– third variable that influences relationship between the
IV and the DV. It is a mechanism that describes how two things are
related.
the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors
o
Internal (dispositional) or External (situational)
o
Causal attributions – help people understand their social and
political environments
- Having to do with any of the 22
numbered pairs of chromosomes found in most human cells.
Autosomal chromosomes are numbered 1-22 (Sex-linked & sexlimited)
- X and Y chromosomes ONLY determine
whether an individual is male or female and are not considered
autosomal chromosomes. Inherited traits
- genes that are present in both sexes of sexually
reproducing species but are expressed in only one sex and have no
penetrance or are simply 'turned off' in the other. i.e., facial hair in
men or breasts in women
– a measure of how well differences in people's genes
account for differences in their traits. Inherited traits
– experiences that could turn on or turn off activities of
certain genes. the study of how your behaviors and environment can
cause changes that affect the way your genes work. Unlike genetic
changes, epigenetic changes are reversible and do not change your
DNA sequence, but they can change how your body reads a DNA
sequence.
MARRIAGE & TESTOSTERONE ARTICLE
When we talk about marriage, we cannot underestimate the
contribution of the physiological factor, higher-than-normal
testosterone levels. We are basically indicating one to two standard
deviations above the mean
pg. 464
There has been a well-established relationship between
testosterone and _______ behavior
antisocial
More testosterone = aggressive & impulsive behavior, pleasure
seeking (1-2 standard deviations above the mean)
This article incorporated sociological (poor marriage material,
socioeconomic status, and age) and psychological variables as they
interact with physiological variable (testosterone) to examine or
evaluate marital quality.
pg. 465
A related sociological perspective suggests that low marital quality and stability come about because
one or both of the partners is poor marriage material, which involves such factors as alcohol abuse,
being in trouble with the law, and unemployment. Respondent accounts of their own divorces
frequently cite such factors as instrumental in the dissolution of their marriages (Cleek & Pearson
1985; Kitson & Sussman 1982). Data indicate that men with high levels of testosterone are more apt
to have irregular work histories, report encounters with the law, and suffer from alcohol abuse
Dabbs & Morris 1990). In this case we are hypothesizing that any relation between testosterone and
marital quality is entirely or in part accounted for by men's behavioral problems.
The direct findings - Testosterone had a negative relation to
marriage. More testosterone less likely to get married. pg. 467
For example, the likelihood of never marrying is 50% higher for men
one standard deviation above the mean compared to those that are
one standard deviation below the mean. Comparing men at the same
two levels on other marital variables, we find that men at the higher
level are 43% more likely to have divorced, 31% more likely to have
separated because they were not getting along, 38% more likely to
have had extramarital sex, and 12% more likely to have hit their
wives.
Age predicts lower testosterone which will be predicted better marriage
IV AGE
DV Better marriage quality
2
3 indirect findings
age, SES (socioeconomic status), poor marriage material
pg. 465
This change in behavior has been attributed to a decline in testosterone production, but we are not
familiar with a study demonstrating that an age associated decline in testosterone production is
followed by a decline in pugnaciousness. We hypothesize that the relation between age and higher
marital quality is due to a decline in testosterone production.
pg. 465
We begin our analysis by examining whether testosterone is related to the formation and dissolution
of marriages and the quality of men's marriages. This is followed by an exploration of the nature of
the relationship, whether any effects found occur only at very high levels of testosterone production,
or whether the trend is linear. We then go on to explore how three sociological models of marital
quality and stability may be informed by a knowledge of testosterone.
How was poor marriage material operationally
defined?
alcohol abuse/substance abuse, poor work record
Poor marriage material is the final model tested here. We propose that alcohol abuse, being in
trouble with the law, and a poor work record (factors associated with testosterone production)
mediate the effect of testosterone on marital success after controlling for age. A comparison of
columns 1 and 3 in Table 4 indicate that this is the case; the testosterone-marital adversity coefficient
is reduced by 28% when the marriage material variables are added to the equation. As with the other
3
sociological models tested, marriage material and testosterone continue to have independent effects
on marital adversity.
