Approacnes
and Methods
in Language
Teaching
JACK
c. RICHARDS
AND
THEODORE s. RODGERS
•
Cambridge Language
Teaching Library
C AMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEA C HIN G LIBRARY
A series cove ring central issues in language tcaching and learning, by authors
who have expert know ledge in their field.
In this series:
Affect in Language Learning edited by jane Arnold
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching by Jack C. Richards and
Theodore S, Rodgers
Appropriate Methodology and Social Context by Adrian Holliday
Beyond Training by Jack C. Richards
Collaboractive Action Research for English Language Teachers by Anne Bu ms
C ollaborative Language Learning and T caching edited by Dav;d Nunan
Communicative Language Teaching by William Littlewood
Designing Tasks for the Communicative C lassroom by David Nunan
Developing Reading Skills by Fran~oise Grellet
Developments in English for Specific Purposes by T01lY Dudley-Evans and
Maggie Jo St. John
Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers by Michael McCarthy
Discourse and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch
English for Academic Purposes by R. R. Jordan
Engli sh for Specific Purposes by Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters
Es tablishing Self-Access: From Theory to Practice by David Gardner and
Lindsay Miller
Foreign and Second La nguage Learning by William Littlewood
Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective edited by Michael Byram
arId Michael Fleming
The Language Teaching Matrix by Ja ck C. Richards
Language Test Construction and Evaluation by J. Charles Alderson.
Caroline Clapham, and Dianne Wall
Learner-cen[redness as Language Education by Ian Tudor
Managing Curricular Innovation by Nurna Markee
Materials Development in Language Teaching edited by Brian Tomlinson
Psychology for Language Teachers by Marion Williams and
Robert L. Burden
Research Methods in Language Learning by David Nunan
Second Language Teacher Education edited by Jack C. Richards and
David Nunan
Society and the Language Classroom editec{.by HyweI Coleman
Teacher Learning in Language Teaching edited by Donald Freeman
and Jack C. Richards
Teaching the Spoken Language by Gillian Brown arId George Yule
Understanding Research in Second Language Learning by Jam es Dean Bmwn
Vocabulary: Descripti on, Acquisition and Pedagogy edited by Norbert Schmitt (wd
Michael M cCarthy
Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch (lnd
Cheryl Brown
.,
Voices From [he Language C lass room edited by Kathleen M . Hailey (11/(/
David NUI/IIII
Approaches and
Methods In
Language Teaching
A description and analysis·
Jack C. Richards and
Theodore S. Rodgers
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVER S ITY PRESS
PUBLI S HED BY TH E PRE SS SY NDICATE O F T H E UN IV E RS ITY OF C AMBRID GE.
Contents
The Pi tt Bui lding, Trumpingto n Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
CAMBRID G E UN I VERSITY PR ESS
The Edinburgh Bui lding, Camb ridge CB2 2RU, United Kingdom
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3 166, Australi a
Preface
© Cambridge Univers ity Press 1986
VII
1 A brief history of language teaching
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of releva nt collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may ta ke place without
the written permission of Cambri dge Uni ve rsity Press.
2
Fi rst pub lished 1986
Fifteenth printing 1999
1
The nature of approaches and methods in language
teachmg
14
3 The Ora l Approach and Situational La nguage Teaching
4
T he Audio lingual Method
Typeset in Saban
5
Communi cati ve Language Teaching
Library of C01lgress Catalogillg-in-PublicatiOt! Data
6
Total Physi ca l Response
Richards, J ack C.
Approaches and methods in language teaching.
(Cambridge language teaching libra ry)
Includes bibl iographies and index .
I. Language and languages - Study and teac hing.
1. Rodgers, Theodore S. (Theodore Stephen),
1934 -. 11. Title. III. Series.
P5 1.R467 1986 41 8'.007 85-11698
7 The Silent Way
Printed in the United States of America
44
British cataloging-ill-Publication Data
Richards, J.c. (jack C.)
Approaches and meth ods in language teach ing. (Cambridge la nguage tcaching library). ,
l. Language and languages - study a·nd teaching.
1. Title. Il . Rodgers, Theodore S.
41 8'.007 P5 1
64
87
99
Co mmunity Language Lea rning
'J
T he Natural Approach
113
128
I()
Sli ggestopedi a
II
Co mparing and evaluating methods: some suggesti ons
IIId\' x
31
142
154
169
ISBN 0-521-32093 -3 h"db ack
ISBN 0-521 -31255-8 paperback
•
v
Preface
,,
,
The proliferation of approaches and methods is a prominenCcharacteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching. To some,
this reflects the strength of our profession. Invention of new classroom
practices and approaches to designing language programs and materials
reflects a commitment to finding more efficient and more effective ways
of teaching languages, T he classroom teacher and the program coordinator have a wider variety of methodological options to choose from
than ever before. They can choose methods and materials according to
the needs of learners, the preferences of teachers, and the constraints of
the school or educational setting.
To others, however, the wide variety of method options currently
available confuses rather than comforts. Methods appear to be based
on very different views of what language is and how a language is
learned. Some methods recommend apparently strange and unfamiliar
classroom techniques and practices; others are described in books that
are hard to locate, obscurely written, and difficult to understand. Above
all, the practitioner is often bewildered by the lack of any comprehensive
theory of what an approach and method are. This book was written in
response to this situation, It is an attempt to depict, organize, and analyze
major and minor ap proaches and methods in language teaching, and to
describe their underlying nature.
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching is designed to provide
a detailed account of major twentieth-century trends in language teaching. To highlight the simi larities and differences between approaches
and methods, the same descriptive framework is used throughout. This
model is presented in Chapter 2 and is used in subsequent chapters. It
describes approaches and methods according to their underlying theories
of language and language learning; the learning objectives; the syllabus
model used; the roles of teachers, learners, and materials within the
method or approach; and the classroom procedures and techniques that
the method uses. Where a method or apptoach has extensive and acknowledged links to a particular tradition in second or foreign language
tcachin g, this historical background is treated in the first section of the
chapter. Where an approach or method has no acknowledged ties to
estahlished second or foreign language teaching pra ctice, histori ca l perspeeti v' is not r ·Icvrlnt. In I'h csc cases th e method is considered in
I'c rlll S
Preface
of its links to more general linguistic, psychological, o r educatio nal
trad itions.
Within each chapter, o ur aim has been to present a n objective and
comprehensive picture of a particular approach or method . We have
avoided personal evalu ation, preferring to let the m ethod speak fo r Itself
and allow readers to make their own appraisals. The book is not intended
to popula rize or promote particular approaches or methods, nor is it an
attempt to train teachers in the use of the dIfferent methods descrIb ed.
Rather it is designed to give the teacher or teacher tramee a straIghtforward introduction to commo nly used a nd less commo nl y used methods, and a set of criteria by which to criti cally read, question, and o bserve
methods. In the final chapter we examine m ethods from a broader framework and present a curriculum-development perspective on methodology. Limita tions of method claims are discussed, and the need for
evaluatio n and research is emphasized. W e hope that rhe analYSIS of
app roaches and methods presented here will elevate the level of discussion found in the methods literature, which sometimes has a polemIcal
and promotional quality. Our goal is to enable teachers to become better
informed about the n ature, strengths, a nd weaknesses of methods a nd
approaches so they can better arrive at their own judgments and decisions.
Portions of Chapter 2 are based on Jack C. Richards and Theodore
Rodgers, " Method: approach, design, procedure," TESO L Quarterly
16(2): 153-68. We wo uld like to thank the following people for their
ass istance in the preparation of this m a nuscript: Eileen Cain for C hapter
6; Jonathan Hull, Deborah Go rdon , a nd Joel W iskin for Cha pter 7;
Graham Crookes .and Phillip Hull for Ch apter 8; a nd Peter H a lpern and
Unise Lange for Chapter 9. We would like to acknowledge especia ll y
the editorial skills of our ed itor, Sandra G raham of Cambrtdge UllIvcrslty
Press.
•
A brief history of language teaching
1
This cha pter, in briefl y reviewing the histo ry of la nguage teaching methods, prov Ides a backgro und fo r discussion of contempora ry methods
and suggests th e issues we will refer to in analy zin g these merhods. From
this hi storical perspective we are also ab le to see that th e concerns that
have prompted modern method innovations were similar to those that
ha ve always been a t the center of discussions o n how to teach foreign
la nguages. C hanges in language reaching method s throu gho ut history
have re fl ected recognition of changes in the kind of proficien cy lea rners
need, such as a move toward oral proficiency rather than reading comp rehenSIon as the goal of language study; th ey have a lso reflected cha nges
III theones of the na ture of la nguage a nd of la ngua ge lea rnin g. Kell y
( 1969 ) a nd Howa tt (1984) ha ve dem onstrated t ha t man y current issues
ill hnguage teaching are not pa rticularly new. Today's contro versies
rellect contemporary responses to questions th at have been asked often
I hl'Ougho U! the history of language teaching.
It h as been estima ted that som e sixty percen t of today's world po pII Llil o n IS multtllllgua i. Both from a contempo ra ry a nd a historical per' I,,"cll ve, b tllllguallsm or multilingua li sm is the norm rather than the
I · ~l'l' pl' i o n . It is fair, then, to say th at throughou t hi story forei gn language
1"" I·I."l g ha s a lways been an importa nt practi ca l concern . Wh ereas today
1 1I)'.I" h IS the wo rld's most w idely studied foreign language, fi ve hundred
\'1'.11 '\ ago I t was Latin, for it was the dominant language of education
I IH IIIII l 'n .:l', reli g ion, and government in the Western world. In the six~
1.l lIlh ,"'llIlIry, however, French , Ital ian , and English gained in impor11111 I' .IS :l re'.lIl t of po li tical cha nges in Europe, and Latin grad ually
1'l l l llIh' d l ~ pl ;Kc d as a language of spoken and wri tten communication.
\ , Ih,· ""I'IIS o f 1.:1I'in diminished from that of a li ving language to
til II Id , 111 " 0 '( asiol1 :1 1" subj ect in the school curriculum , the stud y of
I 11111 1"" 1. "II II differCll t flln ctio n . T he study of classica l Latin (the Latin
III \\ 111. h Ih .. dlls:, .icIII wo rk , of Virgil , Ov id , and C icero were w ritten )
I li d 11l ,Il I,d Y'd S d ill S Mr:l llltn ~lr a nd rh crori c became the Ill odd for fore ign
1 1111'1 1 11'.1 !d ll d y 11'41 11 1 tht: st:VI..: II l"CCIHh to the nin eteenth centuri es. Chil 11111\ 111 \ IIII ' ~ " gl',III1I1I :lr s. . hoo l.. ill the si xteent h, scvcntcc llI"h , alld eighI
I \
Hd, I" HIII I \,,, 111 1':IIJ', i:! nd w ere i tlili :lll y giveil :l ri go rOll S inrro du clio n
I Hil i H I 11 111111.11" ,,,, ll iell W:1S 1:111 )',111 1I11'0l1 g11 ro tc ic:1 rnin g o f gram lll :'"
til l.
VIII
Hil l" HI dl' ~
1r11,;i l l1l ' nIH l l o lljll )'" l ritlIl S, It':l Il Sl:!tioll ,
:111(1
PI',l l;li \e't'
Approaches & methods in language teaching
in writing sample sentences, sometimes with the use of parallel bili ngual
texts and dialogue (Kell y 1969; H owatt 1983). O nce basic proficiency
was esta blished, students were introduced to the advanced study of
gramm ar and rhetoric. Schoo l lea rning must .have been a deadening
experience fo r children, for lapses in knowledge were often met with
brutal punishment. T here were occasional attempts to promote alternative approaches to education ; Roger Ascham and Montaigne in the
six teenth century and Comenius and John Locke in the seventeenth
century, for example, had made specifi c proposals for curriculum reform
and for changes in the way Lati n was t aught (Kelly 1969; Howatt 1984),
but si nce Latin (and, to a lesser extent, G reek) had for so lo ng been
rega rded as the classical and therefore most ideal form of language, it
was not surprising that ideas abo ut the role of language study in the
curri culum reflected the long-established status o f Latin .
T he decline of Latin al so brought with it a new justification for teaching Latin. Latin was said to develop intellectual abilities, and the stud y
of Latin gramm ar became an end in itself.
Wh en once the Latin to ngu e had ceased to he a normal veh icl e for co mmunicat io n, an d was replaced as such by the vernacular languages, the n it most
speedil y became a 'mcntal gy mn astic', the supreme ly 'dead' lan gua ge , a disciplined and systemati c srud y of which was held to be ind ispensa ble as a basis
for all forms of highe r education. (V. Mallison, cited in Titone 1968: 26)
As "modern" languages began to enter the cu rriculum of European
schools in the eighteenth centu ry, they were taught using the same basi c
procedures that were used for teaching Latin . Textbooks co nsisted o f
statements of abstract grammar rul es, lists of voca bul ary, and sentences
for translation. Speaking the foreign language was not the goal, and oral
practice was limited to students reading aloud the sentences they had
translated. T hese sentences were constructed to illustrate the grammatical system of the language and consequently bo re no relation to the
lan guage of real com muni cation. Students labored over translating sentences li ke the fo llowing:
The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen .
My sons hav e bought the mirrors of the Du ke.
The car of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of you r uncle.
(Titone 1968: 28)
By the nineteenth century, thi s approac h based o n th e stud y o( I.;\till
had become the standard way o f stud ying (oreign i:ln gll :1 gcs in sch""ls.
A typica l textbook in the mid-nin el'ee nth 'l' lllliry dill S ~O ll s ; s rc d or l'h :1P
tel's o r lessons o rg;1nizcd :1 ro un d gr;1 l1llll:l.f poi ill S. F.;H,'h gl': III1~II :II' poilll
W: 1S lish'd, rll l ·s 0 11 il s li se wen' l'xpl. llll n l, (l iid il WitS i lltl stl':II l' d hy
~ : lIl1plr i'ol' III ~· IH'r S.
A brief history of language teaching
N ineteenth-century tex tbook compi lers were mainly determined to codify th e
foreign language into frozen rul es of morphology and syntax to be explained
and eventually memori zed. Oral work was reduced to an abso lute minimum
while a handful of written exercises, constructed at random ca me as a sort '
of appendix to the rules. Of the many books published dur{ng this period,
those by Seidenstucker and Plotz were perhaps the most typical ... [SeidenstuckerJ reduced the material to disconnected sentences to illustrate specific
rul es. He di vid ed his text ca refully into two parts, one g iving the rules and
necessary paradigms, the other givin g French sentences for translatio n into
German and German sentences for translation into French. The imm ediate
aim ~as for the student to apply the given rules by means of approp riate
exerCises ... In [Plotz'S] textbooks, di vided into the two parts described
above, tbe so le form of instruction was mechanical tra nslation . Typical sen-
tences were: 'Thou hast a book. The house is beautiful. He has a kind dog.
We have a bread [sic]. The door is black. He has a book and a dog. The
horse of the father was kind. ' (Titone 1968 : 27)
This approach to foreign language teaching became known as the G rammar-Translation Method.
The Grammar-Translation Method
As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Johann Seidenstiicker, Karl Plotz, H. S. O llendorf, and J ohann Meidinger), Grammar
Translation was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which,
acco rding to one of its less charitable critics, was "to know everything
abo ut something rath er than the th ing itself" (W. H. D . Rouse, quoted
in Ke lly 1969: 53 ). Grammar Translation was in fact first known in the
United States as the Prussian Method. (A book by B. Sears, an American
classics teacher, published in 1845 was entitled The Ciceronian or the
I'russian Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin Language [Kell y
1969J.) The principal characteristics of the Grammar-Translation Method
were these:
I. The goa l of foreign language stud y is to learn a langua ge in order to read
its literature or in order to benefit from the mental di scip line and intellectlia l develo pment that result fro m foreign-language study. Grammar
' ~'ra n slati o n is a way of studying a language that approaches the langu age
hrst through deta iled analysis of its grammar rules, followed by applicaof thi S kn owledge to the task of transla ting sentences and texts in to
:1.II(~ out of, the ta rget language. It hence views language learning as co nS I S lll1 ~ or li tt le Ill ore th an mem orizing rules and facts in order to under' Lin d :~nd manip ulate the morphology and synta x of the foreign langu age.
"Til t.: flna l:ll1guage is tll ;)i ntain ed as the reference system ill the acquisi11 0 11
,,,'" of the secono language" (Stern 1983: 455) . .
Hr. ltlin g [J il t! wl'irillg arc dIe major focll s; little or no systemati c atte ntion
r:lid 10 ~ ('Ic:lki ng 0 1' lisfcning.
1,0(
1
Approaches & methods in language teach ing
A brief history of language teaching
3 . Vocabular y selecti o n is based so lel y on the read ing texts used, and words
are taught thro ugh bilingua l word lists, di ction ary study, an d memorizatio n. In a ty pical Gramma r-Tran slation tex t, the g ramm ar rul es are presented and ill ustrated, a list of vo cab ulary items are presented w ith their
translation eq ui va lents, and tran slat ion exercises are presc ribed.
4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and la nguage practi ce. Much of
the lesson is devoted to tran slating sentences into and our of the target
language, and it is thi s focus on the sentence th at is a distin ctive feature of
th e method. Earlier approaches to foreign language study used grammar
as an aid to the study of texts in a foreign language, But thi s was thought
to be too difficult for students in secondary schools, and the focus on the
sentence was an atte mpt to make lan guage lea rnin g eas ier (see Howatt
1984: 131).
5. Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain hi gh standards in
translatio n, because of "the high priority attached to met iculous standards
o f accuracy which, as well as having an in trinsic mora l val ue, was a prerequi site for passing the in creasing number of formal written exa mina tio ns that grew up durin g the century" (Howatt 1984: 132).
6. G ramm ar is ta ught dedu ctivel y - that is, by prescnra ri on and study of
gra mmar ru les, which are then pract iced throu gh translati o n exercises. In
most Gramm ar-Trans la tio n tex ts, a sy llabus was fo ll owed fo r the sequ encing o f grammar poi nts throu ghou t a text, and th ere was an atte mpt to
teach grammar in 3n orga ni zed and systematic way.
7. T he stuclenr's na tive lan guage is th e med ium o f in struct ion. It is used to
ex plain new item s and to enabl e co mp ari so ns to be made be tween the foreign language and the student's nati ve lan gua ge.
Grammar Tran slation dominated European and foreign language
teachin g from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modifi ed form it continues
to be widely used in some parts of th e world today. At its best, as Howatt
(1984) points out, it was not necessarily th e horror th at its critics depicted
it as. Its worst excesses were introduced by those who wanted to demonstrate that th e stud y of French or German was no less rigorous than
the stud y of cl assica l languages. This resulted in the rype of Gramm arTranslati on courses re membered with distaste by thousa nds of school
lea rners, for whom foreign language learning meant a tedious experience
of memorizing endless lists of unusa ble grammar rules and vocabu lary
and attempting to produce perfect translatio ns of stilted o r literary prose.
Although the Grammar-Translation Method often crea tes fru stration
for studen ts, it makes few demands on teachers. It is stil l used in situ ations where understanding literary tex ts is th e primary foc lis of fo reign
language study and there is little need for a spea ki11 !; k11ow led).\e of fh e
language. Contemporary texts for the I"c: l chill g
coll ege lev el
or
forci g ll 1:lll gl1 :\gcs :11
refl ect G r;1111rn :lr-'i'I':ln sl:lIio ll prin ci pics, TllfSl' rex t's
:l rc fn.:qllclitl y !'I ll': produ cts of pcopk 11':lilln l ill l i t ~' r' O lll n' !':l lh el' 111 :111 ill
1:1I1 )', II : q~\.' I l'n~' hill )', or :lppl k d lin gl li:'nk ... , ( :OIl NI'I I'I {'lli1 y. 11 1(11 11,.11 it III.1 y
Oft-Cil
be true to say that the Grammar-Translation Method is still widely
practiced, it has no advocates. It is a method for which there is no
theory. There is no literature that offers a ratio nale or justification for
it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or
educational theory.
In the mid- and late nineteenth century opposition to the GrammarTtanslation Method gradually developed in several European countries.
This Reform Movement, as it was referred to, laid the foundations for
th e development of new ways of teaching languages and raised controversies that have continued to the present day .
Language teaching innovations in the nineteenth century
Toward the mid-nineteenth century several factors contributed to a questioning and rejection of the Grammar-Translatio n Method. Increased
opportunities for communication among Europea ns created a demand
fo r o ral proficiency in foreign languages. Initially this created a market
for conversation books and phrase books intended for private study,
but language teaching specia lists also turned their attentio n to the way
modern languages were being taught in secondary schools. Increasingly
the public education system was seen to be failing in its responsibilities.
In Germany, England, France, and other parts of Europe, new approaches to language teaching were develo ped by individual language
teaching specialists, each with a specific method for reforming the teaching of modern languages. Some of these specialists, like C. Marcel , T .
Prendergast, and F. Gouin, did not manage to achieve any lasting impact,
though th eir ideas are of historical interest.
The Frenchman C. Marcel (1793-1896) referred to child language
lea rning as a model for language teaching, emphasized the importance
of mean ing in learning, proposed that reading be taught before other
ski ll s, and tried to locate language teaching within a broader educational
framework. The Englishman T. Prendergast (1806-1886) was one of
I he first to record the observation that children use contextual and sitlIariona l clles to interpret utterances and that they use memorized phrases
a11d "routines" in speaking. He proposed the first "structural syllabus,"
advoca ting that learners be taught the most basic structural patterns
o(cll rrin g in the language. In this way he was anticipating an issue that
W:lS 1'0 be taken lip in the 1920s and 1930s, as we shall see in Chapter
I. Th e Fre11 chman F. Gouin (1831-1896) is perh aps the best known of
I hese mid-nineteenth century reformers. Gouin developed an approach
I n 1":1 ehi11 g a fo reign language based on his observations of children's
11,« ' Ill' 1:1111\I1:1).;e. He believed that langllage lea rning was facilitated through
II ll ill!', Inll)',I Hlgl' to :l C";01l1plish events co nsisting of:.l seq uence of related
5
Approaches & methods in language teaching
A brief history of language teaching
actions. His method used situations and themes as ways of organizing
and presenting o ral language - the famous Gouin "series," wh ich includes sequences of sentences related to such activities as chopping wood
and opening the door. Gouin established schools to teach according to
his method, and it was quite popular for a time. In the first lesson of a
foreign language the following series would be learned:
I walk toward the door.
I walk.
I draw near to rhe door.
I draw nearer to the door.
I draw near.
I get to the door.
I stop at the door.
l stretch out my arm.
I take hold of the handle.
I turn the handle.
I open the door.
The Reform Movement
I draw nearer.
I get to.
I stop.
1 stretch out.
I take hold.
I turn.
I open.
I pull the door.
I pull.
The door moves.
moves
T he door turns o n its hinges.
The door turns and turn s.
1 open the door wide.
I let go of the handle.
turns
tu rns
I open.
let go.
(Titone 1968: 35)
Gouin's emphas is on the need to present new teaching items in a context
that makes their meaning clear, and the use of gestures and actions to
convey the mea nings of utterances, a re practi ces that later beca me part
of such approaches and methods as Situational Language Teaching
(Chapter 3) and Total Physical Response (Chapter 6) .
The work of individual language specialists like these reflects the
changing climate of the times in which they worked. Educators recognized the need for speaking proficiency rather than reading comprehension , grammar, or literary appreciation as the goal for foreign language
programs; there was an interest in how children learn languages, which
pro mpted attempts to develop teaching principles from observation of
(or mo re typically, reflections about) child language learning. But the
ideas and methods of Marcel, Prendergast, Gouin, and other innovators
were developed outside the context of established circles of education
and hence lacked the means for wider dissemination, acceptance, and
implementation. They were writing at a time when there was not suffici ent organizational structure in the language teaching profession (i.e.,
in the form of professional associations, journa ls, and conferences ) to
enab le new ideas to develop into an cclucation:ll moveme nt. T his hegan
to change towa rd the end of the nin eteenl'h CC Il1'IIr y , ho wc v l' r~ wh c,; 11 :1
1110 l'C cOl1 ccrl"cd effort arose in whi ch rh e illl l' l'l:s tS of l't:(ol'l;I"lI'liJld cd
Irt ll gll :lg' tc.; :l ·hc.; I'S , :'Inc.! lin glli st'S, coim,: id l'd, '1't'. H'h('l ~ ulld IiIlHII IN I N h l.'J ~ rlll
I,
to write about the need for new approaches to language teaching, and
through their pa mphlets, books, speeches, and articles, the foundation
for more widespread pedagogical reforms was laid. This effort became
known as the Reform Movement in language teaching.
Language teaching specialists like Marcel, Prendergast, and Gouin had
done much to promote alternative approaches to language teaching, but
their ideas failed to receive widespread support or attention. From the
1880s, however, practically minded linguists like Henry Sweet in England, Wilhelm Vietor in Germany, and Paul Passy in France began to
provide the intellectual leadership needed to give reformist ideas greater
credibility and acceptance. The discipline of linguistics was revitalized.
Phonetics - the scientific analysis and description of the sound systems
of languages - was established, giving new insights into speech processes.
Linguists emphasized that speech, rather than the written word, was the
primary form of language. The International Phonetic Association was
founded in 1886, and its International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was
designed to enable the sounds of any language to be accurately transcribed. O ne of the earliest goals of th e associarion was to improve the
teaching of modern languages. It advocated
1. the study of the spoken language;
2. phonetic tra ining in o rder to establish good pronunciation habits;
3. the use of conversation tex ts and dialogues to intro du ce conversational
phrases and idi oms;
4. an indu ctive approach to the teaching of gra mm ar;
5. tea ching new mea nings thro ugh establishing associatio ns w ithin the target
language rather than by establi shin g associatio ns w ith the moth er tongue.
Linguists too became interested in the controversies th at emerged
about the best way to teach foreign languages, and ideas were fiercely
discussed and defended in books, articles, and pamphlets. Henry Sweet
(1845-1912) argued that sound methodological principles should be based
0 11 a scientific analysis of language and a study of psychology. In his
book The Practical Study of Languages (1899) he set forth principles for
the develop ment of teaching method. These included
I . card ul se le ction of what is to be taught;
J... impos in g lim its o n what is to be taught;
L :11'1':tllgillg w h ~ t is to be taught in terms of the fOllr skill s of listening,
speaki ng, reading, and wr it ing;
'I. grading luall.;rb ls fl'Ol11 simple to co mpl e,x.
7
A brief history of language teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
In Germany the prominent scholar Wi lhelm Vietor (1850-1918) used
linguistic theory to justify his views on language teaching. He argued
that training in phonetics would enable teachers to pronounce the language accurately. Speech patterns, rather than grammar, were the fundamental elements of language. In 1882 he published his views in an
influential pamphlet, Language Teaching Must Start Afresh, in which
he strongly criticized the inadequacies of Grammar Translation and
stressed the value of training teachers in the new science of phonetics.
Vietor, Sweet, and other reformers in the late nineteenth century shared
many beliefs about the principles on which a new approach to teaching
foreign languages should be based, although they often differed considerably in the specific procedures they advocated for teaching a language.
In general the reformers believed that
1. the spoken language is primary and that thi s should be reflected in an
oral-based methodology;
2. the findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher
training;
3. learn ers should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form;
4. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced
in meaningful contexts and no t be ta ught as isolated, disconnected
elements;
5. the rules of gramma r should be taught only after the students have practiced the grammar points in context - that is, grammar should be taught
indu ctively;
6, tran slation shou ld be avo ided, although the mother tongue could be used
in order to explain new words or ro check comprehension.
These principles provided the theoretical foundations for a principled
approach to language teaching, one based on a scientific approach to
the study of language and of language lea rning. They reflect the beginnings of the discipline of applied lin guistics - that branch of language
study concerned with the scientific study of second and foreign language
teaching and learning. The writings of such scholars as Sweet, Vietor,
and Passy provided suggestions on how these applied linguistic principles
could best be put into practice. None of these proposals assumed the
status of a method, however, in the sense of a widely recognized and
uniformly implemented design for teaching a language. But parallel to
the ideas put forward by members of the Reform Movement was an
interest in developing principles for language teaching out of natu rali stic
principl es of language learning, such as arc seen in firsl' Llngll:lge :11.:quisition. This led to what have been termed 1IITIlINd 1I1l' ,/w r/s.:l1H1 111 tim::1tcly led 1'0 tht: dcvt.:\opmcnf of wh :u Cillll C 10 Iw kno wn ns till' Din,'c t
Melhod .
The Direct Method
Gouin had been one of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to
attempt to build a methodology around observation of child language
learning. Other reformers toward the end of the century likewise turned
their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning, and for
this reason they are sometimes referred to as advocates of a "natural"
method. In fact at various times throughout the history of language
teaching, attempts have been made to make second language learning
more like first language learning. In the sixteenth century, for example,
Montaigne described how he was entrusted to a guardian who addressed
him exclusively in Latin for the first years of his life, since Montaigne's
father wanted his son to speak Latin well. Among those who tried to
apply natural principles to language classes in the nineteenth century
was L. Sauveur (1826-1907), who used intensive oral interaction in the
target language, employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting
language. He opened a language school in Boston in the late 1860s, and
his method soon became referred to as the Natural Method.
Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a
foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the
learner's native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action. The German scholar F. Franke wrote on the
psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target language (1884) and ptovided a theoretical justification
for a monolingual approach to teaching. According to Franke, a language
could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom . Rather than
using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules
in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous
use of the foreign language in the classroom. Learners would then be
able to induce rules of grammar. The teacher replaced the textbook in
the early stages of learning. Speaking began with systematic attention
to pronunciation. Known words could be used to teach new vocabulary,
using mime, demonstration, and pictures.
.
These natural language learning pri nciples provided the foundation for
wl'"t came to be known as the Direct Method, which refers to the most widely
kllown of the natural methods. Enthusiastic supporters of the Direct Method
inlroduced it in France and Germany (it was officially approved in both
cOlIlll'ries at the turn of the century), and it became widely known in the United
SI:ltcs through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berl itz in successful comI1h..' rciai LlIlguage school s. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the terlll; he referred to
I h l' nlcl'hnd used in his schools as the Berlitz Method.) In practice it stood for
til L' ()II<)wing principles and procedures:
I . <:ln ss l'uolll ill ~ ITll c tion was co nducted exclu sively in the target language.
L On ly l'vn yd:1Y vOl:3 bu l:lry :1 nd SC llt cnces were taught.
9
Approaches & methods in language teaching
3. Oral comm unication skills were built up in a ca refully graded progression
organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small , intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught indu ctivel y.
S. New teaching points were introduced ora ll y.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7 . Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral
language, which are still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
Never
Never
Never
Never
Never
Never
Never
translate: demonstrate
explain: act
mak e a speech: ask questions
imitate mistakes: correct
speak with singl e words: use sentences
speak too much: make students speak much
use th e book : use your lesson plan
Never jump aro und: follow your plan
Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
Never speak too slow ly: speak normally
Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
Never be impatient: take it easy
(cited in Titone 1968: 100-1)
The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools,
such as those of the Berlitz chain, where paying clients had high motivation and the use of native-speaking teachers was the norm. But despite pressure from proponents of the method, it was difficult to iniplement in public secondaty school education. "It overemphasized and
distorted the sim ilarities between naturalistic first language learning and
classroom foreign language learning and fai led to consider the practical
realities of the classroom. In addition, it lacked a rigorous basis in ap plied
linguistic theory, and for this reason it was often criticized by the more
academically based proponents of the Reform Movement. The Direct
Method rep resented the product of enlightened amateurism. It was perceived to have several drawbacks. First, it required teachers who were
native speakers or who had nativelike fluency in the foreign language.
It was largely dependent on the teacher's skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language to
adhere to the principles of the method. Critics pointed o ut that strict
adherence to Direct Method principles WJS often cOllllrc rp.odII Ct"iv c,
since teachers were requ ired to go to g rc~ t kn glhs 10 nvoid w;in g th e
l1:ltive wngll t:, wh en sorncl'irnt:s ;1 sirnph; hl'i(.'f ('}( p1.1I1 ,1IItHI III Ih t' s tu ~
10
A brief history of language teaching
dent's native tongue would have been a more efficient route to comprehension .
The Harvard psychologist Roger Brown has documented similar problems with strict Direct Method techniques. He described his frustration
in observing a teacher performing verbal gymnastics in an attempt to
convey the meaning of Japanese words, when translation would have
been a much more efficient technique to use (Brown 1973: 5) .
By the 1920s, use of the Direct Method in noncom mercial schools in
Europe had consequently declined. In France and Germany it was gradually modified into versions that combined some Direct Method techniques with more controlled grammar-based activities. The European
popularity of the Direct Method in the early part of the twentieth century
caused foreign language specialists in the United States to attempt to
have it implemented in American schools and colleges, although they
decided to move with caution. A study begun in 1923 on the state of
foreign language teaching concluded that no single method could guarantee successful results. The goal of trying to teach conversation skills
was considered impractical in view of the restricted time available for
foreign la nguage teaching in schools, the limited skills of teachers, and
the perceived irrelevance of conversation skills in a foreign language for
the ave~age American college student. The study - published as the
Colema ll Report - advocated that a more reasonable goal for a foreign
language course would be a reading knowledge of a foreign language,
achieved through the gradual introduction of words and grammatical
structures in simple reading texts. The main result of this recommendation was that reading became the goal of most foreign language programs in the United States (Coleman 1929). The emphasis on reading
continued to characterize foreign language teaching in the United States
until World War II.
Although the Direct Method enjoyed popularity in Europe, not everyone had embraced it enthusiastically. The British applied linguist Henry
Sweet had recognized its limitations. It offered innovations at the level
of teaching procedures but lacked a thorough methodological basis. Its
main focus was on the exclusive use of the target language in the classroom, but it fai led to address many issues that Sweet thought more basic.
Sweet and other applied linguists argued for the development of sound
methodologica l principles that could serve as the basis for teaching techniques. In the 1920s and 1930s applied linguists systematized the principles proposed earlier by the Reform Movement and so laid the
foundat ions for what developed into the British approach to teaching
English as a foreign language. Subsequent developm ents led to Audinlin gua lislll (sec Chapter 4) in rh e United Stares and th e Ora l Approach
or Sil ualiollo l Lall g"age Teoching (sec Chapter 3) in Britoill.
W h :lt h ~(':l Il1i..' of I hl' ";OIl Ccpt of /l1f,thod :I S ron.:igll Inllgll :1gt: 1t::I -hillg
II
Approaches & methods in language teaching
A brief history of language teaching
emerged as a significant educational issue in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries? We have seen fro m this histori ca l sur vey some of the questio ns
that pro mpted innovations and new directions in language teaching in
the past:
Sweet, H. 1899. The Practical Study of Languages. Reprinted. Lo ndon: Oxford
Uni versity Press.
Titone, R. 1968. Teaching Foreign Languages: An Historical Sketch. Washington, D. C.: Geo rgetown University Press .
I. What should the goals of language teach ing be? Should a lan guage co urse
try to tea ch co nversatio nal pro fi ciency, rea ding, trans lation , o r some other
skill ?
2. What is the basic natu re of lan guage, and how will th is affect teaching
method ?
3 . What are th e princip les fo r rhe selectio n of lang uage content in la nguage
teaching?
4. Wh at principles of organiza tion, sequenci ng, and presentation best faci li tate learning?
5. What should th e role o f the na tive language be ?
6. What processes do lea rn ers use in ma stering a lang uage, and ca n these be
incorpo rated into a metho d?
7. What teaching techniq ues and activ ities wo rk best and under what
circumstances?
Pa rti cular methods di ffer in the way they address these iss ues . But in
o rder to understand the fundamenta l nature of method s in language
teaching, it is necessary to conceive th e notion of method more systematica ll y. This is the aim of the next chapter, in which we present a model
fo r the descriptio n, ana lysis, and compa rison of methods. This model
will be used as a fram ework fo r our subseq uent discussions and analyses
of particul a r language teaching methods an d philosophi es.
Bibliography
Brown, R. 1973 . A First Language. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni versity Press.
Coleman, A. 1929. The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in the United
States. New York: Macmi llan.
Da ria n, Steven. 1972. Eng/ish as a Foreign Language: His tory, Development,
and Methods of Teaching. No rm an: University of Oklahoma Press.
Di ller, K. C. 1971. Generative Grammar, Structural Linguistics, and Language
Teaching . Rowley, Mass .: N ewbu ry House.
Franke, F. 1884. Die praktische Sp racherlermmg auf Grund der Psychologic
,Old del' Physiologie de,. Sprache dargestellt. Leipzig: O. R. Reisland .
Howatt, A. P. R. "1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Ox fo rd :
Oxford Uni ve rsity Press.
Kell y, L. G. 1969 . 25 Centuries of Language Tea ching. Rowley,
M;l SS.:
Newbury
House.
Langllage Teach ill,~ Alla/}Isis, 1,() l ld p lI : 1,1)1 11\11 1,'", 1.
u/ / dlll,l.;IIr1,l:t' '1i ',It IJill,I( , () x i'o l'd:
lJl1 i vcl'~ i l y Prcss.
Mackey, W. F. 1965 .
Stem , H. H. 19X .1. hll /( IolI/ell/a ! C()//('/)/s
Ox ford
1.1.
II
The nature of approaches and methods
2
The nature of approaches and methods
in language teaching
We saw in the preceding chapter that the changing rationale for foreign
language study and the classroom techniques and procedures used to
teach languages have reflected responses to a variety of historical issues
and circumstances. Tradition was for many years the guiding principle.
The Grammar-Translation Method reflected a time-honored and scholarly view of language and language study. At times, the practical realities
of the classroom determined both goals and procedures, as with the
determination of reading as the goal in American schools and colleges
in the late 1920s. At other times, theories derived from linguistics, psychology, or a mixture of both were used to develop a both philosophical
and practical basis for language teaching, as with the various reformist
proposals of the nineteenth century. As the study of teaching methods
and procedures in language teaching assumed a more central role within
applied linguistics from the 1940s on, various attempts have been made
to conceptualize the nature of methods and to explore more systematically the relationship between theory and practice within a method. In
this chapter we will clarify the relationship between approach and method
and present a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of
methods.
Approach and method
When linguists and language specialists sought to improve the quality
of language teaching in the late nineteenth century, they often did so by
referring to general principles and theories concerning how languages
are learned, how knowledge of language is represented and organized
in memory, or how language itself is structured. The early applied linguists, such as Henry Sweet (1845-1912),Otto Jespersen (1860-1943),
and Harold Palmer (1877-1949) (see Chapter 3), elaborated principles
and theoretically accountable approaches to the design of language
teaching programs, courses, and materials, though many of the specific
practical details were left to be worked out by others. They sought a
rational answer to qu estion s, such as those regardin g principld for the
selection and seq uencing of vocabulary and gra mmar, though 11011 • of
I~
these applied linguists saw in any existing method the ideal embodiment
of their ideas.
In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived
procedures for teaching a language, is central. In an attempt to clarify
this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist
Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization
and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique.
The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques
carry out a method which is consistent with an approach . ..
.. . An approach is a set of correlative assumpti ons dealing with the nature
of language teaching and lea rning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t describes the
.
nature of the subject matter to be ta ught. ..
... Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language ma terial, no part of w hich contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.
Within one approach, there can be many methods . ..
... A technique is imp lementational - that which actually takes place in a
classroom. It is a particular trick, strategem, or contrivance u s~d to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method,
and therefote in harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony 1963:63-7)
According to Anthony's model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified;
method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which
choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to
be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique
is the level at which classroom procedures are described.
Anthony'S model serves as a useful way of distinguishing between
different degrees of abstraction and specificity found in different language teaching proposals. Thus we can see that the proposals of the
Reform Movement were at the level of approach and that the Direct
Method is one method derived from this approach. The so-called Reading Method, which evolved as a result of the Coleman Report (see
Chapter 1) should really be described in the plural - reading methods
- since a number of different ways of implementing a reading approach
Ita ve been developed.
A number of other ways of conceptualizing approaches and methods
in language teaching have been proposed. Mackey, in his book Language
Teaching Analysis (1965), elaborated perhaps the most well-known model
of rhe 1960s, one that focuses prim arily on the levels of method and
Icchlliqlle. Mackey's model of language teaching analysis concentrates
(I II I he dilll -' Jl siolls of selection, grada tion, presentation, and repetition
""d cd yi ll!; a mel hod. III fa t, despite rhe tide of Mackey's book, his
I ~
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The nature of approaches and methods
concern is prim arily with the analysis of textbooks and their underlying
principles of organization. His model fail s to address the level of approach, nor does it deal with the actual classroom behaV iors of teachers
and learners, except as these are represented in textbooks. Hence It
cannot reall y serve as a basis for comprehensive analysis of either ap.
..
proaches or methods.
Although Anthony's original proposal has the advantage of Simplicity
and comprehensiveness and serves as a useful way of distinguishing the
relationship between underlying theoretical pnnClples and the practices
derived from them, it fails to give sufficient attention to the nature of a
method itself. Nothing is said about the roles of teachers and learners
assumed in a method, for example, nor about the role of in structional
materials or the form they are expected to take. It fails to account for
how an approach may be realized in a method, or for how method and
technique are related. In order to provide a more comprehensive model
for the discussion and analysis of approaches and methods, we have
revised and extended the original Anthony model. The primary areas
needing further clarification are, using Anthony's terms, method and
technique. We see approach and method treated at the level of deSign,
that level in which objectives, syllabus, and content are determmed, and
in which the roles o f teachers, lenners, and instructional materials are
specified. The implementation pbase (the level of technique in Anthony's
model) we refer to by the slightly more comprehensive term procedure.
Thus, a method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure.
In the rema inder of this chapter we will elaborate on the relationship
between approach, design, and procedure, using this framewo rk to
compare particular methods and approaches in language teach mg. In
th e remaining chapters of the book we wi ll use the model presented
here as a basis for describing a number of widely used approaches and
methods.
Approach
Following Anthony, approach refers to theories about the nature of
language and language learning th at serve as the source of practICes and
principles in language teaching. We will examine the linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of approach in turn .
