Intelligence AP EXAM Intelligence (5–7%) An understanding of intelligence and assessment of individual differences is highlighted in this portion of the course. Students must understand issues related to test construction and fair use. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: • Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence: — abstract versus verbal measures; — speed of processing. • Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence. • Compare and contrast historic and contemporary theories of intelligence (e.g., Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg). • Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity. • Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve. • Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing (e.g., gifted, cognitively disabled). • Debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair test uses. • Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing (e.g., Alfred Binet, Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis Terman, David Wechsler). Intelligence A term that is used frequently, but often misunderstood is “intelligence.” What exactly is intelligence? Many people disagree about what exactly intelligence is, but most do agree that it is: Relative: defined in relation to the same abilities in a comparison group (usually age) Hypothetically constructed: it is unobservable, but instead inferred from behavior What is Intelligence? Thus….. Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations. In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be “school smarts.” The Origins of Intelligence Intelligence Tests – test for assessing natural mental abilities and comparing them to abilities of others Usefulness is debated Heredity vs. environment? What do score differences really mean? Began with Plato’s ideas Spread to Western societies Three Theories of Intelligence 1. Charles Spearman: General Intelligence Contemporary Intelligence Theories 2. Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences (8) 3. Robert Sternberg: Multiple Intelligences (3) General Intelligence The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in statistics. Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things General Intelligence • Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis. • g = general intelligence factor believed to underlie specific mental abilities and therefore is measured by every task on intelligence tests • For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor. Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s g Factor: Charles Spearman thought intelligence was a general factor behind all of our mental ability. Catell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence The g factor Factor-Analysis Approach Factor-analysis – enables researchers to ID clusters of test items to measure a common ability Ex: doing well on vocabulary means you do well on paragraph comprehension = verbal intelligence Contemporary Intelligence Theories Mid 1980’s: Psychologists seek to extend definition of intelligence past academic smarts Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner – different abilities enable us to cope with different environmental challenges Savant Syndrome – score low on intelligence tests but has an exceptional specific skill Individuals with remarkable, but rare talent, even though they are mentally deficient in other areas. Eg. Dustin Hoffman- Rainman Theories of Intelligence Howard Gardner believed that IQ scores measured only a limited range of human mental abilities. He argued we have seven separate mental abilities he calls the multiple intelligences. Contemporary Intelligence Theories Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others. People with savant syndrome excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence. Howard Gardner Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the question of life, death and existence. Further vocabulary breakdown: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic intelligence ("word smart") Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Ex: Einstein, Martha Graham, Freud, Gandhi, Charles Darwin, Picasso, T.S. Eliot, etc. Robert Sternberg Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight. 1. 2. 3. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts). Intelligence and Creativity Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers. Convergent thinking - thinking that involves following a series of logical steps with the goal of arriving at the “correct” answer. Divergent thinking – thinking used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions; spontaneous, unorganized thought. Creative people generate new, unexpected ideas through first through divergent thought. Ideas are then organized using convergent thought. Intelligence and Creativity Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat with intelligence. a high IQ alone does not guarantee creativity. personality traits that promote divergent thinking are more important. Sternberg identified five components of divergent thinkers and creativity… Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base. Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom. creativity Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within. Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components Component Description Perceive emotion Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories Understand emotion Predict emotions, how they change and blend Manage emotion Express emotions in different situations Use emotion Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative Emotional Intelligence: Criticism Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions. Assessing Intelligence Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores. Alfred Binet Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system. Why he did it: To identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. Alred Binet: School Achievement Modern intelligence testing from Binet French psychologist (1857-1911) Due to all French children being forced into school Huge differences in education levels, schooling, mental abilities, learning abilities, etc. Binet & Theodore Simon commissioned to study problem • Developed objective test to ID at risk students Alfred Binet: School Achievement Dull vs. Bright children Mental Age – chronological age typical of a given level of performance Why does this effect children? Led to development of reasoning/problem solving questions that might predict school achievement Feared labeling, only wanted to ID students needing special Binet-SimonTest The test had four important distinctions: Scores were interpreted at their current performance Used to identify students in need of help, not label them or categorize them Emphasized that training and opportunity could affect intelligence Was empirically constructed Scoring the test was done by calculating the mental age (MA) and the chronological age (CA). MA= The average age at which normal individuals achieve a particular score CA= The number of years since an individuals birth Coming to America The idea of IQ testing became popular in America for three reasons: A huge increase in immigration New laws requiring universal education Military assessing new recruits for WWI It created an inexpensive and objective way to separate those could benefit from education or military leadership training and those who needed assistance. Downside of IQ Testing Despite its utility, IQ testing had a big downside. Tests ended up reinforcing prevailing prejudices about race and gender. Ignored was the fact that environmental disadvantages limit the full development of people’s intellectual abilities. William Stern William Stern created Intelligence Quotient (IQ) IQ = mental age/chronological age * 100 Modern tests don’t compute IQ IQ tests do not work well for adults Average = 100 2/3 of the population score b/w 85-115 Scores reflect innate mental ability, education, & familiarity with culture assumed by test Lewis Terman What he did: In the US, Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test IQ Test. Why he did it: Terman believed in eugenics Eugenics: a social movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding…promoted higher reproduction rates of people with ‘superior’ traits, and aimed to reduce reproduction rates of people with ‘inferior’ traits. David Wechsler Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for schoolaged children. WAIS WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems. Principles of Test Construction For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria: 1. Standardization 2. Reliability 3. Validity Standardization Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison. Normal Curve Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve. Reliability A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures: 1. 2. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency. Validity Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict. 1. 2. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait. Extremes of Intelligence A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 130). These two groups are significantly different. High Intelligence Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically. Mental Retardation Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for themselves. Flynn Effect In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect. Genetic Influences Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence. Adoption Studies Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents. Heritability The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics. We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence. It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual. Environmental Influences Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following: 1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores. 2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores. Early Intervention Effects Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence. Romanian orphans with minimal human interaction are delayed in their development. Schooling Effects Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores. To increase readiness for schoolwork, projects like Head Start facilitate leaning. Ethnic Similarities and Differences 1. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores. 2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income. Racial (Group) Differences If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994). White-Americans Black-Americans Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85 Hispanic Americans Environmental Effects Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing these abilities than the other. Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Races are remarkably alike genetically. Race is a social category. Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests. Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests. White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence. Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras. Gender Similarities and Differences There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities. 1. Girls are better spellers 2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies 3. Girls are better at locating objects 4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color 5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement 6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation 7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do The Question of Bias Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences. However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other. Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes • intuitive reasoning • learning • understanding language Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence includes practical applications chess playing industrial robots expert systems Efforts to model human thinking inspired by our current understanding of how the brain works Artificial Intelligence Computer Neural Networks computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells performing tasks learning to recognize visual patterns learning to recognize smells What do you think about this quote?? http://www.intelligencetest.com/ Take this intelligence and print out your results. Do not show your results to anyone!!! Write a reflection to discuss the results of your IQ test. Please attach your printed results to the reflection as proof of your completion of the test. Recap: Crash Course Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xTz3QjcloI