Using a large sample of former servicemen, our analysis shows that men with higher testosterone
production report being less likely to marry and more likely to divorce. Once married this type of
individual is more likely to leave home because he is having trouble getting along with his wife, more
likely to have extramarital sex, more likely to report hitting or throwing things at his wife, and more
likely to experience a lower quality of spousal interaction. The negative relationship between
testosterone and marital success is a simple linear gradient. There was no evidence of a threshold
effect.
Three sociological correlates of marital success were examined to see if knowledge of them is
extended with information about testosterone. It is clear that testosterone has direct effects as well
as indirect effects through the correlates of marital success and that both of these have independent
effects in the sense that they make statistically significant and unique contributions to marital quality
and stability. We conclude that leaving testosterone out of the analysis not only results in lower
levels of explained variance but may cause models to be estimated incorrectly. Sociologists who seek
to understand marital success should be aware of the effects of testosterone.
What would be a reason for young couples to divorce
more?
high testosterone, pleasure seeking unable to keep exclusive
relationship.
All the proposed marriage-testosterone models rest on the assumption that testosterone-stimulated
behavior is relatively uncontrolled. As creatures of culture, successful members of society control
their impulses. Testosterone related impulses are no exception. Since testosterone levels are
established early in life, we propose that the control of testosterone related impulses is learned early
in life. The research shows very consistently that offspring of parents who provide a great deal of
support and a moderate amount of control have a stronger internal locus of control, have more
advanced moral development, and exhibit more considerate and altruistic behavior than offspring of
parents who do not (see, e.g., Maccoby & Martin 1983 for a review). On the basis of this research,
we would expect high-testosterone individuals who received extensive parental support and who
were subject to moderate parental control to have greater marital success than high-testosterone
individuals who did not.
If their parents exerted control effectively, high-testosterone individuals may have very successful
marriages. Certainly, many high-testosterone men in our sample were happily married. Perhaps
testosterone-stimulated aggressive impulses may become initiative and sensation seeking may
become efforts to broaden knowledge and experience. High-testosterone individuals whose parents
provided extensive support and moderate control may take an even more active role in being
4
thoughtful and caring spouses than low-testosterone individuals, a possibility that must await
another study for exploration.
BREAST CANCER ARTICLE
What % of cancer is due to heritability?
5-10%
What genes are associated with breast cancer?
BRCA1 & BRCA2
If you have the genetic mutation what is your lifetime
risk of getting breast or ovarian cancer?
mutation in a breast – chances of BRCA1(2) 43-84% CBC
(contralateral breast cancer)
- (contralateral prophylactic mastectomy) BRCA1 & BRCA2 (genes)
to protect you from getting breast cancer
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS
women younger than 50 elected (age was a factor) <50
o if you have a family history of breast cancer and/or
ovarian cancer that will increase the likelihood of
choosing mastectomy
o Education was a predictor
o educational level
•
Women remove the opposite breast (CPM) because there is a
65% lifetime risk of contracting breast cancer in opposite
breast
•
314 total had breast cancer of those 70 elected preventative
surgeries (23%)
Gay Gene Article
5
Genetic essentialism fosters a strong link between genes and behavior, and that association implies
predetermined, immutable behavior. Many supporters of gay rights evoke immutability arguments,
implying homosexuals have no choice and thus cannot be morally denounced. This line of argument
generates favorable feelings toward homosexuals and support for gay marriage (Haider-Markel and
Joslyn, 2008). However, there are occasional rumblings within the gay and lesbian community about
these tactics and an awareness that some biologically caused traits can change (Halley, 1994). In
addition, an important implication of immutability beliefs is the absence of a remedy for perceived
biological differences (Suhay and Jayaratne, 2012). As Dar-Nimrod and Heine (2010) observed: “If
the genes are present, the outcome is expected.” In this way genetic determinism could, in some
instances, strengthen the status quo or produce unanticipated consequences (Hegarty, 2002).
6
For decades, scientists offered theories about the hereditary or congenital nature of homosexuality.
