A dividing breast cancer cell. The Definition of Cancer Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally, human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place. Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous Cancerous tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant places in the body to form tumors Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cell grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells only grow when they receive such signals. ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis). invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body. Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and most normal cells do not move around the body. tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors. These blood vessels supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products from tumors. hide from the immune system. The immune system normally eliminates damaged or abnormal cells. trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow. For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to protect the tumor instead of attacking it. accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells have double the normal number of chromosomes. Symptoms of cancer metastasis depend on the location of the tumor. When cancer begins, it produces no symptoms. Signs and symptoms appear as the mass grows or ulcerates. The findings that result depend on the cancer's type and location. Few symptoms are specific. Many frequently occur in individuals who have other conditions. Cancer can be difficult to diagnose and can be considered a "great imitator." People may become anxious or depressed postdiagnosis. The risk of suicide in people with cancer is approximately double.[32] Local symptoms Local symptoms may occur due to the mass of the tumor or its ulceration. For example, mass effects from lung cancer can block the bronchus resulting in cough or pneumonia; esophageal cancer can cause narrowing of the esophagus, making it difficult or painful to swallow; and colorectal cancer may lead to narrowing or blockages in the bowel, affecting bowel habits. Masses in breasts or testicles may produce observable lumps. Ulceration can cause bleeding that can lead to symptoms such as coughing up blood (lung cancer), anemia or rectal bleeding (colon cancer), blood in the urine (bladder cancer), or abnormal vaginal bleeding (endometrial or cervical cancer) Systemic symptoms Systemic symptoms may occur due to the body's response to the cancer. This may include fatigue, unintentional weight loss, or skin changes.[33] Some cancers can cause a systemic inflammatory state that leads to ongoing muscle loss and weakness, known as cachexia. Some cancers, such as Hodgkin's disease, leukemias, and liver or kidney cancers, can cause a persistent fever.[31] Some systemic symptoms of cancer are caused by hormones or other molecules produced by the tumor, known as paraneoplastic syndromes. Common paraneoplastic syndromes include hypercalcemia, which can cause altered mental state, constipation and dehydration, CAUSES OF CANCER Lifestyle factors. Smoking, a high-fat diet, and working with toxic chemicals are examples of lifestyle choices that may be risk factors for some adult cancers. Most children with cancer, however, are too young to have been exposed to these lifestyle factors for any extended time. Family history, inheritance, and genetics may play an important role in some childhood cancers. It is possible for cancer of varying forms to be present more than once in a family. It is unknown in these circumstances if the disease is caused by a genetic mutation, exposure to chemicals near a family's residence, a combination of these factors, or simply coincidence. Some genetic disorders. For example, Wiskott- Aldrich and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome are known to alter the immune system. The immune system is a complex system that functions to protect our bodies from infection and disease. The bone marrow produces cells that later mature and function as part of the immune system. One theory suggests that the cells in the bone marrow, the stem cells, become damaged or defective, so when they reproduce to make more cells, they make abnormal cells or cancer cells. The cause of the defect in the stem cells could be related to an inherited genetic defect or exposure to a virus or toxin. Exposures to certain viruses. Epstein-Barr virus and HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, have been linked to an increased risk of developing certain childhood cancers, such as Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Possibly, the virus alters a cell in some way. That cell then reproduces an altered cell and, eventually, these alterations become a cancer cell that reproduces more cancer cells. Environmental exposures. Pesticides, fertilizers, and power lines have been researched for a direct link to childhood cancers. There has been evidence of cancer occurring among nonrelated children in certain neighborhoods and/or cities. Whether prenatal or infant exposure to these agents causes cancer, or whether it is a coincidence, is unknown. Some forms of high-dose chemotherapy and radiation. In some cases, children who have been exposed to these agents may develop a second malignancy later in life. These strong anticancer agents can alter cells and/or the immune system. A second malignancy is a cancer that appears as a result from treatment of a different cancer. Lab tests High or low levels of certain substances in your body can be a sign of cancer. So, lab tests of your blood, urine, or other body fluids that measure these substances can help doctors make a diagnosis. However, abnormal lab results are not a sure sign of cancer. Learn more about laboratory tests and how they are used to diagnose cancer. Some lab tests involve testing blood or tissue samples for tumor markers. Tumor markers are substances that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells of the body in response to cancer. Most tumor markers are made by normal cells and cancer cells but are produced at much higher levels by cancer cells. Learn more about tumor markers and how they are used to diagnose cancer. Imaging tests Imaging tests create pictures of areas inside your body that help the doctor see whether a tumor is present. These pictures can be made in several ways: CT scan A CT scan uses an x-ray machine linked to a computer to take a series of pictures of your organs from different angles. These pictures are used to create detailed 3-D images of the inside of your body. Sometimes, you may receive a dye or other contrast material before you have the scan. You might swallow the dye, or it may be given by a needle into a vein. Contrast