an
analog audio signal.
Digital Signal - A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values;at
any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values. This contrasts with an analog signal, which
represents continuous values; at any given time it represents a real number within a continuous range of values.
Embedded Systems - An embedded system is a microprocessor-based computer hardware system with software
that is designed to perform a dedicated function, either as an independent system or as a part of a large system.
At the core is an integrated circuit designed to carry out computation for real-time operations.
Potentiometer – A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or
rheostat.
The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name is Potentiometer.
Centrifugal Pump - Centrifugal pumps are devices that are used to transport fluids by the conversion of
rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes
from an electric motor or steam turbine (in case of turbine-driven feedwater pumps). Centrifugal pumps are used
in more industrial applications than any other kind of pump. The most common centrifugal pump is the volute
pump.
Range Detection - Range, or distance, is determined by measuring the total time it takes for the radar signal to
make the round trip to the target and back.
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