Hereditary theories were reasonably popular in the early 20th century, but then diminished
somewhat in the 1970s and 1980s. However, in the 1990s, a flurry of scientific studies revived
interest in the biological basis of homosexuality and the nature versus nurture debate generally. The
most prominent study by Hamer et al. (1993) claimed to have identified a genetic marker that
accounted for male homosexuality. The specific genetic marker (Xq28), which contains hundreds of
genes, became known as the “gay gene”, and attracted widespread media attention. The news
media were cautiously optimistic, noting the research needed replication but also highlighting the
potential implications that “naturalizing” homosexuality could bring such as less discrimination (see
Conrad and Markens, 2001 for review of media coverage). Gay rights activists were lifted by the
science, asserting that if sexual orientation could be shown to be genetic, then homosexuality was
natural, not chosen, and therefore the individual would not immediately be blamed for his or her
behavior (Weiner, Perry, and Magnusson, 1988; Weiner, Osborne, and Rudolph, 2011). A few
writers expressed concern that a gay gene might invite tinkering with the genetic code or testing for
such genes during pregnancy. Alternative perspectives underscored the impact and reach of the gay
gene science in public discourse and the immutability implied by genetic causes. However,
environmental causes of homosexuality, while apparent in public debate, did not appear to stir the
political and social context as did the emergence of genetic evidence (Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2010).
In summary, it appears that a biological basis for homosexuality enhances favorable attitudes and
behaviors toward gays and lesbians. Public debate about sexual orientation turns on biology and
choice. Because genetics is contrasted with choice, where choice would imply blame for a
stigmatized condition, biological accounts function as a rationale for reducing hostility toward gays
and lesbians and increase positive perspectives. We therefore anticipate respondents who endorse
genetic attributions for sexual orientation are more likely to perceive homosexuality as an immutable
characteristic and utilize stereotypic beliefs to describe homosexual behavior. In explaining sexual
orientation, genetic attributions should also encourage positive stereotypes of homosexuals and
deter negative ones.
Table 1 shows the data from 2003 and 2012 Pew Center Surveys. In 2003, 32.2 percent selected
genetics, 13.7 percent one’s upbringing, and choice was the highest cause at 39.8 percent. So the
biological attribution represents nearly a third of respondents, and nearly 54 percent attribute
homosexuality to situational causes—upbringing and choice. In 2012, about 44 percent chose the
“born with” statement, 12 percent believed that one’s upbringing was responsible, and
approximately 32 percent attributed homosexuality to personal choice. Thus, among those in 2012
willing to assign a cause to homosexuality, disregarding the Don’t Know category, respondents split
nearly evenly as 49.8 percent believed genetics was responsible and 50.2 percent attributed
homosexuality to environmental factors—choice and upbringing. Sample differences between 2003
and 2012 reflect the growing popularity of the genetic attribution, which increased by approximately
11 percent.
The logistic estimates in Table 3 support our theoretical expectations. First, independent of other
individual-level demographics and relevant beliefs, genetic attribution is a significant predictor of
7
immutability (b = 2.62, p < 0.01). Those respondents who believe genetics is the cause of
homosexuality are substantially more likely to also believe that homosexuality cannot be changed.
Second, the marginal effects column, which represents the influence of a discrete change in an
independent variable from 0 to 1 on the dependent variable, while holding other variables at their
modal/median level, underscores the relative strength of genetic attribution.
The logistic estimates in Table 3 support our theoretical expectations. First, independent of other
individual-level demographics and relevant beliefs, genetic attribution is a significant predictor of
immutability (b = 2.62, p < 0.01). Those respondents who believe genetics is the cause of
homosexuality are substantially more likely to also believe that homosexuality cannot be changed.
Second, the marginal effects column (dy/dx), which represents the influence of a discrete change in
an independent variable from 0 to 1 on the dependent variable, while holding other variables at their
modal/median level, underscores the relative strength of genetic attribution.