Theory of language
At least three different theo retica l views of langll age
lrmguagc pro fi ciency expli citl y or im pli citl y
1(,
II lid
It.· II l1!:ure of
npp t'o:lcht..:s
i n (OI'lH t'III' I'l' lll
and methods in language teaching. The first, and the most traditional
of the three, is the structu ral view, the view that language is a system
of structurally related elements for the coding of mea ning. The target
of language lea rning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system,
which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), gra mmatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements),
and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words). As we see
in Chapter 4, the Audiolingual Method embodies this particular view
of language, as do such contemporary methods as Total Physical Response (Chapter 6) and the Silent Way (Chapter 7).
The second view of language is the functional view, the view that
language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The
communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view
of language (see Chapter 9). This theory emphasizes the semantic and
communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language, and leads to a specification and orga nization of
language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather
than by elements of structure and grammar. Wilkins's Notiona l Syllabuses (1976) is an attempt to spell out the implications of this view of
language for syllabus design. A notional syllabus would include not only
elements of grammar and lexis but also specify the topics, notions, and
concepts the learner needs to communicate abo ut. The English for specific purposes (ESP) movement likewise begins not from a structural
theory of language but from a functional account of learner needs (Robinson 1980.)
The third view of language can be called the interactional view. It sees
language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and
for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language
is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.
Areas of inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional
approaches to language teaching include interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology. Interactional theories focus on
the patterns of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges. Language teaching content, according to this view,
may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction
or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the inclinations of learners
as interactors.
Structural, functional, or interactional models of language (or variation s on them) provide the axioms and theoretical framework that may
motivate a particul ar teaching method, such as Audiolingualism. But in
themselves they are inco mpl ete and need to be co mplemented by theories
of I:1n gll :1gc IC:1rnill g. It is to this dimension th;1t we now turn.
17
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Theory of language learning
Although specific theories of the nature of language may provide the
basis for a particular teaching method, other methods derive primarily
from a theory of language learning. A learning theory underlying an
approach or method responds to two questions: (a) What are the psycholinguistic and ,ognitive processes involved in language learning? and
(b) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning
processes to be activated? Learning theories associated with a method
at the level of approach may emphasize either one or both of these
dimensions. Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such
as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.
Stephen D. Krashen's Monitor Model of second language development
(1981) is an example of a learning theory on which a method (the Natural
Approach) has been built (see Chapter 9) . Monitor theory addresses
both the process and the condition dimensions of learning. At the level
of process, Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acquisition refers to the natural assimilation of language rules through
using language for communication. Learning refers to the formal study
of language rules and is a conscious process . According to Krashen,
however, learning is available only as a "monitor." The monitor is the
repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language that
is learned through formal instruction and that is called upon in the
editing of utterances produced through the acquired system. Krashen's
theory also addresses the conditions necessary for the process of "acquisition" to take place. Krashen describes these in terms of the type of
"input" the learner receives . Input must be comprehensible, slightly
above the learner's present level of competence, interesting or relevant,
not grammatically sequenced, in sufficient quantity, and experienced in
low-anxiety contexts.
Tracy D. Terrell's Natural Approach (1977) is an example of a method
derived primarily from a learning theory rather than from a particular
view of language. Although the Natural Approach is based on a learning
theory that specifies both processes and conditions, the learning theory
underlying such methods as Counseling-Learning and the Silent Way
addresses primarily the conditions held to be necessary for learning to
take place without specifying what the learning processes themselves are
presumed to be (see Chapters 7 and 8).
Charles A. Curran in his writings on Counseling-Lea rnin g (1 972), for
example, focuses primarily on the condi tions neccso"ry for ",-, ccess f,,1
lea rnin g. He beli eves th e atm osphere of thc class room is" CI'II cia l f'l eto r,
The nature of approaches and methods
and his method seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and
insecurity that many learners experience. James Asher's Total Physical
Response (Asher 1977) is likewise a method that derives primarily from
learning theory rather than from a theory of the nature of language (see
Chapter 6) . Asher's learning theory addresses both the process and condition aspects of learning. It is based on the belief that child language
learning is based on motor activity, on coordinating language with action, and that this should form the basis of adult foreign language teaching. Orchestrating language production and comprehension with body
movement and physical actions is thought to provide the conditions for
success in language learning. Caleb Gattegno's Silent Way (1972, 1976)
is likewise built around a theory of the conditions necessary for successful
learning to be realized. Gattegno's writings address learners' needs to
f~el secure about learning and to assume conscious control of learning.
Many of the techniques used in the method are designed to train learners
to consciously use their intelligence to heighten learning potential.
There often appear to be natural affinities between certain theories of
language and theories of language learning; however, one can imagine
different pairings of language theory and learning theory that might
work as well as those we observe. The linking of structuralism (a linguistic theory) to behaviorism (a learning theory) produced Audiolingualism. That particular link was not inevitable, however. Cognitivecode proponents (see Chapter 4), for example, have attempted to link
a more sophisticated model of structuralism to a inore mentalistic and
less behavioristic brand of learning theory.
At the level of approach, we are hence concerned with theoretical
principles. With respect to language theory, we are concerned with a
model of language competence and an account of the basic features of
linguistic organization and language use. With respect to learning theory,
we are concerned with an account of the central processes of learning
:llld an account of the conditions believed to promote successful language
lea rning. These principles mayor 'may not lead to "a" method. Teachers
may, for example, develop their own teaching procedures, informed by
" particular view of language and a particular theory of learning. They
lII"y constantly revise, vary, and modify teaching/learning procedures
0 11 the basis of the performance of the learners and their reactions to
illstrllctional practice. A group of teachers holding similar beliefs about
h ll );lIa ge and language learning (i .e., sharing a similar approach) may
.. "eh impl ement these principles in different ways. Approach does not
specify procedure. Theory does not dictate a particular set of teaching
Il'chniqllcs and activities. Wh at links theory with practice (or approach
wilh procedure) is wh at we have call ed design.
I I)
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Design
In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop
a design for an instructional system. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider (a) what the objectives of a method are; (b)
how language content is selected and organized within the method, that
is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning
tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the roles of learners; (e) the roles of teachers; (f) the role of instructional materials.
Objectives
Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus
of a method; that is, they determine what a method sets out to achieve.
The specification of particular learning objectives, however, is a product
of design, not of approach . Some methods focus primarily on oral skills
and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from
transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself
meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation. Others place a greater emphasis on
accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some
methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in
terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities
the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction. Gattegno
writes, for example, "Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating
knowledge but as the means of becoming a more proficient learner in
whatever one is engaged in" (1972:89). This process-oriented objective
may be offered in contrast to the linguistically oriented or productoriented objectives of more traditional methods. The degree to which a
method has process-oriented or product-oriented objectives may be revealed in how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition and
grammatical proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation errors are treated in the method. Many methods that claim to be primarily
process oriented in fact show overriding concerns with grammatical and
lexical attainment and with accurate grammar and pronunciation.
Content choice and organization: the syllabus
All methods of language teaching involve the use o f the I'0l"),ot lan);ua ge.
All methods t hu s involve overt or covcrf decisio ns co nl'n 'll ili M th e selection o r hn g ll:q; c it c.; 1l1 S (words, Sc nl c ll CC PIlIIl'I'II N, I( ' IP.J (, N, I.'O ll stl'II t.:-
20
The nature of approaches and methods
tions, functions, topics, etc.) that are to be used within a course or
method. Decisions about the choice of language content relate both to
subject matter and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes
decisions about what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk
about it (linguistic matter). ESP courses, for example, are necessarily
subject-matter focused. Structurally based methods, such as Situational
Language Teaching and the Audiolingual Method, are necessarily linguistically focused. Methods typically differ in what they see as the
relevant language and subject matter around which language teaching
should be organized and the principles used in sequencing content within
a course. Content issues involve the principles of selection (Mackey
1965) that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course as well as
the instructional materials that are used, together with the principles of
gradation the method adopts. In grammar-based courses matters of sequencing and gradation are generally determined according to the difficulty of items or their frequency. In communicative or functionally
oriented courses (e.g., in ESP programs) sequencing may be according
to the learners' communicative needs.
Traditionally the term syllabus has been used to refer to the form in
which linguistic content is specified in a course or method. Inevitably
the term has been more closely associated with methods that are product
centered rather than those that are process centered. Syllabuses and
syllab us principles for Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, and notional-functional methods as well as in ESP approaches to language
program design can be readily identified. The syllabus underlying the
Situational and Audiolingual methods consists of a list of grammatical
items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items (Fries and Fries 1961; Alexander et al. 1975). Notionalfunctional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in
terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary. Such syllabuses are usually determined in advance of teaching and for this reason
have been referred to as "a priori syllabuses ."
The term syllabus, however, is less frequently used in process-based
Illethods, in which considerations of language content are often second:I ry . Counseling-Learning, for example, has no language syllabus as such.
Neither linguistic matter nor subject matter is specified in advance.
Lea rners select content for themselves by choosing topics they want to
,alk abollt. T hese are then translated into the target language and used
:I S the basis for interaction and language practice. To find out what
liuguisti c content had in fact been generated and practiced during a
l'o ursc.: o rga ni zed according to Co unseling-Learning principles, it would
he nc.:ccss:lI'Y to n;co rd the lessons and later determin e what items of
itulf\ lI agc h"d beell covered. T hi s would be an a posteriori approach to
sy ll ah us spc 'ir, cali oll; l'h,1I' is, I'he syll al)l IS wo ul d be detel'mined frolll
1. 1
Approaches & methods in language teaching
examining lesson protocols. With such methods as the Silent Way and
Total Physical Response, an examination of lesson protocols, teacher's
manuals and texts derived from them reveals that the syllabuses underlying'these methods are traditional lexica-grammatical syllabuses. In
both there is a strong emphasis on gra mmar and grammatical accuracy.
Types of learning and teaching activities
T he objectives of a method, whether defined primarily in terms of product or process, are attained thtough the instructional process, thro ugh
the organized and directed interaction of teachers, learners, and matenals
in the classroom. Differences among methods at the level of approach
manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learni ng and
teaching activities in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on
gramm atical accuracy may be quite different from those that focus on
communicative skills. Activities designed to focus on the development
of specific psycho linguistic processes in language acquisition will differ
from those directed toward mastery of particular features of grammar.
The activity types that a method advocates - the third component in
the level of design in method analysis - often serve to distinguish methods . Audiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and pattern practice
extensively. The Silent Way employs problem-solving activities that involve the use of special charts and colored rods. Communicative language teaching theoreticians have advocated the use of tasks that involve
an "information gap" and "information transfer"; that is, learners work
on the same task, but each learner has different information needed to
complete the task.
Different philosophies at the level of ap proach may be reflected both
in the use of different kinds of activities and in different uses for particular activity types. For example, interactive games are often used in
audiolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace
from pattern-practice drills. In communicati ve language teaching the
same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular
types of interactive exchanges . Differences in activity types in methods
may also involve different arrangements and groupings of learners. A
method that stresses o ral chorus drilling will require different groupll1gs
of learners in the classroom from a method that uses problem-solving!
inform ation-exchange activities involving pair work. Activity types in
methods thus include the primary catego ries of learning and teaching
activity the method advocates, such as dialogue, responding to commands, group problem solving, information-exchange activities, im•
provisations, question and answer, or drill s.
Because of the different ass umptions they make abollt' learning processes, sy 11. buses, and lea rning activi ties, rn ethods :dso :". rih" . c d i(f ,,.en.·
2
The nature of approaches and methods
roles and functions to teachers, learners, and instructional materials
within the instructional process. These constitute the next three components of design in method anal ysis.
Learner roles
The design of an instructional system will be considerably influenced by
how learners are regarded. A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners' contri bution to the lea rning
process . This is seen in the types of activities learners carry out, the
degree of control learners have over the content of learning, the patterns
of learner groupings adopted, the degree to which learners influence the
learning of others, and the view of the learner as processor, performer,
initiator, problem solver.
M uch of the criticism of Audiolingualism came from the recognition
of the very limited roles available to learners in audiolingual methodology. Learners were seen as stimulus-response mechanisms whose learning was a direct result of repetitive practice. Newer methodologies
customaril y exhibit more concern for learner roles and for va riation
among learners. Johnson and Paulston (1976) spell out learner roles in
an individualized approach to language learning in the fo llowing terms:
(a) Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assu me
responsibility for what they do in the classroom. (b) Learners monitor
and evaluate their own progress. (c) Learners are members of a group
and learn by interacting with others. (d) Learners tutor other learners.
(e) Learners learn from the teacher, fro m other students, and from other
tcaching sources. Counseling-Learning views learners as having roles
that change developmentally, and Curran (1976) uses an ontogenetic
metaphor to suggest this development. He divides the developmental
process into five stages, extending from total dependency on the teacher
in stage 1 to total independence in stage 5. These learner stages Curran
sees as parallel to the growth of a child from embryo to independent
:ldu lthood passing through childhood and adolescence.
Teacher roles
I ,carner roles in an instructional system are closely linked to the teacher's
, .,m.s and fun ction. Teacher roles are similarly related ultim ately both
." :lssllmpti ons abo ut language and language learning at the level of
.'ppm"ch. Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source
" I know ledge and direction; others see the teacher's role as cata lyst,
'{)II SlIlr:lllt, guide, and model fo r learn ing; still others try t o "teacher-
I'he ill st'n lct'ion:l l sySI'cm by limitin g tc:lchcr initiative and by
huild illlt i Il S II' II ~ lioll l1 l (on l ~ nl nll d din.: 'Ii o ll illin I(' x l s or lessoll pl :lI1 S.
IH'OO("
1. I
The nature of approaches and methods
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Teacher and learner roles define the type of interaction characteristic of
classrooms in which a particul ar method is being used. .
Teacher roles in methods are related to the followmg Issues: (a) the
types of fun ctions teachers are expected to fulfill , whether that of practIce
director, counselor, or model, for exampl e; (b) the degree of control the
teacher has over how learn ing takes place; (c) the degree to whIch the
teacher is responsible for determining the content of what IS taught; and
(d) the interactional patterns th at develop between teachers and learners.
Methods typically depend critically on teacher roles and theIr realIzations. In the classical Audiolingual Method, the teacher IS regarded as
the primary source of language and of language learnmg. But less teacherdirected learning may still demand very specIfic and sometImes even
more demanding roles for the teacher. The role of the teacher m the
Silent Way, for example, depends upon thotough trammg and methodological initiation. Only teachers who are tho toughly sure of theIr
role and the concomitant learner's role wIll rIsk departure from the
security of traditional textbook-oriented teaching.
.
'
.
For some methods, the role of the teacher has been specIfied m detaIl.
Individualized approaches to learning define roles for the teacher that
create specific patterns of interaction between teachers and learners In
classrooms. These are designed to shift the responsIbIlIty for learmng
gradually from the teacher to the learner. Counsel ing-Learmng sees the
teacher's role as that of psychological counselor, the effectIveness of the
teacher's role being a measure of counseling skills and attrIbutes - warmth,
sensitivity, and acceptance.
.
.
As these examples suggest, the potential role rel atIOnshIps of lea rner
and teacher are many and varied. They may be asymmetrIcal rel atIOn-,
ships, such as those of conductor to orchestra member, therapIst to
patient, coach to player. Some contemporary methodologIes have sought
to establish more symmetrIcal kmds of learner-teacher relatIonshIps,
such as fri end to friend, colleague to colleague, teammate to teammate.
The role of the teacher will ultimately reflect both the objectIves of the
method and the learning theory on which the method IS predIcated, smce
the success of a method may depend on the degree to which the teacher
can provide the content or create the conditions for successful language
learning.
elements - structures, topics, notions, fun ctions - or in some cases in
terms of learning tasks (see Johnson 1982; Prabhu 1983). It also defines
the goals for language learning in terms of speaking, listening, reading,
or writing skills. The instructional materials in their turn further specify
subject matter content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or
suggest the intensity of coverage for syll abus items, allocating the amount
of time, attention, and detail particul ar syll ab us items or tasks require.
Instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the syllabus. Materials
designed on the assumption that learning is initiated and monitored by
the teacher must meet quite different requirements from those designed
for student self-instruction or fo r peer tutoring. Some methods require
the instructional use of existing materials, fo und materials, and realia.
Some assume teacher-proof materials that even poorly trained teachers
with imperfect control of th e target language can teach with . Some
materials req uire specially trained teachers with near-native competence
in the target language. Some are designed to replace the teacher, so that
learning can take place independently. Some materials dictate various
interactiona l patterns in the classroom ; others inhibit classroom interaction; still others are noncommittal about interaction between teacher
and learner and learner and lea rner.
The role of instructional materials within a method or instructional
system wi ll reAect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials
(e.g., to present content, to practice content, to facilitate communication
between learners, o r to enable learners to practice content without the
teacher's help), the form of materials (e.g., textbook, audiovisuals, computer software), the relation of materials to other sources of input (i.e.,
whether they serve as the major source of input or only as a minor
component of it), and the abilities of teachers (e.g., their competence in
the language or degree of training and experience.)
A particular design for an instructional system may imply a particular
set of roles for materials in support of the syll abus and the teachers and
lea rners. For example, the role of instructional materials within a functional/communicative methodology might be specified in the foll owing
I"crms:
1. M:ltcrials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation ,
The role of instructional materials
The last component within the level of design concerns the role of instructional materials within the instructional system. What IS specIfied
with respect to ob jectives, content (i.e., the .syll abu s) , Icarnmg acnvltIc.S,
and learner and teacher roles suggests the IUIl CIU)lI (o r lI1 :ltcnals W i th in
dl Csystem. The sy ll ah1ls defines lin gllisd . ( O llt (' 1I1 111 H'I' Ill S of bn gw' Bc
'I
ex pressio n, and negotiation.
1.. M:ltcri:1 is w ill focus on understa ndabl e, relevant, and interesting ex ~
ch:ln gcs of info r1l1 :ltiOI1 , rath er than on the presentati on of grammatica l
(o rm .
\ , M :lt cri:l ls wi ll in volve diffcrclH kinds of texrs I1nd different Illcdi:l, which
til t.: Icnl'llcrs con liS' 10 develop th eir 'OIll P CtCI1 CC dll'otlgh :1 vari 'l'Y of dif(n'l' nl .u. dvllir"l ,Ind I!1sks.
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The nature of approaches and methods
By comparison, th e role of instructional materials within an individualized instructional system might include the following specifications:
ample, is a description of the proced ural aspects of a beginning Silent
Way course based on Stevick (1980: 44-5):
1. Materials will allow lea rn ers to progress at their own rates of lea rning.
2. Materials will allow for different styles of learning.
3. Materials will provide opportunities for independent study and lise.
1. The teacher points at meaningless symbo ls on a wa ll chart. The symbols
4. Materials will provide opportunities for self-evaluation and progress in
learning.
The content of a method such as Counseling-Learn ing is assumed to
be a product of the interests of the learners, since learners generate their
own subject matter. In that sense it would appear that no linguistic
content or materials are specified within the method. On the other hand,
Counseling-Learning acknowledges the need for learner mastery of certain linguistic mechanics, such as the mastery of vocabulary, grammar,
and pronunciation. Counseling-Learning sees these issues as falling outside the teacher's central role as counselor. Thus Counseling-Learn ing
has proposed the use of teaching machines and other programmed materials to support the learning of some of the more mechanical aspects
of language so as to free the teacher to function increasingly as a learning
counselor.
The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is
what we will refer to as procedure. This encompasses the actual momentto-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching
a language according to a particular method. It is the level at which we
describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom
behavior. At the level of design we saw that a method will advocate the
use of certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning. At the level of procedure we are concerned with how these tasks and activities are integrated
into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning. There are
three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: (a) the use of
teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc.) to
present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language; (b) the ways in which
particular teaching activities are used for practicing language; and (c)
the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to 1~"l"Il crs concerning the form or content of th eir utteran ces or sc nI'CI1 <':c,'i.
0"
rhe W:ly " 1I,,·th,," " ""dies th e
prcticnl';lI'iol1, pr;1 'Ii<.:c, :H1d ft:cdh:'l 'k ph:1 s{'s of !t·uchillg.
Ii
needed.
Of error treatment in the Silent Way Stevick notes:
When the students respond correctly to the teacher's initiative, she usually
does not react with any overt confirmation that what they did was right. If a
student's response is wrong, on the other hand, she indicates that the student
needs to do further work on the word or phrase; if she thinks it necessary,
she actually shows the student exactly whe re the additional work is to be
done. (1980: 45)
I'innocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) illustrate how the procedural phases
of instruction are handled in what they call a notional -functional
"pproach .
Procedure
Essentially, then, proced"re fo cuses
represent the syllables of the spoken language. The students read the
sounds aloud, first in chorus and then individually.
2. After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher moves to a second set of charts containing words frequently used in the language, in cluding numbers. The teacher leads the students to pronounce long
numbers.
3. The teacher uses colored rqds together with charts and gestures to lead
the students into producing the words and basic grammatical structures
J
""-1'(', for 'X "
I . Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini-dialogues.
2.. Ora l practice of each utterance in the dialogue.
\. Question s and answers based on the topic and situation in the dialogue.
II. Questions and answers related to the student's personal experience but
f.:cnrered on the theme of the dialogue.
,. Study of the basic communicative expressions used in the dialogue or one
of the structures that exemplify th e function .
(I. l.e;lrn er discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functiona l
ex pression of structure,
I, O ral recognition, interpretative procedu res.
K, Or:11 production activities, proceeding from guided to freer
L( )lll tlilini ca tion.
W,· ex pee!" methods to be most obviously idiosyncratic at the level of
I''''<"nillre, !"hough classroom observations often reveal that teachers do
IIl1t lIel"ess:lI·jl y fo ll ow the procedures a method prescribes (see Chapter
II ).
'!'Ill: rk lll 'il lS :l ilt! :.;ubcli..:'Il CnI"S ,·h:lt cOlI st"iftil C n In el·hod :lnd that we
1111\1(' lil-sl'I'ilwd IIlIdel' Ihl' I"lIh,';,,;s or npP,'o:ll:h, deslgll , :llld proc 'd ul" , nr
" OIlII1II1I' i1.('d ill Fin1 1rt.' , I ,
.7
The nature of approaches and methods
Conclusion
"0
o
-E
"
E
c
'"
~
The model presented in this chapter demonstrates that any language
teaching method can be described in terms of the issues identified here
at the levels of approach, design, and procedure. Very few methods are
explicit with respect to all of these dimensions, however. [n the remaining
chapters of this book we will attempt to make each of these features of
approach, design, and procedure explicit with reference to the major
language teaching approaches and methods in use roday. In so doing,
we wi ll often have to infer from what method developers have written
in order to determine precisely what criteria are being used for teaching
activities, what claims are being made about lea rning theory, what type
of syllabus is being employed, and so on.
The model presented here is not inten ded to imply that methodological
development proceeds neatly from approach, through design, to proced ure. It is not clear whether such a developmental form ula is possible,
and Our model certainly does not descri be the typical case. Methods can
develop out of any of the three categories. One can, for exam ple, stumble
on or invent a set of teaching procedures that appear to be successful
:11ld then later devel op a design and theoretical approach that explain
or justify the procedures. Some methodologists would resist ca lling their
proposals a method, although if descriptions are possible at each of the
kvels described here, we would argue that what is advocated has, in
(:lct, the status of a method. Let us now turn to the major approaches
:! lId teaching methods that are in use today and examine them according
I () how they reflect specific decisions at the levels of ap proach, design,
.II,d procedure.
Bibliography
1I 1("' :l nder, L. G., W. S. Allen, R. A. Close, and R. ]. O'Neill. 1975. English
Grammatical Structure. London: Longman.
II lI lhony, E. M. 1963. Approach , method and technique. English Language
Tcaching 17: 63-7.
11/.1.,,-, .l ames J. 1977. Learning Another Language Through Actions: The COIn ,iIell' Teacher'S Guidebook. Los Garos, Cal. : Sky Oaks Producti ons.
H(l'i l O , F. ./., and R. J. Di Pietro. 1970. Instructional strategies: their psycholo!:ii..::ll and lingui sric bases. International Review of Applied Linguistics 8:
1 19.
•
1\, t'(' II, M , P., :l lld C. C lndlin. 1980. The csscnti:l ls of a comllluni c:Hiv c clII"r; c,illltil i ll 1:1IIgU:lg\.: I \':il t: hill g. A/)/J/h'd / ,illp,lfislirs 1(2) : H9- 11 2.
t III "1111 , ( :. 1\ , 11.)72, (,'Ollll sdiflg· l,('f/miflg : 1\ W/JO/(' . P(,I'SOfl ModI'/ (or ndll.
( Illiou , N ' W York : (; lIllIl' II lid SII':lli o ll .
'I
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Curran, C. A. 1976. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River,
lit:: Apple River Press.
Finocchiaro, M., and C. Brumfit. 1983. The Functional-Notional Approach:
3
The Oral Approach and Situational
Language Teaching
From Theory to Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Fries, C. c., and A. C. Fries. 1961. Foundations for English Teaching. Tokyo:
Kenkyusha.
Gattegno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way.
2nd ed. New York: Educational Solutions.
Gattegno, C. 1976. The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign Languages. New
York: Educational Solutions.
Johnson, F., and C. B. Paulston. 1976. Individualizing in the Language Classroom. Cambridge, Mass.: Jacaranda.
Johnson, K. 1982. Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Seco1ld Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Mackey, W. F. 1965. Language Teaching Analysis. London: Longman.
Prahbu, N. 1983 . Procedural syllabuses. Paper presented at the RELe Seminar,
Singapore.
Robinson, P. 1980. ESP (English for Specific Purposes). Oxford: Pergamon.
Stevick, E. W. 1980. Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House.
Terrell, T. D. 1977. A natural approach to the acquisition and learning of a
language. Modern Language Journal 61 (7): 325-36.
Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional Syllabuses: A Taxonomy and Its Relevance to
Foreign Language Curriculum Development. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Few language teachers in the 1990s are familiar with the terms Oral
Approach or Situational Language Teaching, which refer to an approach
to langu age teaching developed by British applied linguists from the
1930s to the 1960s. Even though neither term is commonly used today,
the impact of the Oral Approach has been long lasting, and it has shaped
the design of many widely used EFUESL textbooks and courses, including many still being used today. One of the most successful ESL
courses of recent times, Streamline English (Hartley and Viney 1979),
reflects the classic principles of Situational Language Teaching, as do
many other widely used series (e.g., Access to English, Coles and Lord
1975; Kernel Lessons Plus, O'Neill 1973; and many of L. G. Alexander's widely used textbooks, e.g., Alexander 1967). As a recent British methodology text states, "This method is widely used at the time of
writing and a very large number of textbooks are based on it" (Hubbard et al. 1983: 36). It is important therefore to understand the principles and practices of the Oral Approach and Situational Language
Teaching.
Background
•
10
The origins of this approach began with the work of British applied
linguists in the 1920s and 1930s. Beginning at this time, a number of
outstanding applied linguists developed the basis for a principled appruach to methodology in language teaching. Two of the leaders in this
IIlovement were Harold Palmer and A. S. Hornby, two of the most
prom inent figures in British twentieth-century language teaching. Both
were fami lia r with the work of such linguists as Otto Jespersen and
ilo lli el Jones, as well as with the Direct Method. What they attempted
was 1'0 develop a more scientific foundation for an oral approach to
" '"chin l; English than was evidenced in the Direct Method. The result
WIIS :1 sysrcmati c study of the principles and procedures that could be
1I1, ,,li ·d 1() rhe sckerion and organization of the content of a language
l< 1I11'St ( PIIIIII CI' 19 17, 19 2 1).
11
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Vocabulary control
One of the first aspects of method design to receive attention was the
role of vocabulary. In the 1920s and 1930s several large-scale investigations of foreign language vocabulary were undertaken. The impetus
for this research came from two quarters. First, there was a general
consensus among language teaching specialists, such as Palmer, that
vocabulary was one of the most important aspects of foreign language
learning. A second influence was the increased emphasis on reading skills
as the goal of foreign language study in some countries. This had been
the recommend ation of the Coleman Report (Chapter 1) and also the
independent conclusion of another British language teaching specialist,
Michael West, who had examined th e rol e of English in India in the
1920s. Vocabu lary was seen as an essential component of reading
proficiency.
This led to the development of principles of vocabu lary control, which
were to have a major practical impact on the teaching of English in the
fo llowing decades. Frequency counts showed that a core of 2,000 or so
words occurred frequently in written texts and that a knowledge of these
words would greatly assist in reading a foreign language. Harold Palmer,
Michael West, and other specialists produced a guide to the English
vocabulary needed for teaching English as a foreign language, The Interim Report on Vocabulary Selection (Faucett et a!. 1936), based on
frequency as well as other criteria. Th is was later revised by West and
publ ished in 1953 as A General Service List of English Words, which
became a standard reference in developing teaching materials. These
efforts to introduce a scientifi c and rational basis for choosing the vocabulary content of a language course represented the first attempts to
establish principles of syllabus design in language teaching.
Grammar control
Parallel to the interest in developing rational principles for vocabulary
selection was a focus on the grammatical content of a language course.
Palmer in his writings had emphasized the problems of grammar for the
foreign learner. Much of his work in Japan, where he directed the Institute for Research in English Teaching from 1922 until Wo rld War II,
was directed toward developing classroom procedures suited to teach ing
basic grammatical patterns through an oral approach. Hi s view of gra mmar was very different from the abstract model
or gra Il1111 :1I" seen in
Grammar-Translation Method, however, whi ch was hn sl'@!
the
011 1'11 C :l S-
slIlllption th elt one univerS;l ll ogl c (onlled Ih e h:ISIS of 11 11 11I 11) 111 :J)',(.'S :llld
th;lt th e.; tC{H.: hcr's n.:spollsibilit y W: 1S to NheI W htlw 1'. 1\ II \ , It q~{lr' y or 1lit'
I ).
universal grammar was to be expressed in the foreign language. Palmer
VIewed grammar as the underlying sentence patterns of the spoken language. Palmer, Hornby, and other British applied linguists analyzed
English and classified its major grammatical structures into sentence
patterns (later called "substitution tables"), which could be used to help
internalize th e rules of English sentence structure.
A classification of English sentence patterns was incorporated into the
first dictionary for students of English as a foreign language, developed
by Hornby, Gatenby, and Wakefield and publish ed in 1953 as The
Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. A number of pedagogica ll y motivated descriptions of English grammar were undertaken
including A Grammar of Spoken English on a Strictly Phonetic Basis
(Palmer and Blandford 1939), A Handbook of English Grammar (Zandvoort 1945), and Hornby's Guide to Patterns and Usage in English
(1954), which became a standard reference source of basic English sentence patterns for textbook writers. With the development of systematic
approaches to the lexical and grammatical content of a language course
and WIth the efforts of such speciali sts as Palmer, West, and Hornby in
uSlllg these resources as part of a comprehensive methodological framework for the teach ing of English as a foreign language, the fo undations
for the British approach in TEFUfESL - the Ora l Approach - were
firm ly established.
The Oral Approach and Situational Language
Teaching
Palmer, Hornby, and other British applied linguists from the 1920s
o nward developed an approach to methodology that involved systematic
prInCIples of selection (the procedures by wh ich lexica l and grammatica l
co ntent was chosen ), gradation (principles by which the organization
.mel sequencing of content were determined), and presentation (tech""lues used for presentation and practice of items in a course) . Although
"" Imer, Hornby, and other English teaching specialists had differing
views on the speCIfic procedures to be used in teaching English, their
!'omera l prin cipl es were referred to as the Oral Approach to language
1(".lchin g. Thi s was not to be confused with the Direct Method , which ,
.dd lO."gh it used ora l procedures, lacked a systematic basis in applied
11I1)"l lIsnc theo ry and pra ctice,
All UI':rI :lppro:1Ch
should
not
be confused with the obsolete Direct Method
oilly Ih :lI' !"Ill: IC:1 rn cr W ~lS bew ildered by a flow of ungraded '
"III'I'\'h, sill (CI';lIg :t Il IIl l: difficulti es hl: wOl dd have encountered in picking up
dl l' l,uI I', II,I /'It' ill its lIol'llInl l'IIV; I'OIIlIl l: rH :ll1d losing most of I'll{: compcns;1t:ing
winch
IIH': :1I11
II
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
benefits o f better contextualization in those circumstances. (Patterson 196 4:
Approach
4)
The Oral Approach was the accepted British approach to English language teaching by the 1950s. It is described in th e standard methodology
textboo ks of the period, such as French (1948-50), Gurrey (1955
Frisby (1957), and Billows (1961). lts pnnclples are seen m Hornby s
famous Oxford Progressive English Course for Adult Learners (19546) and in many other more recent textbooks. One of the most active
proponents of the Oral Approach m the SIxties was the Austrahan George
Pittman. Pittman and his colleagues were responsIble for developmg an
influential set of teaching materials based on the situational approach,
which were widely used in Australia, New Guinea, and the PaCIfic territories. Most Pacific territories continue to use the so-called Tate materials, developed by Pittman 's colleague Gloria Tate. Pittm an was also
responsible for the situation ally based matenals developed by the Commonwealth Office of Education in Sydney, Australia, used m the English
programs for immigrants in Australia. Thesewere publish ed for worldwide use in 1965 as the series Situational Engilsh. Matenals by Alexander
and other leading British textbook writers also reflected the pnnClples
of Situational Language Teaching as they had evolved over a twentyyear period. The main characteristics of the approach were as fo llows:
1,
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form .
2. The target language is the language of the classroom.
.
3 . N ew language points are intro duced and practlced sltuat~nallY,
. I
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are foll owed to ensure t at an essentla
general service vocabu lary is covered.
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms
should be taught before co mplex ones.
.
.
6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient leX ical and gra mm atica l basis is established.
It was the third principle that became a key feature of the approach in
the sixties and it was then th at the term situational was used Illcreasmgly
in referri~g to the Oral Approach. Hornby himself used the tetm the
Situational Approach in the title of an influentIal senes of articles published in English Language Teaching in 1950. Later the terms StructuralSituational Approach and Situational Language Teachmg ca me mtO
common usage. To avoid further confusion we will use the tcrm Sllu ational Language Teaching (SLT ) to includ e the Stru ctur~I~Sltll a ttonal
and O ral approaches . How can Situ ational Language Tc:, chll1 g be ch:1I"3Cterizcd ar the levels o f app roocb, desil;n, and pro<:ednr .?
\4
Theory of language
The theory of language underlying Situational Language Teaching can
be characterized as a type of British "stru cturalism." Speech was regarded as the basis of language, and structure was viewed as being at
the heart of speaking ability. Palmer, Hornby, and other British applied
linguists had prepared pedagogical descriptions of the basic grammatical
structures o f English, and these were to be followed in developing methodology. "Word order, Structural Words, the few inflexions of English,
and Content Words, will form the material of our teaching" (Frisby
1957: 134). In terms of language theory, th ere was little to distinguish
such a view from that proposed by American linguists, such as Charles
Fries. Indeed, Pittman drew heavily on Fries's theories of language in
the sixties, but American theory was largely unknown by British applied
linguists in the fiftie s. The British theoreticians, however, had a different focus to thei r version of structuralism - the notion of "situatio n."
" Our principal classroom activity in the teaching of English structure
will be the oral practice of structures. This ora l practice of controlled
sentence patterns should be given in situatio ns designed to give the
greatest amount of practice in English speech to the pupil" (Pittman
1963: 179).
The theory that knowledge of structures must be linked to situations
in which they could be used gave Situational Language Teaching one of
its distinctive features. This may have reflected the functional trend in
llritish linguistics since the thirties. Many British linguists had emphasized the close relationship between the structure of language and the
co ntext and situ ations in which language is used. British linguists, such
"s J. R. Firth and M. A. K. H alliday, developed powerful views of
Il'nguage in whi ch meaning, context, and situation were given a pro minent place: " The emphasis now is on the description of language activity
"s part of the whole complex of events which, together with the participants and relevant objects, make up actual situations" (Halliday,
Mci ntosh, and Strevens 1964: 38 ). Thus, in contrast to American struc1l1l'" list views o n language (see Chapter 4), language was viewed as
I,,,rposcful activity related to goals and situations in the real world. "The
i""!(lI age whi ch a person originates ... is always exp ressed for a purpose"
(Frisby 19.')7: 16).
"'oory of learning
I'll(' III 'OI'Y or knr'nillH IIl1dt'I'lyinH Silll nfj oll :, 1 L.:1 l1gll :1gC T eaching is :1
fYlll' Hi hl'IHlviol'irH huhi! klll'l1 il l/) Ih l'I1ry, II :lddl'l'SS(',o.: pl'illHll'il y Ih e P"OCI\
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The Oral A pproach and Situational Language Teaching
esses rather than the conditions of learning. Frisby, for example, cites
Palmer's views as authoritative:
Oral compositi on ca n be a very val uab le exercise . . . .
As Palmer has pointed ou t, there are three processes in learning a langu age -
dren . ... Only when the teacher is reasonably certa in that learners can speak
receiving the knowledge or materials, fix ing it in the memory by repetition,
fairl y correctly within the limi ts of their kno wledge of sentence stru Cture and
and using it in actual practice until it becomes a personal skill. (1957: 136)
Neverrheless, the skill with which this acti vity is handled depends largely
on the control of the language suggested by the teacher and used by the chilvocabular y may he allow them free choi ce in senten ce patterns and vocabu -
lary. (Pittman 1963: 188)
French likewise saw language lea rning as habit formation.
The fundamental is correct speech habits .... The pupils should be able to put
the words, without hesitation and al most witho ut thou ght, into sentence pat·
terns wh ich are correct. Such speech hab its can be cultivated by blind imita-
ti ve drill. (1950, vol. 3: 9)
Like the Direct Method, Siniationa l Language Teach ing ado pts an
inductive approach to the teaching of gramma r. The meaning of words
or structures is no t to be given through expl anation in eith er the native
tongue or the target language bu t is to be induced from the way the
form is used in a situation. "If we give th e meaning of a new word,
either by translation into the home language or by an equiva lent in the
same language, as soon as we introduce it, we weaken the imp ression
which the word makes on the mind" (Billows 1961: 28 ). Explanation
is therefore discouraged, and the learner is expected to dedu ce the meaning of a particular structure o r vocabulary item fro m the situation in
which it is presented. Extending structures and voca bulary to new situations takes pl ace by generalization. The lea rner is expected to apply
the language learned in a classroom to situatio ns outside the classroom .
This is how chil d language learning is believed to take place, and th e
same processes are thought to occur in second and foreign language
learn ing, according to practitioners of Situ ational Language Teaching.
The syllabus
Basic to the teaching of English in Situationa l Language Teaching is a
structural syllabus and a word list. A structural syllabus is a list of the
basic structures and sentence patterns of English, arranged according to
their order of presentation. In Situational Language Teaching, structures
are alwa ys taught within sentences, and voca bulary is chosen acco rding
to how well it enables sentence patterns to be taught. "Our early course
will consist of a list of sentence patterns [statement patterns, qu estio n
patterns, and request or command patterns] ... will include as many
structural wo rds as possible, and sufficient content words to provi de us
with material upon which to base o ur language practice" (Frisby 1957:
134). Frisby gives an exampl e of the typical structural syllabus aro und
which situa tio nal teaching was based:
1st lesson
2.nd lesson
Jrd lesson
Sentence pattern
This is...
Vo cabulary
book, penci l, ru ler,
That is . . .
desk
These are . . .
Those are . . .
Is th is . .. ? Yes it is .
Is that ... ? Yes it is.
chair, picture, door,
window
watch, box, peo,
blackboard
(1957:134)
Design
Objectives
The ob jectives of the Situational Language Teaching method are to teach
a practical command of the four basi c skills of language, goals it shares
with most meth ods of lang uage teaching. But the skills are approached
through structure. Accuracy in both pronunciation and gramm ar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs. Automatic
control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fund a mCnf:l lt,o rcading and writing skills, and this is achi eved thro ugh speech wll rle " Ik fore
T he sy ll abus was not therefore a situational syllabus in the sense that
Ihis term is sometimes used (i.e., a list of situ atio ns and the language
associated with them). Rather, situation refers to the manner of preM'lll"ing and practicing senten ce patterns, as we shaJl see later.
I ypes of learning and teaching activities
~ 'I\I : lIi () l1 ,d
Nl' lI li ll g
La nguage Teaching employs a situatio nal app roach to pre-
new sentence p:Hterns and a drill -based manne r of practicing
111 (' 111.
our pupils read new strll ctures and new V()(; ;'li>lIi:lr y. Wl ' sli :l lll r :ll'h OI':ll1 y
both th e ucw SITU cllll'es ,,,,d Ih e new voc .l lIt lnr y" (l'illll " " 1 1<)(, l : IXr.).
WriliIlJ', liIH'w isl' dl'l'i vt'S (1'0111 spl'l'rh,
pllt lI u,th od will ... Il\' .. illllll ion :d. Till' Sill l:l litlll wi ll hl' conll'oll ed ca rd lill y
I II 11'1 11. 1,
ti ll'
IH' W 11I 11 g l lllIII ' I 1I,1\ {'1'I1I I '"
ill N I I ~' " II w. l f th ,1t tl ll'!'i' ClI lI Ilt' IIIl
II
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
doubt in the learner's mind of the meaning of what he hears .... alm ost all
the vocab ulary and structures taught in the first four or five years and even
later ca n be placed in situations in which the meaning is qu ite clear. (Pittman
1963: 155-6)
By situation Pittman means the use of concrete objects, pictures, and
realia, which together with actions and gestures can be used to demonstrate the meanings of new language items.
The form of new words and sentence patterns is demonstrated w ith examples
and not through grammatical explanation or description. The meaning of
new words and sentence patterns is not conveyed through translation. It is
made clear visually (with objects, pictures, action and mime). Wherever possible model sentences are related and taken from a single situation. (Davies,
During the practice phase of the lesson, students are given more of
an opportunity to use the language in less controlled SituatiOns, but the
teacher is ever on the lookout for grammatica l and structural errors that
can form the basis of subsequent lessons. Organizing review is a primary
task for the teacher according to Pittman (1963), who summarizes the
teacher's responsibilities as dealing with
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
timing;
oral practice, to support the textbook structures;
revision [i.e., review};
adjustment to special needs of individuals;
testing;
..
developing language activities other than those anslI1g from the textbook.
