Daniel Defoe
Defoe’s individualism
The novel "Robinson Crusoe" is a glorification of practicalness and energy, yet, when concentrated in an
individual man, these qualities are exaggerated. According to Defoe, it follows that man can live by
himself comfortably and make all the things he needs with no other humans, no other hands to assist
him- This individualism is characteristic of Defoe, who fails to see that Crusoe succeeds in making most
of the things he possessed only thanks to some tools he found on the ship, tools made by many other
people. Besides, he possessed certain experience that he could only have had as a representative of the
18th century, that is to say, he had inherited the experience of the many generations who had lived on
the earth before him. Defoe's Contribution to Literature
The novel "Robinson Crusoe" has become a tale of universal appeal, for the writer was fortunate enough
to hit upon a theme that stirs the imagination of people of all ages and all times. The work is a
glorification of human labour, a triumph of man over nature. It is not only a work of fiction, an account
of adventures, a biography; it is a study of man, a great work showing man in relation to nature and
civilization as well as in relation to labour and private property.
Defoe was a true writer of the Enlightenment. Breaking through the outworn convention he introduced
the common man as the key-character of his novel. Defoe uses the manner of speech of the common
people to whom he addresses himself.
The purpose of the author was to make his stories so lifelike that the reader's attention would be fixed
only on the events. This is achieved by telling the story in the first person and by paying careful attention
to concrete details. This produces the impression that the author himself had lived through all the
adventures described by him.
There was no writer of the age who appealed to so wide a circle of readers as Defoe.
Jonathan swift (1667–1745) His Life and Work
Jonathan Swift was the greatest of English satirists. His bitter satire was aimed at the contemporary
social order in general, and at the policy of the English bourgeoisie towards the Irish in particular. That is
why the Irish people considered Swift their champioti in the struggle for the welfare and freedom of
their country.
Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin, but he came from an English family. The writer's father, supervisor at
the court buildings of Dublin, died at the age of twenty-five, leaving his wife and daughter penniless. His
son was bom seven months after his death, on November 30,1667. He was named Jonathan after his
late father.
The boy knew little of his mother's care: she had to go back to her native town of Leicester and Jonathan
hardly ever saw her during his childhood. He was supported by his uncle Godwin.
In the age of six he was sent to Kilkenny School, which he left at fourteen. Then he entered Trinity
College in Dublin and got his Bachelor's degree in 1686.
The Revolution of 1688 was followed by an uprising in Ireland, and Swift, being English, narrowly
escaped the vengeance of the Irish supporters of James II. He sailed over to England and, after many
years, once again saw his mother in Leicester. With her help he became private secretary and accountkeeper to Sir William Temple, on the latter's estate at Moor Park, not far from London. Sir William was a
retired diplomat and also a writer. An English historian, who described Sir William Temple as a narrowminded selfish man, said, "Little did Temple imagine that the coarse exterior of his dependant concealed
a genius equally suited to politics and ti, tetters, a geniu» destined to shake great kingdoms, to stir the
laughter and the rage of millions, and to leave to posterity memorials which can perish only with the
English language." At Moor Park Swift made friends with Hester Johnson, the daughter of the
housekeeper. He taught the little girl English spelling and gave ' her advice in reading. This friendship
lasted all his life. Hester became the Stella of Swift's famous, work "Journal to Stella". Having improved
his education at Moor Park by taking advantage of Sir William's library. Swift went to Oxford and took
his Master of' Arts degree in 1692. A recommendation from his patron helped him to get the place of
vicar at a little parish church in Ireland, where he remained for a year and a half He wrote much and
burnt most of wliat he wrote. Soon he grew tired of the lonely life in Ireland and was ; glad to accept Sir
William Temple's proposal that he should return to. Moor Park, where he continued to live and work
until his patron's death in 1699.
At the end of the 17th century a discussion as to whether or not the works of ancient writers were
superior to those of the modems, which had started in France, spread to England. Ancient philosophers
and poets were compared to the modem authors of the day, and each side strove to prove that the one
or the other was superior. It goes without saying that this stupid controversy turned into farce, as even
ignorant people joined in the discussion. One such vain person was Sir William-Temple. In 1692 he
published an "Essay on Ancient and Modem Learning in which he praised the ancients. Immediately his
opponents, the scholars Bentley and Wotton, published a book in reply ridiculing Temple's ignorance.