The unfavorable stereotypical judgments referencing unhappiness (b = −0.46, p < 0.00) and unstable
relationships (b = −0.31, p < 0.00) are inversely related to genetic attributions. That is, respondents
who report genetic attributions are less likely to favor these negative stereotypic judgments and more
likely to report gays and lesbians are “just like other people.” Yet, the favorable stereotype,
concerning the style of gay men, is a preferred description among respondents attributing
homosexuality to genetics (b = 0.69, p < 0.00). Respondents who believe genetics is the cause of
homosexuality are evidently willing to differentiate gay men from heterosexual men on style, a
favorable stereotype about the group, but not so for instability of relationships or unhappiness,
which are less favorable categorizations.
Although it is undoubtedly true that genetic research is pushing the boundaries of what we in fact
know about ourselves, it appears equally true that genetics plays a large role in shaping how we view
others. In this article, we posited that people’s understanding about genetics as a cause for group
behaviors affects perceptions of immutability and stereotypical judgments about such groups. In
particular, we examined causal beliefs about genetic influences on sexual orientation. We
hypothesized that adoption of genetic attributions would shape stereotypical judgments about
homosexuals and beliefs about whether homosexuality can or cannot be changed. We tested
hypotheses by employing individual-level data from three nationally representative surveys. The
analyses led to several important conclusions.
First, when individuals report a genetic attribution, they are significantly more likely to believe there
is a predetermined, immutable outcome. The vast majority of individuals who reported a genetic
explanation also believed homosexuality could not be changed. And among those respondents who
reported environmental factors caused homosexuality, most felt sexual orientation could be
changed. Even after controlling for educational attainment, gender, ideological belief, age, race, and
religiosity, the relationship between genetic attribution and immutability remained strong. This
finding is consistent with recent research that suggests deterministic thinking increases when
subjects are exposed to genetic arguments (Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2010).
8
Second, our findings show that genetic attributions influence stereotypic thinking. In the case of
homosexuality, a genetic attribution seems to remove the locus of control from individual choice.
This makes the behavior that was conventionally perceived as problematic (morally questionable)
less so, thereby changing attitudes about the group behavior; in our case increasing positive
stereotypes about gays and lesbians while also decreasing negative stereotypes. Our findings are
consistent across three different stereotypic judgments about gays and lesbians. And we were able to
replicate these findings with a relatively new survey.
Finally, and more broadly, our results point to the powerful framing influence that a genetic
attribution can have on the way people think about individuals and groups. Although scientific and
medical advances in genetics can give us great hope for the future, the public’s understanding of
biology, and the role of genetics in sexual orientation, appears crucial to maintaining and increasing
support for gays and lesbians.
1. Define attributions and what are the 2 different types of
attributions
o the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors.
o Internal (dispositional) or External (situational)
o Causal attributions – help people understand their social and
political environments
2. Identify the gene that has been associated with
homosexuality.
o Xq28 (X chromosome came from mother)
3. What role does attribution play in explicating the origin of
Homosexuality?
o It’s a key precursor for attitudes toward homosexuality.
4. What is the relationship between stereotypes (favorable vs.
unfavorable) and attribution of homosexuality?
o In general, researchers discovered
that if respondents believed homosexuality had a genetic
basis, prejudice declined, tolerance and positive feelings
toward gays increased, and policies supportive of gays rights
were favored
o In contrast to choose, where the person bears responsibility
and any moral connotations attached to the behavior,
genetics evoke nature and therefore discrimination and
prejudice are less evident.
5. What is the implication of making internal (genetic)
attributions of homosexuality in relation to stereotypes?
o To assert that genetics is the cause not that it is a choice.
“I was born this way” That we cannot anymore change our
sexual orientation or our eye color.
9
What were the 3 dependent variables that defined
stereotypical judgements?
relationship stability, sense of style, happiness
Genetic attribution is a significant predictor of _______
Favorable attributions
– the extent to which people believe that they
themselves as opposed to external forces have control over the
outcome of events in their lives.
-predictors attribution of the causes of an event
to sources internal or external to the self, which may influence
subsequent behavior in relation to that event
What is the difference between locus of control and locus of causality?
Locus of control refers to the determinants of outcomes, whereas
Locus of causality refers to the determinants of behaviors.