(Pittman 1963: 177-8)
Roberts, and Rossner 1975: 3)
The practice techniques employed generally consist of guided repetition
and substitution activities, including chorus repetition, dictation, drills,
and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks. Other oral-practice
techniques are sometimes used, including pair practice and group work.
The teacher is essential to the success of the method, since the textbook
is able only to describe activities for the teacher to carry out in class.
Learner roles
Situational Language Teaching is dependent upon both a textbook and
visual aids. The textbook conta ins tightly organized lessons planned
around different grammatical structures. Visual aids may beproduced
hy the teacher or may be commercially produced; they conSIst of wall
charts, Aashcards, pictures, stick figures, and so on. The VIsual element
together with a carefully graded grammatical syllabus is a crucial aspect
of Situational Language Teaching, hence the importance of the textbook.
III principle, however, the textbook should be used "only as a gUide to
the learning process. The teacher is expected to be the master of hIS
I(, tbook" (Pittman 1963: 176).
In the initial stages of learning, the learner is required simply to li sten
and repeat what the teacher says and to respond to questions and commands. The learner has no control over the content of learn ing and is
often regarded as likely to succumb to undesirable behaviors unless
skillfully manipulated by the teacher. For example, the learner might
lapse into faulry grammar or pronunciation, forget what has been taught,
or fail to respond quickly enough ; incorrect habits are to be avoided at
all costs (see Pittman 1963). Later, more active participation is encouraged. This includes learners initiating responses and asking each other
questions, although teacher-controlled introduction and practice of new
language is stressed throughout (see Davies, Roberts, and Rossner 1975:
3-4).
The role of instructional materials
Procedure
procedures in Situational Language Teaching vary according
I" t he level of the class, but procedures at any level aim to move from
" "\lrolled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence
( :1"" 1'00111
Teacher roles
The teacher's function is threefold. In the presentation stage of the lesson,
the teacher serves as a model, setting up situation~ in which the need
for the target structure is created and then modeling the new structure
for students to repeat. Then the teacher "becomes more like the skillful
conductor of an orchestra, drawing the music out of the performers"
(Byrne 1976: 2). The teacher is required to be a ski llful manipulator,
using questions, commands, and other cues to eli cit CO ITC('" sentences
from the learners. Lessons are hence rea cher directed, "lid rhe leachel'
sets the pa ce.
pn ll crns to their automatic use in speech, reading, and writing. Pittman
Illv,'s
:111
example of a typical lesson plan:
li lt' li n.1 part of the lesso n w ill be stress and into nation practice .... T~e main
h~li l y o( Ih e lesso n sho uld then follow. This might consist of the teachmg of a
Itll t I ~ t tilT.
If
S(I, 1he
lesson would then co nsist of four parts:
111011l1 1ll':l:Ilioll
pn'pnrc
J
H lvl l'l lClII ( 10
I
jl l \"" IIlIlt1l1llnf IU' W
f()l' 111; W work if
~ 1I' tI ( IIII'(:
II CCCSS:HY )
III' VI )':, Ihulu fY
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
4. oral practice (drilling)
There's a bottle of ink in the box.
5 . reading of material on the new structure, or written exercises.
(1963: 173)
Davies et a!. give sample lesson plans for use with Situational Language
Teaching. The structures being taught in the following lesson are "This
is a . .. " and "That's a . .. "
(holding up a watch) Look. This is a watch. (2 x) (pointing
a clock on wall or table) That's a clock. (2 x ) That's a
clock. (2 x) This is a watch. (putting down watch and moving across to touch the clock or pick it up) T his is a clock.
(2 x) (pointing to watch) That's a watch. (2 x) (picking up
a pen) This is a pen . (2 x) (drawing large pencil on blackboard and moving away) That's a pencil. (2 x) Take your
pens. All take your pens. (students all pick up their pens)
Listen. This is a pen. (3 x) This. (3 x )
Teacher.
Students. This. (3 x)
A student. This. (6 x)
Teacher.
to
Teacher.
Students.
This is a pen.
This is a pen. (3 x)
(moving pen) This is a pen. (6 x)
Teacher.
(pointing to blackboard) That's a pencil. (3 x) That. (3 x )
Students. That. (3 x)
A student. That. (6 x)
That's a pencil.
Teacher.
Students. (all pointing at blackboard) That's a pencil. (3 x)
Student.
(pointing at blackboard) That's a pencil. (6 x)
Teacher.
Take your books. (taking a book himself) This is a book.
Student.
(3 x)
Students.
Teacher.
This is a book. (3 x)
(placing notebook in a visible place) Tell me ..
Student 1. That's a notebook.
You can now begin taking objects out of your box, making sure they are as
far as possible not new vocabu lary items. Large objects may be placed in visible places at the front of the classroom. Smaller ones distributed to students."
(1975: 56)
These procedures illustrate the techniques used in presenting new language items in situations. Drills are likewise related to "situations."
Pittman illustrates oral drilling on a pattern, using a box full of objects
to create the situation. The pattern being practiced is "There 's a NOUN
+ of + (noun) in the box ." The teacher takes objects alit o f the box
and the class repeats:
There's a tin of cigarettes in th e box .
There's a pack et of ma tches in th e bo x.
Th c rc' ~;l ret.:! of COl"lOIl ill lh c bo x.
40
•
There's a packet of pins in the box.
There's a pair of shoes in the box.
There's a jar of rice in the box.
(Pittman 1963: 168)
The teacher's kit, a collection of items and realia that can be used in
situational language practice, is hence an essential part of the teacher's
equipment.
. .
Davies et al. likewise give detailed information about teachmg procedures to be used with Situational Language Teaching. The sequence
of activities they propose consists of:
1. Listening practice in which the teacher obtains his student's attention and
repeats an example of the patterns or a word in isolation clearly, several
times, probably saying it slowly at least once (where . .. is ... the . .. pen?),
separating the words.
2. Choral imitation in which students all together or in large groups repeat
what the teacher has said. This works best if the teacher gives a clear in struction like "Repeat," or "Everybody" and hand signals to mark time
and stress.
3. Individual imitation in which the teacher asks several individual students
to repeat the model he has given in order to check their pronunciation.
4. Isolation, in which the teacher isolates sounds, words or groups of words
which cause trouble and goes through techniques 1-3 with them before
replacing them in context.
5. Building up to a new model, in which the teacher g~ts students to. ask and
answer questions using patterns they already know III order to bnng
about the information necessary to introduce the new model.
6. Elicitation, in which the teacher, using mime, prompt words, gestures,
etc., gets students to ask questions, make statements, or give new exam.
ples of the pattern.
7. Substitution drilling, in which the teacher uses cue words (words , plctures,
numbers, names, etc.) to get individual students to mix the examples of
th e new patterns.
x, Q ucstion-answer drilling, in which the teacher gets one student to ask a
qu cs tion and another to answer until most students in the class have practi <.:cd asking and answering the new question form.
.
II , Correction in which the teacher indicates by shaking his head, repeat1l1 g
1he erro r, dtc. , that there is a mistake and invites the student or a different
stlld ent" to correct it. Where possible the teacher does not simply correct
lhe mi st"ake himself. He gets students to correct themselves so th ey will be
l' 1I <.: tlllr:l ged to li sten to c:lCh o rher carefully.
(D:1Vi es or , I. 1975: 6- 7)
I )!lV ll'S l'l :11. Ih ell go (III 10 tl l/·a II ~N
III
11vi th'Ni ll'l '
III
Iw
1..'1 11'IW d ( H il ,
how foll ow-up rC:l din g :llId wr il i ll g
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Conclusion
Procedures associated with Situational Language Teaching in the fifties
and sixties are an extension and further development of well-established
techniques advocated by proponents of the earlier Oral Approach in the
British school of language teaching. They continue to be part of the
standard set of procedures advocated in many current British methodology texts (e.g., Hubbard et al. 1983), and as we noted above, textbooks
written according to the principles of Situational Language Teaching
continue to be widely used in many parts of the world. In the mid-sixties,
however, the view of language, language learning, and language teaching
underlying Situational Language Teaching was called into question . We
discuss this reaction and how it led to Communicative Language Teaching in Chapter 5. But because the principles of Situational Language
Teaching, with its strong emphasis on oral practice, grammar, and sentence patterns, conform to the intuitions of many practically oriented
classroom teachers, it continues to be widely used in the 1980s.
Bibliography
Alexander, L. G. 1967. New Concept English. 4 books. London: Longman.
Billows, F. L. 1961. The Techniques of Language Teaching. London: Longman.
Byrne, D. 1976. Teaching Oral English. London: Longman.
Coles, M., and B. Lord. 1975. Access to English. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Commonwealth Office of Education. 1965. Situational English. London:
Longman.
Davies, P., j . Roberts, and R. Rossner. 1975. Situational Lesson Plans. Mexico
City: Macmillan.
Faucett, L., M. West, H. E. Palmer, and E. L. Thorndike. 1936. The Interim
Report on Vocabulary Selection for the Teaching of English as a Foreign
Language. London: P. S. King.
French, F. G. 1948-1950. The Teaching of English Abroad. 3 vols. Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Frisby, A. W. 1957. Teaching English: Notes and Comments on Teaching English Overseas. London: Longman.
Gatenby, E. V. 1944. English as a Foreign Language. London: Longman.
Gauntlett, J. O. 1957. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. London:
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Hodgson, F. M. 1955 . Learning Modern Languages. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Hornby, A. S. 1950. The situational approach in language teaching. A series of
three articles in English Language Teaching. 4: 98-104, 121-8, 150-6.
Hornby, A. S. 1954. A Guide to Patterns and Usage in English. London: Oxford
University Press.
Hornby, A. S. 1954-6. Oxford Progressive English Course for Adult Learners.
3 books. London: Oxford University Press.
Hornby, A. S., E. V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield. 1953. The Advanced Learner's
Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press.
Hubbard, P., H. Jones, B. Thornton, and R. Wheeler. 1983. A Training Course
for TEFL. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jespersen, O. E. 1933. Essentials of English Grammar. London: Allen and
Unwin.
Mennon, T . K. N., and M. S. Patel. 1957. The Teaching of English as a Foreign
Language. Baroda, India: Aeharya.
Morris, I. 1954. The Art of Teaching English as a Living Language. London:
Macmillan.
O'Neill, R. 1973. Kernel Lessons Plus. London: Longman.
Palmer, H. E. 1917. The Scientific Study and Teaching of Languages. Reprinted.
Lo ndon: Oxford University Press, 1968.
Palmer, H. E. 1921. Principles of Language Study. New York: World BookCo.
Palmer, H. E. 1923. The Oral Method of Teaching Languages. Cambridge:
Heffer.
Palmer, H. E. 1934. Specimens of English Construction Patterns. Tokyo: Department of Education.
Palmer, H. E. 1938. Grammar of English Words. London: Longman.
Palmer, H. E. 1940. The Teaching of Oral English. Lo ndon: Longman.
P:dmer, H. E., and F. G. Blandford. 1939. A Grammar of Spoken English on
a Strictly Phonetic Basis. Cambridge: Heffer.
Pa ttison, B. 1952. English Teaching in the World Today. London: Evans.
Pattison, B. 1964. Modern methods of language teaching. English Language
Teaching 19 (1): 2-6.
Pittman, G. 1963. Teaching Structural English. Brisbane: Jacaranda.
Wesr, M. (ed.). 1953a. A General Service List of English Words. London:
Longman .
West, M. 1953b. The Teaching of English: A Guide to the New Method Series.
London: Longman.
{.,,,,dVllort, R. W. 1945. A Handbook of English Grammar. Groningen: Wolters.
Macmillan.
GUffey, P. 1955. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. London: Longmall.
Halliday, M. A. K., A. Mcintosh, and P. Strevens. '1964. The l ,ill,J.!lfislic Sciences
and Language Teaching. London : Longmall .
•
Hartl ey, B. , and P. Vin ey. "1979. Streamlillc 1 ~lIglish . Ox ford : Ox ford U1Iiv ersit y
Press.
11 \
The AudiolinguaJ Method
4
The Audiolingual Method
Background
The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a reading-based approach
to foreIgn language teachmg for use in American schools and colleges
(Chapter 1). Th,s emph asIzed teachlllg the comprehensio n of texts.
Teachers taught fro m books containing short reading passages in the
fOreign language, preceded by l,sts of vocabul ary. Rapid silent reading
was the goal, but 111 practice teachers often resorted to discussing the
c~ ntent of the passage 111 English. Those involved in the teach ing of
English as a second language in th e Un ited States between the two world
wars used either a modified Direct Method approach, a reading-based
approach, or a read mg-oral approac h (Darian 1972). Unlike th e approach that was bemg developed by British applied li nguists during the
same penod, there was little attempt to treat language co ntent systematically. Sentence patterns and grammar were introduced at the wh O
of the textbook write,: There was no standardi zatio n of the vocabul~~~
or grammar that was mcluded . Neither was there a consensus on what
gra ~m.a r, ~ente nce fa tterns, and vocabul ary were most importa nt for
begmnlllg, IIltermed,ate, o r advanced learners.
But the entry of the Un ited States into Wo rld War II had a significant
effect o n language teachmg In America . To sup ply the U.S. government
wIth person nel who were flu ent in German, French, Italian , Chinese,
Japa nese, Malay, and other languages, and who could work as interpreters,' code-room assl~t~ nts, and translators, it was necessary to set up
a speCial language trammg progra m. The government commissio ned
Amencan UniVersitIes to develop foreign language programs for militar
personnel. T hus the Army Specialized Trai ning Program (ASTP) wa~
established m 1942. FIfty-five American un iversities were involved in
th e progra m by the beginn ing of 1943.
T he. objective of the army programs was for students to atta in co nversati onal proficiency in a variety of foreign langu ages. Sin ce thi s wa s
not th e goal of conventIonal foreign language courses in the Unil·ed
States, new approa ches were necessary. Lingllists, such as I,coll;1rd
Bloomfield at Ya le, had already developed IT;]ini ng prnr.r:lIr,s :1 5 parr or
th eir 1,I11 g Ul Sti C resea rch ,'h:1I" wen; dcsigll L:d to givl' lill gtli si s ,I lid :1 111111'0po lo g l:-l t's Ill :l srl.' r y o( J\ 111 l't'il':111 Illdi ;1I1 b tI )1. ll lIHl'N lIlld tI t 11('" 1!llIp,lI lI)',tS
'1-1
they were stud ying. Textbooks did not exist for such languages. The
technique Bloomfield and his colleagues used was sometimes known as
the " informant method," since it used a native speaker of the language
- the info rmant - who served as a source of ph rases and vocabulary
and who provided sentences for imitation, and a linguist, who supervised
the learn ing experience. The linguist did not necessaril y know the language but was trained in eliciting the basic stru cture of the language
from the informant. T hus the students and the linguist were able to take
part in guided conversation with the informant, and together they gradually learned how to speak the language, as well as to understand much
of its basic grammar. Students in such cou rses studied ten hours a day,
six days a week. There were generall y fifteen hours of drill with native
speakers and twenty to thir ty ho urs of private study spread over two to
three six -week session s. This was the system adopted by the army, and
in small classes of mature and highly motivated stu dents, excellent results
were often achieved.
The Army Specialized Training Program lasted o nl y about two years
but attracted considerable attention in the popular press and in the
academic community. For the next ten years the "Army Method" and
its suitability for use in regular language programs was discussed. But
the linguists who developed the ASTP were not interested primarily in
language teaching. The "methodology" of the Army Method, like the
Direct Method, derived fro m the intensity of contact with the target
language rather than from any well-developed methodological basis. It
was a program innovative mainly in terms of tbe procedures used and
Ihe intensity of teaching rather than in terms 6f its underlying theory.
Ilowever, it did convince a number of prominent linguists of the va lue
oran intensive, oral-based approach to the learning of a foreign language.
Linguists and applied linguists during this period were becoming in( reasingly involved in the teaching of English as a foreign language.
i\ merica had now emerged as a major international power. There was
. L growing demand for foreign expertise in the teaching of English. Tho u" " l(ls of foreign students entered the United ,Sta tes to stud y in univer·. il ies, and many of these students required traini ng in English before
Ih ey cou ld begin their studies. These factors led to the emergence of the
i\ II,eri can approach to ESL, which by the mid-fifties had become
Audinl ingualisrn,
III 1939 the University of Michigan developed the first Engli sh Lan 1', II ,q~l.! I mai t il h.': in the United States ; it speciali zed in the trJining of
or
English as a foreign language and in tea ching English :1 S :l
foreign I:Hlguagc , Charles Fries , dirccror of the in sl'illl te, W:1S
, t !I 1lI l' d ill SII'II '1'111':1111 nguiSI ics, :llld he :1ppl ied dle princi pies of SITlI .(, 11': 11
Iilll ~lli s li l.'S HI Inll gll :IIW tcnchillg. I,' ri (;s nlld h ~ s coll crt gll L:S rc i (;~t c d :lp"
PII I,ldH'''' likr Ih o st of I hl' l)il'l'l:1 M t' lho<.! , ill which It'n rlH.TS :1f'C..' l'x pw': n l
1I',h.:hcrs
1H' ~l ll l d 01'
'I \
Approaches & meihods in language teaching
to the language, use it, and gradually absorb its grammatical patterns.
For Fries, grammar, or "structure," was the starting point. The structure
of the language was identified with its basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The language was taught by systematic attention to
pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns.
Pattern practice was a basic classroom technique. "It is these basic patterns that constitute the learner's task. They require drill, drill, and more
drill, and only enough vocab ulary to make such drills possible" (Hockett
1959).
Michigan was not the only university involved in developing courses
and materials for teaching English. A number of other similar programs
were established, some of the earliest being at Georgetown University
and American University, Washington, D.C., and at the University of
Texas, Austin. U.S. linguists were becoming increasingly active, both
within the United States and abroad, in supervisi ng programs for the
teaching of English (Moulton 1961). In 1950 the American Council of
Learned Societies, under contract to the U.S. State Department, was
commissioned to develop textbooks for teaching English to speakers of
a wide number of foreign languages. The format the lingu ists involved
in this project followed was known as the "general form": A lesson
began with work on pronunciation, morphology, and grammar, followed by drills and exercises. The guidelines were published as Structural
Notes and Corpus: A Basis for the Preparation of Materials to Teach
English as a Foreign Language (American Council of Learned Societies
1952). This became an influential document and together with the "general form" was used as a guide to developing English courses for speakers
of ten different lang uages (the famous Spoken Language series), published between 1953 and 1956 (Mou lton 1961).
In many ways the methodology used by U.S. linguists and language
teaching experts at this period sounded similar to the British Oral Approach, although the two traditions developed independently. The American approach differed, however, in its strong alliance with American
structural linguistics and its applied linguistic applications, particularly
contrastive analysis. Fries set forth hi s principles in Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (1945), in which the problems of
learning a foreign language were attributed to the conflict of different
structural systems (i.e., differences between the grammatical and phonological patternS of the native tongue and the target language). Contrastive analysis of the two languages would a llow potential problems
of interference to be predicted and addressed through carefu ll y prepared
teaching materials. Thus was born a major industry in American applied
linguistics - systematic comparisons of English with other l.angunges,
with a view toward solving the fUl1dam '111'0 1 problelllS of for ·igll 10 11 g"" 'c lea rning.
The Audiolingual Method
The approach developed by linguists at Michigan and other universities became known variously as the Oral Approach, the Aural-Oral
Approach, and the Structural Approach. It advocated aural training first,
then pronunci ation training, followed by speaklllg, readll1g, and wntll1g.
Language was identified with speech, and speech was approached through
structure. T his approach influenced the way languages were taught 111
the United States throughout the fifties. As an approach to the teaching
of English as a foreign language the. new orthodoxy was promoted
through the Un iversity of Michigan's lournal Language Learnmg. ThIS
was a period when expertise in linguistics was regarded as a necessary
and sufficient fou ndation for expertise in language teaching. Not surprisingly, the classroom materials produced by Fries and linguists at
Yale Cornell and elsewhere evidenced conSIderable lingUIStic analysIS
but ~ery littl; pedagogy. They were widely used, however, and the applied linguistic principles on which they were based were thought to
incorporate the most adva nced scientific approach to language teachll1g.
If there was any learning theory underlying the Aural-Oral matenals, It
was a commonsense application of the idea that practice makes perfect.
There is no explicit reference to then-current learning theory in Fries's
work. It was the incorporation of the linguistic principles of the AuralO ral approach with state-of-the-art psychological learning theory in the
Illid-fifties that led to the method that came to be known as
i\ udiolingualism.
The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from the 111 'rcased attention given to foreign language teaching in the United States
",ward the end of the 1950s. The need for a radical change and rethinkill~ of foreign lan'guage teaching methodology (most of which was still
lillked to the Readi ng Method) was prompted by the launchmg of the
li l'st Russian satellite in 1957. T he U.S . Government acknowledged the
IIced for a more intensive effort to teach foreign languages in order to
prevent Americans from becoming isolated from scientific advances made
III other countries. The National Defense Educatio n Act (1958), among
II Iher measures, provided funds for the study and analysis of modern
I,ll Igua ges, for the development of teaching materials, and forthetraining
III I ·:> chers. Teachers were encouraged to attend summer II1stltutes to
Ilnl"'oVC their knowledge of foreign languages and to learn the principles
II I lin {\lIisti cs and the new linguistically based teaching methods. LanIII I.' I\C Ic"ching specialists set about developing a method that was ap" h, ,Ihle 10 conditions in U.S. colleges and ul1lverslty classrooms. They
,hnv on Ih e earli er ex perience of the army programs and the Aural-Oral
II I :-''''IICIIII'31 Approach developed by Fries and hi s coll eagues, add ing
IIIIdllin N \:Iken frolll behaviorisl' psycholo!;y. T hi s combination of stru c111111 1 IlIlH\li ~ lil,.· IhI'ClI'Y. 'Olltl':I Sli vc 1l1l f'ti ys is. ;1 Il m l ~()r:11 procedures, and
1",I",vI II"" p.<ydlo lol'.y led 1,1 Ih,' i\ lIdio lill l'.lll d M '!'i1l,<I . i\ ndi o lin gll" lisII'
Approaches & methods in language teaching
(the term was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964) claimed to
have transformed language teaching from an art to a science, which
would enable learners to achieve mastery of a foreign language effectively
and efficiently. The method was widely adopted for teaching foreign
languages in North American colleges and universities. It provided the
methodological foundation for materials for the teaching of foreign languages at college and university level in the United States and Canada,
and its principles formed the basis of such widely used series as the Lado
English Series (Lado 1977) and English 900 (English Language Services
1964). Although the method began to fall from favor in the late sixties
for reasoris we shall discuss later, Audiolingualism and materials based
on audiolingual principles continue to be widely used today. Let us
examine the features of the Audiolingual Method at the levels of approach, design, and procedure.
Approach
Theory of language
The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from
a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s - a view that came
to be known as structural linguistics. Linguistics had emerged as a flourishing academic discipline in the 1950s, and the structural theory of
language constituted its backbone. Structural linguistics had developed
in part as a reaction to traditional grammar. Traditional approaches to
the study of language had linked the study of language to philosophy
and to a mentalist approach to grammar. Grammar was considered a
branch of logic, and the grammatical categories of Indo-European languages were thought to represent ideal categories in languages . Many
nineteenth-century language scholars had viewed modern European languages as corruptions of classical grammar, and languages from other
parts of the world were viewed as primitive and underdeveloped .
The reaction against traditional grammar was prompted by the movement toward positivism and empiricism, which Darwin's Origin of the
Species had helped promote, and by an increased interest in nonEuropean languages on the part of scholars. A more practical interest
in language study emerged . As linguists discovered new sound types and
new patterns of linguistic invention and organization, a new interest in
phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax developed. By the 1930s,
the scientific approach to the study of language was thought to consist
of collecting examples of what speakers said and analyzingothem according to different levels of structura l organi zati on rather than accordin g to categorics of Latin grammar. A sophi st'ie,,, ·d methodo logy
The Audiolingual Method
for collecting and analyzing data developed, which involved transcribing
spoken utterances in a language phonetically and later working out the
phonemic, morphological (stems, prefixes, suffixes, etc.), and syntactic
(phrases, clauses, sentence types) systems underlyin g the grammar of the
language. Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures, and sentence types. The term structural referred
to these characteristics: (a) Elements in a language were thought of as
being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured) way. (b) Language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of
description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological , etc.). (c) Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems - that is, as being pyramidally structured; phonemic systems led to morphemic systems, and these
in turn led to the higher-level systems of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Learning a language, it was assumed, entails mastering the elements
or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these
elements are combined, from phoneme to morpheme to word to phrase
to sentence. The phonological system defines those sound elements that
contrast meaningfully with one another in the language (phonemes),
their phonetic realizations in specific environments (allophones), and
their permissible sequences (phonotactics). The phonological and grammatical systems of the language constitute the organization of language
and by implication the units of production and comprehension. The
grammatical system consists of a listing of grammatical elements and
rules for their linear combination into words, phrases, and sentences.
Rule-ordered processes involve addition, deletion, and transposition of
elements.
.
An important tenet of structural linguistics was that the primary meclium of language is oral: Speech is language. Since many languages do
not have a written form and we learn to speak before we learn to read
ur write, it was argued that language is "primarily what is spoken and
only secondarily what is written" (Brooks 1964). Therefore, it was assumed that speech had a priority in language teaching. This was contrary
ru popular views of the relationship of the spoken and written forms of
I"nguage, since it had been widely assumed that language existed principa lly as symbols written on paper, and that spoken language was an
imperfect realization of the pure written version.
T his scientific approach to language analysis appeared to offer the
lo nndations for a scientific' approach to language teaching. In 1961 the
Ameri can lin gui st Wi lli am Moulton, in a report prepared for the 9th
Int ernational Con gress of Linguists, proclaimed the linguistic principles
( 111 whi ch I"n gua gc teachin g methodo logy should be based: "Language
il'l ~ p('c(,; h , 11 0t writ,illg.... A 1 ~1I1 g lla gc is :1 set of h8bits .... Tea ch the
1.I I IJj LI :lKt\ IIpl
aho!!!
I'h ,.; 1:llI g tl :'l g· , .. . /\ 1:ln g tl ~lgc
is wh at' it"s n :Hiv c speak ·
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Stimulus
---:lo
Organism
----+
Reinforcement (behavior likely to occur again and become a habit)
/
Response
Behavior
"'"
No reinforcementl
"" Negative reinforcement
(behavior not likely to occur agai n)
Fignre 4.1
ers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say ... . Languages are
different" (quoted in Rivers 1964: 5). But a method cannot be based
simply on a theory of language. It also needs to refer to the psychology
of learning and to lea rning theory. It is to this aspect of Audiolingualism
that we now turn.
The Audiolingual Method
The descriptive practices of structural lingu ists suggested a number of
hypotheses about language learning, and hence about language teaching
as well. For example, since linguists normally described languages beginning with the phonological level and finishing with the sentence level,
it was assumed that this was also the appropriate sequence for learning
and teaching. Since speech was now held to be primary and writing
secondary, it was assumed that language teaching should focus on mastery of speech and that writing or even written pro mpts should be withheld until reason ably late in the language learning process. Since the
structure is what is important and unique about a language, ea rl y practice
shou ld focus on mastery of phonological and grammatica l structures
rather than on mastery of vocabulary.
Out of these various influences emerged a number of lea rning principles, which became the psychological foundation s of Audiolingualism
and ca me to shape its methodological practices. Among the more central
are the following:
1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit for-
Theory of learning
The language teaching theoreticians and merhodologists who developed
Audiolingualism not o nl y had a convincing and powerful theory of
language to draw upon but they were also working in a period when a
prominent school of American psychology - known as beh avioral psychology - claimed to have tapped the secrcts of all human learning,
mciudlOg language learning. Behaviorism, like structural linguistics, is
another antimentalist, empirically based approach to the study of human
behavior. To the behaviorist, the human being is an organism capable
of a wide repertoire of behaviors. The occurrence of these behaviors is
dependent upon three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which
serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement~ which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or
lOappropnate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the
response in the future (see Skinner 1957; Brown 1980). A representation
of this can be seen in Figure 4.1.
Reinforcement is a vital element in the learning process, because it
increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again and eventually
become a habit. To apply this rheory to language learning is to identify
the organism as the foreign lan guage learner, the behavior as verbal
behavior, the stimulus as what is taught or presented of the foreign
language, the response as the learner's reaction to the stimulus and the
reinforcement as the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher ~ r fell ow
students or the intrinsi c self-satisfaction of target language use. ~anguagc
mastery is represented as acqu iring a set of appropriate la nguage stin1 lillis-respo nse chain s.
o
mation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than
by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern
drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behavior - that is, the automatic production and comprehension of
utterances - and can be learned by inducing the students to do likewise.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in
the target langua ge are presented in spoken form before they 3fe seen in
written form. Aura l-oral training is needed to provide the foundation for
the development of other language skills.
3. Analogy provides a better foundation for langu age learning than analysis.
Analogy involves the processes of genera lization and discrimination. Explanations of rules are therefore not given until st udents have practiced a
patte rn in a variety of contexts and arc thought to have acquired a perception of the ana logies in volved. Drills can enable learners to form correct ana logies. Hence the approach to the teaching of gra mmar is
esse ntially inductive rather th an deductive.
4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker
ca n be learned only in a lingu istic and cultural context and not in isola tion. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects o f the cultural
sysrem of the people who speak rhe language (Rivers 1964: 19-22).
In advocating these principles, proponents of Audiolingualism were
drawing on the theory of a well-developed school of American psychology - behaviorism. The prominent Harvard behaviorist B. F. Skinner
h:tu cbborated a theory of learning applicable to language learning in
his influential book Verbal Behavior (1957), in which ·he stated, "We
have no rca son to assume ... that verbal behavior differs in any fundamental respect fro m non "vel'ba l behavior, 01' that any new principles
IIll1 st· he ill vo kcd t·o " 'COlin t (or it" ( 1'57: 10). Armcd with a powcrful
') 1
Approaches & methods in language teaching
theory of the nature of language and of language learning, audiolingualists could now turn to the design of language teaching courses and
materials.
Design
Audiolingualists demanded a complete reorientation of the foreign language curriculum. Like the nineteenth-century reformers, they advocated
a return to speech-based instruction with the primary o bj ective of oral
profici ency, an d dismissed the study of gramma r or literature as the goal
of foreign language teaching. "A radical transformation is called for, a
new orientation of procedures is demanded, and a thorough house cleaning of methods, materials, texts and tests is unavoidable" (Brooks 1964:
50).
Objectives
Brooks distinguishes between short-range and long-ra nge objectives of
an audio lingual program. Short-range ob jectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech
symbols as graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to reproduce
these symbols in writing (Brooks 1964: 111). "These immediate objectives imply three others: first, control of the structures of sound, form,
and o rder in the new language; second, acquaintance with vocabulary
items that bring content into these structures; and third, meaning, in
terms of the significance these verbal symbols have for those who speak
the language natively" (Broo ks 1964: 113). Long-range objectives "must
be language as the native speaker uses it .... Th ere must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed by a true bilingualist" (Brooks
1964: 107).
In practice this mea ns that the focus in the ea rl y stages is on oral
skills, with gradual links to other skills as lea rning develops. Oral pn)ficiency is equated with accurate pronunciation and grammar and the
ability to respo nd quickly and accurately in speech situations. The teaching of listening comprehension, pronunciatio n, grammar, and vocabulary are all related to development of oral flu ency. Reading and writing
skill s may be taught, but they are dependent upon prior oral skills.
Language is primarily speech in audiolingual theory, but speaking skills
are themselves dependent upon the ability to accurately perceive and
produce the major phonological features of the target language, flu ency
in th e use of the key grammatical patterns in the langll:l ge, :1~d kn o wl edge o f suffi cient vocabu lary to usc with th esc p:lI!'" !'lIs .
52
The Audiolingual Method
The syllabus
Audiolinguali sm is a linguistic, or structure-based, app roach to language
teaching. The sta rting point is a linguistic sy ll ab us, which contains the
key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their o rder of presentati o n. These ma y have been
deri ved in part from a contrastive analysis of th e differences between
the native tongue and the target language, sin ce these differences are
thought to be the cause of the major diffi cul ti es the lea rner will encounter. In additi on, a lexical syllabus of basic vocabulary items is also
usuall y specifi ed in advance. In Foundations for English Teaching (Fries
and Fries 1961), for example, a corpu s of structural and lex ica l items
graded into three levels is proposed, together with suggestion s as to the
situ ation s that could be used to contextuali ze them.
The language skills are taught in the order of li stening, speaking,
reading, and writing. Listen ing is viewed largely as training in aural
discrimination of basic sound patterns. The language may be presented
entirely orally at first; written representations are usuall y withheld from
lea rners in ea rl y stages.
The lea rner's activities must at first be co nfined to th e audio lingual and gestural-vis ua l bands of language behavior. ...
Recognition and di scrimination are followed by imi tatio n, repetition and
memorizat ion. O nl y when he is thoroughly famili ar wi th sounds, arrangements, and forms docs he center his attention on en larging his vocab ulary . ...
Through o llt he co ncentrates upon gaining accuracy before stri vin g for
Auency. (Broo ks 1964: 50)
When readin g and writing are introduced, students are taught to read
:l nd write what they have already learned to say orall y. An attempt is
made to minimize the possibilities for making mistakes both in speaking
and writing by using a tightly structured approach to the presentation
of new lan guage items. At more advanced levels, mo re complex reading
an d writing tasks ma y be introduced.
Types of learning and teaching activities
Dia logues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices.
I)i:l logues provi de the means of contextual izin g key structures and ilI" strate situatio ns in which structures might be used as well as some
r ilitural aspects of th e target language. Dia logues are used for repetition
:IIH.I IIH': IIlOri'l.:uiol1. Correct pronunciation, str ess, rhythm, and in tona-
I i01l :11'(; l:lll pha si'l.cd, J\ft'cr a dia logue has been presented a nd memorized ,
~ p cl: ifi ' gr: lIllIn :1t 1...;a I pa tte rn s ill I'll(; dialoguc :lrc selected and beco me
til l' fOl' II l'l or Vnrh HIl-l killd l'l of urill lind P:IIICI'Il ~ PI' : I C I'icc (;xcn.: iscs.
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The Audiolingual Method
The usc of dr ills a nd pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the
Audio ling ual Method. Va rious kinds of dr ills are u sed. Brooks (1 964:
156- 6 1) includes the follo w ing:
1. Repetition. The student repeats an utterance alo ud as soon as he has
hea rd it. He does this without looking at a printed text. The utterance
must be brief enough to be retained by the ea r. Sound is as impo rtant as
form and order.
7 . Expansiofl. When a word is added it takes a cenai n place in thc
seq uence.
EXAM PLES.
I kn ow him. (hardl y). -I hardly kno w him.
I know him. (wel l). - I know him well ....
8. Contraction. A single word stands for a ph rase or cla use.
EXAM PLES .
EXAM PLE.
This is the seven th month. -This is th e seventh month.
After a student has repeated an utterance, he may repeat it again and
add a few words, then repeat that whole uttera nce and add more words.
EXAMPLES .
I used to kn ow him. - I llsed to know him.
I lIsed to know him years ago. - I used to know him years ago when we
were in school. ...
2. Inflectiol1. One word in an utterance appea rs in anoth er form when
repeated.
EXAM PLES.
I bought th e ticket. - I bought the tickets.
He bought the ca nd y. -She bought th e ca nd y.
I called th e youn g man. - I ca lled the youn g men ... .
Put your hand on the table. - Put your ha nd there.
They believe that the earth is flat. - They believe it . ...
9. Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tens e, mood, voice, aspect, or
moda lity.
EXAMPLES.
He knows my address.
He doesn' t know my address.
Does he kn ow my address?
He used to know my address.
If he had known my address.
10. Integration. Two separate utterances are integrated into onc.
EXAM PLES.
3. Replaceme flt. One wo rd in an uttera nce is repla ced by ano the r.
EXAMPLES .
He bought this house cheap. - H e bought it cheap.
Helen left early -She left early.
They gave their boss a watch. -They gave him a watch ....
4. Restatement. The student rephrases an uttera nce and addresses it to
someone else, according to instructions.
EXAMPLES.
Tell hi m to wa it for you. -Wait for me.
Ask her how old she is. -How old are you?
Ask John when he began. - John, when did you begin? ..
5. Completion. The student hears an utteran ce th at is compl ete except for
one word, t hen repears the utteran ce in compl eted form.
EXA MPLES.
I'll go my way and you go .... - I'll go my way and you go yours.
We all have ... own troubles. -We all have our own troubles ....
6. Transposition. A change in word order is necessary when a word is
added.
EXAM PLES .
I'm hun gry. (so). -So am I.
f'lIn cvc r do it ~gn in . (neith er). - Ncil"llCr will I. ...
•
They must be hon est. This is important. - It is impo rta nt that they be
honest.
I know that man. He is looking for you. - I know th e man who is looking for you ....
1 I. Rejoinder. The student makes an appropr iate rejoinder to 3 given utterance. He is to ld in advance to respond in one of the following ways:
Be polite.
Answer the question.
Agree.
Agree emph atically.
Express surp rise.
Express regret.
Disagree.
Disagree empharically.
Q uestio n what is said.
Fail to und erstand.
HE PO LITE.
EXAMPLES.
Th ill1k you. - You' re welcome.
M:ly I t;1kc o nc? -Ccrtainl y.
AN!'I WF.R 'I'II E
Q lJl ~ ST I ON.
EXAM PLES.
Whnt is yO III' II nlllt.:? - My n:U1H': is Smi th.
Wht' I'l' did it h,II'Pl'lI ? III llu.: Illiddlc uf 1he stn.:<.: I'.
Approaches & methods in language teaching
AGREE.
EXAMPLES.
He's follow ing us. - I think you're ri ght.
This is good coffee. - It's very good.
12. Restoration. The student is given a seq uence of words that have been
cu ll ed from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning. He uses these
wo rds wi th a minimum of changes and additions to resto re the sentence
to its origina l fo rm . He may be to ld w hether the time is present, past, or
future.
EXAMPLES.
studen ts/wa itin g/bus -The students are wa itin g for the bus.
boys/build/ho use/tree -The boys built a house in a tree .. , .
The Audiolingual Method
Model the va ri ous types of language behav ior that the s tud ent is to lea rn.
Teach spoken language in dialogue form.
Direct choral respon se by all or parts of the class .
Teach the use of structure through pattern practice.
Guide the stud ent in choos ing and learnin g vocab ul ary.
Show how words relate to meanin g in the target langua ge.
Get the indi vidual student to talk.
Rewa rd tria ls by the student in such a way that learnin g is rei nfo rced.
Teach a sho rt story and other litera ry form s.
Establish and mainta in a cultura l is land.
Formalize on the first day the rules accordi ng to which the language class is
to be conducted , and en force them .
(Brooks 1964: 143)
Learner roles
The role of instructional materials
Learners are viewed as orga nisms that can be directed by skilled tra ining
techn iques to produce correct responses . In accordance with behaviorist
learning theory, tea ching focuses on the external manifestation s of learnin g rather than on the internal processes. Learners playa reacttve role
by responding to stimuli , and thus have li ttle control over the content,
pace, or style of lea rning. They are not encouraged to mitiate interaction,
because this ma y lead to mistakes. The fact that In the ea rl y stages
lea rners do not always understand the meaning of what they are repeating is not perceived as a drawback, for by listening to the teacher,
imitating accurately, and responding to and performing controlled tasks
they are learning a new form of verbal behavior.
Instructional materials in the Audiolingual Method assist the teacher to
develop language mastery in the learner. They are prim aril y teacher
oriented. A student textbook is often not used in the elementary phases
of a course where students are primari ly listening, repeating, and responding. At this stage in learning, exposure to the prin ted word may
not be considered desirable, because it distracts attention from the aural
input. The teacher, however, will have access to a teacher's book that
contains the stru ctured sequence of lessons to be followed and the dialogues, drills, and other practice activities. When textbooks and printed
materials are in troduced to the student, they provide the texts of dialogues and cues needed for drill s and exercises .
Tape recorders and audiovi sual equip ment often have central roles in
an audiolingua l course. If the teacher is not a native speaker of the target
language, the tape recorder provides accurate models for dialogues and
drills. A language laboratory may also be considered essential. It provides
the opportunity for further drill work and to receive controlled errorfree practice of basic structures. It also adds variety by providi ng an
alternative to classroom practice. A taped lesson may first present a
dia logue for li stenin g practice, all ow for the student to repeat the sentences in the dia logue line by line, and provide follow-up flu ency drill s
Teacher roles
In Audiolingualism, as in Si tuational Language Teaching, the teacher's
role is central and active; it is a teacher-dom inated method. The teacher
models the target la nguage, controls the d irection and pace of lea rning,
and monitors and corrects the lea rners' performance. The teacher must
keep the learners attentive by varying dri lls and tasks and choosing
relevant situations to practice structures. Language learning is seen to
resu lt fro m active verbal interaction between the teacher and the lea rners.
Fa ilure to learn resu lts on ly from the improper application of the method,
for exampl e, from the teacher not providing sufficient practice or fro m
the learner not memorizing the essenti al patterns and structures; but the
method itself is never to blame. Brooks argues that the teacher must be
trained to do th e following:
Introduce, sustain, and harmonize the learning of the four ski lls in I(his order:
hea rin g, speak in g, reading and writin g.
Usc - :-Ind no t lise - Eng li sh in the lan gua ge cl:"tss roo lll .
o n gra mmar or pronunciation.
Procedure
Si11 t:c A lIdi o1ingwl l i ~ m is prim;ui ly an oral app roach to language teach ing) it is not surpri sillg l'h:1I' dH; procc ss of ('cachi11 g invo lves exte ns ive
o ral in struction, Th e (ocus of in s tru c tio n is Oil imll1cdi ;lI'c ;I nti :lCC tl r:lt·c
S Pl'l:~ h ; tl u.'t'(' is lit tk pro visio ll fIJf' 1\ 1":l llll1 1. 1I i ':ll CX pbll :lIioll or t:l lking
II
Approaches & methods in 1a/1guage teaching
The Audiolil1gual Method
about the language. As far as possible, the target language is used as the
medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native tongue is
discouraged. Classes of ten or less are considered optimal, although
larger classes are often the norm. Brooks lists the following procedures
the teacher should adopr in using the Audiolingual Method:
The modeling of all learnings by the teacher.