material helps make the pictures easier to read by highlighting certain areas in the body. During the CT scan, you will lie still on a table that slides into a donut-shaped scanner. The CT machine moves around you, taking pictures. Learn more about CT scans and how they are used to diagnose cancer. MRI An MRI uses a powerful magnet and radio waves to take pictures of your body in slices. These slices are used to create detailed images of the inside of your body, which can show the difference between healthy and unhealthy tissue. When you have an MRI, you lie still on a table that is pushed into a long, round chamber. The MRI machine makes loud thumping noises and rhythmic beats. Sometimes, you might have a special dye injected into your vein before or during your MRI exam. This dye, called a contrast agent, can make tumors show up brighter in the pictures. Nuclear scan A nuclear scan uses radioactive material to take pictures of the inside of the body. This type of scan may also be called radionuclide scan. Before this scan, you receive an injection of a small amount of radioactive material, which is sometimes called a tracer. It flows through your bloodstream and collects in certain bones or organs. After the scan, the radioactive material in your body will lose its radioactivity over time. It may also leave your body through your urine or stool. Bone scan Bone scans are a type of nuclear scan that check for abnormal areas or damage in the bones. They may be used to diagnose bone cancer or cancer that has spread to the bones (also called metastatic bone tumors). PET scan A PET scan is a type of nuclear scan that makes detailed 3D pictures of areas inside your body where glucose is taken up. Because cancer cells often take up more glucose than healthy cells, the pictures can be used to find cancer in the body. Before the scan, you receive an injection of a tracer called radioactive glucose. During the scan, you will lie still on a table that moves back and forth through a scanner. Ultrasound An ultrasound exam uses high-energy sound waves that people cannot hear. The sound waves echo off tissues inside your body. A computer uses these echoes to create pictures of areas inside your body. This picture is called a sonogram. During an ultrasound exam, you will lie on a table while a tech slowly moves a device called a transducer on the skin over the part of the body that is being examined. The transducer is covered with a warm gel that makes it easier to glide over the skin. X-rays X-rays use low doses of radiation to create pictures inside your body. An x-ray tech will put you in position and direct the x-ray beam to the correct part of your body. While the images are taken, you will need to stay very still and may need to hold your breath for a second or two. Biopsy In most cases, doctors need to do a biopsy to diagnose cancer. A biopsy is a procedure in which the doctor removes a sample of tissue. A pathologist looks at the tissue under a microscope and runs other tests to see if the tissue is cancer. The pathologist describes the findings in a pathology report, which contains details about your diagnosis. Pathology reports play an important role in diagnosing cancer and helping decide treatment options. Learn more about pathology reports and the type of information they contain. I am grateful for the valuable contribution of the individuals involved in the development of the biology investigatory project. I would like to give special thanks to going principal mr upendra Shukla sir maharishi vidya mandir for this project work Special thanks to mrs. mamta sharma mam who guided me to do this project. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude for her invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, sympathetic attitude and immense inspiration which has kept me going at every stages of this project Student’s signature Session – 2022-23 Biology investigatory project Submitted to – mamta sharma mam Types of treatments changes as understanding of the underlying biological processes has increased. Tumor removal surgeries have been documented in The treatment of cancer has undergone evolutionary ancient Egypt, hormone therapy and radiation therapy were developed in the late 19th century. Chemotherapy, immunotherapy and newer targeted therapies are products of the 20th century. As new information about the biology of cancer emerges, treatments will be developed and modified to increase effectiveness, precision, survivability, and quality of life. Surgery In theory, non-hematological cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery, but this is not always possible. When the cancer has metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete surgical excision is usually impossible. In the Halstedian model of cancer progression, tumors grow locally, then spread to the lymph nodes, then to the rest of the body. This has given rise to the popularity of local-only treatments such as surgery for small cancers. Even small localized tumors are increasingly recognized as possessing metastatic potential. Radiation therapy Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy, X-ray therapy, or irradiation) is the use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors by damaging their DNA (the molecules inside cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next), making it impossible for these cells to continue to grow and divide. Radiation therapy can either damage DNA directly or create charged particles (free radicals) within the cells that can in turn damage the DNA. Radiation therapy can be administered externally via external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or internally via brachytherapy. The effects of radiation therapy are localised and confined to the region being treated. Although radiation damages both cancer cells and normal cells, most normal cells can recover from the effects of radiation and function properly. The goal of radiation therapy is to damage as many cancer cells as possible, while limiting harm to nearby healthy tissue. Hence, it is given in many fractions, allowing healthy tissue to recover between fractions. SNO CONTENTS 1 THE DEFINITION OF CANCER 2 NORMAL CELL AND CANCER CELL 3 DIFFERENT TYPE OF CANCER 4 SYMPTOMS OF CANCER 5 CAUSES OF CANCER 6 DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER 7 PREVENTION OF CANCER 8 TREATMENT OF CANCER IT IS CERTIFIED THAT PRANJAL TIWARI OF CLASS 12 (BIOLOGY) OF MAHARISHI VIDYA MANDIR HAS SUCCESFULLY COMPLETED THE INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON THE TOPIC “TO STUDY ABOUT CANCER” UNDER THE PRESENCE OF Mrs. MAMTA SHARMA Mam during the session of 2022-2023 in the partial fulfilment of biology practical examination conducted by the case. TH