Most of your behavior is influenced by the interaction between
experiences (environment) and genetic predisposition.
GENES
- DNA is made up of GCAT (guanine, cytosine, adenine,
and thiamine
– Are alteration in the genetic change in the code.
(mutation = alteration)
– Physical characteristic/observable trait
– Genetic information that predicts that trait
– Genes code for single traits or multiple traits?
10
both. (it’s rare) most traits are the interaction between
many genes.
are segments of DNA
are made up of DNA (23 PAIRS 46 TOTAL)
- forms of genes
- requires presence of only 1 copy for it to be
expressed (it always wins)
only exerts its characteristics in the homozygous
same genes
different genes
Examples of epigenetic changes
Learning new things aids in branching of new dendrites and
axons
While environment plays a bigger role in determining your behavior
and your overall personality despite genetic predisposition, heredity
does play a role.
What evidence do we have as a field of bio psych to
prove that some behaviors are due to heritability?
Twin studies
(For example, adopted children) Even if you inherited
that specific gene (i.e., alcoholism) and you were raised in a family that
is very restrictive or religious, what do you think will happen?
11
Chances are you will be significantly less likely to become
an alcoholic. Because of your environment.
What if we are all raised in the same condition, and
someone turns out to be an alcoholic. (FYI exposed to same
environmental factors, trait was implicated in heritability)
Evidence for heritability
What is a sex-linked gene?
A gene on either the X or Y chromosome.
________ changes alter genetic activity without
replacing any gene or any code.
Epigenetic
Musicians tend to have larger temporal lobe, what is
the percentage?
30%
– responsible for nerve growth factor, aids in
survival of neurons function: branching out of dendrites
A family of proteins
that aids in survival, growth, and function of neurons by aiding in the
impulse process, branching out more dendrites, therefore a better
explanation for depression (recently) low levels BDF. Low levels of BDF
have been indicated in depression (not just serotonin)
Prefrontal and Hippocampus still maturing in early age (risky and
impulsive behavior)
biological (male or female)
psychological/social factors prescribed to men and women by
society
12
The differences are largely accounted by internalized stereotypes,
socialization, and cultural expectations. In lay terms the differences
are learned not innate. There are two school of thoughts that explain
the definitions for the difference between women and men. One
school of thought is social constructionism.
says women and men are different not
because of anatomy, it is by what is constructed by society. Gender is
a thing it’s not something you were born with; it is something that
you learn. Believe gender is fluid (Liberals)
–the theory that women and men are
innately, radically, psychologically, and biologically different. Not
molded by society (Conservative)
What are these ideologies about?
They attempt to explain gender difference. One school of
thought which is social constructionism believes gender is fluid
– a specific characteristic of an individual. Traits can be
determined by genes, environmental factors or by a combination of
both. dichotomy for example black vs white. it is mutually exclusive
to gender i.e., women are emotional
– precursors to female internal structures
– precursors to male internal structures (i.e.,
gonads that will either be testes or ovaries)
– sex determining region on the Y chromosome gene helps the
gonads to become testes
– small tube that transports sperm
(MIH) – Testes produce this. plays a
significant role in sexual differentiation. allows for normal female
structure or development of fallopian tubes, ovaries, etc.
– hormones in males help -> gonads (i.e., Testosterone)
sex limited
13
– hormones in females help -> ovaries (i.e., Estradiol) sex
limited
The differentiation of the external anatomy is largely
determined by the levels of Testosterone? True or False
TRUE
- plays an important role in anatomy development,
menstruation, and sex drive in women. crucial in sexual desire in
women
Erection is dependent on largely by the stimulation of
____ and ____ receptors?
Dopamine D2
Which region of the brain is responsible for sexual
orgasm and erection in men?
Medial pre-optic area/anterior hypothalamus (MPOA/AH)
Which neurotransmitter plays a role in prolonging
erection?
Nitric Oxide
– critical to sexual
development and a healthy reproductive system
– growth of egg that will
ovulate (highest level FSH) at the end of your menstrual cycle
- triggers ovulation
P329 both ER and PR present the surge of FSH and LH so you don’t
ovulate and thicken the mucus of the cervix, makes it harder for
14
sperm to reach egg. if it does reach it prevents it from reaching the
egg.