The subordination of the mother tongue to the second language by rendering
English inactive while the new language is being learned.
The early and continued training of the ear and tongue without recourse to
graphic symbols.
The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound, order,
and form, rather than by explanation.
The gradual substitution of graphic symbols for sounds after sounds arc thoroughly known.
The summarizing of the main principles of structure for the student's use
when the structures are already familiar, especially when they differ from
those of the mother tongue . ...
The shortening of the time span between a performance and the pronouncement of its rightness or wrongness, without interrupting the response. This
enhances the factor of reinforcement in learning.
The minimizing of vocabulary until all common structures have been learned.
The study of vocabulary only in context.
Sus tained practice in the use of the language only in the molecular form of
spea ker-hearer-situa tion.
Practice In translation only as a literary e::ercise at an advanced level.
(Brooks 1964: 142)
In a typical audiolingual lesson rhe following procedures would be
observed:
1. Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on
tape) containing the key structures that are the focus of the lesson. They
repeat each line of the dialogue, individually and in chorus. The teacher
pays attention to pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction of
mistakes of pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate. The dialogue is memorized gradually, line by line. A line may be broken down
into several phrases if necessary. The dialogue is read aloud in chorus, one
half saying one speaker's parr and the other half responding. The students
do not consult their book throughout this phase.
2. The dialogue is adapted to the students' interest or situation, through
changing certain key words or phrases. This is acted out by the students.
3. Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis
for pattern drills of different kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and
then individually. Some grammatical explanation may be offered at this
point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum .
4. The students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up r e<1 din ~,. writin g,
or vocabulary activities based on the dia logu e l11<1y be il1ll"odll .... l' d. 1\1 rh l.:
heg innin g leve l, writin g is purely imit<1riv c <1lld con s ists
1I1I1 l" "lo re th ~11l
or
copying out sentences that have been practiced. As proficiency increases,
students may write out variations of structural items they have practiced
or write short compositions on given topi cs wi th the help of framing questions, which will guide theif usc of the language.
5. Follow-up activities may take place in rh e language laboratory, where further dialogue and drill work is carried Ollt.
The decline of Audiolingualism
Audiolingualism reached its period of most widespread use in the 1960s
and was applied both to the teaching of foreign languages in the United
States and to rhe teaching of English as a second or foreign language. It
led to such widely used courses as English 900 and the Lado English Series, as well as to texts for teaching the major European languages. But
then came criticism on two fronts. On the one hand, the theoretical foun-
dations of Audiolingualism were attacked as being unsound both in terms
of language theory and learning theory. On the other, practitioners found
that the pracrical results fell short of expectations. Students were often
found to be unable to transfer skills acquired through Audiolingualism to
real communication outside the classroom, and many found the experience of studying through audiolingual procedures to be boring and
unsatisfying.
The theoretical attack on audio lingual beliefs resulted from changes in
American linguistic theory in the sixties. The MIT linguist Noam Chomsky rejected the structuralist approach to language description as well as
rhe behaviorist theory of language learning. "Language is not a habit
structure. Ordinary linguistic behavior characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules
of great abstractness and intricacy" (Chomsky 1966: 153). Chomsky's
theory of transformational grammar proposed that the fundamental
properties of language derive from innate aspects of the mind and from
how humans process experience through language. His theories were to
revolutionize American linguistics and focus the attention of linguists and
psychologists on the mental properties people bring to bear on language
use and language learning. Chomsky also proposed an alternative theory
of language learning to that of the behaviorists. Behaviorism regarded
language learning as similar in principle to any other kind of learning. It
was subject to the same laws of stimulus and response, reinforcement and
:l ssoeiation. Chomsky argued that such a learning theory could not possibly serve as a model of how humans learn language, since much of hu111 ;111
1:1l1 g u;l ge use is not imitated behavior but is created anew from
ulldcd yilll; knowledge o f :lhsrr:l cr rilles . Senten ces are nor learned by imil' ~II' ion :lIH..! r c pnil'io ll bIll
"\,;() III ])U't l H.'l ' ,"
"g r..: ll c ratcd " from th e learner' s und e rlyin g
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The Audiolingual Method
Sudden ly the whol e audiolingual paradigm was call ed into question:
pattern practice, drilling, memori zatio n. These might lead to languageli ke behaviors, but they were no t resulting in competence. This created
a crisis in American language teaching circles fro m which a full recovery
has not yet been made. Temporary relief was offered in the fo rm of a
theory derived in part from Chomsky - cognitive code learning. In 1966
John B. Ca rro ll, a psychologist who had taken a close interest in fore ign
language teaching, wrote:
The aud io -l in gual habit th eory which is so preva lent in Ameri can fo reign language teaching was, perhaps fifteen yea rs ago in step with the sta te of psy-
chological thinking of that time, but it is no longer abreast of recent
developments. It is ripe for majo r rev ision, particu larl y in the direction of
joining it with some o f the bette r elem ents of the cogn itive-code learning the-
ory. (Carroll 1966: 105)
This referred to a view of lea rning that all owed for a conscious focus
on gramm ar an d that ac kn owledged the role of abstract mental processes
in learn ing rather than defin ing learni ng simpl y in ter ms of habit formation. Practice activities sho uld invo lve mea ningful lea rning and language use. Lea rners should be encouraged to use their innate and creative
abi lities to derive and make explicit the underlying grammatica l rules
of the language. For a time in th e ea rl y seventies there was a considera ble
interest in the impli cation of the cognitive-code theory for language
teaching (e.g., see Ja kobov its 1970; Lugton 1971 ). But no clear-cut
methodo logical guidelines emerged, nor did any pa rticular method incorporati ng this view of learning. T he ter m cognitive code is sti ll sometimes in voked to refer to any conscious attempt to o rganize materials
aro und a grammatica l syll a bus whil e all owing for mea ningful practice
and use of language. T he lack of an alternati ve to Audiolingualism in
language teaching in the United States has led to a period of adaptation,
inno vation, experimentation, and some confusion. O n the one hand are
new methods that have been developed independently of current linguistic and second language acq uisitio n theory (e.g., Total Ph ysica l Response, Sil ent Way, Cou nseling-Learning); on the other are competing
approaches that are derived, it is cla imed, fro m contemporary theories
of language and second language acquisition (e.g., T he Natura l Approach , Communicative Language Teaching). T hese developments will
be considered in th e remai ning chapte rs of this book.
organized to maximize teaching an d learning efficiency. Audiolingualism
thus stresses the mechanistic aspects o f language learn ing and language
use.
There a re many similarities betwee n Si tuatio nal Language Teaching
and Audiolingualism. T he order in which the language skills a re introdu ced, and the focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic
structures and sentence patterns of the target language, might suggest
that these methods drew from each other. In fact, however, Situational
Language Teach ing was a development of the ea rli er Direct Method (see
Chapter 1) and does not have the st ro ng ties to linguistics and behavio ral
psychology that characterize Audiolingualism. T he similarities of the
two methods reAect similar views abo ut the nature of language and of
language learning, though these views were in fact developed from quite
different traditio ns.
Bibliography
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Basis (or the Preparation of Materials to Teach English as a Foreign Language. Washi ngton, D.C. : Am erican Council of Learned Societies.
Illoch, S., and C. Trager. 1942. Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Baltimore:
Lin guistic Society of America.
Illoomfield, L. 1933. Language. New Yo rk: Holt.
I)rooks, N. 1964. Lauguage and Lan.guage Learning: Theory and Practice. 2nd
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Brown, H. D . 1980. Principles of Language Leaming and Teaching. Englewood
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Ca rro ll , j . B. 1953. The Study of Language: A Survey of Linguistics and Related
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Carroll, ]. B. 1966a. Research in Foreign Language Teaching: The Last Five
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Carroll, J. B. 1966b. The contri butions of psychological theory and educational
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ill J.allguage Teaching, pp. 93- '1 06. New York: McGraw-Hil I.
( . h . I ~I ; lin )
Conclusion
•
Audiolingua lism ho lds that langu:1 ge lea rn ing is lik e other form s 0 f le:1 l"11 ing. Sin ce li'l ll gl lag<.: is :1 (orm :11 ru lc-govc rn ed Sysl'ctll, it ca ll be (o l'lll nll y
1
(,()
K. 1969. The audio- li ngual habi t theory ve rsus the cogn itive codeInternational Review of
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Il" 11I 1;('('. Chi..:n)'.o : I(nn d NkN :dl y.
( 'hlltlINky, N. 19 ')7. S~IIII I /{I h ,\'111111111 1" , Th l' Il aglll': MUllIlll!.
k'; lrn illg rh eo ry: so mc th eo re tical co nsideration s .
The Audiolingual Method
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Chomsky, N . 1959. A review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Language
35(1): 26-58.
Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press.
Chomsky, N. 1966. Linguistic th~ory. Reprinted in ]. P. B. Allen and P. Van
Buren (eds.) , Chomsky: Selected Readings, pp. 152-9. London : Oxford
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Darian, S. G. 1972. English as a Foreign Language: History, Development, and
Methods of Teaching. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
English Language Services. 1964. English 900. New York: Collier Macmillan.
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Rivers, W. M. 1981. Teaching Foreign Language Skills. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Skinner, B. F. 1957. Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Smith, H. L. 1956. Linguistic Science and the Teaching of English. Cambridge,
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Stack, E. 1969. The Language Laboratory and Modern Language Teaching.
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Stern, H. H . 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford:
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United States Office of Education. 1963. The Language Development Program.
Washington, D,C,: U,S, Government Printing Office.
Arbor: University of M ichigan Press.
Fries, C. c., and A. C. Fries. 1961. Foundations for English Teaching. Tokyo:
Kenkyusha.
Gagne, R. M. 1962. Military tra ining and principles of learning. American
Psychologist 17(2): 83-91.
Hilgard, E. R. 1975. Theories of Learning. 2nd cd. New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
Hockett, C. F. 1958. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan.
Hockett, C. F. 1959. The objectives and process of language teaching. Reprinted
in D. Byrne (ed.), English Teaching Extracts. London: Longman, 1969.
Hughes, j. P. 1968. Linguistics and Language Teaching . New York: Random
House.
]akobovits, L. A. 1970. Foreign Language Leanzing: A Psycho linguistic Analysis
of the Issues. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language
Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Lado, R. 1961. Language Testing. London: Longman.
Lado, R. 1977. Lado English Series. 7 books. New York: Regents.
Lugton, R. (ed.). 1971. Toward a Cognitive Approach to Second Language
Acquisition. Philadelphia: Center for Curriculum Development.
Matthew, R. J. 1947. Language and Area Studies in the Armed Services: Their
Future and Significance. Washington: American Council on Education.
Modern Language Association. 1962. Reports of Surveys and Studies in the
Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages. New York: Modern La nguage
Teach ing Association.
Moulton, W. G. 1961. Linguistics and language teaching in the United States:
1940-1960. In C. Mohrmann, A. Sommerfelt, and J. Whatrnough (eds.),
Trends in European and American Linguistics, 1930-1960, pp. 82-109 .
Utrecht: Spectrum.
Mou lton, W. G. 1963. What is structural drill? International Journal of American Linguistics 29 (2, pt. 3): 3-15.
Moulton, W. 1966. A Linguistic Guide to Language Learning. New York:
Modern Language Association.
Parker, W. 1962. The National interest and Foreign Languages. Was hi ngton,
D.C.: Department of St<1tc.
•
Riv L: rs, W . M . 19(,4. The JJsyc/J%gisl alln 1/)(' / r'(lI'{·i,l!, 1I 1.i1llglfllf.V '(I'm/H'r.
Chi f..: :l )',o: lJ lIi v('· l's iI Y of C h i~ngo PI'CSS.
(,\
Communicative Language Teaching
5
Communicative Language Teaching
This was partly a response to the sorts of ctiticisms the prominent
American linguist Noam Chomsky had leveled at structural linguistic
theory in his now classic book Syntactic Structures (1957). Chomsky
had demonstrated that the current standard structura l theories of language were incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristic
of lan guage - the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences.
British appli ed linguists emphasized another fundamental dimension of
language that was inadequately add ressed in current approaches to language teaching at that time - the functional and communicative potential
of language. They saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. Schol ars who advocated this view of language, such as Christop her Candlin
and Henry Widdowson, drew on the work of British functional lin guists
(e.g., John Firth, M . A. K. Halliday), American work in socio lin guisti cs
(e .g. Dell Hymes, John Gumperz, and William Labov), as wQIII as work
in philosop hy (e.g., John Austin and John Searle) .
came from changing educational realities in Europe. With the increasing
interdependence of European countries came the need for greater efforts
to teach adults the major lan guages of the European Common Market
and the Council of Europe, a regional organization for cultural and
educational cooperation. Education was one of the Cou ncil of Europe's
major areas of activity. It sponsored international conferences on language teaching, published monographs and books about language teaching, and was active in promoting the formation of the International
Association of Applied Linguistics. The need to articulate and develop
alternative methods of language teaching was considered a high priority.
In 1971 a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of
developing language courses on a unit-credit system, a system in which
learning tasks are broken down into " portions or units, each of which
corresponds to a component of a learner's needs and is systematica lly
related to all the other portions" (van Ek and Alexander 1980: 6). The
group used studies of the needs of European language learners, and in
particular a preliminary document prepared by a British lingu ist, D. A.
Wilkins (1972), which proposed a functional or communicative definition of language that could serve as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching. Wilkins's contribution was an
analysis of the communicative meanings that a language learner needs
to understand and express. Rather than describe the core of language
through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabu lary, Wi lkins attempted to demonstrate the systems of meanings that lay behind the
communicative uses of language. He described two types of meanings:
notional categories (concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location,
frequency) and categories of communicative function (requests, denials,
offers, complaints). Wilkins later revised and expanded his 1972 document into a book called Notional Syllabuses (Wilkins 1976), which
had a significant impact on the development of Communicative Language Teaching. The Counci l of Europe incorporated his semantic/communicative analysis into a set of specifications for a first-level
communicative language syll abus. These threshold level specifications
(van Ek and Alexander 1980) have had a strong infiuence on the design
o f communicative language programs and textbooks in Europe.
The work of the Council of Europe; the writings of Wilkins, Widdowson, Cand lin, Christopher Brumfit, Keith Johnson , and other British
applied linguists on the theoretical basis for a communicative or fun cti onal approa ch to language teaching; the rapid application of these
ideas by textbook writers; and the equa lly rapid acceptance of these new
prin ciples by Ilritish language teaching specialists, curriculum developI1Il'lll cCIlI'crs, :lnd even governm ents g:lVe prominence nationally and
illl c rn :ltiollall y to wll ;1! crllll t.,: 10 hl' n:fcrn::d "0 as d, C C Olllll1llni c:Jtivc
An o th er impel'us for difft: rcllr ~lpprO; H.: h cs 1'0 (nrcigl1l angtJ :l gt' t<:a t.:'hill g
APPI'O.II.'Ii , 0" Sillipl y C 0 J1111l11Ili L:lIi vl' 1 .; IIl I '. II :I '~l· 'T'l':I('hillg. (Th e I"c,..: rm s
Background
The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT ) are to be found
in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the
late 1960s. Until then, Situational Language Teaching (see Chapter 3)
represented the major British approach to teaching English as a foreign
language. In Situational Language Teaching, language was taught by
practicing basic structures in meaningfu l situati on-based activities. But
just as the lingu istic theory underlying Audiolingualism was rejected in
the United States in the mid-1960s, British applied linguists began to
call into question the theoretical assumptions underlying Situational
Language Teaching:
By the end of the sixties it was clear that the situationa l approach., . had run
its course. There was no future in co ntinui ng to purs ue the ch im era of predicting language on the basis of situationa l events. What wa s required was a
closer study of th e language itself and a return to the traditional concept that
utterances carri ed meaning in them selves and expressed th e meanings and intentions of the spea kers and writers who created th em. (H6watt 1984: 280)
Approaches & methods in language teaching
notional-functional approach and functional approach a re also sometimes used.) Altho ugh the movement began as a largely British innovation, foc using o n alternative conceptions of a syllabus, since the mid1970s the scope of Communicative Language Teaching has expa nded.
Both American and British proponents now see it as an approach (and
not a method ) that aims to (a ) make communicati ve competence the
goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the teaching
of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of
langu age and co mmunication. Its comprehensiveness thus makes it dif-
Communicative Language Teaching
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features
of the Audiolingual Method and the Communicative Approach, according to their interpretation:
Audio-lingual
1. Attends to structure and form
more than meaning.
2. Demands memorization of
structure-based dialogs.
3. Language item s are not
necessarily contextualized.
4. Language learning is learning
stru ctures, so unds, or words.
5. Mastery, o r "over-learning" is
Dialogs, if used, center around
commu ni cative functions and afe
not norma ll y memorized.
Contextuali zation is a basic
premise.
Language learning is learn ing to
communi ca te.
Effective co mmunication is sought.
sought.
6. Drilling is a central technique.
Drilling may occur, but
7. Native-speaker-like
Comprehensible pronunciation is
fcrcnl in scope and status from any of the o ther approaches or methods
discussed in this book. There is no single text or authority on it, nor
any single model that is universally accepted as authoritative. For some,
Communicative Language Teaching means little more than an integration of gramm atica l and functional teach ing. Littlewood (1981 : 1) states,
"One of the most characteristic features of communicative language
teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functiona l as well as
structural aspects of language. " For others, it means using procedures
where lea rners work in pairs ot groups employi ng avail abl e language
resources in problem-so lving tasks. A national primary English sy llabus
based o n a communicative approach (Syllabuses for Primary Schools
1981), for example, defines the focu s of the syll abus as the "communicative functio ns which the forms of the language serve" (p. 5). The
introduction to the same document comments that "communi cative purposes may be of man y different kinds. What is essential in all of them
is that at least two parties are involved in an interaction or transaction
of some kind where one party has an intention and the other party
expands or reacts to the intention " (p. 5). In her discussion of communicative syll abus design, Yalden (1983) di scusses six Communicative
Language Toaching design alternatives, ranging from a model in which
communicative exercises are grafted onto an existing structural syllabus,
to a learner-generated view of syllabus design (e.g., Holec 1980).
Howatt distingu ishes between a "strong" and a "weak" version of
Communicative Language Teaching:
T here is, in a sense, a 'strong' ve rsion of the co mm uni cative approach an d a
'weak' ve rsio n. The wea k version w hich has beco me m Ofe o r less standard
practice in th e last ten yea rs, stresses the im portance o f prov iding lea rners
w ith o ppo rtuniti es to use their English fot comm unicative purposes and ,
characteristica ll y, attempts to in tegrate such activities in to a w ider program
of language teaching . ... The 'strong' version of commu nicative teaching, on
the other hand, adva nces the claim that lan gua ge is acqu ired through co mmunication, so that it is not merely a questio n of activatin g an ex isting but
inert knowledge of th e lan guage, but o f stimul atin g th e dcvclnplllc WI of rhe
language system itself. If the former cou ld be described :1.S ' ica mili l '. I II II SC'
English, (h e 1;l1:( er cnt;li ls 'using Engli sh 1"0 IC;H1l iI. ' ( 19f.:4 : 17(' )
Communicative Language Teaching
Meaning is paramount.
peripherally.
pronunciati o n is sought.
8. Gra mm atical ex planation is
avoided.
9. Communica tive activities on ly
come after a long process of
figid drills and exercises.
10. The use of th e studen t's native
language is forb idden.
11. Translation is forbidden at
early levels.
12. Reading and writing are
deferred till speech is mastered.
13. The target lingui sti c system will
be learned through the overt
tcaching of th e patterns of the
system.
14. Lingu istic competence is the
desi red goal.
sought.
Any device which helps the learners
is accepted - varyin g accord ing to
th eir age, interest, etc.
Attempts to co mmunicate may be
encouraged from the very
beginning.
Judi cious use of native hmguage is
accepted where feasib le.
Translation may be used where
studen ts need or benefit from it.
Rea ding and writing can start from
the first day, if desired.
The target lingui stic system will be
learned best th rough the process
of struggling to communicate.
Commu nicative competence is the
desired goal (i.e. the ability to use
the li nguistic system effectively
and appropriately).
15. Var icties of language are
rccogni zed but not emph asized.
Lin guisti c variation is a cen tral
concept in materials an d
I fl . Thl' scqll cm:c of IIllit s is
dctcnninn.l so ldy by princi ples
of lillgll hai ... l(H llph·xl1 y.
Sequencin g is determ in ed by any
cO ll s ici crJtion of conte nt,
(1II K li oll , o r Ill c:lIIin g which
methodology.
1I1 :l illl nillS ilHl'I'l'SI.
67
Approaches & methods in language teaching
17. The teacher controls the
learners and prevents them
from doing anything that
conflicts with the theory.
18. "Language is habit" so errors
must be prevented at all costs.
19. Accuracy, in terms of formal
correctness, is a primary goal.
20. Students are expected to
interact with the language
system, embodied in machines
or controlled materials
21. The teacher is expected to
specify the language that
students are to use.
22. Intrinsic motivation will spring
from an in terest in the structure
of the language.
Communicative Language Teaching
Teachers help learners in any way
that motivates them to work with
the language.
Language is created by the
indi vidual often through trial and
error.
Fluency and accep table language is
the primary goal: accuracy is
judged not in the abstract but in
context.
Students are expected to interact
with other people, either in the
flesh, through pair and group
work, or in their writings.
The teacher cannot know exactly
what lan guage the students will
use.
intrinsic motivation will spring from
an interest in what is being
communicated by the language.
(1983: 91-3)
Apart from being an interesting example of how proponents of Communicative Language Teaching stack the cards in their favor, such a set
of contrasts illustrates some of the major differences between communicative approaches and earlier traditions in language teaching. The wide
acceptance of the communicative approach and the relativel" varied way
in which it is interpreted and applied can be attributed to the fact that
practitioners from different educational traditions can identify with it,
and consequently interpret it in different ways. One of its North American proponents, Savignon (1983), for example, offers as a precedent to
CLT a commentary by Montaigne on his learning of Latin through
conversation rather than through the customary method of formal analysis and translation. Writes Montaigne, "Without methods, without a
book, without grammar or rules, without a whip and without tears, I
had learned a Latin as proper as that of my schoolmaster" (Savignon
1983: 47). This antistructura l view can be held to represent the language
learning version of a more general learning perspective usually referred
to as " learning by doing" or "the experience approach" (Hilgard and
Bower 1966). This notion of direct rather than delayed practice of communicative acts is central to most CLT interpretations.
The focus on communicative and contextual factors in language li se
also has an antecedent in the work of th e anthropologist &roni sl:1w
Malinowski and hi s colleague, th e lin gui st John Firth . Il riti sh appli ed
linguists usually credit Firth with focusing attention on discourse as
subject and context for language analysis. Firth also stressed that language needed to be studied in the broader sociocultural context of its
use, which included participants, their behavior and beliefs, the objects
of linguistic discussion, and word choice. Both Michael Halliday and
Den Hymes, linguists frequently cited by advocates of Communicative
Language Teaching, acknowledge primary debts to Malinowski and
Firth.
Another frequently cited dimension of CLT, its learner-centered and
experience-based view of second language teaching, also has antecedents
outside the language teaching tradition per se. An important American
national curriculum comm ission in the 1930s, for example, proposed
the adoption of an Experience Curriculum in English. The report of the
commission began with the premise that "experience is the best of all
schools .... The ideal curriculum consists of well -selected experiences"
(cited in Applebee 1974: 119) . Like those who have recently urged the
organization of Communicative Language Teaching around tasks and
procedures, the committee tried to suggest "the means for selection and
weaving appropriate experiences into a coherent curriculum stretching
across the years of school English study" (Applebee 1974: 119). Individual learners were also seen as possessing unique interests, styles, needs,
and goals, which should be reAected in the design of methods of instruction. Teachers were encouraged to develop learning materials "on the
basis of the particular needs manifested by the class" (Applebee 1974:
15 0).
Common to all versions of Communicative Language Teaching, however, is a theory of language teaching that starts from a communicative
model of language and language use, and that seeks to translate this
into a design for an instructional system, for materials , for teacher and
learner roles and behaviors, and for classroom activities and techniques.
Let us now consider how this is manifested at the levels of approach,
design, and procedure.
Approach
Theory of language
T he communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory .
o f lan guage as communication. The goal of language teaching is
to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as "communicative comP Cl'(.;Il CC . " Hy m es co in ed thi s te rm in order to contrast a communica -
dv e vicw o f langll :J!'." :J lld Choln sky's I·heory of competence. Cho msky
held th:1 1
Communicative Language Teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a
completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitation, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors
(random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in ac-
tual performance. (Chomsky 1965: 3)
For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the
abstract abilities speakers possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. H ymes held that such a view
of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen
as part of a more general theory incorporating communication and
culture. H ymes's theory of communicative competence was a definition
of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. In Hymes's view, a person who acquires
communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for
language use with respect to
1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the mean s
of implementation available;
3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate,:adequate, happy,
successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.
(Hymes 1972: 281)
T his theory of what knowing a language entails offers a much more
comprehensive view than Chomsky's view of competence, which deals
primarily with abstract grammatical knowledge. Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT is Halliday'S functional account
of language use. "Linguistics ... is concerned . . . with the description of
speech acts or texts, since only through the study of language in use are
all the functions of language, and therefore all components of meaning,
brought into focus" (Halliday 1970: 145) . In a number of influential
books and papers, H alliday has elaborated a powerful theory of the
functions of language, which complements Hymes's view of communicative competence fo r many writers on CLT (e.g., Brumfit and Johnson
1979; Savignon 1983) . He described (1975: 11- 17) seven basicfunctions
that language performs for children learning their first language :
1. the instrumental function : using language to get things;
2. the regulatory function: using language to control the behavio r of others;
3. the interactional function: using langua ge to crea te intera cti o n with
o th ers;
..,
4. th e perso nal fll ll ction: !Ising la ngu:l ge 1'O express pc r~o n . d Irrl i' ljV'; fllld
mC; llli ngs;
70
5. the heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;
6. the imaginative function: using language to create a world of the
imagination;
7. the representational function: using language to communicate
information.
Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative Language Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.
Another theorist frequently cited for his views on the communicative
nature of language is Henry Widdowson. In his book Teaching Language
as Communication (1978) , Widdowson presented a view of the relationship between linguistic systems and their communicative values in
text and discourse. He focused on the communicative acts underlying
the ability to use language for different purposes . A more recent but
related analysis of communicative competence is found in Canale and
Swain (1980), in which four dimensions of communicative competence
are identified: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence
refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence and what Hymes
intends by what is "formally possible." It is the domain of grammatical
and lexical capacity. Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including
role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the
communicative purpose for their interaction. Discourse competence refers to the interp,etation of individual message elements in terms of their
interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship
to the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence refers to the coping
strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain,
repair, and redirect communication.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching
has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow.
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
3. T he structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. T he primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as
exe mplifi ed in discourse.
Theory of learning
~() Il l r :lst to the ;.lIn o ullt t h a t ha s been written in Co mmuni ca tive
Langll(,g~ TC;1ching Iit l.: l·;H llrc aboll t cO llllllllni cJ ti vc dimensions of 1<1 11 -
111
71
Communicative Language Teaching
Approaches & methods in language teaching
guage, little has been written about learning theory. Neither Brumfit and
Johnson (1979 ) nor Littlewood (1981 ), for example, offers any discussion of learning theory. Elements of an underlying learning theory can
be discerned in some CLT practices, however. One such element might
be descri bed as the communication principle: Activities that involve real
communication promote learning. A second element is the task principle:
Activities in which language is used for carryi ng out meaningful tasks
promote learni ng Uoh nson 1982). A third element is th e meaningfulness
pri nciple: Language that is meaningful to the lea rner s upports the learning process. Learning activ ities are consequently selected according to
how well they engage the learner in meaningfu l and authentic language
use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns). These
principles, we suggest, can be inferred from CLT pra ctices (e.g., Littlewood 1981; Johnson 1982). They address the conditions needed to
promote second language learning, rath er tha n the processes of language
acq uisition.
More recent acco unts of Com municative Language Teaching, however, have attempted to describe theori es of language learn in g processes
that are compatible with the communicative approach . Savignon (1983)
surveys second language acquisition research as a source for learning
theories and considers the role of linguistic, social, cogn itive, and individual variables in language acq uisition. Other theorists (e.g., Stephen
Krashen, w ho is not directly associated with Communi cative Language
Teaching) have developed theories cited as compatible w ith the principles
of CLT (see Chapter 9). Krashen sees acq uisi tion as the basic process
involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this process from le arning. Acqu isition refers to the unconscious development of
the ta rget language system as a result of using the language for real
commun ication. Learn ing is the consciolls representation of grammatical
knowledge that has resulted from instruction, and it cannot lead to
acqu isition. It is t he acq ui red system that we call upo n to create utterances during spontaneous language use. T he learned system can serve
only as a mo ni tor of the o utput of the acq ui red system. Krashen and
other second langu age acquisition theorists typically stress that language
learning comes about thro ugh using language communi catively, rather
than through practicing language sk ill s.
Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) consider an alternative learning
theory that they also see as compatible with CLT-a skill-learning model
of learning. According to this theory, the acquisition of communicative
competence in a language is an example of skill development. Th is
involves both a cogniti ve and a behav iora l aspect:
The cognitive aspt:ct involves the
intcrT1:11i s3tioll
pri,He 11l:h:lViolir. For 1:l ll grlaj',l: II SI.." lli l:sC
7
p l ;1I1 S
of pl:1lls (or
•
t'I\'. lIiuI', :1I1P1'0-
lkrivr II l. lild y
IHIIII
till' 1:111
guage system - they incl ude gram mat ica l rules, procedures for selecting
vocab ulary, and socia l co nven tio ns governing speech. The behavioural aspect
involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into
fluent performan ce in real time . This occurs main ly through practice in con -
verting plans into performance. (Littlewood 1984: 74)
This theory thus encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of developing communicative skills.
DeSign
Objectives
Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in a communicative approach:
1. an integrati ve and conten t level (la nguage as a means of expression)
2. a li nguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic sys tem and an
object of learn in g);
3. an affective level of interpersonal relatio nsh ips and conduct (language as a
means of exp ressing va lu es and judgments about oneself a nd others);
4. a level of individual learni ng needs (remedial learning based on error
ana lysis);
5. a general educational level o f extra-lingu istic goals (la ngua ge lea rning
within the school cu rri culum ).
(Piepho 198 1: 8)
These are proposed as general objectives, applicable to any teaching
situation. Particular objectives for CLT cannot be defined beyond this
level of specification, since such an approach assumes that language
teaching will reflect the particula r needs of the target lea rners. These
needs may be in the do mains of reading, writing, listening, or speaking,
each of which can be approached from a communicative perspective.
Curriculum or instructional objectives for a particular course wo uld
reflect specific aspects of communicative competence according to the
learner's proficiency level and communicative needs.
The syllabus
Discussions of the nature of the syllabus have been central in ComIllunicative La nguage Teaching. We have seen that one of the first syllahus models to be proposed was described as a notional syll abus (Wilkins
1976), whi ch specified the semantic-grammatical categories (e.g., freq Il CII CY , 111otion, IOCill'ion ) :lnd the cil t'cgo ri cs of co mmuni cat iv e function
dHlI k:1l'l1lTS IIlTd 10 ('X pr<,'ss. Th e COlllh.:il of Europe cx p;lIld cd ilnd
71
Approaches & methods in language teaching
developed this into a syllabus that included descriptions of the objectives
of foreign language courses for European adults, the si tuations in which
they might typica lly need to use a foreign language (e.g., travel, business),
the topics the y might need to talk about (e.g., person al identification,
education, shopping), the functions they needed language for (e.g., describing something, requesting information , expressing agreement and
disagreement), the notions made use of in communica tion (e.g., time,
frequency, duration), as well as the voca bulary and grammar needed.
The result was published as Threshold Level English (van Ek and Alexander 1980) and was an attempt to specify what was needed in order
to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of com municative proficiency
in a foreign language, including the language items needed to realize
this "threshold level. "
Discussion of syll ab us theory and sy llabus models in Co mmunicative
Language Teaching has been extensive. Wilkins's original notio nal syllabus model was soon criticized by British applied linguists as merely
replacing one kind of list (e.g., a list of grammar items) with another (a
list of notions a nd functions ). It specified products, rather than communicative processes. Widdowson (1979) argued that notional-flmctional ca tegories provide
on ly a very partial and imprecise desc ri ption of certai n seman tic and prag·
matie rules which are used for reference when people interact. They tell us
nothing <1 bour the procedures people employ in th e appl ica tion of th ese rules
when they are actuall y engaged in co mmuni cati ve acti vity. If we are to adopt
a com muni cative approach to teaching which takes as its primary purpose
the development of th e ability to'do things with language, then it is discourse
which must be at the center of our attention . (Widdowson 1979 : 254)
There are at present several proposals and models for what a syllabus
might look like in Communicative Language Teaching. Yalden (1983)
describes the major current communicative syllabus types. We summarize below a modified version of Yalden's classificatio n of communicative syll abus types, with reference sources to each model:
Type
1. structures plus functions
2. fun cti onal spiral around a
stru ctu ral core
3. structural, functi onal,
instrumental
4. functiona l
5. notional
6. interactional
7. task-based
8. learner generated
Reference
Wilkins (1976)
Bru mfit (1980)
Allen ( 1980)
]upp and Hodlin (1975)
Wilki ns (1976)
Widdowson (1979)
Prabbu (1983)
•
Cand lin (1976), H ClltH'1' S l.lll ~ hin ;l
Riley ( 197H)
:11ll1
Communicative Language Teaching
There is extensive documentation of attempts to create syllabus and
proto-syllabus designs of types 1-5. A current interest is in syllabus
designs of types 6-8, although specifications of organizing principles for
interactional , tas k-based, and learner-generated syllabuses have been
only partially accomplished. Descriptions of interactional strategies Iiave
been given, for example, for interactions of teacher a nd student (Sinclair
and Coulth ard 1975) and doctor and patient (Candlin, Bruton, and
Leather 1974). Although interesting, these descriptions have restricted
the field of inquiry to two-person interactions in which there exist reasonably rigid and acknowledged superord in ate to subordinate role
relationships.
Some designers of communicative syll abuses have also looked to task
specification and task organization as the appropriate criteria for syllabus design.
The only form of syllabus which is compatible with and can support communicational teaching seems to be a purely procedural one-which lists in more
or less dera il , the types of tasks to be attempted in the classroo m and suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind. (J>rabhu 1983: 4)
An exa mple of such a model that has been implemented nationally is
the Ma laysian communicational syllabus (English Language Syllabus in
Malaysian Schools 1975) - a syllabus for the teaching of English at the
upper secondary level in Malaysia. This was one of the first attempts to
organize Communicative Language Teaching around a specification of
com municatio n tasks. In the organizational schema three broad communicative objectives are broken down in to twenty-four more specific
objectives determined on the basis of needs anal ysis. These objectives
are organized into learning areas, for each of which are specified a
number of outcome goals or products. A product is defined as a piece
of comprehensible information, written, spoken, or presented in a nonlinguistic form. "A letter is a product, and so is an instruction, a message,
a report or a map or graph produced through information gleaned
through language" (English Language Syllabus 1975: 5). The products,
then, result from successful completion of tasks. For example, the product called " relaying a message to others" ca n be broken into a number
o f tasks, such as (a) understanding the message, (b) asking questions to
clear any doubts (c) asking questions to gather more information, (d)
taki ng notes, (e) arranging the notes in a logical manner for presentation,
and (f) o rally presenting the message. For each product a number of
pro posed situ atio ns arc suggested. T hese situations consist of a set of
specifi c:ltio n." (o r learn er intera ctions, th e stimuli, communicative contex t, p:lrti cip:lII I S, dl'sirl'd outcom es, :Jnd con straints. These situations
(: lIId 1I1 h l'I's \,'o l\."i l rll \ It 'd
whi rh
1" i ll'I li' I'
il1lt · t ~ H
hy illdi vidll:lll'c:H.: hcrs) COll sti t"ll tC dl C m e a n s by
llilll , llId i. Olllllll lll k :lli v('
ski ll s :11'<..' I't':lli zcd .
71
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Communicative Language Teaching
As discussion of syllabus models continues in the CLT literature, some
have argued that the syllabus concept be abolished altogether in its
accepted forms, arguing that only learners can be fully aware of their
own needs, communicational resources, and desired learning pace· and
path, and that each learner must create a personal, albeit implicit, syllabus as part of learning. Others lean more toward the model proposed
by Brumfit (1980), which favors a grammatically based syllabus around
which notions, functions, and communicational activities are grouped .
different roles for learners from those found in more traditional second
language classrooms. Breen and Candlin describe the learner's role within
CLT in the following terms:
The role of learner as negotiator- between the self, the learning process, and
the object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities
which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should
contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way.
(1980: 110)
Types of learning and teaching activities
The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage
learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative
processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing
tasks that are mediated through language or involve negotiation of information and information sharing.
These attempts take many forms. Wright (1976) achieves it by showing outof-focus slides which the students attempt to identify. Byrne (1978) provides
incomplete plans and diagrams which students have to complete by asking
for information. Allwright (1977) places a screen between students and gets
one to place objects in a certain pattern: this pattern is then communicated
to
constitute a "set" for learning, which when unrealized can lead to learner
confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina and Riley 1978) . Often
there is no text, grammar rules are not presented, classroom arrangement
is nonstandard, students are expected to interact primarily with each
other rather than with the teacher, and correction of errors may be
absent or infrequent. The cooperative (rather than individualistic) approach to learning stressed in CLT may likewise be unfamiliar to learners. CLT methodologists consequently recommend that learners learn
to see that failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the
fault of speaker or listener. Similarly, successful communication is an
accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged.
students behind the screen. Geddes and Sturtridge (1979) develop "jig-
saw" listening in which students listen to different taped materials and then
communicate their content to others in the class. Most of these techniques
operate by providing information to some and withholding it from others.
Oohnson 1982: 151)
Littlewood (1981) distinguishes between "functional communication activities" and "social interaction activities" as major activity types in
Communicative Language Teaching. Functional communication activ-
ities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and noting
similarities and differences; working out a likely sequence of events in
a set of pictures; discovering missing features in a map or picture; one
learner communicating behind a screen to another learner and giving
instructions on how to draw a picture or shape, or how to complete a
map; following directions; and solving problems from shared clues.
Social interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions,
dialogues and role plays, simulations, skits, improvisations, and debates.
Learner roles
Teacher roles
Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language
Teaching, the importance of parricular roles being determined by the
view of CLT adopted. Breen and Candlin describe teacher roles in the
following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communica tion process between all participants in the classroom, and between these
participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as
an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role
is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These
roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of
resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom
procedures and activities .... A third role for the teacher is that of researcher
Jnd learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and
;lbiliri cs, actu31 3nd observed exp erience of the nature of learning and organiz:uional Cl p:l ciri L:s. ( 19 XO : 99)
•
The emphasi s in Communicative La nguage Teachin g 0 11 1'1 1l' pro cesses
o f co ml111111i c:l tio n, I':lth cr than ma ste ry o f lan g u:1gl' rcWill S, h';Hls 10
76
There is thus an acknowledgment, in some accounts of CLT, that learners
bring preconceptions of what teaching and learning should be like. These
O rh
'I'
roks ass llIl1 l'( 1 rOl' I {' :ldl L'I'S :Irc needs Jn Jlys t, cOllnse lor, and g ro up
Pf'Ot:l 'SS IIl ;\lI HJ)l" ',
77
Approaches & methods in language teaching
NEEDS ANALYST
The CLT teacher assumes a responsibility for determining and responding to lea rner language needs. This may be do ne info rma lly and personally through one-to-one sessions with students, in which the teacher
talks thro ugh such issues as the student's perception of his o r her learning
style, learning assets, and learninggoa ls. It may be do ne forma ll y through
administering a needs assessment instrument, such as those exemplified
in Savignon (1983) . Typicall y, such forma l assessments contain items
that attempt to determine an individual's motivation for studying the
language. For example, students might respond on a 5-point scale (strongly
agree to strongly disagree) to statements like the following.
I want to stud y English because ...
1. I think it will someda y be useful in getting a good job.
2. it will help me better understand English-speaking people and their way of
life.
3. one needs a good knowledge of Engl ish to gain other people's respect.
4 . it wi ll allow me to meet and conve rse with interesting people.
5. I need it for my job.
6. it will enable me to think and behave like English-speaking people.
On the basis of sllch needs assessments, teachers are expected to plan
group and individual instruction that responds to the lea rners' needs.
COUNSE LO R
Another role ass um ed by severa l CLT approaches is that of counselor,
similar to the way this role is defined in Community Language Learning.
In this role, th e teacher-counselor is expected to exemplify an effective
communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of spea ker intention
and hearer interpretation , through the use of paraphrase, confirmation,
and feedback.
G RO UP PROCESS MANAGER
C LT procedures often require teacbers to acquire less teacher-centered
classroom management skills. It is the teacher's responsibility to organize
the cl assroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities. Guidelines for classroom practice (e.g., Littlewood 1981; Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983) suggest that during an acti vity the teacher
monito rs, encourages, and suppresses the inclin atio n to supply gaps in
lexis, grammar, and strategy but notes such gaps for later COplmentary
and communica tive practice. At the conclusion of group activities, the
teacher leads in the debriefing of the activity, pointing (l ilt . ltern;1tivcs
Communicative Language Teaching
and extensio ns and assisting groups in self-correction discussion. Critics
have pointed out, however, that non-native teachers may fee l less than
comfortable about such procedures witho ut special tra ining.
The focu s on fluency and comprehensibility in Communicative Language Teaching may ca use anxiety among teachers accustomed to seeing
error suppression and correction as the major instructional responsibility, and who see their primary function as preparing lea rners to take
standa rdi zed o r other kinds of tests. A continuing teacher concern has
been the possible deleterious effect in pair or group work of imperfect
modeling and student error. Although this issue is far from resolved, it
is interesting to note that recent research findings suggest that "data
contradicts the notion that other learners are not good conversational
pa rtners because they can't provide accurate in put when it is solicited"
(Porter 1983).