Swift wished to help his patron out of the awkward situation, in which he found himself, and wrote a
satire "The Battle of the Books". The story is in the form of an allegory. Swift pretends to have come
upon an old manuscript, which he decides to publish. The manuscript tells of an incident that took place
in St. James's Library. The librarian is Bentley. Sir William's opponent. He has given the books ot modem
writers the best place on the shelves, and has thrown the volumes oi ancient works aside. The books of
the ancient authors strive to get back their own, and make war on the moderns. Amidst a cloud of dust
the two armies (the army of the ancients and the army of the moderns) engage in a battle. Swift did not
want to take either side, that's why he does not tell his readers who won the battle. He drops the
narrative pretending to have lost the end of the manuscript, though written in 1697 the satire remained
unpublished until 1704 when it was issued with another brilliant work by Swift, "A Tale of a Tub". The
"Tale of a Tub" is an anti.religious satire. The title of the book has a double meaning and explains the
idea of the hook. 1) "A TaJe of a Tub" means a nonsense story told as a joke; 2) In the preface to the
book Swift tells his readers of an old custom seamen had when at sea: if a whale began to follow the
vessel, they threw an empty tub into the water to divert the whale's attention from the ship.
The empty tub symbolizes religion, which diverts people from the need to fight for their rights, and is
useful in controlling the nation. The ship is the symbol of the State. After the death of Sir William
Temple, Swift became vicar again and went to live in a little place called Laracor, in Ireland. He invited
Hester Johnson to come to this place. She had by then grown up into a beautiful young woman. It is
believed that Swift made a secret marriage with Stella, but much of his private life is unknown to us.
At Laracor Swift kept an eye on the political events of London. Party strife reached its climax in 1702
when the Whigs were preparing for a war called the "War of the Spanish Succession". Swift wrote
apolitical pamphlet in defence of the Whig policy, which at that time was thought by most Englishmen
to be lor the good of the country jSome of the Whig leaders who had met Swift at Moor Park asked him
to come to London? London brought him into the labyrinth of contemporary events, which became the
chief passion of his life. Swift often went to the coffeehouses where he talked with the journalists and
with the common people. His contributions to “The Taller", "The Spectator" and other magazines show
how well he understood the spirit of the time. Swift's conversations with the leaders of the English
political parties are described in a series of letters he wrote to Stella ("Journal to Steya").
In 1713 Swift was made Dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. While in Ireland this time, he came into
contact with the common people and saw the miserable conditions in which the population lived. The
expenses of the wars for new British colonies were a heavy burden on the people of Ireland. Swift wrote
pamphlets criticizing the colonial policy of England, intending thus to lielp the common people.
"Drapier's Letters" (a series of letters under the signature of "M. B. Drapier") were directed against the
English government for their treatment of Ireland, and particularly for allowing a certain William Wood
(a speculator) to make worthless copper money for circulation in Ireland. Swift roused the public feeling
so effectually that the project was given up. This pamphlet and others made Swift so popular among the
Irish people that he is said to have possessed more real influence over them than the highest of
constituted authorities.
In 1726 Swift's masterpiece "Gulliver's Travels" appeared. Swift's inventive genius and biting satire were
at their best in this work, which made a great sensation."
In 1728 Stella died after a long illness. This loss affected Swift so deeply that some of his biographers say
he was never the same man again.
Conditions in Ireland between 1700 and 1750 were such as no English historian would have ventured to
depict. Famine had depopulated whole regions. Travelers described how their way lay through districts
covered with unburied corpses. All this worked like poison in Swift's blood. He wrote the pamphlets:
"The Present Miserable State of Ireland" and "A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Child of Poor
People from Being a Burden to Their Parents or the Country..., and other pamphlets. "A Modest
Proposal, etc." is a biting satire on those who caused the poverty of the Irish population. Swift pretends
to propose that parents of large families should kill their children and sell the meat in the market so as
to escape starvation and do away with the surplus population.
Hard work and continuous disappointments in life undermined Swift's health. By the end of 1731 his
mind was as failing rapidly In 1740 his memory and reason were gone and he became completely deaf.
He died on the 19th of October, 1745 in Dublin.
“GULLIVER'S TRAVELS”
In "Gulliver's Travels" Swift satirized the evils of the existing society in the form of fictitious travels. The
scenes and nations described in the book are so extraordinary and arrtusing, that the novel is as great a
favourite with children as with adults. It tells of the adventures of a ship's surgeon, as related by himself,
and ia divided into foor Parts, or four voyages.
The novel of Robinson Crusoe, by Daniel Defoe, is an autobiography of an individual man who spends
many years on an isolated island. Defoe reveals the idea of individualism through the life of his hero,
Robinson.