Estradiol is primarily responsible for sexual desire
True
At what time in a woman’s menstrual cycle do her
estradiol levels increase?
Pre-ovulatory days
When does estradiol decline?
At the end of the cycle
Ovulation 15th day
Men look for age (young women)
Women look for stability
– normalized homosexuality and challenged our
perception of homosexuality.
– primary stress hormone
overdevelopment of the
adrenal gland. The adrenal glands produce important hormones,
including Cortisol, which regulates the body's response to illness or
stress. Excessive production of testosterone in girls
15
– these individuals are boys, genetically (XY)
but they lack androgen receptors (derives testosterone) enables to
activate male development as a result they look like a female
What is another name for androgen insensitivity?
Testicular feminization syndrome
Stress coupled with ______ will increase the probability
that the son will be homosexual.
Alcohol/drinking
Stress + Alcohol in prenatal women = GAY BABY
Stress releases two (2) chemicals that antagonize the
production of Testosterone
Cortisol & endorphins
-Interconnects the
amygdala and connect the left and right hemisphere // if it
interconnects it plays a function or a role in memory, emotions,
speech, hearing, smell play a key role in pain perception or sensation.
– above the optic chiasma, thought to be
concerned with the regulation of physiological circadian rhythms.
Larger in homosexual men
–the
sexually dimorphic nucleus of humans. smaller in homosexual men
fewer antigen receptors & produce less testosterone
16
EMOTIONS DURING SEXUAL ACTIVITY ARTICLE
– Anxious, overwhelming feeling
– lack of happiness
rooted in your attachment style with your parents
The purpose of the present study was to assess the emotional
reactions to a list of automatic thoughts presented to sexually
functional and dysfunctional men and women during sexual activity.
Cognitive Schema of Depression
Pg 492
Regarding the impact of mood, research consistently suggests that depressive affect is negatively
related to sexual arousal.
Previous research using the AT sub-scale has shown that men and women with sexual
dysfunction had significantly more negative automatic thoughts during sexual activity compared
to men and women without sexual difficulties
Specifically, failure and disengagement thoughts, sexual abuse thoughts, and lack of erotic
thoughts were more often endorsed by women with sexual dysfunction relative to controls
whereas erection concern thoughts, failure anticipation thoughts, and lack of erotic thoughts were
more often endorsed by men with sexual dysfunction compared to men without sexual
difficulties
Previous research shown that women and men with
sexual dysfunction had significantly more negative thoughts including
all of the following except ______.
17
She may throw in something that was not discussed (see
below for what WAS discussed)
Thoughts associated with each sex with sexual dysfunction:
Men – erection concern thoughts (am I going to be able to achieve or
maintain an erection) failure and anticipation (I am not going to be
able to please her, etc.) lack of erotic thoughts were more often
endorsed by men with sexual dysfunction.
Women – failure, disengagement, sexual abuse, and lack of erotic
thoughts
pg. 492
We predicted that sexually dysfunctional men and women would report significantly more negative
emotions and less pleasure and satisfaction to automatic thoughts that occurred during sexual
activity compared to men and women without sexual dysfunction.
A total of 376 subjects (MAY ASK THIS)
International index of erectile dysfunction KNOW FOR TEST!!
MALE (5 factors) sexual functioning, sexual desire, orgasmic function, intercourse satisfaction, and
overall satisfaction
FEMALE (6 factors) sexual interest/desire, sexual arousal, lubrication, orgasm, sexual satisfaction,
and sexual pain
pg. 495 Results section Table 2
Sexually dysfunctional women reported, on average, significantly higher scores on the emotional
responses of sadness, disillusion, guilt, and anger
pg. 495 1st column & 2nd column (findings for women)
In order to examine the contribution of each emotional response to distinguish sexually functional
from dysfunctional women, a discriminant analysis was performed. The results confirm the power of
the emotional response during sexual activity in discriminating (differentiating) women with and
without sexual dysfunction. (Whether you are functional or not)
pg. 496 1st column 2nd paragraph (findings for men)
18
Sexually dysfunctional men had significantly higher scores on the emotional responses of sadness,
disillusion, and fear, and significantly lower scores on pleasure and satisfaction.