The role of instructional materials
A wide variety of materials have been used to support communicative
app roaches to language teaching. Unlike some contemporary methodologies, such as Community Language Learning, practitio ners of Communicative Language Teachi ng view materials as a way of influencing
the quality of classroo m interaction and langu age use. Materials thus
have the prim ary role of promoting communicative language use. We
will consider three kinds of materials currently used in CLT and label
these text-based, task-based, and realia .
TEXT-BASED MATERIALS
There are numerous textbooks designed to direct and support Communicative Language Teaching. Their tables of contents sometimes suggest a kind of grading and sequencing of language practice not unlike
those found in structurally organized texts. Some of these are in fact
written a ro und a largely structural syllabus, with slight reformatting to
justify their claims to be based on a commun icative approach. Others,
however, look very different from previous language teaching texts.
Morrow and j o hnson's Communicate (1979), for example, has none of
t he usual dialogues, drills, or sentence patterns and uses visual cues,
ta ped ClIes, pictures, and sentence fragments to initiate conversation.
W;Hcyn -.Iones's Pair Work (1981) consists of two different texts for pair
work, each conta inin g different info rmation needed to enact role plays
" lid carry o ut orh ·r pair ncr-iv iries. Texts written to support the Ma laysi:1Il I '".~ lisl) 1 .(/lIgll (I.~I ' Sy/ltllJIIs ( I':175) likew ise represent a departure
("0111 Irndiliollill lI'x !hllol(
II It H.lrS .
1\ typi c: !! It'sson cOlIsi.o.:l's or a ['hem '
7 1}
Approaches & methods in language teaching
(e.g., relaying information) , a task analysis for thematic development
(e.g., understanding the message, asking questions to obtain clarification,
asking for more information, taking notes, ordering and presenting information), a practice situation description (e.g., "A caller asks to see
your manager. He does not have an appointment. Gather the necessary
information from him and relay the message to your manager." ), a
stimulus presentation (in the preceding case, the beginning of an office
conversation scripted and on tape), comprehension questions (e.g., "Why
is the caller in the office? " ), and paraphrase exercises.
TASK-BA SED MATEJUALS
A variety of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based communication activities have been prepared to support Communicative Language Teaching classes. T hese typically are in the form of one-of-a-kind
items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication
practice materials, and student-interaction practice booklets. In paircommunication materia ls, there are typically two sets of material for a
pair of students, each set containing different kinds of information .
Sometimes the information is complementary, and partners must fit their
respective parts of the "jigsaw" into a composite whole. Others assume
different role relationships for the partners (e.g., an interviewer and an
interviewee). Still others provide drills and practice material in interactional formats.
REALIA
Many proponents of Communicative Language Teaching have advocated the use of "authentic," "from-life" materials in the classroom.
These might include language-based realia, such as signs, magazines,
advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic and visual sources around
which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs, and charts. Different kinds of objects can be used to
support communicative exercises, such as a plastic model to assembl e
from directions .
Procedure
Because communicative principles can be applied to th e teachin g o f any
skill, at any level, and because of th e wide variety of classroom ;1 cl'iviri cs
and exercise types di sclissed in the li tc r at'lll' c o n C OIIIlI'llln ioolt'iv' La 1l gua ge T C:1 chin p;, (kst..: ripl'ion of rypic:l l ci:1 SS I'00111 prO\'r dlln,'s II sr I ill n
I ' SSO I1 kl sl.'d till CI ,T pl' ill ~ ip1c8 is 11 0 1 rt'!lsihlc. S.lviHI1 () li ( I ') H \) di Sl'IISSl'1'>
HI)
Communicative Language Teaching
techniques and classroom managen1cnt procedures associated with a
number of CLT classroom procedures (e.g., group activities, language
games, role plays), but neither these activities nor the ways in which
they are used are exclusive to CLT classrooms. Finocchiaro and Brumfit
offer a lesson outline for teaching the function "making a suggestion"
for learners in the beginning level of a secondary school program that
suggests that CLT procedures are evolutionary rather than revolutionary :
1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs, preceded by a motivation (relating the dialog situation(s) to the learners' probable community experiences) and a discussion of the function and situation-people,
ro l ~s, setting, topic, and the informality or formality of the language
whICh the function and situation demand. (At beginning levels, where all
the learners understand the same native language, the motivation can
well be given in their native tongue).
2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presen ted
th at day (entire class repetition, half-class, groups, ind iv iduals ) generally
preceded by your mode l. If mini-dialogs are used, engage in similar
practice.
3. Questions and answers based on the dia log topic(s) and situation itself.
(Inverted wh, or or questions) .
4. Questions and answers related to the students' personal experiences but
centered around the dialog theme.
S. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of
the structures which exemplify the function. You will wish to give sev eral additional examples of the communicative use of the expression or
structure with familiar vocabulary in unambiguous utterances or minidialogs (using pictures, simp le real objects, or dramatiza tion) to clarify
the meaning of the expression or structure . ...
6. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional
expression or structure. This should includ e at least four points: its oral
and written forms (the elements of which it is composed, e.g. "How
about + verb + ing?"); its position in the utterance; its formality or
informa lity in the utterance; and in the case of a structure, its grammatical function and mean ing ....
7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities (two to five depending on the
learning level, the language knowledge of the students, and related
factors).
H. O ral production activities-proceeding from guided to freer communicatio n activities.
1.). Co pying of th e dialogs or mini-dialogs or modules if they are not in the
cl ass I"ext.
10 . Sa rllplill g of th e written homework assignment, if given.
I I . EV;llu ;l li v ll of IC;lrnin g (oral on ly ), e.g. "How wou ld you ask your friend to
? And how wou ld you ask me to
?"
(Finocchi,l'o ,"d Bl'ulllfit 198 3: 107- 8)
KI
Communicative Language Teaching
Approaches &' methods in language teaching
Such procedures clearly have much in common with those observed in
classes taught according to Structural-SItuatIOnal and Audlohngual:nn,;
ciples. Traditional procedures are not rejected but are ,~emterpret~ an
extended. A similar conservatism is found 111 many orthodox CLT
texts, such as Alexander's Mainline Beglmlers (1978 ). Although each
unit has an ostensibly functiona l focus, new teachmg pomts are mtroduced with dialogues, followed by controlled practice of the maIO grammatical patterns. The teaching points are then c,ontextuahzed through
situationa l practice. This serves as an 1Otrod uctlon to a freer practice
activity, such as a role play or improvlsatl,on. Sundar techmques a~e used
in another popular textbook, Starting StrategIes (Abbs and Freebau~
1977). Teaching points are introduced in dialogue form, grammatlca
items are isolated for controlled practice, and then freer actiVItieS are
rovided. Pair and gro up work is suggested to encourage students to
~se a nd practice functions and forms. The methodologIcal procedures
underlying these texts reflects a sequence of activities represented 10
Littlewood (1981, p. 86) as follows:
" t'~
Structural activities
Pre-communicative actlv1 les
- - - - - - Quasi-communicative activities
Communicative activities
~
Functional communication activities
- - - - - - - - - Social interaction activities
(1972 , 1983), however , re)'ects the
·
- notion
. .that learners must
SaVlgnon
first gain control over individual skills (pronunCIatiOn,. grammar, vo~
cabulary) before applying them 10 commumcatlve tasks, she advocates
providing communicati ve practice from the start of lIlstructlon. HOW t~
implement CLT principles at the level of classroom procedures th us
remains central to discussions of the commumcatlve approach. How can
the range of communicative activities and procedures be d~fined, and .
how can the teacher determine a mIx and tUTImg of actt~ ltIe~ .d;:)_tb~~I,
meets the needs of a particul ar lea rner or group of lcnt nC I.~ . . 1h:".
fundamenta l questions ca nnot be answered by proPOSl\1I\ fll~lIl c l !.I X,
onomies and cirl ssifi cations, but require
Sy Sl'CI1I ~1I1 ~' III V t'N ll g~ ~1 01l
of til t,;
1" 'O\'cdlll'\" III I.J. d ,I,'S I''''''"S (S\'\'
,
f ( I'I ff c:n': l1 I' k'111 ( I,'" ()f" I.;'l'I'vl'CI' c'c' 'Illd
e h"I'I(' I' II ),
usc
H
0
0
Conclusion
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather
than a method. T hus although a reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be discerned at the levels of lan guage and learning theory,
at the levels of design and procedure there is much greater room for
individua l interpretation and variation than most meth ods permit. It
could be that one version among the various proposals for syllabus
models, exercise types, and classroom activities may gain wider approval
in the future, giving Communicative Language Teach ing a status similar
to other teaching methods. On the other hand, divergent interpretations
might lead to homogeneous subgroups.
Communicative Language Teaching appea red at a time when British
language teaching was ready for a paradigm shift. Situational Language
Teaching was no longer felt to reflect a methodology appropriate for
the seventi es and beyond. CLT appealed to those who sought a more
humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes
of communication received priority. T he rapid adoption and implementation of the communicative approach also resulted from the fact that
it quickly assumed the status of orthodoxy in British language teaching
circles, receiving the sanction and support of leading British applied
linguists, language specialists, publishers, as well as institutions, such as
Ihe British Council (Richards 1985).
Now that th e initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, however, some
of the claims of CLT are being looked at more critically (Swan 1985).
The adoption of a communicative approach raises important issues for
IC:lchet training, materials development, and testing 'and evaluation.
Qllestions that have been raised include whether a communicative appl',," ch can be applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is
('\)It:l! ly s uited to ESL and EFL situations, whether it requires existing
JII':lIlllllar-based syll abuses to be abandoned or merely revised, how such
1111 approach can be evaluated, how suitabl e it is for non-native teachers,
Ilild how it ca n be adopted in situations where students must continue
I" lake grammar-based tests. These kinds of questions wi ll doubtless
Il'qllil'c :1ttcnrion if the communicative movement in language teaching
" 'lIli llll CS
to ga in momentum in the future .
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Applebee, A. N. 1974. Tradition and Reform in the Teaching of English: A
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Brumfit, C. J., and K. Johnson (eds .). 1979. The Communicative Approach to
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Byrne, D. 1978 . Materials for Language Teaching: Interaction Packages. London: Modern English Publications.
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Halliday, M. A. K. 1973. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London:
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Halliday, M. A. K. 1975 . Learning How to Mean: Explorations in the Development of Language. London: Edward Arnold.
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6
Total Physical Response
.
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•
Background
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built
around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, a
professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California, it draws
on several traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy, as well as on language teaching procedures proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. Let us briefly
consider these precedents to Total Physical Response.
Total Physical Response is linked to the "trace theory" of memo ry in
psychology (e.g., Katona 1940), which holds that the more often or the
more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory
association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can
be done verbally (e.g., by rote repetition) and/or in association with
motor activity. Combined tracing activities, such as verbal rehearsal
accompanied by motor activity, hence increase the probability of successful recall.
In a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language
learning as a parallel process to child first language acquisition. He claims
Ihat speech directed to young children consists primarily of commands,
w hich children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal
resp onses. Asher feels adults should recapitulate the processes by which
children acquire their mother tongue.
Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a concern for
Ihe ro le of affective (emotional) factors in language learning. A method
Ihat is undemanding in terms of linguistic production and that involves
)',:tlllclike movements reduces learner stress, he believes, and creates a
I'"sitive mood in the learner, which facilitates learning.
i\sher's emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner
I', l.lll!lht to speak links him to a movement in foreign language teaching
I, IIII'elimes referred to as the Comprehension Approach (Winitz 1981).
II,i , refe rs to several different comprehension-based language teaching
1'1(']1,»,, 15, which sha re the beli ef th at (a) comprehension abilities precede
lll od il u ive skills in Ica rnin g a lang uage; (b) th e teaching of speaking
"IIi"dd be d 'layed IInl il cO Il \preh cllsio n sk ill s arC establi shed; (c) s kil ls
H7
Total Physical Response
Approaches & methods in language teaching
acquired through listening transfer to other skills; ( d) teaching s hould
emph asize meaning rather than form ; and (e) teachmg sho uld mmlmlze
learner stress.
T he emphasis o n comprehension and the use of physical actions to
teach a foreign language at an introductory level has a lo ng tradItIon m
language teaching. We saw in Chapter 1 that In the IlIneteenth century
Gouin had advocated a situationally based teachIng strategy m whICh a
chain of action verbs served as the basis for introducing and practIcIng
new language items. Palmer experimented with an action~based teachIng
strategy in his book English Through A ctIOns (fi rst pubhshed In Tokyo
in 1925 and ultimately reissued as Palmer and Palmer In 1959), whICh
cl aimed that " no method of teaching foreign speech is likely to be economical o r successful which does not include in the first period a very
considerable proportion of that type of classroo m work whIC?, consIsts
of the carryin g out by the pupil of orders Issued by the teacher (Pa lmer
and Palmer 1959: 39).
Theory of language
Asher does not directly discuss the nature of language o r how languages
are organized. However, the labeling and ordering of TPR classroom
drills seem to be built o n assumptions that owe much to structuralIst or
grammar-based views of language. Asher states that " most of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary
items can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the
instru ctor" (1977: 4). He views the verb, and particu larl y the verb in
the imperative, as the central linguistic motif around whICh language
use and lea rning are organized .
.
Asher sees language as being composed of abstractIons and nonabstractio ns with nonabstractions being most specifically represented by
concrete ~ouns and imperative verbs. H e believes that lea rners can acquire a " detailed cognitive map" as well as :'the grammatical structure
of a language" witho ut reco urse to abstractions.
Abstractions should be dela yed until students have in terna lized
::l
dct::liled
cognitive map of the ta rget language. Abstractions are not necessar y for
people to decode th e gra mmati cal s~ructu re of ~ lan gua ge. On ce ~ l"IId.cnt's .
have internalized the co de, ab stra ctIO ns can be I1ll'rodll ccd 3ml CX p l :llIllX IIIi
the target language. (Asher 1977: 1"l - 12)
This is an in teresting cla im about i::lngu:l gc hilt' 0 111.,; Ill :11 'is in sllffi c..:i clld y
detailed to tes t·. For eX :'l1nple, ;:m:; tcnse, nspc..:t, :1 I,til'ks. nn!1 so fO I'lIl .
;d'S1T:1 Ct'ioIl S, :1 nd if so, W h ~ll so rt of "dt:tailcd l'og ni ti vl' 11I :1P" ('oilid h~'
HH
sorry" ).
Asher also refers in passing to the fa ct th at language can be internalized
as wholes or chunks, rather than as single lexical items and as such
links a re possibl e to more theoretical proposals of this ki ~d (e.~., M iller:
Ga lantcr, and Pnbram 1960), as well as to work on the role of prefabncated patterns In language learning and language use (e.g., Yorio 1980).
As her does not elaborate on his view of chun king, however, nor on other
aspects of the theory of language underl ying Total Physical Response.
We have only clues to what a more full y developed language theory
mIght resemble when spelled out by Asher and his supporters.
Theory of learning
Approach
t '()I I /'i II' IIl'I Cd
Despite Asher's belief in the central rol e of comprehensio n in language
lea rnIng, he does not elaborate on the rel atio n between comprehension
production, and communication (he has no theory of speech acts or thei;
eq UIvalents, for example), although in adva nced TPR lessons imperatives
are used to initiate different speech acts, such as requests ("John, ask
Mary to walk to the door"), and apologies (" Ned, tell Jack you're
with out
them?
As her's language learning theories are reminiscent of the views of other
behavioral psychologists. For example, the psychologist Arthur Jensen
proposed a seven-stage model to describe the development of verbal
learn ing in children. The first stage he ca lls Sv-R type lea rning, which
I"i,e ed ucatIonal psychologist John DeCecco interprets as follows:
In jensen's notation, Sv refers to a verbal stimulus- a sy ll abl e a word a
phrase, and so o n, R refers to the physica l movements the ch'iid mak~s in
l'l,:spo ~l se to the ver~al stim~ l us (~r Sv). Th e movement may involve touching,
gr:1 s prn~, or otherWise mal1lpuiatmg some object. For exa mple, mother may
It,ll PerCival (age 1) to get the ball, and Perciva l, distinguishing the sound
"ha ll " from the clatter of other household noises, responds by fetching the
I I: II~ al1d . bCII~grng It to his mother. Ball is the Sv (verbal stimulus), and Perciv, 1I s actio n IS the response. At Percival's age, children respond to words
,d)()ur fo ur tim es faster than they respond to oth er so unds in their environ 'IICll t. It is "?t clea r w hy th is is so , bur it is poss ible th at the rei nfo rcing efrl'el s of ll1a~ lI1g proper responses to verba l stimuli are sufficientl y strong to
~ ' 1IIS~ a rap id development of thi s behav io r. Sv-R lea rn ing represents, th en,
dOl' , ""plest form of verba l behavior. (DeCecco 1968: 329)
I Itis is 0 ve ry simil ar position to As her's view of child lang uage acqui'. 11
Altho ugh learning psychologists such as Je nsen have since aband, IIIl'd sli ch si III p Ie stimulus-response models of language acquisition and
IJ.ov..IoI1l,II " 'II , :lIId :t ll'hough lingui sts have rej ected them as incapable of
1I1 f.'lll lIlIll lg fol' th e flllHLull CrH :d ft.::HlI1'l:s of bnguage lea rning and use
('W I' Ch:l!l ll'I' II), AsheI' st"ill, st:cs a sri llllilll s-rcspo ll Sc view ns providing
tll ~ ' 1r1l1'1I111/i Ill l'OI'Y II1I til,I'I YIll l ', 1:ln gll :ll',t: Il':l chin g pe(bgogy. In ndditi o n ,
""l.
WI
Total Physical Response
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels facilitates or inhibits
foreign language learning. For this dimension of his learning theory he
draws on three rather influential learning hypotheses:
1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for language learning, which
defines an ·optimal path for first and secOl~d langu~ge d~velopment.
2. Brain lateraliza tio n defines different learning functions In the left- and
.
right-brain hemispheres.
3. Stress (an affective filter) intervenes between the act of learnmg and what
is to be learned; the lower the stress, the greater the learning.
Let us consider how Asher views each of these in turn.
1. THE BIO-I'R OGRAM
Asher's Total Physical Response is a " Natural Method" (see Chapter
1), inasmuch as Asher sees first and second language learning as parallel
processes. Second language teaching and Iearmng should reflect the naturalistic processes of first language learmng. Asher sees three processes
as central. (a) Chil dren develop listening competence before they develop
the ability to speak. At the early stages of first language acquISItIOn they
can understand complex utterances that they cann?t spontaneously produce or imitate. Asher speculates that during thIs penod of \'stenmg,
the learner may be making a mental " blueprint" of the language th~t
will make it possible to produce spoken language later. (b) Ch,ldren s
ability in listening comprehension is acq uired because chIldren are required to respond physically to spoken language In the form of parental
commands. (c) Once a foundation in listening comprehensIOn has been
established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of It. As we
noted earlier, these principles are held by proponents of a number of
other method proposals and are referred to collectlvely as a Comprehension Approach.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning, the foreign language
learner shou ld first internalize a "cognitive map" of the target language
through listenin g exercises. Listening should be accompal1Ied by phYSIcal
movement. Speech and other productive skills should come later. The
speech-production mechanisms will begin to functlon spontaneously when
the basic found ations of language are established through lIstenmg traming. Asher bases rhese assumptions on his belief in the eXIsten ce In the
human brain of a bio-program for language, whICh defin es an optlmal
order for first and second language learning.
A reasonable hypothesis is that the br:lin :1 nci
nervOUS system
:'Irc ~'li o l ()gic~ l1 y
progr;:l Inm cd to :lequire inng,lI :)gc ... in n p:Hr icll ~a r ScqU l.' l1 " ri nd 11,1 II \'IflrIH': I1 "
lar ITllld ', The SCQIl I'Il CC is II sl cl1 in A bcfo l't spcnk ll' K:lI ld ,lil' IIlIld t'
l hlf)lI i~.I' I fl lI~tUflgl' wllh 111(' ind iv idlHd's hotl y, (ANile! 1971: II )
'/O
IS [n
sy n
2. BRAI N LATERA LI ZATION
Asher sees Total Physical Response as directed to right-brain learning,
whereas most second language teaching methods are directed to leftbrain learning. Asher refers to neurological studies of the brains of cats
and studies of an epileptic boy whose corpus callosum was surgically
divided. Asher interprets these as demonstrating that the brain is divided
into hemispheres according to function, with language activities centralized in the right hemisphere. Drawing on work by Jean Piaget, Asher
holds that the child language lea rner acq uires language through motor
movement - a right-hemisphere activity. Right-hemisphere activities must
occur before the left hemisphere can process language for production.
Similarly, the adult should proceed to language mastery through righthemisphere motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.
When a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere learning has taken place,
the left hemisphere will be triggered to produce language and to initiate
other, more abstract language processes.
3.
REDU CTI ON OF STRESS
An important condition for successful language learning is the absence
of stress. First language acquisition takes place in a stress-free environment, according to Asher, whereas rhe adult language learning environment often causes considerable stress and anxiety. The key to stress-free
learning is to tap into the natural bio-program for langu age development
and thus to recapture the relaxed and pleasurable experiences that accompany first language learnin g. By focusing on meaning interpreted
thro ugh movement, rather than on language form s studied in the ab~ tract, the lea rne r is said to be liberated from self-conscious and stressful
situations and is able to devote full energy to learning.
Design
Objectives
T he general objectives of Total Physical Response are to teach oral
pro fi ciency at a beginning level. Comprehension is a means to an end,
.Ind I'he ul timate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. A TPR course
.InllS to produ ce lea rners who a re capable of an uninhibited commuIIi ~: lli o ll th:1 1 is intell igible to a native speaker. Specific instructional
(I hj ecl iv c~ " . 11 0 1 el:1bo rated, for th ese will depend on the particular
nl'eds or I hc Icn rllcrs. Whatev 'r J,;on ls :1I'e SC I', however, must be attainable
till tlngh dw mil' or lH'tiO Il Imst'd drill s ill Ihr impcr!'l Ii vt (orl1l .
'I I
Total Physical Response
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The syllabus
The type of syllabus Asher uses can be inferred from an analysis of the
exercise types employed in TPR classes. This analysis revea ls the use of
a sentence-based syllabus, with grammatical and lexical criteria being
primary in selecting teach in g item s. Unlike meth ods that operate from
a grammar-based o r structural view of the core elements of language,
Total Physical Response requires inititial attention to meaning rather
than to the form of items. Gramm ar is thus taught inductively. Gra mmatical features and voca bulary items are selected not according to their
frequency of need or use in target language situatio ns, but according to
the situ ations in which they can be used in the cl ass room and the ease
with which they ca n be learned.
The criterion for including a vocabulary item or gram matica l feature at a
particular point in training is ease of assimil ation by students. If an item is
not learn ed rapidl y, this means tha t the st udents arc not ready for that item.
Withdra w it and try aga in at a future time in the training program. (Asher
1977: 42)
Asher also suggests that a fi xed number of items be introduced at a time,
to facilitate ease of differentiation and assimilati o n. "In an hour, it is
possible for students to assimilate 12 to 36 new lexical items depending
upo n the size of the group and the stage of training" (Asher 1977: 42).
Asher sees a need for attention to both the global meaning of language
as well as to the finer details of its organi zation.
The movement of the body seems to be a powe rfu l mediator for the under-
standing, organi zation and storage of macro-deta ils of linguistic input. Language can be internal ized in chunks, but alternative strategies must be
developed for fine-tuning to ma cro-deta il s. (Asher, Kusuclo, and de la Torre
1974 : 28)
A course designed aro und Total Physical Response principles, however,
wou ld not be expected to follow a TPR sy ll abus excl usively.
We are not advocating only one strategy of learn ing. Even if the imperative is
the major or minor format of training, variety is critical for mainta ining co ntinued student interest. The imperative is a powerful facilitator of learning,
but it shou ld be used in combination with many other techniqu es. The optimal co mbinati o n w ill vary fro m instructor to instructor and class to class.
(Asher 1977: 28)
Types of learning and teaching activities
•
Im perativ e drill s arc the major cla ss room activity in TOI" I Physi cal Response. They arc rypi call y IIsed 10 ·li eil ph ys ica l 3(,li o" s .lIld .lClivil y 0"
the part of the learners. Conversational dialogues are delayed until after
about 120 hours of instruction . Asher's rationale for this is that "everyday conversa tio ns are highly abstract and disconnected; therefore to
understa nd them requires a rather a dva nced internalization of the target
language" (1977: 95). Other cl ass activities include role plays and slide
presentations. Role plays center on everyday situations, such as at the
restaurant, supermarket, or gas statio n. The slide presentations are used
to provide a visual center for teacher narratio n, which is followed by
commands, and for questions to students, such as "Whi ch person in the
picture is the salesperson?". Reading and writing activities may also be
employed to further consolidate structures and vocab ul ary, and as fol low-ups to oral imperative drills.
Learner roles
Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of li stener
and performer. They listen attentively and respond physicall y to commands given by the teacher. Learners are required to respond both
individually and collectively. Learners ha ve little influence over the content of lea rning, since content is determined by th e teacher, who must
follow the imperative-based format for lessons. Learners are also expected to recognize and respond to novel comb in ati ons of previously
taught items:
Nove l utteran ces are reco mbinati o ns of cons titu ents yo u have used directly in
training. For instance, you directed students with 'Walk to the table!' and 'Sit
o n the chai r! ', These are fa miliar to students sin ce they have practiced respondi ng to them, Now, will a student understaIld if yo u su rpri se the individual with an un fami liar utterance that you created by recombining fa mili ar
elements (e.g. 'Sit on the table!'). (Asher 1977: 31)
Learners are also required to produce novel combinations of th eir own.
lcearners monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to spea k when they feel ready to speak - that is, when a sufficient
basis in the language has been internalized.
Teacher rolef'
T he teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response.
" The instrucror is the director of a stage play in which the students are
the actors" (Asher 1977: 43 ).It is the teacher who decides what to teach,
who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting
Il};Hcrials for dass ronm lise , T he teac her is enco uraged to be well prepOl'ed olld wc·ll IIl'l\o lli zcd so that the lesson flows smooth ly and predi cl:lbl y. 1\1'1 11('1'
l'rl/IIII1IH'lld ...
d t'l :liltd l'ssol1 pl:lIl S: ·'It is w ise 1'0 w rite
•
Approaches & methods in language teaching
o ut the exact utterances you will be using and especially the novel comma nds because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time for
you to create spontaneously" (1977: 47). Class room interaction and
turn taking is reacher rather than learner directed. Even when learners
interact with o rher learners it is usuall y the teacher who initiates the
interaction:
Teacher: Maria, pick up rhe box of rice and hand it to Miguel and ask Miguel
to read the price.
Asher stresses, however, that the teacher's role is not so much to teach
as to provide opportunities for learning. The teacher has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language so that the
learn er ca n internalize the basic rul es of the target language. Thus the
teacher controls the language input the learners receive, providing the
raw material for the "cognitive map" that the learners will construct in
their own minds. T he teacher sho uld also allow speaking abilities to
develop in lea rners at the learners' own natural pace.
In giving feedback to learners, the teacher should fo llow the exa mple
of parents giving feedback to their children. At first, parents correct very
little, but as the child grows o lder, parents are said to tolerate fewer
mistakes in speech. Similarly teachers should refrain fro m too much
correctio n in the earl y stages and sho uld not interrupt to correct errors,
since this will inhibit learners. As time goes o n, however, more teacher
intervention is expected, as the learners' speech becomes "fine tuned ."
Asher cautions teachers about preconceptions that he feels could hinder
the successful implementation of TPR principles. First, he cautions against
the " illusion of simplicity," where the teacher underestimates the difficulties involved in learning a foreign language. T his results in progressing
at too fast a pace and failing to provide a gradual transition from one
teaching stage to another. The teacher should also avoid having too
narrow a tolerance for errors in speaking.
You begi n with a wide tolerance fo r student speech errors, but as training
progresses, the tolera nce narrows .... Remember th at as students progress in
their traini ng, more and more attention units are freed to process feedback
from the instructor. In the beginning, almost no atremia n uni ts are ava ilable
to hear the instructor's attem pts to correct distortio ns in speech. All attention
is directed to producing utterances. Therefore th e student ca nnot attend effi cientl y to the in stru ctor's corrections. (Asher 1977: 27)
The role of instructional materials
Total Physical Response
terials, since the teacher's voice, actions, and gestures may be a sufficient
basis for classroom activities. Later the teacher may use common classroom o bjects, such as books, pens, cups, furniture. As the course develo ps, the teac her will need to make or coll ect supporting materials to
support teaching points. These ma y include pictures, realia, slides, and
word cha rts. Asher has developed TPR student kits that focus o n specific
situations, such as the home, the supermarket, the beach. Students ma y
use the kits to construct scenes (e.g., " Put the stove in the kitchen").
Procedure
As her (1977) provides a lesson-by-Iesson acco unt of a course taught
according to TPR principles, which serves as a source of information
on the procedures used in the TPR classroom. The course was for adult
immigrants and consisted of 159 ho urs of cl assroom instruction. The
sixth cl ass in the course proceeded in the following way:
Review. This was a fast-moving warm-up in wh ich individual students were
moved wi th commands such as:
Pab lo, drive your ca r around Miako and hon k yo ur horn.
Jeffe, throw the red flower to Maria.
Maria, screa m.
Rita, pick up the knife and spoon and put them in [he cup.
Eduardo, take a drink of water and give the cup to Elaine.
New co mmands . These verbs were introduced.
was h
your hands.
yo ur face.
you r hair.
the cup.
look for
a towel.
the soap.
a comb.
hold
the book.
the
Clip.
the soap.
c.:o ll1b
yo ur hair.
Maria's ha ir.
Shirou's hair.
yo ur rcc l'h.
There is generally no basic text In a Total Physical Respo,'.se CO llrse.
Materia ls and rea li a play an increasing ro le, however, in late r lea rning
stages . Fo r :1bso lu te beginners, lessons may not require th e li se of 111:1 "
94
Yo lII"
p ~lll l $ .
11ll.: Iii "1(',
'I
Total Physical Response
Approaches & methods in language teaching
and acted out the sentence. The students li stened as she read th e material.
Some copied the in fo rmation in th eir notebooks.
Other items introduced were:
(Asher 1977: 54-6)
Rectangle
Draw a rectangle on the chalkboard.
Triangle
Pick up the triangl e from the tab le and give it to me.
Catch th e triangle and put it next to the rectangle.
Pick up a rectangle from th e table and give it to me.
Put the rectangle next to the square.
Conclusion
Quickly
Walk quickly to the door and hit it.
Quick ly, run to th e table and touch the square.
Sit down quickly and laugh.
Slowly
Walk slowly to the window and jump.
Slowly, stand up.
Slowly wa lk to me and hit me on the arm.
Toothpaste
Look for the toothpaste.
Throw the toothpaste to Wing.
Wing, unscrew the top of the toothpaste.
Toothbrush
Take out your toothbrush.
Brush your teeth.
Pur you r toothbrush in your book.
Teeth
Soap
Touch your teeth.
Show your teeth to Dolores.
Dolores, point to Eduardo's teeth.
Look for the soap.
Give the soap to Elaine .
Elaine, put the soap in Ramiro's ea r.
Towel
Total Physical Response is in a sense a revival and extensi on of Palmer
and Palmer's English Through Actions, updated with references to more
recent psychologica l theories. It has enjoyed some popularity because of
its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second
language acq uisition. Krashen (1981 ), for example, regards provision of
comprehensible input and reduction of stress as keys to successful language acquisition, a nd he sees performing physica l actions in the target
la nguage as a means of 'maki ng input comprehensible and minimizing
stress (see Chapter 9). The experimental support for the effectiveness of
Total Physica l Response is sketchy (as it is for most methods) and typicall y dea ls with on ly the very beginning stages of learning. Proponents
of Communicative Language Teaching would question the relevance to
real-world learner needs of the TPR syllabus and the utterances and
senten ces used within it. Asher himself, however, has stressed that Total
Physical Response sho uld be used in association with other methods a nd
techniques. Indeed, practitioners of TPR typically follow this recommendation, suggesting that for many teachers TPR represents a useful
set of techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching.
TPR practices therefore may be effective for reasons other than those
proposed by Asher and do not necessa ri ly demand commitment to the
learning theories used to justify them.
Bibliography
Put the towel on juan's arm.
Juan, put the towel on your head and laugh.
Asher, J. 1965 . The strategy of the total physical response: an appl ication to
learning Russian. International Review of Applied Linguistics 3: 291-3 00.
Maria, w ipe your hands on the towel.
Next the in structor asked simple questions which the student could answer
with 'a gesture such as pointing. Examples would be:
Where is th e towel? {Eduardo, point to the towel!]
Where is the toothbrush? [Miako, point to the toothbrush !]
As her,
J.
1966. The learning strategy of the total physica l respon se: a review.
Modern Language journal 50 : 79-84.
Asher, J. 1969 . Th e tota l physical response app roach to second language lea rning. Modem Language j ournal 53: 3-17.
1\ ... 11I..: r, .I- 1972. Children's first language as a model of second language learning.
Where is Do lores?
Mortem Lal/guage journal 56 : 133-9 .
Role reversal. Students readil y volunteered to utter C01111113nd s thai" [l1;lniplI lated the behavior of the instructor and other stud ents . ...
•
l~ e(ldill t: fwd IVrifillj.!. Th e.; in S11"1I C101" wrOI"e.; Oil [h e chnlkho:lrd C:1d , llI..: w ~o"
c~lhll1:lI~Y it elll :1 l1d a Sl"I1I1,: I1 C(; 10 illt1 s lI'~lIl' till.' il t' !!I . Th l'1l Sh l ' spokl' {" :l ch !ll'Il!
Asher, .I . 1977 . J.eaming Another Language Through Actions: The Complete
T ,'a!"IJI''''s Guide /look. Los Gatos, Ca lif.: Sky Oaks Producrions. (2nd ed.
I YX 2.)
1\ :-. 1\ 1,.·", J. II.) X1:1. Thi' n :1ill ~1 ion or Sl'~nlld bll gu:lge ic:lrning in Am eri ca n schoo ls:
nn 11l1 \' ,'vl' ut ill ll IIlt Hkl. III II. Wi ll i l l ( ~ d .). '('f)(' C OIII/)I'('/}clI sio/l
Appr()ach
'1 7
Approaches & methods in language teaching
to Foreign Language Instruction , pp.49-68. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
7
The Silent Way
House.
Asher, j. 1981b. The fear of foreign languages. Psychology Today 15 (8) : 529.
Asher, j., j. A. Kusudo, and R. Dc La Torre. 1974. Learning a second language
through commands: the second field test. Modern Language Journal 58:
24-32 .
Asher, j., and B. S. Price. 1967. The learning strategy of the total physical
response: some age differences. Child Development 38: 1219-27.
DeCecco, J. P. 1968. The Psychology of Learning and Instruction: Educational
Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Katona, G. 1940. Organizing and Memorizing: Studies ill the Psychology of
Learning and Teaching. New York: Columbia University Press.
Krashen, S. D. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Lmzguage Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Kunihira, S., and J. Asher. 1965. The strategy of the total physical response:
an application to learning japanese. International Review of Applied Linguistics 3: 277-89 .
Miller, G. A., E. Galanter, and K. H. Pribram. 1960. Plans and the Structure
of Behavior. New York: Henry Holt.
Palmer, H., and D. Palmer. 1925. English Through Actions. Reprint ed . London:
Longman Green, 1959.
Winitz, H. (ed.). 1981. The Comprehension Approach to Foreign Language
Instructio n. Rowley , Mass .: Newbury House.
Winitz; H., and J. Reed s. 1975. Comprehension and Problem Solving as Strategies for Language Training. The Hague: Momon.
Yorio, C. 1980. Conventiona lized language forms and the development of com-
municative competence. TESOL Quarterly 14(4): 433- 42.
Background
The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised
by Caleb Gattegno. Gattegno's name is well known for his rev ival of
interest in the use of colored wooden sticks call ed cuisenaire rods and
for his series Words in Color, an approach to the teaching of initial
reading in which sounds are coded by specific colors. His materials are
copyrighted and marketed through an organization he operates called
Educational Solutions Inc., in New York. The Silent Way represents
Gattegno's venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based
on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in
the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much
language as possible. Elements of the Si lent Way, particularly the use of
color charts and the colored cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gatregno's
previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. (Cuisenaire rods were first developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math.
Gattegno had observed Cuisenaire and this gave him the idea for their
use in language teaching.)
The Si lent Way shares a great deal with other learning theories and
educational philosophies. Very broadly put, the learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno's work cou ld be stated as fo llows:
1. Learning is facilitated if rhe lea rner discovers or creates rath er than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be
learned .
•
'IH
Let us consider each of these issues in rum.
1. The educational psychologist and philosopher Jerome Bruner distinguishes two traditions of teaching - that which takes place in the
expos itory mode and that which takes place in the hypothetical mode.
In the expository mode "decisions covering the mode and pace and style
of exposition arc principally determined by the teacher as expositor; the
student is the li ste ner. " In the hypothetical mode "the teacher and the
st lldellt :lI'e in :1 1I1 0l'C I..:oopc rative position. The student is not a bench-
99
Approaches & methods in language teaching
bo und listener, but is taking part in the formulatio n a nd at t imes may
play the principal role in it" (Bruner 1966: 83).
The Silent Way belongs to the latter tradition, whi ch views learning
as a problem-solving, creative, di scovering activity, in which the learner
is a principal actor ra ther than a bench-bound listener. Brun er discusses
the benefits derived from "discovery learning" under four headings: (a)
the increase in intellectual potency, (b) the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
rewa rds, (c) the lea rning of heuristics by discovering, and (d) the aid to
conserving memory (Bruner 1966 : 83). As we shall see, Gattegno claims
simil ar benefits from learners taught via the Silent Way.
2. The rods and the color-coded pronunciation charts (ca lled Fidel
charts) provide physica l foci for student lea rning and also create memorable images to facilitate student reca ll. In psychological terms, these
visual devices serve as associative mediators for student learning and
recall. The psychologica l literature o n mediatio n in lea rning and recall
is voluminous but, fo r our purposes, can be briefl y su mmarized in a
quote from Ea rl Stev ick:
If the use of associative mediators produces better retention than repetition
does, it seem s to be the case that the quality of the mediators and the stu ~
dent's personal investment in them ma y also have a powerful cffect on mem-
ory . (Stevick 1976: 25)
3. The Silent Way is also rela ted to a set of premises that we have
call ed "problem-solving approaches to lea rning." These premises are
succi nctly represented in the words of Benjamin Franklin:
Tell me and I forget,
teach me and I remember,
involve me and I learn.
In the language of experimental psychology, the kind of subject involvement that promotes greatest learning and recall involves processing of
ma terial to be learned at the "greatest cogniti ve depth " (Craik 1973)
o r, for our purposes, involving the greatest amount of problem-solving
activity. Memory research has demonstrated that the learner's " memory
benefits from creatively searching out, discovering and depicting" (Bower
and Winzenz 1970). In the Silent Way, "the teacher's strict avoidance
of repetition forces alertness and concentration on the part of the learners" (Gattegno 1972: 80). Simi larly, the learner's grappling with the
problem of forming an appropriate and meaningful uttera nce in a new
language leads the lea rner to realizatio n of the language "thro ugh his
own perceptual and analytical powers" (Selm an 1977). T he Silent Way
student is expected to become "independent, a utonomous ",~d respo nsible" (Gattegno 1976) - in other words, " good prob lem solver ill
language.
I 00
The Silent Way
Approach
Theory of language
Gattegno takes an openly skeptical view of the role of linguistic theory
in language teaching methodology . He feels that linguistic studies "may
be a specia lization, [that] carry with them a narro w opening of one's
sensitivity and perh aps serve very little towards the btoad end in mind"
(Gattegno 1972: 84). Gattegno views language itself "as a substitute for
experience, so experience is what gives meaning to language" (Gattegno
1972 : 8). We are not surprised then to see simulated experiences using
tokens and picture charts as central elements in Silent Way teaching.
Considerable discussion is devoted to the importance of grasping the
"spirit" of the language and not just its component for ms. By the "spirit"
of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language is composed of phonological and suprasegmental elements that combine to
give the language its unique sound system and melody. The learner must
ga in a "feel" for this aspect of the target language as soon as possible,
though how the learner is to do this is not altogether clear.
By looking at the material chosen and the sequence in which it is
presented in a Silent Way classroom, it is clear that the Silent Way takes
a structural approach to the o rganization of language to be taught.
Language is seen as groups of so unds ar bitrarily associated with specific
meanings and organized into sentences or strings of meaningful units
by grammar rules. Language is sep arated from its social context and
taught through artificial situations, usually represented by rods. Lessons
fo llow a sequence based on grammatical complexity, and new lexical
and structural material is meticulo usly broken down into its elements,
with one element presented at a time. The sentence is the basic unit of
teaching, and the teacher focu ses on propositional meaning, rather than
com municative va lue. Students arc presented with the structural patterns
of the ta rget language and learn the grammar rules of the language
through largely inductive processes.
Gattegno sees vocabulary as a centra l dimension of language learning
and the choice of vocabulary as cru cial. He distingui shes between several
classes of voca bulary items. The "semi- luxury vocabulary" consists of
exp ressions common in the dai ly life of the target language culture; this
refers to food, clothing, tra vel, family life, and so on. "Luxury voca bulory" is used in com municating more specialized ideas, such as political
or philosophica l opinions. 11,e most important vocabulary for the learner
dc" ls w ith th e most fu nctional and versatile words of th e language, man y
of whi ch
Ill;lY Ilot
h:wc direct eq ui v:l icnts in the lea rn er's native tongue.
T his " ("" clio",,1 voc" h"l ary" provides" key, says Gattegno, to comp"t'hrndillJ', lilt: "spi"jl " of Ih,,· I n ll )\lI~I ',l: .
101
The Silent Way
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Theory of learning
Like many other method proponents, Gattegno makes extensive use of
his understanding of first language learning processes as a basIs for
deriving principles for teaching foreign languages to adults. Gattegno
recommends, for example, that the learner needs to "return to the state
of mind that characterizes a baby's learning - surrender" (Scott and Page
1982: 273).