Defoe’s novel celebrates the idea of individuality. This means that the character lives according to his
own-way. He serves his own way. Thus, the novel focuses on the life of individual character. Robinson,
the main character of this novel, seeks self-realization, so he yearns to go his own way through life. He
acts independently and as he chooses, against the advice of others. This idea goes with the concepts of
age of reason. Defoe’s novel is emotionless because it was written in the Age of Reason. Thus, it appeals
to the reader’s mind and focuses on the importance of the individual. Defoe’s novel is mainly concerned
with the idea of individuality which is shown through Crusoe’s life.
Robinson Crusoe deals with the life of an individual character who yarns to work his way up from the
common middle position of life to a high one. Robinson decides his way through life according to his
own thoughts and inclination. He is overambitious. He wants to get rich quicker. He is not satisfied with
the quiet middle station of life. He seeks self-realization, so he refuses to lead a stable life or to remain
inactive for any length of time, and as a result, he rejects his father’s advice to accept the middle
position of life. His desire to go to the sea pushes him to leave home and go on voyages. He is seized by
an overwhelming desire to travel abroad. He goes on a voyage bound for London against his father’s
will. During the voyage, a storm overtakes the ship; he feels regretful and decides veer again to think of
going on a voyage if God saves his life.
After he is saved, he refuses to turn home. He has no longing for his family. He proves to be hardhearted and disobedient. He follows his own inclination and design. In spite of his former oath, he goes
on a voyage bound to Africa as a trader. He succeeds in making some money and thereafter decides to
become a merchant. He wants to create a life by his own way. He yarns to succeed as an individual. He
does not want to depend on his father or inheritance. This time, his ship is attacked by pirates and he is
held as a slave. He finds himself alone and miserable. He makes plan to set himself free. When his
master asks him to take a boat into the sea to catch fish, he prepares to furnish himself, not for a fishing
business but for a voyage. He takes the necessary equipment and food for a long voyage. This shows
that he follows his individual thoughts.
After he succeeds to escape from slavery, he settles in Brazil. He becomes a planter. He starts a new life
alone. He plants tobacco and other crops and gets prosperous. This shows that he is self-made man. This
is related to the idea of individual economy. Yet, he feels dissatisfied with this life. He feels that he
gained nothing from all his adventures. He finds that he leads the same life which his father has
recommended to him. He feels lonely because he has no relatives or friends in this place. This is not
what he has looked forward to achieve. His pride makes him think that he deserves better life. The life
of a planter is inferior to his abilities. He is not content with this life. He proves to be ungrateful to God’s
blessings. He does not appreciate Gods’ favor after he is saved twice. He does not learn from the
previous lessons. This shows his obstinacy. He decides that he must get rich quicker. To that end, he
joins a voyage to buy slaves. This reckless abandonment of a settled life for an illicit venture at last
provokes God’s anger. His ship is wrecked and he finds himself marooned on an isolated island. He is the
only survivor. Yet, he does not actually give way to despair. He does not keep lamenting his fate. He
takes action. He adapts himself to these circumstances. He starts to discover the place whether it is
inhabited or not. He organizes his life on this island.
He swims to the ship and obtains a large number of articles which can be useful to him on the desolate
island. Then, he plans his habitation. He builds a hut and digs a cave into the rock. He makes a calendar
to keep count of passing of time. He makes clothes of animals’ skins. He grows barley and rice. He sets
up a regular farm to obtain as much food as he needs. He manages to make bread and invents a simple
candle. He also dries some fruits to store them for his use. This is related to the idea of individual
economy. He manages to create a world out of these simple available things and sources. This shows the
didactic purpose of the novel. It teaches the reader many lessons through Robinson’s character. He is a
well-organized practical man. He takes advantage of everything even if it is small and trivial. He makes
use of everything available to him. He manages to survive on this island. He does not postpone his work
until tomorrow. He does not give up easily. He starts to rationalize things especially after the first year.
He cares only about his own benefit. He has no emotion. This is seen when he kills a goat which has a kid
by her side. The meat of the goat and the kid provides him with food for several days. This shows that
man should not allow emotion to come over reason.
In the beginning, he feels imprisoned and isolated but after two years, he becomes more comfortable,
and thanks God for his blessings and help. He is very happy to live in a solitary condition and in liberty of
society. His isolation is a kind of salvation for him.
In conclusion, the idea of individualism is stressed and highlighted in this novel. Robinson’s character
refers to the life of people from the middle class. They don’t inherit money but they make it by their
own effort, and with great deal of labor and pain. Robinson does not act passively but he plans his life.
He has certain vision which he wants to achieve. He has to face a lot of difficulties and pains. He has to
struggle for his own survival.