Confirming that the emotional response to automatic thoughts presented during sexual activity
significantly differentiated sexually dysfunctional from functional men. (Meaning healthy men
showed different emotions compared to unhealthy men)
2nd column (very last sentence before discussion)
This finding supports the strong power of the emotional response during sexual activity to
discriminate between men with and without sexual dysfunction.
pg. 496 1st paragraph in the discussion section recaps what they studied, purpose and hypothesis.
The purpose of the present study was to assess the emotional reactions to a list of automatic
thoughts presented to sexually functional and dysfunctional men and women during sexual activity.
Data supported the important role played by emotional response on sexual dysfunctional processes.
The results showed that both men and women with sexual dysfunction endorsed significantly more
negative emotions and less positive emotions to a list of automatic thoughts during sexual activity.
Men with sexual dysfunction had significantly more emotions of sadness, disillusion, and fear and
less pleasure or satisfaction compared to sexually healthy men. Female data pointed to similar
differences, with women with sexual dysfunction reporting less pleasure and satisfaction, and more
sadness, disillusion, guilt, and anger.
pg. 497 last paragraph
Overall, data on emotional responses showed a certain uniformity in men and women. These
findings might have important implications both conceptually and clinically. Emotions associated
with depressive mood and not with anxiety appear to be most strongly associated with sexual
dysfunction; thus, treatment approaches oriented to reduce anxiety (relaxation and systematic
desensitization) might be less efficient than interventions aimed at elevating mood during sexual
activity. Research comparing these two therapeutic strategies would be very valuable in testing this
hypothesis.
What is the clinical implication of the study, why is this important? What is the takeaway. It
pinpoints a specific emotion associated with sexual dysfunction. emotions that are related to
depression not related to an anxiety.
– an intent to act
•
•
19
IM - intrinsic motivation (activities you engage in that allow
you to grow) (maximize for your own wellbeing)
EX – extrinsic motivation (minimize as many as possible)
– a future event or circumstance which is possible
but cannot be predicted with certainty. hinders you from growth
(trying to fulfill one contingency to the next)
– a complex state that is produced by the interplay of
physiological arousal, psychological factors. (i.e., physiological heart is
racing because you are excited)
- gives purpose or direction to behavior and operates in
humans at a conscious or unconscious level
– emotions are a result of physiological arousal
S (stimulus) —> physiological arousal —> emotions
According to James Lang theory of emotion, what was
the primary requirement for you to feel an emotion
Physiological emotion
What is the biggest drawback of this theory?
1. underestimating the role of cognitive labeling 2. two
completely different emotions can illicit the same exact physiological
response (i.e., Happiness and fear will cause your heart to beat faster
(2 contradictory emotions) 3. secondary emotions that are things or
feelings that you may experience that may not illicit a physiological
response. emotions that distinguish humans from animals (i.e., hate,
pride, guilt, curiosity)
(ignored cognitions)
Stimulus
physiological
Emotions
20
Simultaneous
- criticized Lang – what we think you see a snake, and you
experience the bodily sensations & fear at the same time (left
perception out)
(A) – SCHACHTER – SINGER (2 Factor theory)
Stimulus
physiological —> RUN or FEAR
Cognitive label
- emotional response of fear is a result of the interaction
between physiological arousal (see a snake your heart races)
and cognitive labeling (why is my heart racing? I guess I am
scared.)
(B) Cognitive – mediation theory
Stimulus
Appraisal (primary)
Physiological arousal
- before you even feel the racing heart, you have to go through
the appraisal process (often unconscious and immediate)
following the stimulus (i.e., if you lose your job, your response
to your job loss may be different than mine. primary process
(perception of severity) + secondary process, coping skills)
21
Know the differences between emotions and motivations (from book)
Stop at slide 7 on PPT slides for Chapter 11
22