Having referred to these processes, howeve:: Gattegno states t~at the
processes of learning a second language are radICally dIfferent from
those involved in learning a first language. The second language learner
is unlike the first language learner and "cannot learn another language
in the sa me way because of what h'e now knows " (Gattegno 1972: 11).
The "natural " or "direct" approaches to acquiring a second language
are thus misguided , says Gattegno, and a successful second ,Ianguag~
approach will "replace a 'natural' approach by one that IS very artifiCIal
and, for some purposes, strictly controlled" (1972 : 12).
The "artificial approach" that Gattegno proposes IS based on the
principle that successful learning involves commitment of the self ro
language acquisition through the use of sIlent awareness and then active
trial. Gattegno's repeated emphaSIS on the primacy of lea,rnll1g over
teaching places a focus on the self of the learner, on the learner s pnontles
and commitments.
To speak .. . requires the descent of the will into the v.olunrary speech organs
and a clear grasp i?y one's linguistic self of what one I S to do to produce
definite sounds in definite ways. On ly the self of the utterer can Interven ~ to
make objective what it holds in itself. Every student must be seen as a will
capable of that work. (Gattcgno 1976: 7)
The self, we are told, consists of two systems - a learning system and
a retaining system. The lea rning system is activated only by way of
intelligent awareness. "The learner must constantly test hIs powers to
abstract, analyze, synthesize and integrate" (Scott and Page 1982: 273).
Silence is considered the best vehicle for learning, because 111 s!lence
students concentrate on the task to be accomplished and the potential
means to its accomplishment. Repetition (as opposed to silence) "consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain scattered"
(Gattegno 1976: 80). Silence, as avoidance of repetition, is thus an aid
to alertness, concentration, and mental organlzatlon.
.
.
The "retaining system" allows us to remember and recall at will hnguistic elements and their organizing principles and makes ilngUlstlc
communication possible. Gattegno spea ks of remembenng as a matter
of "paying ogdcns." An "ogden" is '" unit of mcntal energy
rc lllil'cd t'o
link permanently two mcntal clements, such as a shap ' alld
:1
10
sound or
a label and an object. The forging of the link through active attention
is the cost of remembering paid in ogdens. Retention by way of mental
effort, awareness, and thoughtfulness is more efficient in terms of ogdens
consumed than is retention attained through mechanical repetition. Again,
silence is a key to triggering awareness and hence the preferred path to
retention. Retention links are in fact formed in the most silent of periods,
that of sleep: " The mind does much of this work during sleep" (Stevick
1980: 41).
Awareness is educable. As one learns "in awareness," one's powers
of awareness and one's capacity to learn become greater. The Silent Way
thus claims to facilitate what psychologists call "learning to learn. "
Again, the process chain that develops awareness proceeds from attention, prnduction, self-correction, and absorption. Silent Way learners
acquire "inner criteria," which playa central role "in one's education
throughout all of one's life" (Gattegno 1976: 29). These inner criteria
allow learners to monitor and self-correct their own production. It is in
the activity of self-correction through self-awareness that the Silent Way
claims to differ most notably from other ways of language learning. It
is this capacity for self-awareness that the Silent Way calls upon, a
capacity said to be little appreciated or exercised by first language learners.
But the Silent Way is not merely a language teaching method. Gattegno
sees language learning through the Silent Way as a recovery of innocence - "a return to our full powers and potentials." Gattegno's aim is
not just second language learning; it is nothing less than the education
of the spiritual powers and of the sensitivity of the individual. Mastery
of linguistic skills are seen in the light of an emotional inner peace
resulting from the sense of power and control brought about by new
levels of awareness. Silent Way learning claims to "consolidate the human dimensions of being, which include variety and individuality as
essential factors for an acceptance of others as contributors to one's
own life" and even moves us "towards better and more lasting solutions
of present-day conflicts" (Gattegno 1972: 84).
Design
Objectives
The general objective of the Silent Way is to give beginning level students
01':11 and aural facility in basic elements of the target language. The
he ll er,,1 goa l set fo r language lea rning is near-native flu ency in the target
iallguag:c, and correct pronun ciation and mastery of the prosodic c1cIII ellt s o( rh e fargel 1:111l',lIl1gl' :"Ire 'l11ph asizcd. An inllllcd iatc ob jective is
10 provid",' till' h':II'lh'l' wit h ,I h , l ~ i pr ~H.' l kn l know ledge o( I'h ' gmlll ll1:1 r
10 I
Approaches & methods in language teaching
of the language. This forms the basis for independent learning on the
lea rner's pa rt. Gattegno discusses the fo llowi ng kinds of objectives as
app rop riate for a language course at an elementary level (Gattegno 1972 :
81-83). Students should be able to
correctly and eas ily answer question s abollt themselv es, their education, th ei r
famil y, travel , and dail y events;
speak with a good accent;
give either a written o r o ral descripti on of a picture, "including th e ex isting
re lationships that conct:rn space, time and numbers";
answer genera l questions abollt the culture and the literatu re of the native
spea kers of the wrger la nguage;
perfo rm adeq uately in the foll owin g areas: spelling, grammar (pro duct ion
rather than expla na tio n), read ing co mprehension, and w ritin g.
Gattegno states that the Silent Way teaches learners how to lea rn a
language, and the skills developed thro ugh the process o f lea rning a
foreign or second language ca n be empl oyed in dea ling with " unknown s"
of every type. The method, we are told, ca n also be used to teach reading
and writin g, and its usefu lness is not restricted ro beginning level students. Most of the exa mpl es Gattegno describes, howeve r, as well as
the classes we have observed, deal prim aril y with a basic level of aural!
ora l proficiency.
The syllabus
The Silent Way adopts a basically structu ral syll abus, with lessons planned
around gra mmatical items and related vocabulary. Gartegno does not,
however, provide detail s as to th e precise selection and arrangement of
grammati cal and lexical items to be covered. There is 11 0 general Si lent
Way syll ab us. But from observation of Silent Way programs developed
by the Peace Corps to reach a variety of languages at a basic level of
profi ciency, it is clear that language items are introduced according to
their grammatical complexity, their relationship to whar has been taught
previo usly, and the ease with which items ca n be presented vis ually.
Typically, the imperative is rhe inirial structure introdu ced, because of
the ease with which action verbs may be demonstrated using Silent Way
material s. New elements, such as the plural form of nouns, are taught
within a structure already fam iliar. N umeratio n occurs early in a course,
becau se of the importance o f numbers in everyday life and the ease with
which rh ey can be demonstrated. Prepositions of location also appeal'
early in the syllabus for similar reasons.
Vocabul ary is selected according to the degree to whi ch. it can be
manipu lated w ithin a given stru cture :lnd according to its produ cti vity
within th e cI;1 ssroo ll1 setting. In :lddition 1'0 preposition s and 1llllllhcl'S,
I Oil
The Silent Way
pronouns, quantifiers, words dealing with tempora l relations, and words
of comparison are introduced ea rl y in the course, because they "refer
to oneself and to o thers in the numerous relations of everyday li fe"
(Stevick 1979). These kinds of words are referred to as the "functional
voca bulary" of a language because of their high utili ty.
The following is a section of a Peace Co rps Silent Way Syllab us for
the first ten hours of instruction in Thai. It is used to teach American
Peace Corps volunteers being trained to teach in Thailand. At least 15
minutes of every hour of instruction would be spent on pronunciation.
A word that is italicized can be substituted for by another word having
the same function.
Lesson
1. Wood color red.
Vocabulary
wood, red, g reen, yell ow , brown,
pink, white, orange, black, color
o ne, two , ... ten
2. Using rhe numbers 1-10
3 . Wood color red two pieces.
4. Take (pick up) wood color red
rake (pick up)
two pieces.
5 . Take wood color red two pieces
give, object pronouns
give him.
6. Wood red where?
wh ere, on , under, near, far, over,
next to, here, there
Question-form in g rules.
Wood red on rable.
7 . Wood colo r red o n table, is it?
Yes, on.
Yes. No.
Not on.
8. Wood color red long.
Wood color green longer.
Wood color orange longest.
9. Wood color green taller.
Wood color red is it?
10. Review. Students use st ructures
ad jectives of compa rison
taught in new situations, such as
compa ring th e heights o f stu dents in the class.
Uocl Wiskin , persona l co mmuni cation )
Types of learning and teaching activities
Learning tasks and activities in th e Silent Way have the function of
encouraging and shaping stu de nt oral response without direct oral inSI ructio n from o r unnecessary modeling by the teacher. Basic to the
method arc simple linguistic tasks in which th e teacher models a word,
phrase, or sentence and then el icits learn er responses. Learners then go
0 11 I'() 'r 'a l4,.' thri l' o w n UHcr:l Il Ces by putting together o ld and new in(Ol'lll :lIiull , C h ill I N, I'od ,~. IIlld o lher aid ~ m ay be used to eli cit learner
lOS
Approaches & methods in language teaching
responses. Teacher modeling is minimal , although much of the activity
may be teacher directed. Responses to commands, questions, and visual
cues thus constitute the basis for classroom activities.
Learner roles
Gattegno sees language learning as a process of personal growth resulting from growing student awareness and self-challenge. The lea rner
first experiences a "random or almost random feeling of the area of
activity in question until one finds one or more cornerstones to build
on. Then starts a systematic analysis, first by trial and error, later by
directed experiment with practice of the acquired subareas until mastery
follows " (Gattegno 1972: 79) . Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility. Independent learners are
those who are aware that they must depend on their own resources
and realize that they can use "the knowledge of their own language to
open up some things in a new language" or that they can "take their
knowledge of the first few words in the new language and figure out
additional words by using that knowledge" (Stevick 1980: 42). The
autonomous learner chooses proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations. "The teacher cultivates the student's 'autonomy' by deliberately building choices into situations" (Stevick 1980:
42). Responsible lea rners know that they have free will to choose among
any set of linguistic choices . The abi lity to choose intelligently and
carefully is said to be evidence of responsibility. The absence of correction and repeated modeling from the teacher requires the students
to develop "inner criteria" and to correct themselves. The absence of
explanations requires learners to make generalizations, come to their
own conclusions, and formulate whatever rules they themselves feel
they need.
Learners exert a strong influence over each other's learning and, to a
lesser degree, over the linguistic content taught. They are expected to
interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. Learners
have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so
must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. They need
to feel comfortable both correcting each other and being corrected by
each other.
In order to be productive members of the learning group, learners
thus have to play varying roles. At times one is an independent indi vidu al,
at other times a group member. A learner also must be a teacher, a
student, part of a support system, a probl em solver, and a self-eva luator.
And it is rhe student who is usually expected to decide on wloar role is
most appropriate to a given situation .
10(,
The Silent Way
Teacher roles
Teacher silence is, perhaps, the unique and, for many traditionally trained
language teachers, the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way. Teachers are exhorted to resist their long standing commitment to model,
remodel, assist, and direct desired student responses, and Si lent Way
teachers have remarked upon the arduousness of self-restraint to which
early experience of the Silent Way has subjected them. Gattegno talks
of subordinating "teaching to learning," but that is not to suggest that
the teacher's role in Silent Way is not critical and demanding. Gattegno
anticipates that using the Silent Way would require most teachers to
change their perception of their role. Stevick defines the Silent Way
teacher's tasks as (a) to teach, (b) to test, and (c) to get out of the way
(Stevick 1980: 56). Although this may not seem to constitute a radical
alternative to standard tea ching practice, the details of the steps the
teacher is expected to fo llow are unique to the Silent Way.
By " teaching" is mea nt the presentation of an item once, typically
using nonverbal clues to get across meanings. Testing follows immediately and might better be termed elicitation and shaping of student
production, which, again, is done in as silent a way as possible. Finally,
the teacher silently monitors learners' interactions with each other and
may even leave the room whi le learners struggle with their new linguistic
tools and "pay their ogdens." For the most part, Silent Way teacher's
manuals are unavailable (however, see Arnold 1981 ), and teachers are
responsible for designing teaching sequences and creating individual
lessons and lesson elements. Gattegno emphasizes the importance of
teacher-defined learning goals that are clear and attainable. Sequence
and timing in Silent Way classes are more important than in many kinds
of language teaching classes, and the teachers' sensitivity to and management of them is critical.
More generally, the teacher is responsible for creating an environment
that encourages student risk taking and that facilitates learning. This is
not to say that the Silent Way teacher becomes "one of the group." In
fact, observers have noted that Silent Way teachers often appear aloof
or even gruff with their students. The teacher's role is one of neutral
observer, neither elated by correct performance nor discouraged by error.
Students are expected to come to see the teacher as a disinterested judge,
supportive but emotionally uninvolved.
The teacher uses gestures, charts, and manipulatives in order to elicit
:llId shape student responses and so must be both facile and creative as
:I pantomimist and puppeteer. In sum, the Silent Way teacher, like the
'ol11plete dramali>! , wril cs the script, chooses the props, sets the mood,
!!It)dels rh· aClio!!, desill""I,·Srhe players, and is critic for the performance.
107
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The role of instructional materials
The Silent Way is perhaps as well known for the unique nature of its
teaching materials as for the silence of its teachers. The materials consist
mainly of a set of colored rods, color-coded pronunciation and vocabulary wall charts, a pointer, and reading/writing exercises, all of which
are used to illustrate the relationships between sound and meaning in
the target language. The materials are designed for manipnlation by the
students as well as by the teacher, independently and cooperatively, in
promoting language learning by direct association.
The pronunciation charts, called " Fidels," have been devised for a
number of languages and contain symbols in the target language for all
of the vowel and consonant sounds of the language. The symbols are
color coded according to pronunciation; thus, if a language possesses
two different symbols for the same sound, they will be colored alike.
Classes often begin by using Fidel charts in the native language, color
coded in an analogous manner, so that students learn to pair a sound
with its associated color. There may be from one to eight of such charts,
depending upon the language. The teacher uses the pointer to indicate
a sound symbol for the students to produce . Where native-language
Fidels are used, the teacher will point to a symbol on one chart and then
to its analogue on the Fidel in the other language. In the ahsence of
native-language charts, or when introducing a sound not present in the
native language, the teacher will give one clear, audible model after
indicating the proper Fidel symbol in the target language. The charts
are hung on the wall and serve to aid in remembering pronunciation
and in building new words by sounding out sequences of symbols as
they are pointed to by the teacher or student.
Just as the Fidel charts are used to visually illustrate pronunciation,
the colored cuisenaire rods are used to directly link words and structures
with their meanings in the target language, thereby avoiding translation
into the native language. The rods vary in length from one to ten centimeters, and each length has a specific color. The rods may be used for
naming colors, for size comparisons, to represent people, build floor
plans, constitute a road map, and so on. Use of the rods is intended to
promote inventiveness, creativity, and interest in forming communicative
utterances on the part of the students, as they move from simple to more
complex structures. Gattegno and his proponents believe that the range
of structures that can be illustrated and learned through skillful usc of
the rods is as limitless as the human imagination. Wh en th e teacher or
student has difficulty expressing a desired word or concept, th e rods can
be supplemented by referring to the Fidel charts, or to th e th~rd majo r
visual aid used in th e Sil ent Way , the voca bul ary charts.
Th e vocabul a ry o r wo rd charl s ar · Iik cwi,vc co lo r coded, a llhOll gh Ih e
IOH
The Silent Way
colors of the symbols will not correspond to the phonetics of the Fidels,
but rather to conceptual groupings of words. There are typically twelve
such charts containing 500 to 800 words in the native language and
script. These words are selected according to their ease of application
in teaching, their relative place in the "functional" or "luxury" vocabulary, their flexibility in terms of generalizatiQn and use with other
words, and their importance in illustrating basic grammatical structures.
The content of word charts will vary from language to language, but
the general content of the vocabulary charts (Gattegno 1972) is paraphrased below:
Chart 1:
Charts 2, 3:
Chart 4:
Charts 5, 6:
the word rod, co lors of the rods, plural markers, simple imperative verbs, personal pronouns, some adjectives and
question words
remaining pronouns, words for "here" and "there," of, (or,
and name
numbers
words illustrating size, space, and temporal relationships, as
well as some concepts difficult to illustrate with rods, such
as order, causality, condition, similarity and difference
words that qualify, such as adverbs
verbs, with cultural references where possib le
Chart 7:
Charts 8, 9:
family relationships
Chart 10:
Charts 11, 12: words expressing time, ca lendar elements, seasons, days,
week, month, year, etc.
Other materials that may be used include books and worksheets for
practicing reading and writing skills, picture books, tapes, videotapes,
films, and other visual aids. Reading and writing are sometimes taught
from the beginning, and students are given assignments to do outside
the classroom at their own pace. These materials are of secondary impo rtance, and are used to supplement the classroom use of rods and
charts. Choice and implementation depends upon need as assessed by
teachers and/or students.
Procedure
1\ Sil ent Way lesson typically follows a standard format. The first part
of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. Depending on student level, the
rl:l ss mi ght work on sounds, phrases, or even sentences designated on
Ihe Fidel chart. At the beginnin g stage, the teacher will model the appropri arl: so un d a(tcr pointing to a symbol on the chart. Later, the
Il':l chcr will silelill y poilll
10
individu a l sy mbols and combinations of
sy mhols, :llld 1ll 0 1J i l~lI' :-; 11I(!..' 11 I 11l1l'I';l n<.: l'S. Thc I'ca cher may say a wo rd
,11 al hnVt' :1 Nt 11 dl' 11 I )" I H'NN w h ,lt I'o r ql ll'l1 r ('
t'oy l1dw ls c.; olllpr'iscd dl C wo rd .
or
I (Ill
The Silent Way
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The pointer is used to indicate stress, phrasing, and intonation. Stress
can be shown by touching certain symbols more forcibly than others
when pointing out a word. Intonation and phrasing can be demonstrated
by tapping on the chart to the rhythm of the utterance.
After practice with the sounds of the language, sentence patterns,
structure, and vocabulary are practiced. The teacher models an utterance
while creating a visual realization of it with the colo red rods. After
modeling the utterance, the teacher will have a student attempt to produce the utterance and will indicate its acceptability. If a response is
incortect, the teacher will attempt to reshape the lItterance or have
another student present the correct model. After a structure is introduced
and understood, the teacher will create a situation in which the students
can practice the structure through the manipulation of the rods. Variations on the structural theme will be elicited from the class using the
rods and charts.
The sample lesson that fo llows illustrates a typical lesson format. The
langu age being taught is Thai, for which this is the first lesson.
1. TcacheT empties rods onto the ta ble.
2. Teacher picks up two or three rods of different colors, and after each
rod is picked lip says : [mai].
3. Teacher ho lds up onc rod of any color and indi cates to a student that a
response is required. Student says: [mail. If response is incorrect, teacher
eli cits response from another student, who then models for the first
student.
4. Teacher next picks up a red rod and says: [mai sii daengl.
5. Teacher picks up a green rod and says: [mai sii khiaw] .
6. Teacher picks up either a red or green rod and elicits response from stu-
dent. If response is incorrect, procedure in step 3 is followed (student
modeling) .
7. Teacher introduces two or three other colors in the same manner.
S. Teacher shows any of the rods whose forms were taught previously and
elicits student response. Correction technique is through student modeling, or the teacher may help student isolate error and self-correct.
9. When mastery is achieved, teach er puts one red rod in plain view and
says : [mai sii daeng nung an1.
10. Teacher then puts two red rods in plain view and says: (mai sii daeng
song an].
11. Teacher places two green rods in view and says : {mai sii khiaw song an1 ·
12. Teacher holds up two rods of a different color and elicits student
response.
13. Teacher introduces additional numbers, based on what the class can
comfortably retain. Other colors might also be introduced .
14. Rods arc put in a pile. Teacher indi cates , through his ( 'II' her own :l etions, that rods shou ld be picked up, nlld Ih e ('OI'I't'CI 1111('1':111 't' I lI:lt k. All
('h e sllldclll S ill Ih e group pi ck "I' I'ods und IlI lI kt, iIlH'I',IHt't' S. !'('t' l W Ollp
c:nrn'c t/1I11 is l'I1 t'{) III'(I,wd ,
110
15. Teacher then says: [kep mai sii daeng song an].
16. Teacher indicates that a student should give the teacber tbe rods called
for. Teacher asks other students in th e class to give him or her the rods
rhat he or she asks for. This is all done in the target language through
unamb iguous actions on the part of the teacher.
17 . Teacher now indicates that the stud ents sho uld give each other com-
mands regarding the calling for of rods. Rods are put at the disposal of
the class.
18. Experimentation is encouraged. Teacher speaks only to correct an incorrect utterance, if no peer group correction is forthcoming.
(Joel Wiskin, personal commun ication )
Conclusion
Despite the philosophical and sometimes almost metaphysical quality of
much of Gattegno's writings, the actual practices of the Silent Way are
much less revolutionary than might be expected. Working from what is
a rather traditional structural and lexical syll abus, rhe method exemplifies many of the features that characterize more traditional methods,
such as Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, with a
strong focus on accurate repetition of sentences modeled initially by the
teacher and a movement through guided elicitation exercises to freer
communication. The innovations in Gattegno's method derive primarily
from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect
role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner
performance, the responsibility placed upon learners to figure out and
test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials
used to elicit and practice language.
Bibliography
Arnold, F. 1981. College English: A Silent-Way Approach. Nara, Japan: Dawn
Press.
Illair, R. W. (ed. ). 1982. Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House.
Hower, C. H., and D. Winzenz. 1970. Comparison of associative learning stratCl4ics. Psycho1Jomic Sciences 20: 119-20.
Ilnlller,.I . 1966.011 Kllowing: Essays for th e Left Hand. New York : Atheneum .
( ;I'.lik, I;. I. M , 1973, A levels of analys is view ofmcl1lory. In P. Pliner, L. Krames,
"lid T. Allow" y (cds. ), COllllllllllicalioll alld Affect: Lallgllage and Thought.
Nnv YOl'k : Acndclldt.: I)rcss.
tHIIt·!', K, C. 1'}7H. '11)(' I ,(III}! "" ~I! TI',,('''ill~ C UflI YOUNSY. Rowit: y. Ma ss.: N cwhill y IluwH' .
III
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Gattegno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way.
2nd ed. New York: Educational Solutions.
Gattegno, C. 1976. The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign Languages. New
York: Educational Solutions.
Rossner, R. 1982. Talking shop : a conversation with Caleb Gattegno, inventor
of the Silent Way. ELT Journal 36(4): 237-41.
Scott, R., and M. Page. 1982. The subordination of teaching to learning: a
seminar conducted by Dr. Caleb Gattegno. ELT Journal 36(4): 273-4.
Selman, M. 1977. The silent way: insights for ESL. TESL Talk (8): 33- 6.
Stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Meaning and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives on Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury HOllse.
Stevick, E. W. 1980. Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House.
Thompson, C.]. 1980. The Silent Way: Interpretation and Application. Master's thesis, University of Hawaii .
Varvel, T. 1979. The silent way: panacea or pipedream? TESOL Quarterly 13
(4): 483 - 94.
•
I J.l
8
Community Language Learning
Background
Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Curran was a specialist
in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning
is known as Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages.
Within the language teaching tradition Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a "humanistic approach." Links
can also be made between CLL procedures and those of bilingual education, particularly the set of bilingual procedures referred to as "language alternation" or "code switching." Let us discuss briefly the debt
of Community Language Learning to these traditions.
As the name indicates, CLL derives its primary insights, and indeed
its organizing rationale, from Rogerian counseling. Counseling, as Rogerians see it, consists of one individual (the counselor) assuming "insofar as he is able the internal frame of reference [of the client], perceiving
the world as that person sees it and communicating something of this
empathetic understanding" (Rogers 1951). In lay terms, counseling is
o ne person giving advice, assistance, and support to another who has a
problem or is in some way in need. Community Language Learning
draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine the roles of the teacher
(the counselor) and learners (the clients) in the language classroom. The
basic procedures of CLL can thus be seen as derived from the counselorclient relationship. Consider the following CLL procedures: A group of
lea rners sit in a circle with the teacher standing outside the circle; a
stude nt whispers a message in the native language (U); the teacher
tr:! nslates it into the foreign language (L2); the student repeats the mess:!!;c in the foreign language into a cassette;, students compose further
Ill c$Sages in the foreign language with the teacher's help; students reflect
:l hollt' d, cir feelin gs . W e can compare the client-counselor relationship
ill psychologiC:l1 coun seling widl th e learner- knower relationship in
CO llllnllniry 1.:1I1 gll :1!\C I.C:l rnin f\ (T:1 blc 8. 1).
C I.1. techniqll es :tlsn 1",1" "11 to ,I I:! rgcr set of fo reign hnl-\lI agc ('ca chin g
II I
Approaches & methods in language teaching
TABLE
8.1
COMPAR ISON OF CLIENT-COUNSELOR RELATIONSHIPS IN PSYCHO-
LOGICAL COUNSELI NG AND CLL
Psychological counseling (client-
Community Language Learning
counselor)
(learner-knower)
1. Clien t and cou nselor agree [contractl to counseling.
1. Learner and knower agree to language lea rning.
2. Client articu lates his or her prob lem in language of affect.
2. Learner presents to the knower
(in L1 ) a message he or she
wishes to deliver to another.
3. Counselor lisrens carefully.
3. Knower li stens and other lea rners
Community Language Learning
sets. In Cll, a learner presents a message in l1 to the knower. The
message is translated into l2 by the knower. The learner then repeats
the message in l2, addressing it to another learner with whom he or
she w ishes to communicate. ClL learners are encouraged to attend to
the "overhears" they experience between other learners and their knowers. The result of the " overhear" is th at every member of the group can
understand what any given learner is trying to communicate (La Forge
1983: 45). In view of the reported success of language alternation procedures in several well-studied bilingual education settings (e.g., lim
1968; Mackey 1972), it may be that this little-discussed aspect of Cll
accounts for more of the informally reported successes of CLl students
than is usually acknowledged.
overhear.
4. Counselo r res tates client message
in language of cognition.
S. C lient eva luates the accuracy of
co unselor's message resta tement.
6. C li ent reAects on the in teraction
of the counseling session.
4. Knower resta tes learner's message
in l 2.
5. Lea rner repeats the L2 message
form to its addressee .
6. Learner replays (fro m tape or
memory) and reflects up on the
messages exchanged during the
language class.
practices sometimes described as humanistic techniques (Moskowitz
1978). Moskowitz defines humani stic techniques as those that
blend what the stud ent feels, thinks and kn ows with what he is lea rnin g in
the target language. Rather th an self-denial being the acceptable way of life,
self-actualization and self-esteem are the ideals the exercises pursue. [The
techniques] help bui ld rapport, cohesiveness, and caring th at far transcend
what is al ready there ... help students to be themselves, to accept themselves,
and be proud of themselves . . , help foster a climate of ca ring and shari ng in
rhe foreign language class. (Moskowitz 1978: 2)
In sum, humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including the
emotions and feelings (the affective realm) as well as linguistic knowledge
and behavioral skills.
Another language teaching tradition with which Community Language learn ing is linked is a set of practices used in certain kinds of
bilingual education programs and referred to by Mackey (1972) as " language alternation." In language alternation, a message/lesson/ciass is
presented first in the native tongue and then again in the second language.
Students know the meaning and flow of an l2 message fro m t11\!ir reca ll
of the para llel meaning and flow of :111 LI message. Th·y btgin In
holi stica ll y piece togerher a view of Iht 13 111111" [;. nU l of Ih esc II,CSSllgC
I 1'1
Approach
Theory of language
Curran him self wrote little abo ut his theory of language. His student
la Forge (1983) has attempted to be more explicit about th is dimension
of Com muni ty language learning theory, and we draw on his account
for the language theory underl ying the method. la Forge reviews linguistic theory as a prelude to presenting the Cll model of language.
He seems to accept that language theory must start, though not end,
with criteria for sound features, the sentence, and abstract models of
language (la Forge 1983 : 4). The foreign language learners' tasks are
"to apprehend the sound system, assign fundamental meanings, and to
construct a basic grammar of the fore ign language." He cites with pride
that "after severa l months a small group of students was able to learn
the basic sound and grammatical patterns of German" (1983: 47).
A theory of language built on "basic sound and grammatical patterns"
does not appear to suggest any departures from traditional structuralist
positions on the nature of language. However, the recent writings of
ClL proponents deal at great length with what they ca ll an alternative
theory of language, which is referred to as Language as Social Process.
la Forge (1983) begins by suggesting that language as social process
is " different from language as communication." We are led to infer that
the concept of communication that la Forge rejects is the classic sendermessage-receiver model in information theory. The social-process model
is different from ea rlier information-transmitting models, La Forge sugIlests, beea lise
COlillllll Uic:'l Iioll is 1lI0rt' d UlII ill ~t n
If)
II
listl'u t'r. Till' Npt'lI kc'r
message being trJnsm itted from a speaker
hoth subject alld object of his
iN til llil' ,'W ill' lil11 e
OWII I1I('H.'WHC' •• , \ I)IIIIIIIIIIHU I IUII IIIYHlvl'S 110 1 jlls llllC~ IIl1idirc liol1 ol trnnsfcr
I 1\
Community Language Learning
Approaches & methods in language teaching
of information to the other, but the very constitutio n of th e speaking subject
in relation to its other .... Communication is an exchange w hich is incomplete without a feedback reaction from the dest inee o f the message. (La Forge
Verbal
Verbal/Nonverbal
Sender -+ Message -+ Receiver
Sender -+ Message -+ Receiver
I
1983: 3)
The info rmation-transmission model and the social-process model of
communication are compared in Figure 8.l.
T he social-process view of language is then elaborated in te rms of six
qualities or subprocesses:
I
I
Figure 8. 1 Comparison of the information-transmission model (left)
and the social-process model (right ) of communication
1. The who le-person process
2. The educational process
3 . The inte rpersona l process
4. The developmenta l process
5. The co mmunicative process
6. The cultural process
Explanatio n of these is beyond the scope of this chapter and, indeed,
appears to in volve elements outside a theory of language.
La Forge also elabo rates on the inreractio nal view of language underl ying Community Language Learning (see Chapter 2). " Language is
people; language is persons in contact; language is persons in response"
(1983 : 9). Cll interactions are of two d istinct and fundamenral kinds :
interactio ns between learners and intera ctions between learners and
knowers. Interactions between learn ers are unpredictable in content but
typicall y are sa id to involve exchanges of affect. learner exchanges
deepen in intim acy as the class becomes a community of learners. The
desire to be part of this growing intimacy pushes learners to keep pace
with the lea rning of their peers. Tranel (19 68) notes that " the students
of th e experimental group were highly motivated to learn in order to
avoid isolatio n from the group." Intimacy then appears to be defined
here as the desire to avoid isolation.
Interaction between learners and knowers is in itiall y dependent. The
learner tells the knower what he or she wishes to say in the target
language, and the knower tells the learner how to say it. In later stages
interactions between learner and knower are characterized as sel f-assertive (stage 2) , resentful and indignant (stage 3), tolerant (stage 4),
and independent (stage 5). These changes of in teractive relationship are
para lleled by five stages of language learning and fi ve stages of a ffecti ve
confl icts (La Forge 1983: 50).
These two types of interactions may be said to be mi crocosmica ll y
equivalen t to the two major classes o f human interaction - intera ction
between equ als (symmetrical) and interactio n between uneq uals (:lsy mmetrical) (Munby 1978). They a lso appea r to represenl" e,,"n p+cs o f (;1)
interactio n that' changes in degree (Ica rll er 1'0 IC;l1"II ' I' ) :111(1 (h) illl er:wio ll
!'h::n ch:l l1 gcs ill ki1ld (learner to k IlOWCI'). T h:1t is. iL-;II'IH'r Ie lll'TI!,,' f' int L'1'
I
1(,
actio n is held to change in the direction of increasing intimacy and trust,
whereas learner- knower interacti o n is held to change in its very nature
from dependent to resentfu l to tolerant to independent.
Theory of learning
Curra n's counseling experience led him to concl ude that the techniques
of counselmg could be applied to learning in general (this became Coun sel ing-Lea rning) and to language teaching in particular (Community
Lang uage l earning) . The Cll view of lea rning is contrasted with two
o ther types of learning, which C urran saw as w idespread and undesirable. The first of these describes a putative lea rning view lo ng popular
111 Western culture. In this view, "the intellectual and factua l process
alone are regarded as the mai n intent of learni ng, to the neglect of
engagement and in vo lvement of the self" (Curran 1972: 58). The second
view of lea rning is the behavioral view. C urran refers to this kind of
learn.ing as "a nimal learning," in which learners are "passive" and their
involvement limited (Curran 1976 : 84).
, In contrast, Cll advocates a holistic app roach to language lea rning,
smce "true" human learning is both cogn itive and affective. This is
termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and lea rners are involved in ":'an inrcraction ... in w hich both experience a sense o f their own wholeness"
(Curra n 1972: 90). Within this, the develo pment of the learner's relaIionship with the teacher is central. The process is divided into five stages
and compared to the ontogenetic development of the child.
In the first, " birth" stage, feelings of security and belo nging are ~s­
I,,"],shed. In the second, as the learner's abilities improve, the learner,
.IS child, begins to achieve a measure of independence from the parent.
Ily Ih e tlmd, the lea rner "speaks independentl y" and may need to assert
I" s or her ow n identity, often rejecting unasked-for advice. The fourth
Sla g!.: sel'S
rhe lea rn er JS
1'o,I :lgl': d,.c
k :lrlH': 1'
]'''",'' IS II ' '
seC llrc
enough
to
take criti cism, and by th e last
~lH.: rcl y works IIpon improving sty lc and knowledge of
;lpprnp""lIl"1ll"S<. Ily Ihl' " "d of Ihe 1'1"0 "css, Ihe chil d h'15 become
11 7
Approaches & methods in language teaching
adult. The learner knows evetything the teacher does and can become
knower for a new learner. The process of learning a new language, then,
is like being reborn and developing a new persona, with all the trials
and challenges that a re associated with birth and maturation. Insofar as
language lea rning is thought to develop through creating social relationships, success in language learning follows from a successful relationship between learner and teacher, and learner and learner. "learning
is viewed as a unified, personal and social experience. " The learner "is
no longer seen as learning in isolation and in competition with others"
(Curran 1972: 11-12).
Curran in many places discusses what he ca lls "consensual validation," or "convalidatioll," in which mutual warmth, understanding,
and a positive evaluation of the other person's worth develops between the teacher and the learner. A relationship characterized by convalidation is considered essential to the learning process and is a key
element of Cll classroom procedures. A group of ideas concerning the
psychologica l requirements for successful learning are collected under
the acronym SARD (Curran 1976: 6), which can be ex plained as follows.
S stands for security. Unless learners feel secure, they will find it
difficult to enter into a successful learning experience.
A stands for attention and aggression. Cll recognizes that a loss of
attention should be taken as an indication of the lea rner's lack of involvement in learning, the implication being rhar variety in the choice
of learner tasks will increase attention and therefore promote learning.
Aggression applies to the way in which a child, having learned something,
seeks an opportunity to show his or her strength by taking over and
demonstrating what has been learned, using the new knowledge as a
tool for self-assertion.
R stands for retention and reflection. If the whole person is involved
in the learning process, what is retained is internalized and becomes a
part of the learner's new persona in the foreign language. Reflection is
a consciously identified period of silence within the framework of the
lesson for the student "to focus on the learning forces of the last hour,
to assess his present stage of development, and to re-evaluate future
goals" (la Forge 1983: 68).
D denotes discrimination. When learners "have retained a body of
material, they are ready to sort it out and see how one thing relates to
another" (la Forge 1983: 69). This discrimination process becomes
more refined and ultimately "enables the students to use the la nguage
for purposes of communication outside the classroom" (la Forge 1983:
69).
These central aspects of Curran's lea rnin g phil osophy add rOlSs nOl: the
psycholinguistic and cognitive processes invo lved in second lan""a ge
:lcquisil'ion,
II H
bur rather rh e
pCl'so ll~1 ~o rnlllitlll 'III'S 1"h~1 IcnrllCI'S l1(:c d 10
Community Language Learning
make before language acquisition processes can operate. Cll learning
theory hence stands in marked contrast to linguistically or psycholinguistically based learned theories, such as those informing Audiolingualism or the Natural Approach.
Design
Objectives
Since linguistic or communicative competence is specified only in social
rerms, explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in
the literature on Community language learning. Most of what has been
written abo llt eLL describes its use in introductory conversation courses
in a fo reign language. The assumption seems to be that through the
method, the teacher can successfully transfer his or her knowledge and
proficiency in the target language to th e learners, which implies that
attaining near-native like mastery of rhe target language is set as a goal.
Specific objectives are not addressed.
The syllabus
Community language learning is most often used in the teaching of
oral proficiency, but with some modifications it may be used in the
teaching of writing, as Tranel (1968) has demonstrated. Cll does not
use a conventional language syllabus, which sets out in advance the
gramma r, vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and the
order in which they will be covered. If a course is based on Curran's
recommended procedures, the course progression is topic based, with
learners nominating things they wish to talk about and messages they
wish to communicate to other learners. The teacher's responsibility is
ro provide a conveyance for these meanings in a way appropriate to the
learners' proficiency level. Although Cll is nor explicit about this, skilled
e ll teachers seem to sift the learners' intentions through the teacher's
implicit syllabus, providing translations that match what learners can
he expected to do and say at that level. In this sense then a Cll syllabus
eillerges from the interaction between the learner's expressed communicative intentions and the teacher's reformulations of these into suitable
I;ll'ger t~nguagc utterances , Specific grammatical points, lexical patterns,
.I "d genera li zatio ns will sometim es be isolated by the teacher for more
dC!:li l ·d sllld y " nd anal ysis, :lIld slIbseq nent specification of these as a
l'l' Ir'os pc~li vc :14.'(011111 or wh:lI Ih · 'oursc covered could be n way of
Ikrivi n! : " CI.I . IIIIIHnn!w sy ll "h lls. I,"eh CI.I . to llrsc wllll id evolve irs
Approaches & methods in language teaching
own syll ab us, however, since w hat develops out of teacher-learner interactions in o ne course w ill be different from w hat ha ppens in another.
Types of learning and teaching activities
As with most metho ds, CLL combines innova tive learning tasks a nd
activities w ith conventional ones. They include:
1. Translation. Learners form a small circle. A lea rner whispers a message or
2.
3.
4.
5,
6.
7.
8.
meaning he o r she wants to express, the teacher tra nslates it into (and
may interpret it in ) the target language, and the learne r repeats the teacher' s trans latio n.
Croup Work. Learners may engage in various group tasks, sLich as smallgroup discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that
will be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
Recording. Students record conversatio ns in the ta rget language.
Transcription . Students transcribe utterances and co nversatio ns they have
reco rded fo r practice and anal ysis of lin gui stic forms.
Analysis. Students anal yze and stud y transcri ptio ns of target lang ua ge sentences in o rd er to focu s on particular lex ical usage o r on the application
of particu la r gra mma r rules.
R eflection and observation. Learners re fl ec t an d re port o n their experience
of the class, as a class or in groups. Th is usuall y consists of ex press ions of
feelin gs - sense of one another, rea ctio ns to silence, co ncern for something
to say, etc.
Listening. St udents listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they mi ght have eli cited or overheard in class interactions.
Free conversation. Students engage in free co nversa tion with the teacher
or with other learners. This might include discussion of what they learned
as well as feelings they had about how they learned.
Learner roles
[n Community La nguage Learning, learners become members of a community - their fellow learners a nd the teacher - and learn throu gh interacting w ith members of the community. Lea rnin g is not viewed as an
individual accomplishment but as something tha t is achieved collaboratively. lea rners are expected to listen attentively to the knowe r, to
freely provide mean ings they wish to express, to repeat target u ttera nces
without hesitation, to support fellow membe rs of the community, to
report deep inner feel ings and frustration s as well as joy and pleasure,
and to become counselors to other learners. Cl l lea rn ers arc I'ypi call y
grouped in a circle of six to twelve learners, with th e numbe r "f kno wers
varying from one per group to on e per student. C lL has a lso bee n nsed
in la rge r sc hool cb sses w he re special g ro upin g a rr:1 l1 gcJIl cllt s ~ll'c 11 l'1.:~
Il O
Community Language Learning
essary, such as organizing learners in temporary pairs in facing parallel
hnes .
Learner roles are keyed to the five stages of la nguage learning outlined
earlier. The view o f the learner is an organic o ne, with each new role
growi ng developmentally out of the o ne preceding. These role changes
are not easil y or automatically achieved. They a re in fact seen as outcomes of affective crises.
When faced with a new cognitive tas k, th e learner mu st solve an affective
cri sis. W:ith the solution of the five affective crises, o ne for each ell stage,
the stud ent progresses from a lower to a higher stage of development. (La
Forge 1983: 44)
Learning is a "whole person" process, and the learner at each stage is
involved not just in the accomplishment of cognitive (language learning)
tasks but in the solution of affectiv e confli cts and " the respect for the
enactment of values" as well (La Forge 1983 : 55) .
CLL compa res language learning to the stages of human growth. [n
stage 1 the lea rner is like an infant, completely dependent o n the knower
for linguistic content. "A new self of the lea rner is genera ted or born in
the ta rget la nguage" (La Forge 1983 :45 ). The learner repeats utterances
made b y the teacher in the target la nguage and "overhears" the interchanges between other learners and kn owers.
In stage 2 the "child achieves a measure of independence from the
parent" (La Forge 1983: 46). Learners begin to establish their own selfaffi rmatio n and independence by using simple ex pressions and phrases
they have previously heard.
.
In stage 3, " the separate-existence stage," learners begin to understand
others directly in the target language. Learners w ill resent uninvited
assistance provided by the knower/pa rent at this stage.
Stage 4 may be considered "a kind of ado lescence." T he learner functio ns independently, a lthough his or her knowledge o f the foreign lan!;uage is still rudimentary. The role of " psycho logical understanding"
shi fts from knower to learner. The learner must learn how to elicit from
t he kn ower the advanced level of linguistic knowledge the knower
I)()ssesses.
Stage 5 is called " the independent stage." Lea rners refine their unde rsranding o f register as well as grammatica ll y correct language use.
' ('h ey ma y become counselors to less advanced students while profiting
1I'Inll COIl I'act w ith their o ri ginal kn owe r.
roacher roles
A I Ih l' d (,l' Pl'SI It'vr l, ti ll' 1\.'1 1\.-' 11 1.-' 1",'1 ( 1IIh.' lioll d l'l' ivl's f1'0 111 til l: fUll "finns
II I Ih r \(i IlIl Nr l o l' III Htll)I ' I' 1I 111 p ·.y dHIllJl\kll l I.-'Ollll sl' lill )', . f\ l'Olln sl· lo l'·S
I I
Approaches & methods in language teaching
clients are people with problems, who in a typical counseling session
will often use emotional language to communicate their difficulties to
the counselor. The counselor's role is to respond calmly and nonjudgmentally, in a supportive manner, and help the client try to understand
his or her pro blems better by applying order and analysis to them. The
counselor is not responsible for paraphrasing the client's problem element for element but rather for capturing the essence of the client's
concern, such that the client might say, "Yes, that's exactly what I
meant." "One of the functions of the counselin g response is to relate
affect ... to cognition. Understanding the language of 'feeling', the coun selor replies in the language of cognition" (Curran 1976: 26) . It was the
model of teacher as counselor that Curran attempted to bring to language
learn ing.
There is also room for actual counseling in Community Language
Learning. Expli cit recognition is given to the psychological problems
that may arise in learning a second language. "Personal lea rning conflicts
... anger, anx iety and si milar psychologica l disturbance - understood
and responded to by the teacher's counseling sensitivity - are indicators
of deep personal investment" U. Rardin , in Curran 1976: 103). In this
case, the teacher is expected to playa role very close to that of the
"regu lar" counselor. T he teacher's response may be of a different order
of detachment, consideration, and understanding from that of the average teacher in the sa me ci rcumstances.
More specific teacher roles are, like those of the students, keyed to
th e fiv e developmental stages. In the early stages of learning the teacher
operates in a supportive role, providing target language translations and
a model for imitation on request of the cli ents. Later, interaction may
be initi ated by the students, and the teacher monitors lea rner utterances,
providing assistance when requested. As learning progresses, students
become increasingly capable of accepting criticism, and the teacher may
intervene directl y to correct deviant utterances, supply idi oms, and advise
o n usage and fine points of grammar. The teacher's role is initially likened
to that of a nurturing parent. The student graduall y "grows" in ability,
and the nature of the relationship changes so that the teacher's position
becomes so mewhat dependent upon the learner. The kno wer derives a
sense of self-wo rth through requests for the knower's assistance.
O ne continuing role of t he teacher is parti cularl y notable in Community Language Learning. The teacher is responsible for providin g a
safe environment in which clients can learn and grow. Lea rn ers, feeling
secure, are free to direct their energies to th e tasks of communi cation
and learning rather than to buildin g and mai nta inin g th eir defensive
positions. Curran describes the importance of a secure ;ltmPlsph crc as
foll ows:
Community Language Learning
As whole persons, we seem to learn best in an atmosphere of personal securi ty. Feeling secure, we are freed to approach th e learn ing situation with the
attitude of willing openness. Both the learner's and the knower's level of security determine the psychologica l tone of the entire lea rning experience.
(Curran 1976: 6)
Many of the newer nontraditional language teaching methods we discuss
in this book stress teacher responsibility for creating and maintaining a
secure environ ment for learning; probably no method attaches greater
importance to this aspect of language learning than does Community
La nguage Learn ing. Thus, it is interesting to note two "asides" in the
discussion of learning security in CLL.
First, security is a culturally relative concept. What provides a sense
of security in o ne cultural context may produce anxiety in another. La
Forge gives as an example the different patterns of personal introdu ction
and how these are differentially expressed and experienced in early stages
of CLL amo ng students of different backgrounds. "Each culture had
unique for ms which provide for acquaintance upon forming new groups.
These must be carefull y adopted so as to provide cultura l security for
the students of the foreign language" (La Forge J 983: 66).
Second, it may be undesirable to create too secure an environment
for lea rners. " The security of the students is never absolute: otherwise
no lea rning wo uld occur" (La Forge 1983: 65 ). This is rem iniscent of
the teacher who says, "My students would never lea rn anything if the
fear of examin ation failure didn't drive them to it." H ow much insecurity
is optimal for language learning in Community Language Learning is
unfortunately not further discussed in the literature.
The role of instructional materials
Since a CLL course evolves out of the interacti ons of the community, a
textbook is not considered a necessary component. A textbook wo uld
impose a particular body of language content on the learners, thereby
impeding their growth and interaction . Materia ls may be developed by
the teacher as the course develops, although th ese generally' consist of
li ttle mo re than summaries on the blackboa rd or overhead proj ector of
some of the linguistic features of conversations generated by students.
Co nversatio ns may also be transcribed and distributed for study and
anal ysis, and learners may work in groups to produce their own mare rial s, such as scripts for dialogues and mini-dramas.
III early acco unts of CLL the use of teaching machines (the ChrolI,a chord Teachin g System ) is recommended fo r necessa ry "rote-drill and
pr:1 ~I' i ~c " in langll :1gc IC:1 rning. "The ... des ign and use of machines ...
1l0W appear[s [ "0 makc p"S' ihlc "h e frce in).; of rh e teacher to do what
I ,\
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Community Language Learning
only a human person can do ... become a lea rning cou nselor" (Curran
976: 6). In more recent CLL descriptions (e.g., La Forge 1983 ) teaching
machines and their accompanying materials are not mentio ned, and we
assume that contemporary CLL classes do no t use teaching machines at
all.
Procedure
Since each Community Language Learning course is in a sense a unique
experience, description of typical CLL procedures in a class period is
problematic. Stevick distinguishes between "classical" CLL (based directly on the model proposed by Curran) and personal interpretations
of it, such as those discussed by different advocates of CLL (e.g., La
Forge 1983). The fo ll owing description attempts to capture some typical
activities in CLL classes.
Genera ll y the observer will see a circle of learners all facing one another. T he learners a re linked in some way to knowers o r a single knower
as teacher. The first class (and subseq uent classes) ma y begin with a
period of silence, in which lea rners try to determine what is supposed
to happen in their language class. In late r classes, learners ma y sit in
silence whil e they decide what to talk abo ut (La Forge 1983: 72). The
observer may note that the awkwardness of si lence becomes suffi cientl y
ago ni zing for someone to volunteer to break the sil ence. The knower
may use the volunteered comment as a way of introducing discussion
of classroom contacts or as a stimulus for language interaction regarding
how lea rners felt abo ut the period of silence. T he knower may encourage
learners to address questions to one another or to the knower. These
may be questions on any subject a learner is curious eno ugh to inquire
about. T he questio ns and answers may be tape recorded for later use,
as reminder and review of topi cs discussed and language used.
T he teacher might then form the class into fac ing lines for three-minute
pair conversations. These are seen as equi valent to the brief wrestling
sessio ns by which judo students practice. Following this the class might
be reformed into small groups in which a single topic, chosen by the
class or the group, is discussed. The summary of the gro up discussion
may be presented to another group, who in turn try to repe,lt or para phrase the summary back to the original group.
In an intermedi ate or advanced class a tCJchcr ma y
t.: lI ,,:o llr:1 gt.:
g ro ups
to prepare a paper drama for present'orioll to the rest uf ti ll! d" ss . 1\
paper drama gro up prepares a stor y thaI' is to ld or show n to th ' Ctl llll-
1 'I
selor. The counselor provides or corrects target language statements and
suggests Improvements to the story sequence. Students are then give n
maten als WIth whICh they prepare large picture cards to accompany
their s to ry. After practlclllg the story dialogue and preparing th e acco mpanylllg p'ctures, each group presents its paper drama to the rest of the
class. The students accompany thei r sto ry with music, puppets, and
drums as wel l as with their pictures (La Forge 1983: 81-2).
Finally, the teacher asks learners to reflect on the language class, as
a cl ass or III groups. Reflection provides the basis for discussion of
contracts (written or oral contracts that learners and teachers have agreed
upon and that speCIfy what they agree to accomplish within the co urse)
personal interactio n, feelings toward the knower and lea rner, and th~
sense of progress and frustration.
Dieter Stroinigg (in Stevick 1980: 185-6) presents a protocol of what
a first day's CLL class covered which is o utlined here:
1. In for mal greetings and self·in trodu ction s were made.
2. The teacher made a statement of the goa ls and guidelin es for th e course.
3. A conversa tio n session in the foreign language took place.
a. A circle was formed so that everyone had visual contact with each
other and all were withi n easy reach of a tape recorder microphone.
b. One stud ent initiated conversa tion with another student by giv ing a
message in the Ll (English).
c. The in structor, stand ing behind the student, whispered a close eq uiva-
lent of the message in rhe L2 (German ).
d. The student then repeated the L2 message to its addressee and into th e
tape recorder microphone as well.
e. Each student had a chance to compose and record a few messages.
f. The tape recorder was rewound and rep layed at intervals.
g. Each student repeated the meaning in English of what he or she had
said in the L2 and helped to refresh the memory 01 others.
4. Students then participated in a reflecti on period, in whi ch they were asked
to express their feelings about the previous experience with total
frankness.
S. From th e material just recorded the in structor chose sentences to wr ite on
the blackboard thar highlighted elements of grammar, spelling, and peculiarities o f cap italization in the L2.
6. Students were encouraged to ask questions about any of the above.
7. Students were encouraged to copy sentences from th e board with notes on
mean in g and usage. This became th eir «textbook" for home study.
This in velll'ory of activities encompasses th e major suggestions for classroO Il1 pr:lCl"ices ;)p pc:lri ng in the m ost recent li terature on e LL. Other
pro ced ures, however, rn :ly em erge fl)rruirolls ly 0 11 the bas is of lea rnerknOwer illlCI'n <.:rio li s in II! · JIl SSI'OO Ill C() IlI'CX I'.
1}
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Community Language Learning
Conclusion
Bibliography
Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods
we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communicative
intent. It sho uld be noted, however, that this communicative intent is
constrained by the number and knowledge of fellow learners. A learner's
desire to understand or express technical terms used in aeronautical
engineering is unlikely to receive adequate response in the CLL class.
Community Language Learning places unusual demands on language
teachers. They must be highly proficient and sensitive to nuance in both
L1 and L2. T hey must be familiar with and sympathetic to the role of
counselors in psychological counseling. They must resist the pressure
"to teach" in the traditional senses. As one CLL teacher notes, "I had
to relax completely and to exclude my own will to produce something
myself. I had to exclude any function of forming or formulating something within me, not trying to do something"(Curran 1976: 33).
The teacher must also be relatively nondirective and must be prepared
to accept and even encourage the "adolescent" aggression of the learner
as he or she strives for independence. The teacher must operate without
conventional materials, depending on student topics to shape and motivate the class. In addition, the teacher must be prepared to deal with
potentially hostile learner reactions to the method. The teacher must
also be culturally sensitive and prepared to redesign the language class
into more culturally compatible organizational forms. And the teacher
must attempt to learn these new roles and skills without much specific
guidance from CLL texts presently available. Special training in Community Language Learning techniques is usually required.
Critics of Community Language Learning question the appropriateness of the counseling metaphor upon which it is predicated, asking for
evidence that language learning in classrooms indeed pa rallels the processes that characterize psychological counseling. Questions also arise
about whether teachers should attempt counseling without special training. CLL procedures were largely developed and tested with groups of
college-age Americans. The problems and successes experienced by one
or two different client groups may not necessarily represent language
learning universals. Other concerns have been expressed regarding the
lack of a syllabus, which makes objectives unclear and evaluation difficult to acco mplish, and the focus on fluency rather than accuracy, which
may lead to inadeq uate control of the grammatical system of the target
language. Supporters of CLL, on the other hand, emphasize the positive
benefits of a method that centers on the learner and stresses the hu•
manistic side of language learning, and not merely its linguistic dimensions.
Brown, H. O. 1977. Some limitations of C-L/CLL models of second language
teaching. TESOL Quarterly 11 (4): 365-72.
Curran, C.A. 1972. Counseling-Learning: A Whole· Person Model for Educa·
l 2Ii
tion. New York: Grune and Stratton.
Curran, C. 1976. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Ill .:
Apple River Press.
La Forge. P. G. 1971. Community language learning: a pilot study. Language
Learning 21 (1): 45- 6l.
La Forge, P. G. 1975. Research Profiles with Community Language Learning.
Apple River, lll.: Apple River Press.
La Forge. P. G. 1975. Community language learning: the Japanese case. In F.
C. C. Pengo (ed.), Language in japanese Society, pp. 215- 46. Tokyo: Uni ve rsity of Tokyo Press.
La Forge, P. G. 1977. Uses of social silence in the interpersonal dynamics of
Comm unity Language Learning. TESOL Quarterly 11 (4 ): 373-82.
La Forge, P. G. 1983. Counseling and Culture in Second Language Acquisition.
Oxford: Pergamon.
Lim, K. B. 1968. The unified language project. RELC journal 9(1): 19-27.
Mackey, W. F. 1972. Bilingual Education in a Binational School. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House.
Moskowitz, G. 1978. Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Munby, J. 1978. Communicative Syllabus Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rardin, J. 1976. A Cou nseling-Learning model for second language learning.
TESOL Newsletter 10(2): 21-2.
Rardin, J. 1977. The language teacher as facilitator. TESOL Quarterly 11(4):
383-8.
Rogers, C. R. 1951. Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Stevick, E. W. 1973. Review article: Charles A. Curran's Counseling-Learning:
a whole person model for education. Language Learning 23 (2): 259-71.
Stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Meaning and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives on Lmlguage Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Stev ick, E. W. 1980. Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House.
Taylor, B. P. 1979. Exploring Community Language Learning. In C. Yorio et
al. (eds.), On TESOL '79, pp. 80-4. Washington, D.C.: TESOL.
Trallel, 0.0. 1968. Teaching Latin wi th thechromachord. The Classical journal
63: 157-60.
I
7
The Natural Approach
9
The Natural Approach
Background
In 1977, Tracy Terrell , a teacher of Spal11sh in California, o utlin ed "a
proposal for a 'new' philosophy of language teaching which [hel ca lled
the Natural Approach" (Terrell 1977; 1982: 121). This was an attempt
to develop a language teaching proposal that incorpora ted the " naturalistic" principles researchers had identified in studies of second language
acquisition. The Natural Approach grew o ut of Terrell 's experiences
teaching Spanish classes. Since that time Terrell and others have experimented with implementing the Natural Approach in elementary- to
advanced-level classes and with several other languages. At the same
time he has joined forces with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at
the University of Southern Californi a, in elaborating a theoretical rationale for the Natural Approach , drawing on Krashen's influential theory of second language acquisitio n. Krashen and Terrell's combined
statement of th e principles and practices of the Natural Approach appeared in [heir book, The Natural Approach, published in 1983. The
Natural Approach has attracted a wider interest than some of the other
innovative language teaching proposals discussed in [his book, largely
because of its support by Krashen. Krashen and Terrell's book contains
theoretical sections prepared by Kras hen that outline his views on second
language acq ui sition (Krashen 1981; 1982), and sections o n implementation and classroo m procedures, prepared largely by Terrel l.
Krashen and Terrell have identified th e Natural Approach with what
they call "traditional" approaches to language teaching. Traditional approaches are defin ed as " based on the use of language in communicative
situations without recourse to the nati ve language" - and, perhaps,
needless to say, without reference to grammatical analysis, grammatical
drilling, or to a particular theory of grammar. Krashen and Terrell note
th at such " approaches have been called natural, psychologica l, phonetic,
new, reform, direct, analytic, imitative and so forth" (Krashen and Terre1l1983: 9). The fact that the autho rs of rhe Natural Approach relate
th eir approach to the Natural Method (see Chapter 1) has led some to
assume that Natural Approach and Natura l Method are. synonymo us
terms. Although the tradition is a commo n one, there arc impo rt'on r
12X
differences between the Natural Approach and the older Natural Method
'
which it will be useful to consider at the outset.
The Natural Method is another term for what by the turn of the
century had become known as the Direct Method (see Chapter 1). It is
descrIbed III a report on the state of the art in language teaching commISSIOned by the Modern Language Association in 1901 (the report of
the "Committee of 12"):
In its ex.rreme form (h~ method consisted of ~ seri es of monologues by the
teacher mterspersed WIth exchanges of ques (J o n and answer between the in-
structor and the pupil - all in the foreign Janguage ... A great deal of pant~mlt~e accompan,led the talk. With the aid of this gesticulation, by attentive
listening and by d1l1t o f much repetiti on the learner came to associate ce rtain
acts al~d objects with ,certain com,binations of the sounds and finally reached
the pomt of reproducmg the foreign words or phrases . . . Nor un til a consid-
erable fam iliarity w ith the spoken word was attained was the schola r allowed
to see the foreign language in print. The study of grammar was reserved for a
still later period . (Cole 1931: 58 )
The term natural, used in reference to the Direct Method, merely emph aSIzed that the prInCIples underlYlIlg the method were believed to
conform to the principles of naturalistic language learning in young
children. Similarly, the Natural Approach, as defiued by Krashen and
Terrell, is believed to conform to th e naturalisti c principles fo und in
successful second language acquisition. Unlike the Direct Method however, it places le~s emphasis on teacher monologues, direct rep;tition,
and for mal q ues tions and answers, and less focus on accurate production
of target language sentences. In the Natural Approach there is an emphaSIS on exposure, or input, rather than practice; optimizin g emotional
preparedness for lea rning; a prolonged period of attention to what the
language learners hear before they try to produce language; and a willIIlgness to use written and other materials as a source of comprehensible
Input. The emphaSIS on the centra l ro le of comprehensio n in the Natural
Approach links it to o ther comprehension-based approaches in language
teaching (see Chapter 6).
Approach
Theory of language
Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary functio n of language, and since their approach focu ses o n teaching communi cative
abilities,. they refer to the N atural Approach as an example of a comIIltll1l Carive approach. The Natural Approach "is similar to other com-
I Z9
Approaches & methods in language teaching
municative approaches being developed today" (Krashen and Terrell
1983 : 17). They reject ea rlier methods of language teaching, such as the
Audio lingual Method, which viewed grammar as the central component
o f language. According to Krashen and Terrell, the major problem with
these methods was that they were built not around "actual theories of
language acquisition, but theories of something else; for example, the
stru cture of language" (1983: 1). Unlike proponents of CommUlll catlve
Language Teaching (Chapter 5), however, Kras hen and Terrell give little
attention to a theory of language. Indeed, a recent critic o f Krashen
suggests he has no theory of language at all (Gregg 1984). What Krashen
and Terrell do describe about the nature of language emphasizes the
primacy of meaning. The importance of the vocabulary is stressed, for
example, suggesting the view that a language is essentially its lexicon
and onl y inconsequently the grammar that determ1l1es how rhe leXIcon
is exploited to produce messages. Terrell quotes Dwight Bolinger to
support this view:
The quantity of in formation in the lex icon far olltweighs th at in any other
part of the language, and if there is anything to the notion of redu ndancy it
should be easier to reconstruct a message contain ing just words than one
co ntaining just the syntactic relations. The sign ifi ca nt fact is th e subord inate
role of gram mar. The most important thing is to get the words in. (Bolin ger,
in Terrell 1977: 333).
Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages. Hence Krashen and Terrell state that " acquisition can take place
only when people understand messages in the target language (Krashen
and Terrell 1983: 19). Yet despite their avowed communi cative approach to language, they view language lea rning, as do audiolingualists,
as mastery of structures by stages. "The input hypothesis states that in
order for acquirers to progress to the next stage in the acquisition of
the target language, they need to understa nd input language that includes
a structure that is part of the next stage" (Krashen and Terrell 1983 :
32). Krashen refers to this with the formul a "I + 1" (i.e., input that
contains structures slightly above the learner's present level ). We assume
that Krashen means by structures something at least in the tradition of
what such linguists as Leonard Bloomfield and Charles Fries meant by
structures. The Natural Approach thus assumes a linguistic hierarchy of
structural complexity that o ne masters through encounters with "input"
containing structures at th e "I + 1" level.
We are left then w ith a view of language that consists of lexica l items,
structures, and messages. Obviously, there is no particula r novelty in
this view as such, except that messages a re considered of primary importance in the Natural Approach. The lexicon for both pe rc~ption ~ nd
pro du ction is considered critical in the co nstru ctIo n and Interp re t'il l'l OIl
130
The Niltural Approach
of messages. Lexical items in messages are necessa ril y grammatically
structured, and more complex messages involve more complex grammatical structure. Although they acknowledge such grammatical structuring, Krashen and Terrell feel that grammatical structure does not
req uire explicit analysis or attenti on by the language teacher, by the
lang uage learner, or in language teaching materials.
Theory of learning
Krashen and Terrell make continuing reference to the theoretical and
research base claimed to underlie the Natural Approach and to the fact
that the method is unique in having such a base. "It is based on an
empirically grounded theory of second language acquisition, which has
been supported by a large number of scientifi c studies in a wide variety
of language acquisition and learning contexts" (Krashen and Terrell
1983: 1). The theory and research a re grounded on Krashen's views of
language acquisition, which we will collecti vely refer to as Krashen's
language acquisition theory. Krashen's views have been presented and
discussed extensively elsewhere (e.g., Kras hen 1982), so we will not try
to present or critique Krashen's arguments here. (For a detailed critical
review, see Gregg 1984 and McLaughlin 1978). It is necessary, however,
to present in outline form the princip al tenets of the theory, since it is
on these that the design and procedures in the N atura l Approach are
based.
THE ACQUISITIO N/LEARN ING HYP OTHESIS
The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis cl aims that there are two distinctive ways of developing competence in a second or foreign language.
Acquisition is the " natural" way, paralleling first language development
in children. Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves
the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understa nding language and through using language for mea ningful communication, Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious
rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge
"bout the form s of a language and the ability' to verbalize this knowledge.
Form al teaching is necessary for "learning" to occur, and correction of
errors helps with the development of learned rules. Learning, according
1"0 the theory, cannot lead to acquisition.
f'lIF, MON ITOR H YPO THES IS
The r1cqllircd lin gui Sl'i c sys l'cm is sa id to initiate utterances when we
I,;Ollll1l1lni c :Hc in :'1 S(: 'O il" 0 1' foreign Irln guagc. Conscious lea rning can
ftlr H': li OIl (l ill y ns n 1Il lI lI i t!II' (II' n lil'ol' 111 :'\1' checks :Hld I"Clx rirl) l'i1C o utp ut
I II
Approaches & methods in language teaching
The Natural Approach
of the acquired system . The Monitor Hypothesis claims that we may
call upo n learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate,
but th at conscious lea rning (i.e., the learned system) has only this function. T hree conditions limit the successful use of the monitor:
1. Time. There must be sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a
learned rule.
2. Focus on form. The language user must be focu sed on correctn ess or o n
the form of th e output.
3 . Kno wledge of rules. The performer must know th e ru les. The monitor
does best with rul es that are simple in two ways. They must be simple [0
describe and they must not requ ire comp lex movements and
rearrangements.
THE NATU RAL ORDER H YPOTHESIS
According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Research is said to
have shown that certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition of English, and a similar
natural order is found in second language acquisition. Errors are signs
of naturalistic developmental processes, and during acquisition (but not
during learning), similar developmental errors occur in learners no matter what their mother tongue is.
THE IN PUT HYP OT H ES IS
The Input Hypothesis claims to explain the relationship between what
the learner is exposed to of a language (the input) and language acquisition. It involves four main issues.
First, the hypothesis relates to acquisition, and not to learning.
Second, peopl e acquire language best by understanding input that is
slightly beyond their current level of competence:
An acquirer can "move"' from a stage I (where I is the acquirer's level of
competence) to a stage 1+ 1 (where I + 1 is the stage immediately following
[ along so me natural order) by understanding language containing I + 1.
(Krashen and Terrell 1983: 32)
Clues based on the situarion and the context, extra linguistic in fo rmatio n,
and knowledge of the wo rld make co mpreh ensio n possi bl e.
Third, the ability to speak nuentiy cannot he tau ght directl y; r:Hh er,
it "emerges" independentl y in time, after the acquire!" 11 ;'IS huilt· lip lill
guistic competence
by lIndcrst:1lldin g
input.
slIfficiclll" qU :lIl1iry
COIllpl' · h l.: n s ihl ~ ~IPIII , I I
1 will usually be provid e" a ll l"Olll :1tic: dl y. COlllprl" hcnsihle inl1111 ,·( · r" ,,~
Fourth , if there is
"0 utI"CI":lIH,;c.;S
1I
th:1 1 lill':
;1
k fl l' t) {' 1' II Ild cno\ l II
or
lids h :1Sl'd
( Ill
tllr r Olll l'X l
ill
whir"
they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased. When
a speaker uses language so that the acq uirer understands the message,
the speaker "casts a net" of structure around the acquirer's current level
of competence, and this will include many instances of I + 1. Thus,
input need not be finely tuned to a learner's current level of linguistic
competence, and in fact ca nnot be so finel y tuned in a language class,
where learners will be at many different levels of competence.
Just as child acquirers of a first language are provided with samples
of "caretaker speech," rou gh-tuned to their present level of understanding, so adult acq uirers of a second language are provided with simple
codes that fa ci litate second language comprehension. O ne such code is
"foreigner talk ," which refers to the speech native speakers use to simplify commun ication with foreign ers. Foreigner talk is characterized by
a slower rate of speech, repetition, restating, use of YesfNo instead of
Wh- questions, and other changes that make messages more comprehensible to persons of limited language proficiency.
THE AFFE CTI VE FILTER HYI'O THESIS
Krashen sees the learner's emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable
filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acqui sition.
A low affective filter is desirable, since it impedes or blocks less of this
necessary input. The hypothesis is built on resea rch in second language
acquisition, which has identified three kinds of affective or attitudinal
variables related to second language acquisition.
I. Motivation. Learners with high motivation genera ll y do better.
2. Self-confidence. Learners with self-confidence and a good self·image tend
to be more successful.
J. Anxiety. Low personal anxiety and low class room anxi ety are more co nducive to second language acq uisitio n.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that acquirers with a low affective
filter seek and receive more input, interact with con fidence, and are more
receptive to the input they receive. Anxious acquirers have a high afkctive filter, which prevents acquisition from taking place. It is believed
Iha t the affective filter (e.g., fear or embarrassment) rises in early adolescence, and this may account for children's apparent superiority to
.,I der acquirers of a second language.
These fi ve hypotheses have obvious implications for language teaching.
In
S IIII1,
I . 1\-;:.
these are :
IIllH.;h
co mprehensible input as possib le must he presented.
\XI h ; lI ~vc r helps co mprehension is important. Visual aids are useful , as is
i'x p os llrc 1'0 :1
.., 11'111.:111 1'1.: .
wid e ran ge of vocabulary rather than study of syntactic
133
Approaches & methods in language teaching
3. The focus in the classroom should be on listening and reading; speaking
should be allowed to "emerge. "
4 . In order to lower the affective filter, student work should center on meaning ful co mmuni carion rather than on form ; input sho uld be interesting
and so con tri bu te to a relaxed classroo m atmosphere.
Design
The Natural Approach
and suggest which o f these goals are the ones at which the N atural
Approach aims. They list such goals under four areas:
1. B~sic personal com mun ica tion skill s: o ral (e.g., listening to announcements in publ ic places)
2. Basic personal co mmunication skills: written (e.g., readi ng and writing
personal letters)
3. Academic lea rning skills: oral (e.g ., listening to a lectu re)
4. Academic lea rning skills: written (e.g., taking notes in cl ass )
Objectives
The N atural Approach "is for beginners and is designed to help them
beco me intermediates ." It has the expectation th at students
will be ab le to function adequately in the target situ atio n. They will understand the speaker of the target language (perhaps w ith req uests f,or clarificati on) and will be ab le to convey (in a non -insu lting manner) th e lf req ues ts
and (deas. They need not know every word in a particular semantic domain,
nor is it necessa ry th at the syntax and voca buJary be flawless- bu t their pro-
duction does need to be understood. They should be able to make the meaning clea r but not necessa ril y be accurate in all details of gramma r. (Krashen
and Terrell 1983: 71)
However since the Natural Approach is o ffered as a general set of
principle~ applicable to a wide variety of situa tions, as in Communicative
Language Teaching, specific objectives depend upo n learner needs and
the skill (reading, writing, listening, or speaking) and level being taught.
Krashen and Terrell feel it is important to communicate to learners
what they can exp ect of a course as well as what they sho uld not expect.
They offer as an example a possible goal and nongoal statement for a
beginning Natural Approach Spanish class.
After 100-150 hours of Natural Approach Spanish, yo u will be able to: "get
around" in Spanish; you w ill be able to co mmunicate with a mo no lingual
native speaker of Spanish w ithout diffi culty ; read most o rdin ary texts in
Spanish wi th some use of a dictionary; know enough Spanish to co ntinue to
improve o n yo ur own.
After)00- 150 hours of Natural Approach Spanish yo u will not be able to:
pass fo r a native-s
ker, use Spanish as easily as yo u use ~nglish, under-
stand native speakers when
lk to each other (you will probably not be
able to eavesdrop successfull y); use spanish on the telep ho ne with great co mfort; participate eas il y in a conversati on with several other nati ve spea kers on
unfamiliar topics. (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 74).
The syllabus
Kra shen a nd Terrell C1983) approa ch CO urse OI'1;,, "i z" I'io l r~o lll Iwo
points of view. First', 1'11l': y li st so me I'ypi ':1 1 g() ~d s (or Inngll ng(' !,;OIlI'S'S
1.14
Of these, they note that the Natural Approach is primarily " designed
to develop basic communication skills - both oral a nd written (1983:
67) . T hey then observe that communicatio n goa ls "may be expressed in
terms of situ ations, functions a nd topics" and proceed to order four
pages of topics and situations "which a re likely to be most useful to
beginning students" (1983: 67). The functions a re not specified or suggested but a re felt to derive naturally from the topics and situations.
This a pproach to syllabus design would appear to derive to some extent
from thresho ld level specifications (see Cha pter 5 ).
The second po int of view holds that " the purpose of a language course
will va ry according to the needs of the students a nd their particular
interests" (Krashen and Terrell 1983 : 65).
The goa ls of a Na tural Approach class are based on an assess menr of student .
needs. We determine the situations in which they w ill use the target language
and th e sorts of topics they will have to co mmun ica te information about. In
setting co mmunication goals, we do not expect the students at th e end of a
particular co urse to have acquired a certain group o f structures or forms. Instead we expect them to deal with a particular set of top ics in a given situation. We do no t organize the activities of the class abo ut a grammatical
syllab us. (Krashen and Terrell 1983:71 )
From this po int of view it is difficult to specify communicative goals
that necessaril y fit the needs of all students. Thus a ny list of topics and
situations must be understood as syllabus suggestio ns rather than as
specificatio ns.
As well as fitting the needs and interests of students, content selection
sho uld aim to create a low affective filter by being interesting and fosIwi ng a fri endly , relaxed atmosphere, should provide a wide exposure
I'() vocab ul ary that may be useful to basic personal communication, and
sho uld resist any focus on grammatical structures, sin ce if input is provided "o ver a wider variety of topics while pursuing communicative
goa ls, "he Il c~ess ;lry gra mmatical structures arc automati cally provided
ill I'he illl" " " (Kr:ls hcn a nd T errell 1983: T I ).
I.l.
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Types of learning and teaching activities
From the beginning of a class taught according to the Natural Approach,
emphasis is on presenting comprehensibl e input in the target language .
Teacher talk focu ses on objects in the cl ass room and on th e content of
pictures, as with the Direct Method. To minimize stress, lea rners are
no t required to say anything until they feel read y, but they are expected
to respond to teacher commands and questions in other ways.
When learners are read y to begin talking in the new language, the
teacher provides comprehensible language and si mple response o pportunities. The teacher talks slowly and distinctly, asking questions and
eli citing one-word answers. There is a gradual progression from Yes/
No questions, thro ugh either-or questio ns, to questions th at stud ents
can answer using words they have heard used by the teacher. Students
are not expected to use a wo rd actively until they ha ve heard it man y
times. Charts, pictures, advertisements, and other reali a serve as the
foca l point for questio ns, and when the students' competence permirs,
talk moves to cla ss members. "Acqui sition activities" - those that focus
on meaningful commun ication rather than language form - are emphasized. Pair or group work may be employed, followed by whole-class
discussion led by the teacher.
Techniques recommended by Krashen and Terrell are often borrowed
from other meth ods and adapted to meet the requirements of Natural
Approach theory. These include command-based activities from Total
Physical Response; Direct Method activities in which mime, gesture, and
context are used to elicit qu estions and answers; and even situationbased practice of structures and patterns. Gro up-work activities arc often
identical to those used in Communicative Language Teaching, where
sharing information in order to complete a task is emphasized. There is
nothing novel about the procedures and techniques advocated for use
with the Natural Approach. A casual observer might not be awa re of
the phi losophy underl ying the classroom techniques he or she observes.
What characterizes the Natural Approach is the use of famili a r techniques within the framework of a method that focuses on providing
comprehensible input and a classroom environment that cues comprehension of input, minimizes learner anxiety, and maximizes learner selfcon fidence.
The Natura l Approach
and the fluency they will ultimately demonstrate. The language acquirer
is seen as a processor of comprehensible input. The acquirer is challenged
by input that is slightly beyond his or her current level of competence
and is able to assign meaning to this input through active use of context
and extralingu istic information.
Learners' roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic
development. Central to these changing roles are learner decisions on
when to speak, what to speak a bout, and what linguistic expressions to
use in speaking.
In the pre-production stage stud ents " participate in the language activity without having to respond in the target language" (Krashen and
Terrell 1983: 76). For example, students can act out physica l commands,
identify student colleagues from teacher description, point to pictures,
and so forth .
In the early-production stage, stud ents respond to either-or questions,
use single words and short phrases, fill in charts, and use fi xed conversational patterns (e.g., How are yo u ? What's yo ur name?) .
In the speech-emergent phase, students involve them selves in role play
and games, contribute person al information and opinions, and participate in group prob lem solving.
Learners have four kinds of responsibilities in th e Natural Approach
classroom:
1. Provide info rm atio n about their specific goa ls so that acquisitio n acti vities
ca n focus on th e topics and situatio ns most relevant to th eir needs,
2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehens ibl e input. They should lea rn
and use conversational management techniques to regul ate input.
3. Decide when to start producing speech and when to upgra de it.
4. Where learnin g exercises (i.e.) grammar study ) are to be a part of the program, decide with the teacher the relati ve amount of time to be devoted to
them and perhaps even complete and correct them in dependently.
Learners are expected to participate in comm unication activities w ith
other learners. Although communication activities are seen to provide
natu ralistic practice and to create a sense of camaraderie, which lowers
the affective filter, they may fail to provide learn ers with well-formed
and comprehensible input at the I + 1 level. Krashen and Terrell warn
of these shortcomings but do not suggest means for their amelioration.
Learner roles
Teacher roles
T here is a basic assumption in the Natu ral Approa ch that lea m ers sho uld
not try to learn a lan guage in th e usual se nse. Th e extent to whi ch rhey
Th e Natura l Approa ch teacher has three central roles. First, the teacher
IS th e primary so urce of comprehensibl e input in the target language.
can lose them selves in activiti es in volvin g Illc:lningfu l C() I1lIllI~ni c;lti o ll
w ill determine th e :1 11HHlnl' ;lnd kind of n '(]lIi si tioll th l'Y wi ll t'X IWl'il' ll cC
116
"C I:l SS t'i1l'lc is devoted pril11 Jril y to providing input for acquisition,"
IIiHI til l' tl':Jl'h(;r i ~ I h ~ prim:1ry generator of t'h;lt input. In thi s role th e
117
The Natural Approach
Approaches & methods in language teaching
teacher is required to generate a constant flow of language input while
providing a multiplicity of no nlinguistic clues to assist studen ts in interpreting the input. The Natural Approach demands a much mo re
center-stage role for the teacher than do many contemporary communicative methods.
"syllab us" of topics and situations recommended by the Natural
Approach.
Procedure
Second, the Natural Approach teacher creates a classroom atmosphere
that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter
for learning. This is ach ieved in part through such Natural Approach
techniques as not demanding speech from the students before they are
ready for it, not correcting student erro rs, and providing subject matter
of high Interest to students.
Finally, the teacher must choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activi ties, invo lving a variety of group sizes, content, and contexts .
The teacher is seen as responsible for coll ecting materials and designing
their use. These materials, according to Krashen and Terrel l, are based
not just on teacher perceptions but on elicited student needs and interests.
As with other nonorthodox teaching systems, the Natural Approach
teacher has a particular responsibility to communicate clearly and compellingly to students the assumption s, organization, and expectations of
the method, since in many cases these will violate student views of what
language learning and teaching are supposed to be.
The role of instructional materials
The primary goal of materia ls in the Natural Approach is to make
classroom activities as meaningful as possible by suppl ying " the extralinguistic context that helps the acquirer to understand and thereby to
acq uire" (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 55), by relating classroom activities
to the real world, and by fostering real communi cation amo ng the learners. Materials come from the wo rld of realia rather than from textbooks.
The primary aim of materials is to promote comprehension and communi cation. Pictures and other visual aids are essential, because they
suppl y the content for communicatio n. They facilitate the acq uisitio n of
a large voca bulary within the classroom. Other recommended materials
include schedules, brochures, advertisements, maps, and books at levels
appropriate to the students, if a reading compo nent is included in the
course. Games, in general, are seen as usefu l classroom materials, since
"games by their very nature, focus the student on what it is they a re
doing and use the language as a tool for reaching the goa l rather than
as a goa l in itself" (Terrell 1982: 121). The selection, reproduction, and
collectio n of materia ls places a considerable burden o n the Natural
Approach teacher. Since Krashen and Terrell suggest a sy llab us.of top ics
and situations, it is likely that at so me po int collections of mMc,.i a ls 10
sup plement teacher presentations will be publi shed, built 31"01 11 1(1 the
IJR
We have seen that the Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities
freely from various method sources and can be regarded as innovative
o nl y with respect to the purposes for which they are recommended and
the ways they a re used. Krashen and Terrell (1983 ) provide suggestions
for the use of a wide range of activities, all of which are fami liar components of Situational Language Teaching, Com muni cative Language
Teaching, and other methods discussed in this book. To illustrate procedural aspects of the Natural Approach, we will cite examples of how
such activities are to be used in the Natural Approach classroom to
provide comprehensible input, without requiring producrion of responses or minimal responses in the target language.
1. Start with TPR [Total Physical Response] commands. At first the commands are qu ite simple: "Stand up. Turn around. Rai se your right hand. "
2. Use TPR to teach names of body parts and to in troduce numbers and sequence. "Lay your ri ght hand on your head, put both hands on your
shoulder, first touch you r nose, then stand lip and turn to the right three
tirn es" and so forth.
3. In troduce cla ssroom terms and props into co mmands. "Pick up a penci l
and put it un der th e book. touch a wa ll , go to the door and knock three
times," Any item which can be brought to the class can be in corporated.
"Pick up the record and place it in the tray. Take the green blanket to
Larry. Pick up the soap and take it to the woman wearing the green
blouse."
4. Use names of physica l character istics and clo thing to id entify members of
the class by name, The instru cto r uses context and the items themselves to
make the meani ngs of the key words cl ea r: hai r, lo ng, short, etc, T hen a
student is descri bed. "What is yoU[ name?" (selecting a student). "Class,
Look at Barbara, She has lo ng brown hair , Her hair is long and brown.
Her hair is not short~ It is lo ng." (Using mime, pointing and context to
ensure comprehension). "What's the name of the student with long brown
hair?" (Barbara), Questions such as "What is the nam e of the woman
with the sho rt blond hai r?" or "What is the name of th e student sitting
nex t to the man with short brown hair and glasses?" are very simple to
unde rsta nd by attending to key wo rds, gestures and context. And they requirc the students o nly to remember and produce the name of a fellow
swdcnt. The samc ca n be do ne with articles of clothing and co lo rs. "Who
is wc;uing :l yel lo w shirt? Who is weari ng a brown dress?"
~, llse ViSII :1Is, Iypicnll y l1l<1gazinc picturcs, to introdu ce new vocabu lary an d
10 contin ll e wilh nClivi li t,s I'eq uiri ng o nl y st'lId cnt namcs as res ponse. T hc
I I\ S Il' II ~hll' i lll rndll u 'N lilt., pilll ll'l'S III I hI.: I' lItin: dnss OIl C:lI':l tim c foc usin g
119
Approaches & methods in language teaching
usuall y on o nc si ngle item o r activity in the pict ure. He may intro du ce onc
to fi ve new wo rds while talking about th e piccure. He then passes the picture to a particular student in the cl ass. The stud ents' task is to reme mber
the name of the student w ith a particular picture. For examp le, "Tom has
the picture of the sailboat. Joan has the pi cture of the family watching
te levision" and so forth. The instructor will ask questions like "Who has
the picture with th e sa ilb oat? Does Susan or Tom have the pict ure o f the
people o n the beach?" Aga in the students need on ly produce a name in
response.
6. Combine use of pi ctures with TPR. «Jim, find rh e picru re of the little girl
with her dog and give it to rhe woma n with rhe pink blo use."
7. Combine obscrvation s about the pictures with commands and conditionals. "If there is a woman in you r picture, stand up. If there is something
blue in your picture, to uch your right sho ulder. "
8. Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture bein g descri bed. Picture 1. "There are several people in this picture. One appea rs
to be a father, the other a daughter. What are they doing? Cooking. They
are cook ing a hamburgcr." Pi cture 2. «There are two men in this pictu re.
They are yo ung. They are box ing." Picture 3 ...
(Krashell and Terrell 1983: .75-7)
In all these activities, the instructor maintains a constant flow of "co mprehensible input," usin g key vocabulary items , appropriate ges tures,
context, repetition , and pa rap hrase to ensure th e co mp rehens ib ility of
the input.
Conclusion
T he Natural Approach belo ngs to a trad ition of language teachin g methods based on observation and interpretati on of how learn ers acqu ire
both nrst a nd second languages in non formal settings. Such methods
reject the form al (gram mati ca l) organiza tion of la nguage as a prerequisite ro teaching. Th ey ho ld with New mark and Reibel th at "an adu lt
can effectivel y be taught by grammatica ll y unordered materi als" a nd
that such a n approach is, indeed, " the only learning process w hi ch we
kn ow for certain will produce master y of the language at a native level"
(1968: 153) . In th e N atura l Approach, a focus o n comprehension and
mea ningful communication as well as th e provision of the right kinds
of com prehensible inp ut provide the necessary and suffi cient cond iti ons
for successful classroom second and foreign la nguage acquisitio n. This
has led to a new ra tio na le fo r the integration a nd ada ptation o f techniques drawn from a wide variety of existin g sources. Like Communi cative Language Teaching, the Natura l Approach is hence evo l~ti o nary
rath er than revo luti ona ry in its pro cedures. Its grea test claim to o l' i g i ~
nnlit·y li es nol' ill fh e ("(,;chni qllcs it emplo ys hIlt· ill dH:ir li St ill ~I IIh: l1 lOd
The Natura l Approach
that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather
th an production of grammaticall y perfect uttera nces and sentences.
Bibliography
Cole, R. 1931. Modern Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. New York:
Appleton-Centu ry-C rofts.
Gregg, K. 1984. Krashcn's mo nitor and Occam's razor. Applied Linguistics
5(2): 79-100.
Krashen, 5.198 1. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.
Oxford: Perga mon.
Krashen, S. 19 82. Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition.
Oxford ; Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D., and T. D. Terrell. 1983. The Natura l Approach: Language
Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon .
McLa ughlin, B. 1978. The Monitor Model: some methodological considerations. Lauguage Learning 28 (2): 309-32.
Newmark, L. , and Reibel, D. A. 1968. Necessity and su ffici ency in language
learning. Inlemaliol1al Review of Applied Linguistics 6(2): 145-64.
Rivers, W . 1981. Teachhlg Foreign~lallguage Sk ills. 2nd ed . Chicago : Un iversity
of Chicago Press.
Stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Meal1iug and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives 011 Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Terrell, T. D. 1977. A natural approach to second language acquisition and
lea rn ing. Modern lAnguage jO ll,."al 61: 325-36.
Terrell , T. D. 198 1. The na tural app roach in bilingual education. Ms. California
Office of Bili ngual Education.
Terrell, T. D. 1982. Th e natural approach to language teaching: an update.
Modem Language journa l 66: 121-32.
Suggestopedia
10
Suggestopedia
awake
I
asleep
(e.g., sleep
learning)
I
alert
aroused
I
I
aware (e.g. ,
Suggestopedia)
I
attentive
agonized (e.g. ,
cramming)
I
anxious
Background
Figure 10.1 Attention and memory studies
Suggestopedia is a method developed by the Bulgari an psychiatristeducator Georgi Lozanov. Suggestopedia is a specific set of learn ing
recommendations derived from Suggestology, which Lozanov describes
as a "science . .. concerned with the systematic study of the nomational
andlo r nonconscious influences" t hat human beings are constantly responding to (Stevick 1976: 42 ). Suggestopedia tries to ha rness these
influences and redirect them so as to optimize lea rning. The most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia are the decoratio n, furniture,
and arrangement o f the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative
behavior of the teacher. The method has a somewhat mystical a ir about
it, parti ally because it has few direct links with established lea rning or
educational theory in the West, and partially because of its arcane terminology and neologisms, which one critic has unkindly called a " package of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook" (Scovel 1979: 258).
The claims for suggestopedic learning are dramatic. "There is no sector
of publi c life where suggestology would not be useful " (Lozanov 1978:
2). "Memori zation in learning by the suggestopedic method seems to
be accelerated 25 times over that in learning by conventional methods"
(Lozanov 1978: 27). Precise descriptions of the conditions under which
Suggestopedia experiments were run are as hard to come by as are precise
descriptions of "successful" classroom procedures. For example, Earl
Stevick, a generally enthusiastic supporter of Suggestopedia, notes that
Suggestopedia teachers are trained to read dialogues in a special way.
"The precise ways of using voice quality, intonation , and timing arc
apparently both important and intricate. I have found no one who could
give a first-hand account of them" (Stevick 1976: 157).
Loza nov acknowledges ties in tradition to yoga and Soviet psycho logy.
From raja-yoga, Lozanov has borrowed and modified techniques fur
altering states of consciousness and concentrati o n, and th e lise of rh ydllllic
breathing. From Soviet psychology Lozanov has mken the lIorioll th :1I
all students can be taught a given subject matter at th e , :lII'e level of
skill . Loza nov claim s that hi s m'thod works ·q ll " ll y wtll w~, e lh c .. \11 '
not student's spend I'imc on Qursid· stlld y. li e PI'Olilist's SIH.'l 'l'SS Ihl'oll)',h
Sliggeslo)1 'di :, 10 Ih e ,,," d"II, icl ll y gifled !l lId 11I ,,,,ifl,,,, "like. So viel pNy
chology also stresses the learning environment, and Lozanov similarly
speci fi cs the requirements of an optimal learning environment in great
detaIl. (For an overvIew of the tenets of Soviet psychology and how
these differ from those of Western psychology, see Bancroft 1978).
Suggestoped ia can perhaps be best understood as one of a range of
theotles th at purport to describe how attentiveness is manipulated to
optimi ze learning and recall. A number of researchers have attempted
to ,dentlfy the optimal mental states for facilitating memorization and
facilitating recall. The continuum in Figure 10.1 displays labels for various states o f attention that have been examined for their facilitation of
inhibition of memorization. The point at the far left represents studies
of sleep learning. The point at the far right represents studies on the
efficiency of cramming. Lozanov believes most learning takes place in a
relaxed but focused state. We thus locate Lozanov's proposals in the
awa re-a lert area.
A most conspicuous feature of Suggestopedia is the centrality of music
and musical rhythm to learning, Suggestopedia thus has a kinship with
other functional uses of music, particularly therapy. One of the earliest
attested uses of music therapy is recorded in the Old Testament of the
Il ibl e: " When the ev il spirit from God was upon Saul, David took up
IllS harp and played with his hand; so Saul found relief; and it was well
with him, and the evil spirit departed from him" (1 Samuel 12:23).
Loza nov might have described this incident as the use of music to assist
ill the " liberation from discrete micro psychotraumata, for destruction
01 incompatible ideas abour the limits of human capabilities" (Lozanov
I'I7H: 252).
(;aston (1968) defines three functions of music in therapy: to facilitate
,he eS labli shm ent and maintenance of personal relations; to bring about
1I1 , 'Tased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical per1,}I' I}I:tIl CC ; and to use th e unique potential of rhythm to energize and
III illg IJI'der. T'hi s la st fun ction seems to be the one that Lozanov call s
"1 11 11 i ll his li St.: of musi c to relax learners as well as to structure , pace ,
I1 l1d pllll l'lu nlc til · prc~c nt:.1ti o n of linguisti c materi al.
I II
14 I
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Approach
Theory of language
Lozanov does not articulate a theory of language, nor does it seem he
is much concerned with any particular assumptions regarding language
elements and their organization. The emphasis on memorization of vocabulary pairs - a target language item and its native language translation
- suggests a view of language in which lexis is central and in which
lexical translation rather than contextualization is stressed. However,
Lozanov does occasionally refer to the importance of experiencing language material in "whole meaningful texts" (Lozanov 1978: 268) and
notes that the suggestopedic course directs "the student not to vocabulary memorization and acquiring habits of speech, but to acts of communication" (1978: 109).
Lozanov recommends home study of recordings of " whole meaningful
texts (not of a fragmentary nature)" that are, " above all , interesting."
These are listened to " for the sake of the music of the foreign speech"
(Lozanov 1978: 277). The texts should be lighthearted stories with
emotional content. Lozanov's recommendations of slich stories seems
to be entirely motivational, however, and does not represent a commitment to the view that language is preeminently learned for and used
in its emotive function.
In describing course work and text organization Lozanov refers most
often to the language to be learned as "the material" (e.g., "The new
material that is to be learned is read or recited by a well-trained teacher")
(Lozanov 1978: 270). One feels that the linguistic nature of the material
is largely irrelevant and that if the focus of a language course were, say,
memorization of grammar rules, Lozanov would feel a suggestopedic
approach to be the optimal one. The sample protocol given for an Italian
lesson (Lozanov 1978) does not suggest a theory of language markedly
different from that which holds a language to be its vocabulary and the
grammar rules for organizing vocabulary.
Suggestopedia
nosis and other forms of mind control is that these other forms lack "a
desuggestive-suggestive sense" and "fail to create a constant set up to
reserves through concentrative psycho-relaxation " (1978: 267). (We intrepret reserves as being something like human memory banks. Desuggestion seems to involve unloading the memory banks, or reserves,
of unwanted or blocking memories. Suggestion, then, involves loading
the memory banks with desired and facilitating memories.) There are
six principal theoretical components through which desuggestion and
suggestion operate and that set up access to reserves. We will describe
these briefly following Bancroft (1972).
AUTHORITY
People remember best and are most influenced by information coming
from an authoritative source. Lozanov dictates a variety of prescriptions
and proscriptions aimed at having Suggestopedia students experience
the educational establishment and the teacher as sources having great
authority. Lozanov talks of choosing a " ritual placebo system" that is
most likely to be perceived of by students as having high authority
(Lozanov 1978 : 267). Lozanov appears to believe that scientific-sounding language, highly positive experimental data, and true-believer teachers constitute a ritual placebo system that is authoritatively appealing
to most learners. Well-publicized accounts of learn ing success lend the
method and the institution authority, and commitment to the method,
self-confidence, personal distance, acting ability, and a highly positive
attitude give an authoritative air to the teacher.
INFANTILI Z ATION
Authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of
parent to child. [n the child's role the learner takes part in role playing,
games, songs, and gymnastic exercises that help "the older student regain
the self-confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child" (Bancroft
1972: 19).
DOUBLE-PLAN EDNESS
Theory of learning
Suggestion is at the heart of Suggestopedia. To many, suggestion conjures
up visions of the penetrating stare, swinging cat's eye, and monotonically
repeated injunctions of the hypnotist. Lozanov acknowledges the likelihood of this association to Suggestopedia but claim s that his own views
separate Suggestopedia from the "na rrow clinical co necpr of t. ypllosis
as a kind of static, sleep like, altered St:He of eonscioll sness" ( I ';I7H: .1).
L07.an ov fmlher claim s rhar whal distin l-\lIi slws his "' cl hod f,·oll ' hypo
The learner learns not only from the effect of direct instruction but from
the environ ment in which the instruction takes place. The bright decor
of th e classroom, the musical background, the shape of the chairs, and
Ihe personality of the teacher are considered as important in instruction
:I S the forlll of the instructional material itself.
I N 'I'O N AT[ON, IU [,(TIIM, AN D
C O N C I~ RT
PSEUDO - PA SS IVENESS
V!I ryi II g I he "" " . "lid ,.), yIh "' 0 f prese nted III a reri a I helps both to a void
hOI, ~· dt)II' 1111'(1111 \ 11 111011111(111
or 1' ~' Ih'tili()1l :llld [ 0
dr ~lIllnti '/,c , c l1l o rion -
Approaches & methods in language teaching
alize, a nd give mea ning to linguistic material. In the first presentation
of linguisti c material t hree phrases are read together, each with a different voice level and rhythm . In the second presentation the lingui stic
ma teri al is given a proper dramatic rea ding, which helps learners visua lize a context for the material a nd aids in memorization (Bancroft
1972: 19).
Both intonation and rh ythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to induce a relaxed attitude,
which Lozanov refers to as concert pseudo-passiveness. This state is felt
to be optimal for lea rning, in that anxieties and tension are relieved and
power of concentration for new material is raised. Because the tole of
music is central in suggestopedic learning, it needs to be considered in
somewhat more detail.
T he type of music is critical to learning success. "The idea th at music
can affect your body and mind certainl y isn't new .... The key was to
find the right kind of music for just the right kind of effect ... . T he music
you use in superJ earning [the American term for SuggestopediaJ is extremely important. If it does not have the required pattern, the desired
altered states of consciousness will not be induced and results will be
poor. ... It is specific music - son ic patterns - for a specific purpose
(Ostrander, Schroeder, and Ostrander 1979: 73-4). At the institute Lozanov recommends a series of slow movements (sixty beats a minute) in
4/4 time for Baroque concertos strung together into about a half-hour
concert. He notes that in such concerts "the body relaxed, the mind
became alert" (Ostrander et al. 1979: 74). As a further refinement, "East
German researchers of Suggestopedia at Karl Marx University in Leipzig
observed that slow movements from Baroque instrumental music featuring string instruments gave the very best results" (Ostrander et al.
1979: 115).
The rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic
pattern is keyed to the rhythm. SuperJearning uses an eight-second cycle
for pacing out data at slow intervals. During the first four beats of th e
cycle there is silence. During the second four beats the teacher presents
the material. Ostrander et al. present a variety of evidence on why this
pacing to Baroque largo music is so potent. They note that musical
rhythms affect body rhythms, such as heartbeat, and that researchers
have noted th at "with a slow heartbea t, mind efficiency takes a great
leap forward" (1979: 63). They cite experimental data such as those
which show disastrous learning results when the music of Wagner was
substituted for slow Baroque. They reflect that "the minute is divided
into sixty seconds and that perhaps there's more to this than just an
arbitrary division of time." They further repo rt that "the Indian vil al11bita, for insta nce, has the req uired rh ythms of sixl"y beats a minu te" :l nd
sugg 'SI" I"hal" Indi an yogis Ill ay hav' buill' l" hc sixly-henl rhylhm illl O YOf\i .
14(.
Suggestopedia
techniques .. Fin all y, they observe that not only human but vegetable
subjects thnve under sixty-beat stimulation. "Plants grown in the ch ambers gIven Baroque music by Bach and Indian music by Ravi Shankar
rapIdly grew lush and ab undant ... the plants in the chamber getting
rock musIc shnveled and dIed" (1979 : 82). Suggestopedic learning is
consequently bUIlt on a partIcular type of music and a particular rate
of presentation.
Design
Objectives
Suggestopedia aims to deliver advanced conversational proficiency
qUIckly. It apparently bases its learning claims on student mastery of
prodIgIOUS lists of vocabulary pairs and, indeed, suggests to the students
that it is appropriate that th ey set such goals for th emselves. Lozanov
emphasizes, however, that in creased memory power is not an isolated
skill ,~ut is a result of "positive, comprehensive stimulation of personahty (Lozanov 1978: 253). Lozanov sta tes categorically, "The main
aIm of teachmg IS not memorization, but the understanding and creative
solutIOn of problems" (1978: 251). As learner goals he cites increased
access to understanding and creative so lutions of problems. However,
because students and teachers place a high value on voca bul ary recall,
memon zatt on of vocabu lary pairs continues to be seen as an important
goal of the suggestopedic method.
The syllabus
A Suggestopedia course lasts thirty days and consists of ten units of
study. Classes are held four hours a da y, six da ys a week. The central
focus of each unit is a di alogue consisting of 1,200 words or so, with
an accompanymg vocabu lary list and grammatical commentary. The
dIalogues are graded by lexis and grammar.
There is a pattern of work within each unit and a pattern of work
fo r the whole course. Unit study is organized aro und three days: d ay 1
- half a day, day 2 - full day, day 3 - half a da y. On the first day of
work on a new unit the teacher discusses the general content (not stru cture) of the.unit dialogue. The learners then receive the printed dialogue
wU'h a natt ve language translation in a parallel column. The teacher
~ ~, s w c rs any questio ns of interest or concern about the dialogue. The
dlaloguc thcn 's rend" sc ond and third time in ways to be discussed
sII!)scqll cml y. This i" tl iI' wO"k r~ >r by "J. Days 2 and 3 a rc spent in
l')I' IIII IlI'Y [l llti
s l't~(l lId ~ 1I
Illuhol':1111 111
or
I he " ·XI. Pril1lnry
cbhoral'ion
1' 17
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Suggestopedia
consists of imitation, question and answer, reading, and so on, of the
dialogue and of working with the 150 new vocabulary items presented
in the unit. The secondary elaboration involves encouraging students to
make new combinations and productions based on the dialogues. A story
or essay parall eling the dialogue is also read. The students engage in
conversation and take small roles in response to the text read.
The whole cOllfse also has a pattern of presentation and performance.
On the first day a test is given to check the level of student knowledge
and to provide a basis for dividing students into two groups - one of
new beginners and one of modified (false) beginners. The teacher then
briefs the students on the course and explains the attitude they should
take toward it. This briefing is designed to put them in a positive, relaxed
and confident mood for learning. Students are given a new name in the
second language and a new biography in the second culture with which
they are to operate for the duration of the course.
During the course there are two opportunities for generalization of
material. In the middle of the course students are encouraged to practice
the target language in a setting where it might be used, such as hotels
Ot restaurants. The last day of the course is devoted to a performance
in which every student participates. The students construct a play built
on the material of the course. Rules and parts are planned, but students
are expected to speak ex Lernpore rather than from memorized lines.
Written tests a re also given throughout the course, and these and the
performance are reviewed on the final day of the course.
Types of learning and teaching activities
We have mentioned a variety of activities in passing in the discussion
of the syllabus. These include imitation, question and answer, and role
play - which are not activities " that other language teachers would
consider to be out of the ordinary" (Stevick 1976: 157). The type of
activities that are more original to Suggestopedia are the listening activities, which concern the text and text vocabulary of each unit. These
activities are typically part of the "pre-session phase," which takes place
on the first da y of a new unit. The students first look at and discuss a
new text with the teacher. In the second reading, students rel ax comfortahly in reclining chairs and listen to the teacher read the text in a
certain way. The quote from Stevick at the beginning of this chapter
suggests that the exact nature of the "special way" is not clear. Bancroft
notes that the material is "presented with varying intonations and a
coordination of sound and printed word or illu strati on" (Ba ncroft 1972 :
17). During the third reading the material is acted out by rI,e in stru ctor
in :1 dr:lIl1;Hi c mnnncr over
:l
ba ckground of rh e ~ pcc i ~d
IIHI Sil::d
(orm
dcscrih 'd prl'violl sly. During thi s phnsl' sllIdclll s 1\'11 11 hn rk ill theil' chail's
and breathe deeply and regularly as instructed by the teacher. This is
the point at which Lozanov believes the unconscious learning system
takes over.
Learner roles
Students volunteer for a suggestopedic course, but having volunteered,
they are expected to be committed to the class and its activities. Smoking
and dnnkll1g are prohIbited or discouraged in class and around the
school during the course.
The mental state of the learners is critical to success, which is why
learners must forgo mmd-altenng substances and other distractions and
immerse themselves in the procedures of the method. Learners must not
try ro figure out, manipulate, or study the material presented but must
mamtaw a pseudo-passive state, in which the material rolls over and
through them.
'" Students are ~,xpected to tolerate and in fact encourage their own
mfannhzatlOn., In part thIS IS accomplIshed by acknowledging the
absolute authonty of the teacher and in part by giving themselves o\'Cr
to aenvltles and techniqu es designed to help them regain the self-confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity of the child. Such activities include
role playing, games, songs, and gymnastic exercises (Bancroft 1972: 19).
To assist them in the role plays and to help them detach themselves from
their past learning experiences, students are given a new name and
personal history within the target culture. The new names also contain
phonemes from the target culture that learners find difficult to pronounce. For example, a student of English might be "the actress Anne
Mackey from Kansas."
Groups of learners are idea lly sociall y homogeneous, twelve in number, and divided equally between men and women. Learners sit in a
circle, which encourages face-to-face exchange and activity participation.
Teacher roles
The primary role of the teacher is to create situations in which the learner
is 1110st suggestible and then to present Iinguisitic material in a way most
likely to encourage positive reception and retention by the learner.
Lozanov lists several expected teacher beh aviors that contribute to
I hesc
presentations.
I . Show absolute co nfidence in the method.
DisphlY fastidiou s ( onducl' ill manners and dress.
\. ()rg:l l1i 'l.~ pr~)p~ rl y nHd slr'icll y ohs~ rvc I'he inirial stages of th e tcaching
PI'O~CSS , thi S IlI l'h llh- .. { hCHn' :t lld pb y of lIlu sic, as well :15 PU Il C(U:llity.
I I . MlIl l Wll1I 11 SOlt" 1I11 Ultlllh l" tow,u'ds til l' Sl'ss itl ll .
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Suggestopedia
5. Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any).
6. Stress global rather than analytical attitudes towards material.
7. Maintain a modest enthusiasm.
(Lozanov 1978: 275-6)
As Stevick (1976) points out, there are certain styles of presentation
of material that are important, intricate, and inaccessible. It appears that
teachers have to be prepared to be initiated into the method by stages
and that certain techniques are withheld until such times as the master
teacher feels the initiate is ready. In addition, Bancroft (1972) suggests
that teachers are expected to be skilled in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniques and that a Lozanov-taught teacher will spend
three to six months training in these fields.
The role of instructional materials
Material s consist of direct support materials, primarily text and tape,
and indi rect support materials, including classroom fixtures and music.
The text is o rganized aro und the ten units described earlier. The textbook should have emotional force, literary quality, and interesting characters. Language problems should be introduced in a way that does not
worry or distract students from the content. "Traumatic themes and
distasteful lexical material should be avoided" (Lozanov 1978: 278) .
Each unit shou ld be governed by a single idea featu ring a variety of
subthemes, "the way it is in life" (p. 278 ).
Although not language materials per se, the lea rning environment
plays such a central role in Suggestopedia that the important elements
of the environment need to be briefly enumerated. The envi ronment (the
indirect support materials) comprises the appearance of the classroom
(bright and cheery ), the furniture (reclining chairs arranged in a circle),
and the music (Baroque largo, selected for reasons discussed previously).
Procedure
As with other methods we have examined, there are variants both historica l and individual in the actual conduct of Suggestopedia cl asses.
Adaptations such as those we witnessed in Toronto by J ane Bancroft
and her colleagues at Scarborough College, University of Toronto, showed
a wide and diversified range of techniques unattested to in Loza nov's
writings. We ha ve tried here to characterize a class as described in the
Suggestopedia literature while po inting out where th e actual cla sses we
have observed varied considerably from the description. •
Bancroft ('1972) notes that the ro ur-ho llr langll :1ge cla ss has three
I. 0
distinct parts. The first part we might call an oral review section. Previously learned material is used as the basis for discussion by the teacher
and twelve students in the class. All participants sit in a circle in their
specially designed chairs, and the discussion proceeds like a seminar.
This sessio n may involve what are called micro-studies and macro-studies. In micro-studies specific attention is given to grammar, vocabulary,
and precise questions and answers. A question from a micro-study might
be, "What should one do in a hotel room if the bathroom taps are not
working?" In the macro-studies, emphasis is on role playing and widerranging, innovative language constructions. "Describe to someone the
Boyana church" (one of Bulgaria's most well-known medieval churches)
would be an example of a request for information from the macrostudies.
In the second part of the class new material is presented and discussed.
This consists of looking over a new dialogue and its native language
translation and discussing any issues of gramm ar, vocabulary, or content
that the teacher feels imporrant or that students are curious abo ut.
Bancroft notes that this section is typically conducted in the target language, altho ugh student questions or comments will be in whatever
language the student feels he or she can handle. Students are led to view
the experience of dealing with the new material as interesting and undema nding of any special effort o r anxiety. The teacher's attitude and
authority is considered critical to preparing students for success in the
learning to come. The pattern of learning and use is noted (i.e., fixation,
reprod uction, and new creative production), so that students will know
what is expected .
T he third part - the seance or concert session - is the one by which
Suggestopedia is best known. Since this constitutes the heart of the
method, we will quote Lozanov as to how this session proceeds.
At the beginning of the sess ion, all conversation stops for a minute or two,
and the teacher li stens to the music coming from a tape·recorder. He waits
and listens to several passages in order to enter into the mood of the music
and then begins to read or recite th e new text, his vo ice modulated in harIllony wi th the musical phrases. The students follow the text in their texthooks w here each lesson is translated into the mother tongue. Between the
firsl" and second part of the concert, there are several minutes of so lemn silen ce. In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit the students
10 stir a little. Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there
, liT :1gai n several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard
.lg. li1l before the teacher begi ns to read the text. Now the students close their
I~'x lhook s :lI1d li sten to I"h e tea cher's read in g. At the end, the students silentl y
h·. l ve Ih e 1'001'1'1. They :H e no l fold to do any homework on the lesson they
1I .lve iust lind excep t for I'l'nding iI' cursorily o nce before going to bed and
11/lld!l hdul'c ge flin g lip i n til l' !l ltll'nill)!,. ( 1.0'1.:1 11 0V 197/) : 272)
1 1
Suggestopedia
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Conclusion
Bibliography
Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the
most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. A rave review
appeared in Parade magazine of Ma rch 12, 1978 . Since Parade has a
weekly circulation of some 30 million Americans, rhe story on Suggestopedia probably constituted the single largest promotion of foreign
language teaching ever. Suggestopedia also received a scathing review
in the TESOL Quarterly, a journal of somewhat more restricted circulation than Parade (Scovel 1979). Having acknowledged that "there
are techniques and procedures in Suggestopedy that may prove useful
in a foreign language classroom," Scovel notes that Lozanov is unequivocally opposed to any eclectic use of the techniques outside of rhe full
panoply of suggestopedic science. Of suggestopedic science Scovel comments, " If we have learnt anything at all in the seventies, it is that the
art of language teaching will benefit very little from the pseudo-science
of suggestology" (Scovel 1979: 265).
Scovel takes special issue with Lozanov's use (and misuse) of scholarly
citations, terminological jargon, and experim ental data and states that
"a careful reading of [Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy] reveals that there is precious little in suggestology which is scientific"
(1979: 257). And yet from Lozanov's point of view, this air of science
(rather than its substance) is what gives Suggestopedia its authority in
the eyes of students and prepares them to expect success. Lozanov makes
no bones about the fact that Suggestopedi a is introduced to students in
the context of a "suggestive-desuggestive ritual placebo- systems" (Lozanov 1978: 267) , and that one of the tasks of the suggestopedic leader
is to determine which current ritual placebo system carries most authority with students. The ritual pla cebo system might be yoga, it might
be hypnosis, it might be biofeedback, it might be experimental science.
"Ritual placebo systems will change dramatically in accordance with
the times. Their desuggestive-suggestive strength weakens with the years.
New times create conditions for building up new desuggestive-suggestive
ritual 'placebo' systems" (Lozanov 1978: 267). Just as doctors tell patients that the pl acebo is a pill that will cure them, so teachers tell students
that Suggestology is a science that will teach them. And Lozanov maintains that placebos do both cure and teach when the p atient or pupil
credits them with the power to do so.
Perhaps, then, it is not productive to futher belabor the science/nonscience, data/double-talk issues and in stead, as Bancroft and Stevick ha ve
done, try to identify and validate th ose techniques from SU8gestoped ia
that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniqu es
Bancroft, W. J. 1972. The psychology of suggestopedia or learning without
stress. The Educational Courier Feb.: 16- 19.
Bancroft, W. J. 1978 . The Lozanov method and its American adaptions. Modern
Language Journal 62 (4): 167-75.
Blair, R. W. (ed. ). 1982 Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House.
Gaston, E. T. (ed. ). 1968. Music in Therapy. New York: Macmillan.
Ha mmerly , H . 1982. Synthesis in Second Language Teaching. British Columbia:
Second Language Publications.
Lozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy. New York:
Gordon and Breach.
Ostrander, S., L. Sch roeder, and N. Ostrander. 1979. Superlearning. New York:
Dell.
Scovel, T. 1979. Review of Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy. TESOL
Quarterly 13: 255-66.
Stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Meaning and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives on Language Learning. Row ley, Mass: Newbury House.
Stevick, E. W. 1980. Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Row ley, Mass:
Newbury House.
in th e lan guage teaching in ventory.
I)
1
\
Comparing and evaluating methods
11
Comparing and evaluating methods:
some suggestions
In the preceding chapters of this book we have examined the fundamental
characteristics of eight language teaching proposals in terms of approach,
design, and procedure. The use of a common model for the analysis of
different teaching philosophies has enabled us to define elements that
are common to all approaches and methods and to highlight areas where
approaches and methods differ. We have seen that in some cases (e.g.,
Communicative Language Teaching) teaching proposals have norAnecessarily led to a specific and well-defined method. In other cases (e.g.,
Silent Way) there is much less room for interpretation, and explicit
specifications may be given for classroom practices.
One level of application of this model is in the comparison of methods.
One might wish to know, for instance, if the procedures of two methods
are likely ro be compatible in the classroom or if two methods share a
similar set of underlying theoretical assumptions. As an example, let us
use the model to compare Total Physical Response (TPR) and Community Language Learning (CLL) .
Comparing methods
Superficially, Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning seem antithetical. Comparing elements at the level of design, we find
that TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of
structures and vocabulary. CLL has no syllabus and operates out of
what learners feel they need to know. In TPR, the teacher's role is one
of drill master, director, and motivator. In CLL, the teacher/knower is
counselor, supporter, and facilitator. TPR learners are physically active
and mobile. CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration.
TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners a'nd emphasizes
the importance of individuals acting alone. CLL is rooted , as its title
suggests, in a communal relationship between learners and teachers :l ering supportively and in concert. At the level of procedure, we find rhal'
TPR language practice is largely mechani cal, with much emph asis O il
listening. elL langua ge pra cti ce is iJ1ll ov:l l"iv c, Wit'll ClIlph :ISis 0 11
I 'I
~n: clc ln c lll's of COlll11101l:l l il y , IH IWl'V (' I',
Other points of comparison between approaches and methods emerge
from the use of the present model of analysis. Although we have seen
that all approaches and methods imply decisions about both the content
of instruction and how content will be taught, methods and approaches
dIffer In the emphasis and priority they give to content versus instructional issues. For example, the Audiolingual Method and some of the
versions of Communicative Language Teaching we have considered are
all language teaching proposals that see content variables as crucial to
successful language teaching. Each makes concrete proposals for a language syllabus, and the syllabus forms the basis for subsequently determined instructional procedures. They differ in what they see as the
essentIal components of a syllabus - since they derive from different
views of the nature of language - but each sees a syllabus as a primary
component of a language course. On the other hand, such methods as
t~,e Silent Way, Counseling-Learning, the Natural Approach, and Total
I hYSIcal Response start not WIth language content but rather with a
theory of learning. Each is the outcome and application of a particular
rheory of language learning and an accompanying body of instructional
rheory. Content considerations are of secondary importance.
\lut an approach or method is more than simply a set of instructional
I'"" ctices based on a particular view of language and language learning.
l",plI clt III a method are the claims that (a) the method brings about
effective second or foreign language learning and (b) it will do so more
..fli cicntly than other methods. But in order to assess the value or effecI i ve ness of methods, it is necessary to consider them in relation to a
I:lIlgI~a gc course or program having specific goals, objectives, and char.1l'lw stlcs . III th e remainder of this chapter we will outline a basis for
"Vl tlll"tin g the claims of methods by locating them within the broader
,'0 111' 'x l' of
produ cti on.
Th TC
overlooked. In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness,
and embarrassment as the major blocks to successful language learning.
They both see the learners' commitment, attention, and group participatIOn as central to overcoming these barriers. They both view the stages
of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages of childhood
learning, and both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall
of ImgUlstic elements to be central issues. TPR holds with CLL that
learning is multimodal - that "more involvement must be provided the
student than simply sitting in his seat and passively listening. He must
be somatically or physiologically, as well as intellectually, engaged"
(Curran 1976: 79). At the level of design, neither TPR nor CLL assumes
method-specific materials, but both assume that materials can be locally
produced as needed .
whit'h
\ ',111
InnguJ ge curriculum development.
he t'll slly
ISS
Comparing and evaluating methods
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Methods and language curriculum development
From the perspective of language curriculum development, choice of
teaching method is but one phase within a system of interrelated curriculum development activities. Choice of teaching approach or method,
materials, and learning activities is usually made within the context of
language program design and development. When the director of a language school or institution announces to the staff that an incoming client
group will consist of forty -five Japanese businessmen requiring a sixweek intensive course in spoken English, the teachers will not leap to
their feet and exclaim "Let's use Silent Way!" or "Let's use Total Physical
Response!" Questions of immediate concern will focus on who the learners are, what their current level of language proficiency is, what sort of
communicative needs they have, the circumstances in wh ich they will
be using English in the future , and so on. Answers to such questions
must be made before program objectives can be established and before
choice of syllabus, method, or teaching materials can be made. Such
information provides the basis for language curri culum development.
Curriculum development requires needs analysis, development of goals
and objectives, selection of teaching and learning activities, and evaluation of the outcomes of the language program . Let us consider each of
these briefly (for a fuller discussion see Richards 1984).
NEEDS ANALYSIS
Needs analysis is concerned with identifying general and specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives, and
content in a langu age program. Needs analysis may focus either on the
general parameters of a language program (e.g., qy obtaining data on
who the lea rners are, their present level of language proficiency, teacher
and learner goa ls and expectations, the teacher's teaching skills and level
of proficiency in the target language, constraints of time a nd budget,
ava ilable instructional resources, as well as societal expectations) or on
a specific need, such as the kind of listening comprehension training
needed for foreign students attending graduate seminars in biology. Needs
analysis focuses on what the learner's present level of proficiency is and
on what the learner will be required to use the language for on completion of the program. Its aim is to identify the type of language skill s
and level of language proficiency the program shou ld ailll to deliver.
Needs analysis acknowledges that the goal s of lea rn ers va ry and mu sl
be determined before decisions about co ntelll" :lIld merh"d C:101 he m:1de.
This co ntrasts with the ass wnpl'i on underl yin g 111 :1n y Ill l' lh (H I ~, 11 :11lH..: ly.
I (,
that the needs and goals of learners are identical, that what they need
is simply " language," and that Method X is the best way to teach it.
FO RMU LATION OF OBJECTIVES
Information obtained from needs analysis is used in developing, selecting, or revising program objectives. Objectives detail the goals of a
language program. They identify the kind and level of language proficIency the learner will attain in the program (if the program is successful).
Sometimes program objectives may be stated in terms of a proficiency
level in a particular skill area or in the form of behavioral objectives
(descriptions of the behaviors or kinds of performance the learners will
be able to demonstrate on completion of the program, the conditions
under which such performance will be expected to occur, and the criteria
used to assess successful performance). The American Council on the
Teaching of Foreign Languages has developed provisional proficiency
gUldehnes for use III planning foreign language programs - "a series of
descriptions of proficiency levels for speaking, listening, reading, writing,
and culture in a foreign language. These guidelines represent a graduated
sequence of steps that can be used to structure a foreign-language pro'
gram" (Liskin-Gasparro 1984: 11).
Decisions about program goals and objectives, whether expressed in
terms of behavioral objectives, proficiency levels, or some other form
are essential in language program design. Without clear statements of
objectives, questions of content, teaching and learning activities and
experiences, materials, and evaluation cannot be systematically addressed . In cases where a specific meth od is being considered for use in
a language program, it is necessary for the program planner to know
what the objectives of the method are and the kinds of language profi ciencies it seeks to develop. The program planner can then compare
the degree of fit between the method and the program goals. However,
methods typi cally fail to describe explicitly the objectives they are designed to attain, leaving teachers and learners to try to infer objectives
from the materials and classroom activities themselves.
SEL ECTI ON O F TEAC H ING AND LEARN ING ACTIVI T IES
D llce d ecisions have been made about the kinds and levels of language
profiCie ncy the program IS deSIgned to bring about, teaching and learning
,lcI IVI!'ICS ca n be chosen. Classroom activiti es and materials are hence
:t cm lltH:l bl c ro goa ls and objectives and are selected according to how
well Ihey "ddrc" fh e underlyin g lin guistic skills and processes learners
will need in order to attain the objectives of th e program that is to
'" ''IIIil" ' specified ski ll> :lIld behav io rs 0 1" to attain a parti c:'l.r level of
I 7
Approaches & methods in language teaching
language proficiency. At this phase in language curriculum development,
teachers and program developers first select different kinds of tasks,
activities, and learning experiences, the effectiveness of which they then
test in meeting program goals. This activity is often referred to as the
domain of methodology in language teaching. It involves experimentation, informed by the current state of the art in second language learning theory, and research into the teaching and learning of reading, writing,
listening, speaking. Curriculum developers typically proceed with caution, since there is a great deal that is unknown about second language
acquisition and little justification for uncritical adoption of rigid proposals.
At this phase in curriculum development, choice of a particular method
can be justified only when it is clear that there is a close degree of fit
between the program goals and objectives and the objectives of the
method. Information concerning the kinds of gains in language proficiency that the method has been shown to bring about in similar circumstances would also be needed here, if available. When a close degree
of fit between method and program objectives is lacking, a choice can
be made through "informed eclecticism." By this we mean that various
design features and procedures are selected, perhaps drawn from different methods, that can be shown to relate explicitly to program objectives. Most language teaching programs operate from a basis of
informed eclecticism rather than by attempting to rigidly implement a
specific method. A policy of uninformed eclecticism (which is how the
term eclectic or eclectic method is often used), on the other hand, would
be where techniques, activities, and features from different methods are
selected without explicit reference to program objectives.
EVALUATION
Evaluation refers to procedures for gathering data on the dynamics,
effectiveness, acceptability, and efficiency of a language program for the
purposes of decision making. Basically, evaluation addresses whether
the goals and objectives of a language program are being attained, that
is, whether the program is effective (in absolute terms). In cases where
a choice must be made between two possible program options geared
to the same objectives, a secondary focus may be on the relative effectiveness of the program. In addition, evaluation may be concerned wir"
how teachers, learners, and materials interact in classrooms, and how
teachers and learners perceive the program's goa ls, materia ls, and I carll ~
ing experiences. The relatively short life span o f most \angun ge tcachillK
methods and the absence of a system ati c approa ch to language I'I'0grnll'
development in many lan guage teachin g insrituti ons is In l')\I~ Y :m rihlll
. able to inadequate all owill1 cc fo r program cvnlwlIiOIi ill thl' pl:11l1l11lK
pro cc~s. In fh e nb scllCc o r n SlIhSllltld nl d nlrlhll S(, illforllliliH d( ' d s i"l1 ~
Comparing and evaluating methods
Administrative
considerations
~
Instructional
considerations
/
Needs assessment
/
I,
Logistical
considerations
D
n
Psychosocial
considerations
Learning objectives
Methodology
~
Method
approach
design
procedure
V
Program design
Materials
/
~
Evaluation
Figure 11.1 Language curricu lum development processes
about how effective a language program is or how its results are achieved,
chance and fashion alone often determine program adoption and adaptation. Consequently much has been written about the design of lan).\lI age teaching courses, methods, syllabuses, and materials, but little has
heen published about the impact on learners of programs, approaches,
lIIethods, instructional strategies, and materials . The relationship of the
<Ii (ferent components of language curriculum development are sumnl:,ri zed in Figure 11.1. In order to illustrate relevant issues in the evaln:1I ion of methods, we will outline the different dimensions of evaluation
""11' could be applied to the approaches and methods we have discussed
III I his book.
valuating methods
1/ ,Ilk'l"Ol'" cva lll :1tion data were available about the methods we have
1I I1 I1 IY'l.l'd, we cOllld expect ro filld :ll1swcrs to such genera l questions as
15 \1
Comparing and evaluating methods
Approaches & methods in language teaching
What aspects of language proficiency does the method address?
With what kinds of learners (chil dren, adults, etc.)
IS
the method most
effectiv e?
Is the method most effective with elementary, intermediate, or advanced
learners?
What kind of training is required of teachers?
.
Under what circumstances does th e method work best? (E.g., has
It
found
to
been
be effective with learners from different cultural backgrounds?)
How have teachers and students responded to the method?
.
How does the method compare with other methods (e .g., when used to attam
a specified type of competency)?
Do teachers using the method use it in a uniform manner?
Answers to question s like these would enable decisions to be made about
the relevance of specific methods to partIcular kmds of language programs. In order to answer these kinds of questions we look to four kmds
of data: descriptive data, observatIonal data, effectIveness data, and
comparative data. Let us consider each of these in turn.
Descriptive data
Descriptive data are objective (as far as possible) descriptions and accou nts, usually by teachers, of specific procedures used m teachmg according to a particular method. They may take the form of amplified
records of lesson plans, with detailed comments on the exact steps followed. Evalu ation specialists sometimes refer to these as "th.ck descnptions," by which is meant " literal description of the actIvIty bemg
evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the charactenstlcs
of the people involved in it, the nature of the commumty m whICh .t .s
located and the like" (Guba and Lincoln 1981: 119). Dav.d Cohen
refers t~ the use of such descriptions in foreign language teaching as
detailed first person description ... that fixes vivid perceptions in time an,d
prevents their deterioration into TEFL folklore and ,even ~y th. Such a history
of a teaching year is of applied value both pedagogIcally 111 the language
classroom and in terms of an ordered system of gUided curncu lum development . It provides a reliable "organizational mem?ry" and, ?ver time, becomes the framework for an integrative longitudinal ana lYS IS of stud ent
cohorts as they move from level to leve l w ithin the ability stream s of ;'\11 on-
going English language program. (Cohen 1984: 30)
Sylvia Ashton-Warner's book Teacher exemplifies Ill'n y of the eh,,,·at
teristics of "thick description." Here IS part of her comll1 cll1"~r y 0 11 Ihe'
use of key vocabu lary in teach ing read in!\.
•
The words, wh ich I write 0 11 l:irgl: tOl1 gh cnn.1 s and giv( 10 til l' ('.' hild" t'll 10
rcad, prove 1"0 be OIlI.:.look w(}I'ds if dl l'Y .!I't' ,lllllI'lItd y l' tllHlp,1I dlllNl 'lI , And
IflO
they are plain enough in co nversation, It's the conversation that has to be
got. However, if it can't be, I find that w hatever a child chooses to make in
the creative period may quite likely be such a word. But if the vocabulary of
a child is still inaccessible, one can always begin him on the general Key Vocabulary, common to any child in any race, a set of words bound up with
securi ty that experiments, and later 011 their creative writing, show to be orga nica ll y associated with the inn er world: "Mommy," "Daddy," "kiss,"
"frightened," "ghost."
"Mohi," I ask a new five, an undisciplined Maori, "what word do you
want?"
"Jet!"
I smile and write it on a strong little card and give it to him. "What is it
again?"
"Jet!"
"You can bring it back in the morning, What do you want, Gay ?"
Gay is the classic overdisciplined bullied victim of the respectable mother.
"Hou se," she whispers. So I write that, too, and give it into her eager
hand.
"What do you want, Seven?" