TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
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Branch of Civil Engineering that deals with the
application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, design, operation,
and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation for safe, rapid, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible.
It is the movement of people and goods.
Engineering applications in the safety,
efficient use of transportation, resources, and
mobility of people and goods.
DISCIPLINES:
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Transportation Planning
Geometric Design
Pavement Design
Traffic Engineering
Transportation Planning - Development of a transport
model representing current and future transportation
systems.
Geometric Design - Physical proportioning of
transportation facilities. This includes:
o
o
o
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Cross-sectional Features
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Intersection
Pavement Analysis and Design – Structural design
and roads deal with the design of:
o
o
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Paving Materials
Layer Thickness
Construction
Procedures
and
Maintenance
Traffic – the movement of pedestrians and goods
along a route
OTHER DISCIPLINES:
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Public Transportation/Mass Transportation –
the study of transportation that involves
public modes of transportation. It is the study
of a transportation system that meets the
travel needs of several people by sharing a
vehicle
Financial and Economic Analysis – quantity
economic benefits involving travel time, fuel
consumption, etc.
Environmental Impact Assessment – quantify
environmental impacts to make strategies to
reduce the impact of construction like fuel
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consumption, air pollution, and noise
pollution.
Accident Analysis and Reduction – looks at
the causes of accidents and makes plans to
reduce them.
Intelligent Transportation System – others
better mobility, efficiency, and safety with the
help of technology.
HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION
A. By Foot – first mode of transportation
- Pathways are made for campsites,
food, and water.
B. Animals – next mode of transportation
C. Invention of the wheel in Mesopotamian
Civilization
- Animal-drawn
vehicles
were
developed.
- Roads with harder surfaces emerged
D. Roman Roads
- Earliest road construction
- Provided travel in Europe, Asia Minor,
and North Africa
- Recognized fundamentals of good
road construction:
o Good Drainage
o Good Materials
o Good Workmanship
- Main features of Roman roads:
o Built straight
o Heavy foundation stones
o Concrete is their major road
innovation.
o Uses mixed lime and volcanic
pozzolana for mortar then
added gravel to make
Concrete.
E. French Roads
- during the Napoleon regime
- developed a cheaper method of
construction
- pavement used 200 mm pieces of
quarried stone of more compact form
shaped flat at one side, then used
smaller stones to fill in gaps
- to avoid drainage problems, they
made the surface impervious with
deep side ditches
- believed in the importance of good
drainage
- believed in continuous organized
maintenance rather than repairs
F. British Roads
- John Macadam introduced the first
scientific road construction method
- Realized 250 mm layers of wellcompacted broken angular stone
would provide the same strength
- Mechanical interlock between stone
pieces
- Introduced good quality, finer
materials to produce a well-grade mix
- Roads have slopes on both sides
- Introduced economical method of
road construction
G. Modern
- follows Macadam’s methods
- use bituminous concrete and cement
concrete
- advance cost-effective construction
technology
- new equipment/materials
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
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Economic Growth
- Speed, cost, and capacity of available
transportation affect the economic
vitality and making use of its natural
resources.
- Good
transportation
permits
specialization of industry
- Reduced prices, Increased choices for
consumers
- High-quality transportation indicates
the economic standing of a country
- Transport manufactured goods and
raw materials to maximize advantage
in natural and human resources
Communication
Territorial Protection
Providing Services
Socialize
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION
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Safety Issues
Land Capacity
Noise Pollution
Environmental issues
ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEER
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Balance society’s needs for fast, efficient, and
economic transportation
Create system that will avoid environmental
disturbance
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Work closely with public and elected officials
to ensure a high-quality transportation system
given the available funds and social policy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Transportation System – a combination of elements
and their interaction
Characteristics of Transportation System
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Upgradeable/Repairable
Availability and Convenience
Economical/Sustainable
Resiliency
Governance and Workforce
Safety
Transportation Demand – amount and type of travel
people would choose under specific conditions
considering factors including quality of transportation
options, and prices
Nature of Transportation Demand
Transportation
Demand
Land Use
Transportation
Facilities
Mobility
-
Potential for movement
Level of ease of moving goods and
people
How far you can go on a given time
Measured using travel surveys and
traffic data
Accessibility
-
Potential for interaction
Ability to accommodate community
needs
Involves cost and quality
Proximity to Destination + Connections to Destination
= Accessibility
a. Need for driving
b. Amount of driving
c. Levels of congestion
Mobility - Accessibility Relationship
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Good Accessibility, Poor Mobility
Poor Accessibility, Good Mobility
Mobility vs. Accessibility
Mobility
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focuses on time and service.
Prioritizes vehicles
Accessibility
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People, Goods, and Vehicles
Transportation – means of moving people,
goods, and vehicles
Significance of Transportation – the ability
for trade, commerce, and communication for
civilization
Importance of transportation to People, Goods, and
Vehicles
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Focuses on livability
Prioritizes people
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Pros (+) of Mobility
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Fast movement
Fast connection
Business development
Opportunities to undertake tasks in remote
areas
Fast information gathering
Cons (-) of Mobility
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Environmental issues
Traffic congestion
Traffic-related accidents
Divides the rich and poor
Sustainable Transport – the type of transport that
does not rely on natural resources to reduce the
environmental effect
Traffic Accidents – the increased use of cars means
increased risks
Development of Vehicles
1988 – Airbags
1992 – Parking sensors
1994 – onboard diagnostics
Pros (+) of Accessibility
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2000 – GPS
More opportunity
Little travel expenses
Decrease congestion
Improves transport option
Less environmental effects
2000 – Hybrid cars
2002 – Reversing Camera
2003 – automatic parking
2010 – driver assist
Cons (-) of Accessibility
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Less vehicle manufacturer sales
Mobility may reduce
Less privacy
Not affordable to low-income earners
2014 – Tesla Autopilot
Demands
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Mobility vs. Accessibility (Planning)
Mobility
a. Ease of driving
b. Amount of driving
c. Levels of congestion
Accessibility
Helps in mass production
Helps in industrial, agricultural, and
business development
Helps in political development
Helps in bringing people closer
Helps in cultural development
Location of workplaces, etc.
Type of transport system involving
the demographic and socio-economic
characteristics of land and population
Transportation Modes
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Road
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Most common
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Most versatile/least geographical
constraints
- Only mode where door-to-door
deliveries are possible
- Benefits:
- Easier to track
- Highly accessible
- Door-to-door transport
- Adjust routes and timings
- Easy loading and unloading
- Drawbacks:
- Size/weight limits
- Easier target by criminals
- Risk of accidents
- delay of deliveries
Maritime
- Slowest
- Used 90% of international trade
- Most popular way of transferring raw
materials
- Benefits:
- Ability to accommodate fright
- Cheaper than air
- Minimal handling
- Rarely affected by weather
- Inaccessible
- Long transit time
Air Transportation
- Most expensive
- Used for high-value fright
- Most efficient
- Benefits:
- Speed delivery
- Convenient for moving
smaller shipments
- Reliable
- Enhanced security measures
- Drawbacks
- Most-expensive
- Restrictions on what can be
transported
Rail
- Most popular in Europe and North
America
- Commonly used for bulk cargo
- Most dependable for long hauls
across land with minimum damage
- Benefits:
- more carrying capacity
- fixed schedule
- cost-effective
- Drawbacks:
- slower that other
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not suitable to all places
no door-to-door deliveries
requires additional
transportation
Philippine Transportation System
Public
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jeepney
train
bus
tricycle
domestic flights
Private
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Car
Motorcycle
History of Transportation in the Philippines
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Balangay – 16th century transportation
Horse Carriage/Kalesa
Carabao Carriage/Balsa
Jeepneys – initiated after WWII
Tricycles
Pedicabs
Buses
Taxis
MRT/LRT
Airplane
Ferry Boat (Ro-ro)
Galyon – used to travel from one island to
another
Legislative Framework Related to Transportation
Engineering
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Department of Transportation – responsible
for legislation and regulations
Transport Legislation Act - Victoria's
principal transport Act, bringing together
the whole transport portfolio under one
statute for the first time. This act informs our
vision for an integrated and sustainable
transport system that contributes to an
inclusive, prosperous, and environmentally
responsible state.
Transport Legislations Under Transport
Integration Act
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Republic Act No. 10054 -This act
mandates all motorcycle riders to wear
standard protective motorcycle helmets
while driving and provides penalties.
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Senate Resolution No. 735. S. 1979 Memorandum of Understanding relating
to the Metropolitan Cebu Land Use and
Transport Study. Signed in Manila on 8
May 1979.
Senate Bill No. 26, 16th Congress of
the
Republic - An act promoting
sustainable and alternative modes of
transportation and other mobility options
to improve air quality, increase efficiency,
reduce congestion, and contribute to
positive health impacts in our society.
Senate Bill No. 400, 16th Congress of the
Republic - An act to promote the use of
bicycles as an alternative mode of
transportation and establish bike-friendly
communities.
Senate Bill No. 446, 16th Congress of the
Republic - An act creating the special
mass transit system support fund,
reallocating the disposition of monies
collected from the motor vehicle user's
charge, amending for the purpose
sections 7 and 8 of republic act no. 8794,
otherwise known as the motor vehicle
user's charge act of 2000.
Senate Bill No. 2067, 16th Congress of
the Republic - An act increasing the
liability of persons, firms, corporations,
and other entities engaged in the
business of transporting passengers, by
land, water or air, by making their civil
liability solidary for the acts and
omissions of their employees in the
discharge of their duties, amending for
this purpose act no. 3815, as amended,
otherwise known as the revised penal
code.
Senate Bill No. 2441, 16th Congress of
the Republic - An act requiring accident
and life insurance coverage for railway
transit passengers.
Senate Bill No. 2775, 16th Congress of
the Republic - An act establishing proper
jeepney terminals and stops in the
country and providing for penalties.
Senate Bill No. 3108, 16th Congress of
the Republic - An act improving the safety
of
non-motorized
transportation,
including pedestrian and bicycle safety, in
the vicinity of schools.
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Senate Bill No. 11, 17th Congress of the
Republic - An act providing for emergency
powers to address the transportation
crisis in urban areas.
Senate Bill No. 162, 17th Congress of
the Republic - An act to promote costeffective measures for the transport
sector and commuting public, providing
for the creation of a national
transportation safety board, prescribing
its
powers
and
functions,
and
appropriating funds, therefore.
Senate Bill No. 840, 17th Congress of the
Republic - An act providing for a magna
carta for the road transportation sector.
Senate Bill No. 914, 17th Congress of
the Republic - An act promoting
sustainable and alternative modes of
transportation and other mobility options.
Senate Bill No. 1375, 17th Congress of
the Republic - An act creating a
national transportation safety board,
appropriating funds therefor and for
other purposes.
Senate Bill No. 1568, 17th Congress of
the Republic – An act promoting
sustainable and alternative modes of
transportation and other mobility options
to improve air quality, increase efficiency,
reduce congestion, and contribute to
positive health impacts in our society.
Senate Bill No. 2056, 17th Congress of
the Republic - An act providing for a
just and equitable transition for public
utility vehicle (PUV) modernization,
with transitory assistance and services
rendered to PUV drivers, operators, and
stakeholders.
Act No. 198 - Providing the method for
furnishing official transportation to
officers and employees of the insular,
provincial, and municipal governments in
the city of Manila, and to and from the
city of manila and to the provinces.
Act No. 217 - An act amending act
numbered one hundred and ninetyeight, regulating the method of official
transportation in the city of manila and
elsewhere.
Act No. 237 - An act to amend section five
and section eight of act numbered one
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hundred and ninety-eight, relating to
official transportation.
Act No. 321 - An act to amend section
five of act numbered one hundred and
ninety-eight,
relating
to
official
transportation, as amended by act
numbered two hundred and thirty-seven.
Administrative Order No. 123, s. 2005
-Authorizing the secretary of the
department
of transportation and
communications to perform all powers
and functions necessary to connect the
country through the development of
transportation networks such as the
roll-on/roll-off system.
Administrative Order No. 140, s. 2006
-Directing
the
department
of
transportation and communications to
expedite the intermodal transport
development project.
Executive Order No. 335, s. 1941 Creating
a
civilian
emergency
administration, defining its powers and
duties, and providing for the coordination
and control of civilian organizations for
the protection of the civil population in
extraordinary and emergency conditions.
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Elements of Road System
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Department
of
Transportation
and
Communication (DOTC) – development and
regulation
of
transportation
and
communication systems
Department of Transportation – executive
department of the Philippine government
responsible for maintenance and expansion of
transportation system
Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB) – responsible for
promulgating, administering, enforcing, and
monitoring compliance of policies, laws, and
regulation of public land transportation
services
Land Transportation Office (LTO) – promotes
safety and comfort of the travelling public
with respect to motor vehicles. They also
collect fees for registrations, licenses, fines,
penalties, and license plates.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Traffic Regulations
Road
Vehicle
Driver
Traffic Control Devices
-
Direct, guide, and inform drivers by
providing visual indicators
Main Traffic Control Devices
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Government Transportation Agency
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laws and rules that govern, regulate,
facilitate order and flow of traffic.
Always use seatbelt
Obey traffic rules and road signs
Do not drunk drive
Do not drive without driver’s license
Do not make/receive calls while driving
Limit one back riders/passengers
Wear DTI-approved helmets
Do not drive on a one-way road except the
direction permitted
Give way to pedestrians
Do not overtake when it can endanger other
traffic on the road
Maintain adequate distance
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Traffic Signs
- Made from reflective materials
- Provides local information
- Types:
- Regulatory Signs
- Warning Signs
- Guiding/Informatory
Traffic Signal
- Control devices which could direct
traffic to stop/proceed
- Types:
- Traffic control signals
- Pedestrian signals
Road Marking
- Lines, words, symbols, patterns, or
reflections
- Types:
- Pavement markings
- Kerb marking
- Object markings
- Reflect unit markings
Traffic Islands
- Raised areas to establish physical
channels to guide vehicular traffic.
- Types:
- Divisional island
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- Channelizing Island
- Pedestrian Loading Island
- Rotary Islands
Barriers and Channelizers
- Control traffic and work against
hazards
- Types:
- Traffic cones and delimiters
- Highway barrier
- Channelizers
and
road
barriers
Functional Groups of Traffic Control Devices
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Regulatory Devices
- Have the authority of law
- Declare legal use of the roadway
Warning Devices
- Inform road users of hazards and
unusual traffic movement
Guiding Devices/Informational Signs
- Route and exit information
- Services marking
- Tourist attractions
- Amenity information
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5 Major Factors Governing the Requirements
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Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
- Part of the US Department that
supports design, construction, and
maintenance of national highway
systems
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD)
- Defines policies and guidelines
pertaining to traffic control devices
and determines whether the control
type is suitable for a given location
Vienna Convention
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Should compel attention
Should convey clear meaning
Allow adequate time for easy response
Respect of the road users for whom it is
intended
Fulfill needs
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Regulatory Sign
- necessary to give information as to
routes, directions, destinations, used
Shape
o
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Color
o
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Octagonal – Stop
Inverted Triangle – give way
Diamond – possible hazard
Round – prohibits/mandatory
Pentagon – Warning that school zone
is approaching
Horizontal Rectangle – guidance to
drivers
Vertical
Rectangle
–
facility
information and points of interest
Red – stop/prohibition
White – regulatory signs
Yellow – cautions
Green – permitted movement
Orange – warning for road work
zones
Blue – road user services, tourist
spots, and evacuation information
Brown – public recreation/cultural
interests
Size
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Traffic Signs and Markings
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Informative
- Intended to guide driver
Regulatory
- Inform drivers of prohibition
Warning
- Warns users of danger
Elements of Design
Requirements Traffic Control Devices Must Meet in
Logical Sequence
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Design
Placement
Operation
Maintenance
Uniformity of traffic devices
Classification of Road Signs
Elementary Requirements of Traffic Control Devices
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to warn road users of hazards and
regulate any prohibitive action
Warning Marking
- normally consist of lines, patterns,
words, symbols, reflectors, etc.
Minimum
size
depending
on
applications
- Wide signs for wide roads and highspeed places
Visibility
- Illuminated signs
- 3 ways to illuminate:
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Internal lighting
External lighting
Luminous tubing, fiber optics,
incandescent
panels,
arrangement of lamps
Placement/Height
- Recognizable in time
- 7ft for urban; 5ft for rural
- Placed at the side of the road or at
the carriage way
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International Standard traffic Signs
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Warning signs
- intended to warn road users of a
danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature. It can take one of
2
form
a normal-sized sign should
measure 0.90 m; a smallsized sign should measure
s:
not less than 0.60 m
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a normal-sized sign should
measure 0.60 m; a smallsized sign should measure
not less than 0.40 m.
Sym
bols
woul
d be
placed in these shapes and should be
black or dark blue
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Priority
- for notifying or informing road users
of the special rules of priority at
intersections
- Examples:
- Stop Sign
- The height of the normalsized sign should be 0.90m
while a small sign should
measure not less than 0.60 m.
- Give Way
- a normal-sized sign should
measure 0.90 m while a small
sign should measure not less
than 0.60 m.
- Priority
Road/End of Priority Road - a
diamond with a black rim. It
should have in its center a
yellow or orange diamond
with a black rim. The space
between the two diamonds
shall be white. An addition of
a diagonal black or grey
band indicates the end of a
priority road.
Prohibitory
- are circular with a diameter that is not
less than 0.60 m outside built-up
areas and not less than 0.40 m or 0.20
m for signs prohibiting or restricting
standing and parking in built-up areas.
- Signs should have white or yellow
ground with a broad red border
Falling Rocks
Slippery Road
Dangerous Bends
Dangerous
Decent/Ascent
Carriageway Narrows
Uneven Road
Pedestrian Crossing
Examples:
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If there are any symbols, they should
be black or dark blue
If there are any oblique bars they
should be red and shall slope
downwards from left to right.
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Examples:
Yield/Permanent
Stop
Speed Limit
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Height Limit
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Mandatory
Weight Restriction
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circular with a diameter that is not
less than 0.60 m outside built-up
areas and not less than 0.40 m in
built-up areas.
a diameter of not less than 0.30 m
may be used in conjunction with
traffic light signals or on bollards on
traffic islands
They should be blue and the symbols
shall be white or of a light color, or
white with a red rim and the symbols
shall be black.
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Information Signs
- shall have a blue or green ground with
a white or yellow rectangle on which
the symbol shall be displayed.
- On the blue or green band at the
facility indicated may be inscribed in
white.
Direction Signs
- usually rectangular but may be in the
shape of an elongated rectangle, with
the longer side horizontal, ending in
an arrowhead
- should use white or light-colored
symbols on the dark ground or darkcolored symbols on a white or lightcolored ground
Additional Signs
- Addition to a sign or stop light
- These panels should have either a
white or yellow ground, a black, dark
blue, or red rim, and the symbols
should be in black or dark blue
- Alternatively, a black or dark blue
ground, a ground, a white, yellow, or
red rim, and the symbols should be in
- Examples:
Special Regulations
- are usually square or rectangular
with a blue ground and a lightcolored symbol, or with a lightcolored ground and a dark symbol.
white or yellow
Pavement/Road Marking
-
a component of the intelligence
system for road users in inclusion
to road signs and signals, pavement
markings connected to drivers where
to arrange their vehicles, warn
about upcoming situations and
locate where conveying is permitted.
Functions of Pavement/Road Markings
Direction to be
Followed
Pass this Side
Compulsory
Minimum Speed
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Provide guidance
Inspire safe traffic flow
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Optimize roadway capacity
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Effectivity Requirements
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Easily understood
Good visibility
Document record of the placement of
markings
Advantages
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Marking Colors
Easy to install
Durable (5-8 yrs.)
High retro-reflectivity
Environment friendly
White – edges; same directions
Yellow – opposite directions
Blue – handicap parking
Disadvantages
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Purple – for toll plaza/toll collection vehicles
High initial cost
Cannot be suitable for old roads
Types of Markings
Longitudinal Pavement Marking
- Located parallel or adjoining to traffic
flow
- Visual solution to guide traffic
Yellow Pavement Marking
- Divides opposite traffic lanes for
routes
No Passing Zones
- Used on two/three-lane roadways
where passing is prohibited due to
lack of sight distance or other special
conditions
- One Direction; one broken and one
solid line where passing is allowed for
traffic adjacent to broken lines and
prohibited for traffic adjacent to solid
line
- Two Direction; passing is prohibited
in both directions
White Lane Line
- Define traffic lanes with the same
direction of travel
- Solid; changing lanes is not allowed,
marks the shoulder of the roadway
- Broken; changing lanes is allowed
Edge Lines
- Defines edges of roadways
- Should not extend to intersections or
major driveways
Raised Pavement Marking
- Defines roadway edges
- Visual references
Stop and Yield Lines/Give Way Lane
- Instruct drivers where to stop when
approaching an intersection or
crosswalk
Crosswalks
- Direct pedestrians to cross
Roundabout
- Controls traffic and speed in
intersections
Black – to add contrast
Message and Symbols
-
6ft or more in height
Maximum of 3 lines
Should be in the direction of the
travel
Used to guide, warn, and regulate
traffic
Symbol messages are preferable to
word messages
Object Markings
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used to mark obstructions within or
adjacent to the roadway. These
obstructions could be physical objects
such as guard rails, utility poles,
bridge abutments, underpass piers,
etc.
- Types:
- Type 1,2, & 3; used to mark
obstructions
within
or
adjacent to the roadway
- Type 4; mark the end of the
roadway
Type 1 – diamond-shaped sign, at least 18
inches on a side, consisting of either yellow or
black sign with 9 yellow retro-reflective
devices, each with a minimum diameter of 3
inches, mounted symmetrically on the sign, or
an all-yellow retro-reflective sign.
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Type 2 – either a marker consisting of 3
yellow retro-reflective devices, each with a
minimum diameter of 3 inches, arranged
either horizontally or vertically on white sign
measuring at least 6x12 inches; or an allyellow horizontal or vertical retro reflective
sign, measuring at least 6x12 inches.
Type 3 – a striped-marker, 12x36 inches,
consisting of a vertical rectangle with
alternating black and retro-reflective stripes
sloping downward at an angle of 45 degrees
toward the side of the obstruction on which
traffic is to pass. The minimum width of the
yellow and black stripes shall be 3 inches.
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Type 4: a diamond-shaped sign, at least 18
inches on a side, consisting of either red or
black sign with 9 red retro-reflective devices,
each with a minimum diameter of 3 inches,
mounted symmetrically on the sign, or an all-
red retro-reflective sign
Raised Pavement Markings
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- Reflectors provided for safety
Convex Vibration Lines
- `Divides lanes
- Causes a jerk to the driver alerting
them that they are going out of the
lane
- Usually yellow or attached in yellow
lanes
Bott’s Dots
- Placed by using epoxy
- Alerts drivers that they are out of
their lane
Not suitable for areas that experience
snow
Cat’s Eyes
- consist of two reflective curved
surfaces that are fitted into a white
rubber dome that is placed on castiron housing.
- Used as visual line marking, tactile
lane marking, and special feature
marking
- Comes in blue, green, yellow, white,
and red colors
Road Studs
- Improve the night vision
- serve as a speed retarder before
the junction or crossing or at the
beginning of fly-over sections where
road accidents are highly predicted.
Rumble Strips
- 6 mm in size
- For sensory warning
Kilometer Marking
- Concrete post indicating the km from
0 to certain destination
- Usually yellow
- For surveying/geodetic engineering
Hazard Markers
-
Warns that the road is about to
change direction due to a curve, steep
d
Drive to the Left - These signs
tell you that you are coming up
to a hazard that you will need to
drive left to avoid.
Drive to the Right - These signs
tell you that you are coming
up to a hazard that you will
Turn to
todrive
the right
left/right
of the
need
to avoid.
hazard – appears in tintersections; road ending,
obstruction, traffic island ahead
e
s
c
e
nt, obstacle, and obstruction
Drive in the right/left direction
either
side
the
hazard
–Drive
appear
insets
to of
outline
the –
Obstruction
Hazard
Marker
–shows
driveofwhere
either
side
of
the
sign.
curve
the road
ahead.
the road ends
transfers wheel load to transfers wheel load to
subgrade by grain-to- subgrade by slab action
grain mechanism
Delineators
-
-
pylon that are placed on the
surface of road or at the edges for
channelizing the traffic.
Indicates lane closures
Comes in variety of shapes like round
or curved
Effective Traffic Regulations



Rational
Developed progressively
Implemented properly
-
-


Life span is 10-15 years
Life span is 30 or more
years
Repair work is simple
Repair work is complex
Thicker
System of overlaid strata of processed
materials
Costliest items associated with the
highway
construction
and
maintenance
Normally deteriorate gradually
Functional – the riding quality of the road
decreases giving poorer service to the users
Structural – pavement layers loses bearing
capacity
Pavement Types

Durability is high
cost
is Maintenance cost is low
Poor night visibility due Good night visibility due
to asphalt
to concrete
Classification of Deterioration

Durability is low
Maintenance
high
PAVEMENT DESIGN
-
Initial construction cost Initial construction cost
is low
is high
Rigid Pavement
- constructed with Portland cement
concrete (PCC) and aggregates
- distributes wheel load by beam action
of PCC slab, which is a material that
high modulus of elasticity
Flexible Pavement
- Constructed with asphaltic cement
that consists of several layers
- Has smaller area of distribution
- Reduces stress by distributing the
traffic wheel loads over greater and
greater areas through the individual
layers
Design is influenced by Design is not influenced
the bearing capacity of by the bearing capacity
the subgrade
of the subgrade
Key
materials
are Key
materials
aggregate and bitumen concrete and steel
Highly sensitive to heat, Highly resistive to heat,
oil,
greases,
and oil,
greases,
and
chemicals
chemicals
Pavement System Design: Principles of Flexible
Pavement
Requirements for an Ideal Pavement







Sufficient thickness
Structurally strong
Adequate coefficient of friction
Smooth surface
Produce least noise
Dustproof surface
Impervious surface (not allowing fluids to pass
through)
Long design life with low maintenance cost
Factors affecting Flexible Pavement Design
Flexible
Rigid
are
Stability depends on the Stability depends on the
interlocking
of joints between the slabs
aggregates,
particle of concrete
friction, and cohesion

Rigid vs Flexible Pavement
Less thick

Traffic Loading
o Contact Pressure

o Wheel Load
o Axle Configuration
o Moving Loads
o Repetition of Loads
Environmental Factors
o Temperature
o Precipitation




2 Methods of Flexible Pavement Design


Empirical Method – based on experiences
and experiments
Mechanistic Method – based on calculations
of stresses and strains

Surface Course – prevents excessive amount
of water from entering the base, subbase, and
subgrade
Binder – distribute load to base course
Base – for drainage purposes and structural
support
Sub-base – provides structural support;
improves drainage; minimize intrusion of fines
from the subgrade to the pavement structure
Sub-grade – made up of superior soils that
provide strength to the layers above
Stress Distribution in Flexible Pavement
Flexible Pavement – transfers wheel loads to the
lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the
points of contact in the granular structure
Load Distribution of Flexible Pavement
LOAD
SURFACE
2 major Failures in Flexible Pavement

BASE
SUBBASE

SUBGRADE
Components of Flexible Pavement
Cracking
o Surface/Thermal Cracking – caused
by bitumen oxidation
o Base/Fatigue Cracking – caused by
tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt
layer
Rutting/Permanent Deformation – caused by
accumulation of strain due to repeated loads
on the pavement
o Non-Structural – surface rutting
o Structural – rutting through the layers
1993 AASHTO Design for Flexible Pavement
-
Function of the Components



Prime Coat – provides bonding between 2
layers; can penetrate layers below, plugs
voids, and forms watertight surface
Tach Coat – provides bonding between 2
layers of binder course; thin, uniformly covers
the surface, and sets fast
Seal Coat – thin surface treatment used to
waterproof the surface and provide skid
resistance; protection from uv
-
-
AASHTO Stands for American
Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
1993 AASHTO Design Method was
developed based on road tests
(empirical) in Illinois (1956-1960)
Equations were developed based on
regression analysis of the test findings
Setup consisted of 4 large loops and 2
small loops of 4-lane highway broken
836 100-ft segments
Northbound lanes were hot mix
asphalts; Southbound lanes were
Portland cement concrete
Design Considerations







Pavement Performance
o Structural
o Functional
Traffic
Subgrade Soil Properties
Materials for Construction
Environmental Effects
Drainage
Reliability
Components of Rigid Pavements
Serviceability Concept
-
-
Involves the measurement of the
behavior of the pavement under
traffic and its ability to serve traffic at
some instances
Evaluation is systematic but objective
Evaluated by rating the riding surface
by individuals who travel over it
Measure by PSI (Present Serviceability
Index) with a scale of 0-5
Types of Rigid Pavements

Structural Number
-
-
Index value that tries to capture the
flexural rigidity of all the pavement
layers above the subgrade in a single
value
Computed by multiplying each
structural layer coefficient by the
thickness of the layer in inches
Pavement System Design: Principles of
Pavement
Rigid

Rigid Pavements
-
-
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
- Plain cement concrete pavement
constructed with closely spaced
construction joints (5-10 m)
- Dowel bars and aggregate interlocks
are used for load transfer across joints
- Cracking occurs on the joints and not
on the slabs
have sufficient flexural strength to
transmit the wheel load stresses to a
wider area below
placed directly
can only be used on stable ground
do not flex under loading as much as
flexible pavements
- Do not contain steel reinforcements
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(JPCP)
- Higher joint spacing (10-30m) due to
reinforcements
- Dowel bars are required for load
transfer
- Reinforcements help keep the slab
Load Distribution in Rigid Pavements
LOAD
RIGID PAVEMENT
SUBGRADE

together even after cracks
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(CRCP)
- No transverse contraction joints
- Cracks are expected in the slab (0.51.8m)
-
-
Demonstrate superior long-term
performance (30-40 yrs.) and costeffectiveness
Has enough embedded reinforcing
steel that hold cracks together
Has higher initial cost due to the
quantity of steel used
-
Types of Rigid Pavement



Pre-stressed Concrete Pavement
- Designed to be prestressed to bear
tensile forces caused by external
loads by various live objects
- Designed with joint panels
- Achieve the due performance in their
Based on empirical design equation
developed as a result of the AASHO
road test
Reinforced Rigid Pavement
o Longitudinal Joints – used to facilitate
construction and control cracking
o Transverse Joints – used to resist
temperature induces stress in the
concrete
Non-reinforced Rigid Pavement
- An example is jointed plain concrete
pavements where smooth dowels are
put at the joints for load transfer
Objective of the Design


Input parameter and iterate the empirical
equation to determine the thickness of the
concrete slab
Slab thickness is the only parameter
computed. Subbase layer thickness is a
constant.
Variables that are Particular to Rigid Pavement

relatively thinner thickness design

Types of Failure in Rigid Pavements





Scaling of Cement Concrete – peeling off of
surface due to mixture, compaction, and
finishing operation
Shrinkage Cracks – hair-line shallow cracks
due to setting and curing process
Joint Spalling – breakdown of joints due to
excessive stress, weather, insufficient
strength of slab, and misalignment of
materials
Warping Cracks - expanding concrete slab
due to heat
Pumping – Materials ejects out due to
infiltration of water to joints, void spaces in
layers, sealing of joint




Measure Pavement Quality and Performance

H.M. Westergaard – Danish structural engineer
considered as the pioneer on providing rational
treatment of the rigid pavement analysis
AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design
Final Serviceability Index - Final Serviceability
Index when the pavement is thought to have
finished its service period. Ranges from 1.5-3
depending on the use of the road.
Modulus of Rupture of PCC – measure of the
flexural strength of the concrete as
determined by breaking concrete beam
specimens. It is obtained by flexural test
results.
Drainage Coefficient
Load Transfer Coefficient
Elastic Modulus of PCC
Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

Friction – critical characteristics of a
pavement that affect how vehicles interact
with the roadway, including the frequency of
crashes. The factors that influence friction
are as follows:
o Change in traffic volumes or traffic
composition
o Surface age
o Seasonal changes
o Speed
Ruth Depth – measure of pavement surface
deformation in the wheel paths; usually



happens in flexible pavements; increase the
possibility of vehicle hydroplaning
o Mix Rutting - affects hot-mix asphalt
due to mix design
o Subgrade Rutting – depression in
subgrade
o Densification
Cracking
o Longitudinal – crack along the axis of
the road
o Transverse – opposite of longitudinal
o Alligator – cracks that looks like
alligator scales
o Block – cracks that looks like blocks
o Shrinkage – hairline cracks
o Slippage – half-moon shape cracks;
caused by temperature
Faulting – difference in elevation along a joint
or crack. It is noticeable when average
faulting in the pavement section reaches 2.5
mm; approach slab is higher than leave slab
Punchouts – fatigue damage at the top of the
slabs which occur when the close spacing of
the transverse cracks cause In high tensile
stresses that result in portions of the slab
being broken at the pieces; happens in
pavements
built
with
no
expansion/contraction joints like CRCP
Mechanistic – Empirical Pavement Design
Mechanistic – matter moves in accordance with laws
of nature; application of engineering mechanics and
rationality
Empirical - based on experiment and observations
rather than theory
Mechanistic – Empirical Pavement Design – utilizes
theoretical pavement modeling and historical
pavement performance data to predict pavement
responses to a trial pavement structure rather than
calculating a required layer thickness
1993 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
Structure
-
Based on empirical equations derived
from AASHO road test in Illinois
published in 1962
later editions released in 1972, 1986
AASHTO Joint Task Force on Pavements (JTFP)
-
proposed a research program to
develop a pavement design guide
-
based
on
mechanistic-empirical
principles
with
pavement
performance data from the Long
Term Pavement Performance (LTPP)
Program
National
Cooperative
Highway
Research Program (NCHRP) Project 126
Major Deficiencies on Previous Editions









Climate Effects – only in one geographic
location
Subgrade – only in one type of subgrade
Surface Materials – only one hot-mix asphalt
and one Portland cement concrete mix
Rehabilitation techniques – not considered
Test Pavements – did not include drainage
Only 2 yrs. of monitoring were conducted
Today’s traffic load is 10 – 20x higher than in
the 50s and 60s
Performance – only related to layer thickness
Reliability – procedure never fully validated
Advantages and Disadvantages of MechanisticEmpirical Design
Advantages


Reduced early failures
Increased Pavement Life
- Low rehabilitation cost
- Reduced delay time for food users
Disadvantages


Cost
-
AASHTO ware PMED
$7,000 for individual workstation
(annual)
- Site license $28,000-$55,000 (annual)
Complexity
- Evaluation of new loading conditions
- Significant climate data
Influences of Pavement Performance


Traffic (Traffic Spectra)
- Anticipated traffic must be classified
by axle type
Environment
- Temperature and moisture conditions
are not constants, but vary with time
- 3 elements:
- Site-specific
environmental
data set
-

Material-specific
set
of
thermal related properties
- An algorithm to compute the
transmission of heat within
the pavement structure
Pavement Structure
- 3 input levels:
- Level 1: highest quality of
data; data obtained from
direct testing; site-specific
values
- Level
2:
estimated
parameters from site-specific
data; represents state values
- Level 3: direct and secondary
test results are unavailable;
national values
Benefits of MEPDG






Importance of Pavement Condition Data



Characteristics of pavement condition used in
pavement rehabilitation needs:

More appropriate designs
Better performance predictions
Better material-related research
Powerful forensic tool
Problems of Highway Rehabilitation
Insufficient funds
Poor conditions of roads
Wear and tear over period of years
Limits timely repair and rehabilitation
Balance work program between preventive
and corrective action
Pavement Condition Prediction
Pavement management
-
-
-
Describe strategies that can be used
to decide on pavement restoration
and rehabilitation policy
Plans that establish minimum
standards for pavement condition and
seek to establish the type of
treatment required and the time
frame for project completion
Systematic process for maintain,
upgrading, and operating physical
pavement assets in a cost-effective
manner
Levels of Pavement Management
Establish project priorities
Establishing options
Forecasting performance
Methods Determining Roadway Condition
Pavement Management





Network Level – concerned with the entire
highway network and all of the pavement
sections that comprise the system
Project Level – determining the specific
maintenance and rehabilitation action
required to preserve a specific element or
project

Pavement Roughness (Rideability)
- Irregularities in the pavement surface
that affect the smoothness of the ride
- AASHTO Road Tests:
- Present Serviceability Rating
(PSR) – no. of grade given to a
pavement section based on
the ability of that pavement
to serve its intended traffic
- Present Serviceability Index
(PSI) – value for pavement
condition determined as a
surrogate for PSR and is based
on physical measurements
Pavement Distress
- Condition of pavement based on its
general appearance
- May
fractured,
distorted,
or
disintegrated
- Road Test:
- Pavement Condition Index
(PCI) – widely used pavement
distress index
- Distress types where PCI is used:
- Alligator Cracking – caused by
fatigue failure of pavement
under
repeated
traffic
loadings
- Bleeding – film of bituminous
material on the pavement
surface that becomes viscous
when warm
- Block
Cracking
–
interconnected cracks that
divide
pavement
into
rectangular pieces
-

Corrugation – series of
closely-spaced ridges and
valleys occurring at regular
intervals
- Depressions – localized areas
that
are
below
the
surrounding surface causing a
bowl-like shape
- Longitudinal
cracking
–
parallel or orthogonal to the
centerline of the pavement
- Rutting – surface depression
typically along the wheel
paths of the road
- Raveling – wearing of the
pavement surface caused by
aggregate particles breaking
loose and the loss of
bituminous material binder
Pavement Deflection
- Deflection data are used for design
purposes
- Measured
by
destructive
or
nondestructive
means.
Nondestructive test methods include:
- Measurement
of
static
deflection
- Measurement of deflections
due to dynamic loads
- Measurement of deflection
from palling loads
- Measurement of density of
pavement layers by nuclear
radiation
Skid Resistance – data collected to monitor and
evaluate the effectiveness of a pavement in
preventing or reducing skid-related accidents
Multiple Regression Prediction Models – relate the
pavement condition index for a given highway section
to several factors that affect deterioration, such as
age, usage level, climatic and environmental
conditions, structural strength, and construction
materials
Approaches to Pavement Management
Rehabilitation Techniques


Rehabilitation Strategies

Pavement Rehabilitation
Main Approaches


Deterministic Models – developed through
regression analysis and can be used to predict
future conditions to determine appropriate
rehabilitation programs
Probabilistic Models – Based on tables that
furnish the probability of a pavement rating
change from one year to the next
Family-based Prediction Models – different
pavement sections are segmented into groups in such
a manner that all pavement sections in a specific
group have similar deterioration trend characteristics.
Corrective – permanent and temporary repair
of deficiencies on an as-needed basis
Preventive – involves application of structural
and non-structural improvements intended to
keep the quality of the pavement

Problem – based
o Skid resistance
o Surface drainage
o Unevenness
o Roughness
o Cracking
Treatment – based
o Surface treatment
o Overlay
o Recycle
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Traffic Stream – individual vehicles, piloted by
individual drivers, interactive with each other and the
roadway environment.
Traffic Stream Model – used to establish a better
relationship between traffic parameters.
Types of Flow:


Variable Relationship of Main Parameters
3 Main Traffic Stream Parameter



q = uk
Uninterrupted Flow – Flow that occurs at long
sections of roads where vehicles are not
required to stop by any cause external to the
traffic stream. It is influenced by roadway
design and vehicle interaction.
Interrupted Flow – flow that occurs at
interactions or driveways where vehicles are
required to stop by any cause outside the
traffic stream
Flow/Flow Rate
- Also called as volume
- The number of vehicles passing a
point during specified period of time
- Referred to as volume when
measured over an hour
- Formula:
Q = N/T
Where,
Q = flow
N = no. of vehicles
T = point in time
Speed
- Rate of motion in distance per unit of
time
- Average traffic speed is defined in 2
ways:
- Time Mean Speed – also
called as spot mean speed is
the average speed of vehicles
passing on roadway over a
specified time period
- Space Mean Speed – used to
describe the rate of
movement of a traffic stream
within a given section of road
Density
- No. of vehicles occupying a given
length of roadway at some specified
time
- Formula:
K = N/l
Where,
K = traffic density in vehicle per unit
distance
N = no. of vehicles occupying same
length of roadway at some specified
time
L = length of roadway
Where,
q = flow
u = speed
k = density
Other Traffic Stream Parameters





Peak Hour Factor – a means to measure the
variation of traffic demand
Headway - is typically defined as the time
between consecutive services. If you catch a
bus that "comes every half hour", then the
service you catch has a headway of 30
minutes.
o Time Headway - Difference between
the time when the front of a vehicle
arrives at a point on the highway and
the time the front of the next vehicle
arrives at the same point (in seconds)
o Space Headway - Difference in
position between the front of a
vehicle and the front of the next
vehicle (in meters)
Spacing - the distance between two vehicles
measures from the front bumper of a vehicle
to that of another.
Gap - is very similar to headway, except that it
is a measure of the time that elapse between
the departure of the first vehicle and the
arrival of the second.
Clearance - Similar to spacing, except that the
clearance is the distance between the rear
bumper of the leading vehicle and the front
bumper of the following vehicle.
Relationship of Flow, Speed, and Density
Basic Stream Models



Speed-Density Model – shows the linear
relationship between speed and density. As
the density increases, speed decreases.
Flow-Density Model – forms a parabolic
curve. Flow increases together with density
but as it reaches its maximum, it starts to
decline as density approaches jam density.
Speed-Flow Model – shows a parabolic curve.
Speed decreases as flow increases. As flow
reaches its maximum, both speed and flow
decrease due to increasing density.
Boundary Conditions



Free-Flow Speed – speed close/approaching
to the design speed
Jam Density - refers to extreme traffic density
when traffic flow stops completely
Maximum Flow – also called flow at
capacity/capacity of a roadway
Poisson Model - This model is a microscopic traffic
flow model that directs attention toward more
detailed view of traffic flow.
Limitations:



Traffic flows becomes heavily
congested
There is the presence of external
disturbances
The mean and variance are
significantly different
Queuing Theory
The severe traffic congestion that prevails on urban
motorways, particularly during peak hours, is one of
the biggest worries for traffic engineers. This
congestion results in the formation of queues on
expressway on ramps and off ramps, at signalized and
unsignalized intersections, and on arterials, where
moving queues may occur.
Queuing – any obstruction of traffic flow

- Exponential arrivals
- Deterministic departures
- One departure channel
M/M/1 Queuing Model
- Exponential arrivals
- Exponential departures
- One departure channel
Shockwave Theory
Shockwaves - are byproducts of traffic congestion and
queueing. They are transition zones between two
traffic states that move through a traffic environment
like, as their name states, a propagating wave.
Classifications of Shockwaves




Backward Forming – cause by sudden
deacceleration of the car at the front due to
the narrowing road. This will cause a chain
effect to the cars behind it.
Frontal Stationary – the car at the very front
stops due to an accident or a dead end. This
will cause a chain effect to the cars behind it.
Backward Recovery – acceleration of traffic
as the road becomes wider
Forward Recovery and Rear Stationary –
happens when deaccelerates and accelerates
but the cars behind them remains slow (e.g.
tunnel)
Gap and Gap Acceptance
-
Queuing Model Notation



1st - indicates the arrival rate assumption
2nd - gives the departure rate assumption
3rd - indicates the number of departure
channel
For the traffic arrival and departure assumptions, the
uniform, deterministic distribution is denoted D and
the exponential distribution is denoted to M
Statistics of Interest





Average queue length
Average number in system
Maximum queue length
Average waiting time in queue
Average time in system
Queuing Models - provide a means to estimate
important measures of highway performance,
including vehicle delay and traffic


D/D/1 Queuing Model
- Deterministic arrivals
- Deterministic departures
- One departure channel
M/D/1 Queuing Model
Occurs when there is the interaction
of vehicles as they join, or cross a
traffic stream
Gap Acceptance - It is defined as the process that
occurs when a traffic stream (known as the opposed
flow) has to either cross or merge with another traffic
stream (known as the opposing flow).
Examples:



Ramp vehicles merging onto an expressway
stream,
Freeway vehicles leaving the freeway onto
frontage roads
The changing of lanes by vehicles on a
multilane highway
Measure Involving the Concept of Gap Acceptance

Merging - is the process by which a vehicle in
one traffic stream joins another traffic stream
moving in the same direction
Ramp Sections:
o Entrance/Access Ramp - gives the
driver time to begin evaluating traffic
conditions
o



o
o
o
o
o
Acceleration Lane – allows a driver to
adjust vehicle speed to the speed of
traffic on the expressway
o Merging Area - allows the driver to
merge onto the expressway
Diverging - is the process by which a vehicle in
a traffic stream leaves that traffic stream
Weaving - is the process by which a vehicle
first merges into a stream of traffic, obliquely
cross that stream, then merges into a second
stream moving in the same direction
Gap - is the headway in a major stream, which
is evaluated by a vehicle driver in a minor
stream who wishes to merge into the major
stream. It is expressed either in units of time
(time gap) or in units of distance (space gap).
o
Advantages
o
o
Methods of Calculating Gap Acceptance

Algebraic and Graphical
o
TRAFFIC STUDIES
o
Traffic Volume Study – also called as Traffic Flow
Survey/ Traffic Survey
Importance of Traffic Volume Study



To do structural design of pavements and
geometrical design of roads
To make an analysis of traffic patterns and
trends on the road
To do the planning of sidewalks, crosswalks,
or pedestrian signals
Vehicle classification can be obtained
Analyzing traffic characteristics in
unusual conditions (adverse weather
conditions,
traffic
breakdowns,
temporary closure of any lane of
highway)
Data accumulated are easy to analyze
Disadvantages
Volume Studies
Traffic Volume - Number of vehicles and/or
pedestrians that pass a particular section during a
particular time period ('minutes', 'hours' or 'days'
etc.).; quantity measure of flow
Pencil
Eraser
Sharpener
Data Sheet: Traffic Tally Sheet
Mechanical Counting Boards –
consist of counters mounted on a
board; push button devices with 3-5
registers
Electronic Counting Boards – batteryoperated handheld device; has an
internal clock that automatically
separates the data by time interval
o
o

Cannot be used for long periods of
counting
Labor intensive
Limited to human factors
Automatic Counting Methods – vehicles are
counted without human involvement; can
gather large amounts of traffic data
o Contact System – require laying
detectors; detect the passing vehicles
and transmit the information to a
recorder
 Pneumatic Tubes – burst of
air pressure along a traffic
2 Basic Counting Methods

Manual Counting Method
o Manual Classified Count – involves
counting all the vehicles passing
o Manual Traffic Count – recording
observed vehicles using a counter
Procedure:
o Number of observers depend upon
the number of lanes and the required
type of information
o Data is recorded by a Five-Dash
System
Equipment/Materials
o
o
Watch
Clipboard
tube
Inductive Loop – activated by
the change in magnetic field;
can be installed 18-24 in.
below the road surface
 Weight-in-Motion Sensor –
used to count, weigh, and
classify vehicles while in
motion (e.g. bending plates,
capacitive mats)
Contactless System - Based on

o
electrical/optical, ultrasound/infrared
radar, microwave, CCTV/video image
processing method etc.
 Micro-millimeter Wave Radar
Detectors – emits radioactive
signals
least once every four years at each
coverage station to estimate ADT
using the expansion factors obtained
from control counts
Traffic Volume Data Presentation
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Video Camera – also monitors
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traffic violation
Types of Volume Counts
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Cordon Counts - the area for which the data
are required is cordoned off by an imaginary
closed loop
Screen-Line Counts - the study area is divided
into large sections by running imaginary lines,
known as screen lines, across it
Intersection Counts - taken to determine
vehicle classifications, through movements,
and turning movements at intersections
Pedestrian Volume Counts - volume counts of
pedestrians are made at locations such as
subway stations, midblock, and crosswalks
Periodic Volume Counts - to make reasonable
estimates of annual traffic volume
characteristics on an area-wide basis,
different types of periodic counts, with count
durations ranging from 15 minutes to
continuous, are conducted.
o Continuous
Counts
taken
continuously using mechanical or
electronic counters. Stations at which
continuous counts are taken are
known as permanent count stations.
o Control Counts - The data obtained
from control counts are used to
determine seasonal and monthly
variations of traffic characteristics so
that expansion factors can be
determined.
 Major
Control
Counts
(Monthly)
 Minor Control Counts (Every
other month)
o Coverage Counts - A 24-hour nondirectional weekday count is taken at
Traffic Flow Maps - the volume of traffic on
each route is represented by the width of a
band; drawn in proportion to the traffic
volume it represents.
Intersection Summary Sheets – volume and
direction of all traffic movements through the
intersection
Time-Based Distribution Charts – show the
hourly, daily, monthly, or annual variations in
traffic volume in an area or on a particular
highway
Summary Tables – summary of traffic volume
data such as PHV, vehicle classification, and
ADT in tabular form
Volume Characteristics
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Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) –
average 24-hour counts collected everyday of
the year; mean traffic volume across all day
for a year for a given location along a roadway
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) – mean daily
traffic; total volume of 24-hour counts
collected over number of days greater than
one but less than year.
Annual Average Daily Truck Traffic (AADTT) trucks are defined as vehicles of classes 4
through 13 in the FHWA’s 13-category vehicle
classification system.
Peak Hour Volume (PHV) - maximum number
of vehicles that pass a point on a highway
during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.
Vehicle Classification (VC) – records volume
with respect to the type of vehicles
o Class 1 – 2 axles and an overall height
of 7.5 feet (e.g. car, jeepney, van,
pick-up, motorcycle)
o Class 2 - 2 axles and an overall height
of more than 7.5 feet (e.g. bus, truck,
etc.)
o Class 3 – trucks with 3 or more axles
an a height greater than 7.5 feet (e.g.
large truck with or w/out trailer)
Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) – a measure of
travel along a section of the road. It is the
product of the traffic volume and length of
roadway in miles to which the volume is
applicable.
Spot Speed Studies
Spot Speed Study – a traffic study that is used to
determine the distribution of speed of vehicles in a
stream of traffic at a particular location of a highway

Speed Data – used in a variety of traffic analyses
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Spot Speed Data – singular measurement of speeds of
vehicles passing a point on a roadway
Uses of Spot Speed
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Establish parameters for traffic operation and
control
Evaluating the effectiveness of traffic control
devices
Monitoring the effectiveness of speed
enforcement programs
Determining speed trends
Evaluating the adequacy of highway
geometric characteristics
Evaluating the effect of speed on highway
safety
Determining whether complaints on speeding
are valid
Speed Characteristics
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Location for Spot Speed Studies
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Basic Data Collection
o Diff. traffic conditions on highways
Speed Trend Analysis
o Mid-block on urban highways
o Straight, level sections in rural
highways
Things to Remember
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Data should be unbiased
Statically adequate numbers of vehicles
speeds should be recorded
Time of Study - depends on the purpose of the study
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Citizen Complaints – time period depends on
the nature of complaint
Free-Flowing Traffic - When a study focuses
on establishing posted speed limits, observing
speed trend, or to collect basic data
The duration of the study should be such that
the minimum number of vehicle speeds
required for statistical analysis is recorded
the duration is at least 1 hour, and the sample
size is at least 30 vehicles
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
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The calculated mean (or average) speed is
used to represent the true mean value of all
vehicle speeds at that location.
The accuracy of the true mean value depends
on the number of vehicles in the sample
Select a sample size within acceptable error
limits.
Statistical procedures are used to determine
the minimum sample size
The minimum sample size depends on the
precision level desired
Average Speed – arithmetic mean of all
observed vehicle speeds
Median Speed – speed at the middle values in
a series of spot speeds, arranged in ascending
order
Modal Speed – speed that is most likely to
occur in a sample of spot speeds
Nth-percentile Spot Speed – spot speed value
below which n percent of the vehicles travel
Pace – range of speed usually taken at 10
mi/h interval – that has the greatest
observations
Standard Deviation of Speeds – measure of
the spread of speeds of the individual speeds
Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
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Manual
Automatic – has 3 classifications:
o Road Detectors – used to collect
speed data at the same time as
volume data are collected; classified
into 2 categories:
 Pneumatic Road Tubes – laid
across the lane 6ft apart in
which data are to be
collected; As the front wheels
of a moving vehicle pass over
the tube, an air impulse is
transmitted through the
counter
 Inductive Loop – rectangular
wire loop buried under the
road surface; Operates on the
principle that a disturbance in
the electrical field is created
when a motor vehicle passes
across it
Advantage
 Less human errors
Disadvantage
 Expensive
 Pneumatic road tubes may
affect driver’s behavior as
they are rather conspicuous
o Radar-based Traffic Sensors
-
o
When a signal is transmitted
onto a moving vehicle, the
change in frequency between
the transmitted signal and the
reflected
signal
is
proportional to the speed of
the moving vehicle.
- The value of the speed
recorded depends on the
angle between the direction
of the vehicle and the line
joining the center of the
transmitter and vehicle.
Advantage:
 If the equipment is located at
an inconspicuous position,
the influence on the driver is
considerably reduced
Electronic-Principle Detectors - The
presence of vehicles is detected
through electronic means, no
installation of loops or any other type
of road detector. Uses video image
processing, sometimes referred as
machine-vision system; Information is
real-time
Presentation and Analysis of Spot-Speed Data
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Statistical methods are used to analyze data
The spot speed data are mostly presented
through a frequency distribution table.
Frequency Histogram is a chart showing the
mid value for each class as the abscissa and
the observed frequency for the corresponding
class as the ordinate
Travel Time and Delay Studies
Travel Time - is the time taken by vehicle to traverse a
given section of a highway.
Travel Time Study - a study conducted to determine
the amount of time required to traverse a specific
route or section of a street or highway; it provides the
necessary data to determine the average travel time
of a certain route or road.
Delay - it is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes
beyond the control of the driver, it is an extra time
spent by drivers against their expectation.
Delay Study - a study made to provide information
concerning the amount, cause, location, duration, and
frequency of delay as well as travel time and similar
value.
Purpose of Travel Time and Delay Studies
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to evaluate the quality of traffic movement
along a route.
To identify locations with relatively high
delays and causes for those delays
To identify the performance of the beforeand-after studies
To identify the relative efficiency of a route by
developing sufficiency ratings and congestion
indices
to identify and provide quantitative
information to help planners and engineers to
have
comprehensive
plans
and
recommendations for road improvements
Types of Delays
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Congestion Delay - a delay caused by a
condition in transport that is characterized by
slower speeds, longer trip times, and
increased vehicular queueing.
Fixed Delay – delay caused by traffic control
devices such as traffic signals
Operational Delay – delay caused by
interference from other components of the
traffic stream (cards, pedestrians, etc.0
Stopped Delay – delay where a vehicle is not
moving
Travel Time Delay - it is the difference
between the actual time required to traverse
a section of street or highway and the time
corresponding to the average speed of traffic
under uncongested conditions. it includes
acceleration and deceleration delay in
addition to stopped delay.
Approach Delay – delay encountered to an
approach to an intersection
Methods of Conducting Travel Time and Delay
Studies

Methods using Test Vehicles
o Floating Car Method
- in this method the driver tries
to float in the traffic stream
passing as many vehicles as
pass the test car.
- the driver of the test vehicle
attempts to pass as many
vehicles as those that pass his
test vehicle. the time taken to
traverse the study section is
recorded. this will be
repeated several times.
o Average Speed Technique
- drive a test car along the test
section at a speed which is
almost the speed of the traffic
stream. the time required to

traverse the test section is
noted.
o Moving Vehicle Technique
- in this technique, the
observer makes a round
- trip on a test section
Methods not Requiring Test Vehicles
o License Plates Observations
- it requires that observers be
positioned at the beginning
and end of the test section.
- It involves taking the vehicle’s
plate number and the time it
passes the test section. The
average travel time in the test
section shall be obtained
- this method does not provide
details such as causes for
delays and the duration, and
the number of delays in each
section. it has been suggested
that a sample size of 50
matched license plates will
give reasonably accurate
results. no sophisticated
equipment needed except the
stop watches.
o Interviews
- it is carried out by obtaining
information from people who
drive on the study site
regarding their travel times,
their experience of delays,
and so forth. this method
facilitates the collection of a
large amount of data in a
relatively short time.
- it requires the cooperation of
the people contacted, since
the result depends entirely on
the information given by
them
Parking Studies
Parking - the action of moving a vehicle into a place in
a car park or by the side of the road where it can be
left.
Parking Studies - performed to determine location,
use and adequacy of existing parking facilities
Space-Hour - a unit of parking that defines the use of
a single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
Parking Volume - is the total number of vehicles that
park in a study area during a specific length of time,
usually a day.
Parking Accumulation – the number of parked
vehicles in a study area at any specified time.
Parking Load - the area under the accumulation curve
between two specific times.
Parking Duration - the length of time a vehicle is
parked at a parking bay.
Parking Turnover - the rate of use of a parking
space.it is obtained by dividing the parking volume for
a specified period by the number of parking spaces.
Types of Parking Facilities
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On-street Parking Facilities – also known as
curb facilities. Vehicles are parked on the side
of the street itself.
o Parallel Parking – vehicles are parked
along the length of the road
o 30° Parking – vehicles are parked 30°
with respect the road alignment
o 45° Parking – as the angle of parking
increases, more number of vehicles
can be parked
o 60° Parking – vehicles are parked 60°
to the direction of the road
o Right Angle Parking – vehicles are
parked perpendicular to the direction
of the road
Off-street Parking Facilities - these facilities
may be privately or publicly owned. areas are
exclusively allotted for parking which will be
at some distance away from the mainstream
of traffic
Methodology of Parking Studies
1. Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities
a. type and number of parking spaces at
each parking facility
b. times of operation and limit on
duration of parking
c. type of ownership (private or public)
d. parking fees, if any, and method of
collection
e. restrictions on use (open or closed to
the public)
f. other restrictions(such as loading and
unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi
ranks)
g. probable degree of permanency
2. Collection Of Data/Parking Statistics
a. Parking Accumulation – number of
vehicles parked at a given instant time
b. Parking Volume – number of vehicles
parked at a given duration of time
c. Parking Load - area under the
accumulation curve. it can also be
obtained by simply multiplying the
number of vehicles occupying the
parking area at each time interval
with the time interval. it is expressed
as vehicle hours.
d. Parking Duration - the ratio of total
vehicle hours to the number of
vehicles parked.
e. Parking Turnover - ratio of number of
vehicles parked in a duration to the
number of parking bays available
f. Parking Index - also called occupancy
or efficiency. it is defined as the ratio
of number of bays occupied in a time
duration to the total space available
3. Identification of Parking Generators –
involves identifying parking generators (for
example, shopping centers or transit
terminals) and locating these on a map of the
study area.
4. Parking Demand - information on parking
demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at
the various parking facilities listed during the
inventory.
5. Parking Survey
a. In-Out Survey - the occupancy count
in the selected parking lot is taken at
the beginning
b. License Plate Method of Survey - this
results in the most accurate and
realistic data. in this case of survey,
every parking stall is monitored at a
continuous interval of 15 minutes or
so and the license plate number is
noted down
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Effects of Parking
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A. Characteristics of transport System
 National Transport Policy – guidelines for
implementing rules and regulations of all
government agencies; came from the National
Economic and Development Association
(NEDA)
 Difference
between
mobility
and
accessibility?
Mobility
-
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for residential plots less than 300 sq.m
require only community parking space.
for residential plot area from 500 to 1000
sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area
should be reserved for parking.
offices may require at least one space for
every 70 sq.m as a parking area.
one parking space is enough for 10 seats in a
restaurant
- Focuses on livability
- Prioritizes people
What is Transportation?
Transportation – means of moving people,
goods, and vehicles
Negative effect of mobility and accessibility?
Cons (-) of Mobility
o
o
o
o
Environmental issues
Traffic congestion
Traffic-related accidents
Divides the rich and poor
Cons (-) of Accessibility
Parking Requirements

focuses on time and service.
Prioritizes vehicles
Accessibility
number and duration for vehicles legally
parked
number and duration for vehicles illegally
parked
space-hours of demand for parking
supply of parking facilities
Minimum parking requirements for any types of
building:
Congestion
Accidents
Environmental Pollution
Obstruction to Fire Fighting Operation
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS/ADDITIONAL INFOS. DURING
RECITATIONS:
Analysis of parking Data

theaters and cinema halls need to keep only 1
parking space for 20 seats.
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o Less vehicle manufacturer sales
o Mobility may reduce
o Less privacy
o Not affordable to low-income earners
Who is responsible for monitoring public
transport? – Land transportation Franchising
and Regulatory Board (LTFRB)
What are the drawbacks of road
transportation?
Drawbacks:
o
o
o
Size/weight limits
Easier target by criminals
Risk of accidents
B.
C.
D.
E.
o delay of deliveries
Traffic Management
 4 Traffic Control Devices?
o Traffic Signs
o Traffic Signal
o Road Markings
o Traffic Islands
 Devices that provide information to the road
users – Guiding/Information Device
 Line pavement markings that divide opposite
traffic lanes – Yellow Centerline
 This shape is only used for stop sign –
Octagon/al
 Pavement Marking used to improve the night
vision and help the drivers in adverse
weather conditions – Road Studs
Pavement Design
 Classification of Pavement Deterioration
o Functional
o Structural
 Used to describe the various strategies that
can be used to decide on pavement
restoration and rehabilitation policy –
pavement management
 2 levels of pavement management
o Network Level
o Project Level
 Measure of pavement surface deformation
in the wheel paths – Rut Depth
 Primary function of pavement – to distribute
load to subgrade
Fundamentals of Traffic Flow
 Number of vehicles passing a point during a
specified period of time – Flow
 Distance between the ream bumper and the
front bumper – Gap/Clearance
 Extreme traffic density when traffic flow stop
completely – jam density
 Process by which a vehicle in one traffic
stream joins another traffic stream moving in
the same direction – merging
 Distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit
of time – Speed
Traffic Studies
 Minimum duration of spot speed study – 1
hour
 Study that determines the amount time
required to travel from one point to another
– travel time study
 Traffic study that is used to study the
distribution of speed of vehicle in a stream of


traffic at a particular location on a highway –
spot speed study
Hour that has the highest volume – peak
hour volume
What is the difference between ADT and
AADT?
- AADT refers to the average daily
traffic volume at a given location over
an entire year. ADT is the average
daily traffic volume at a location over
a period of time less than a year.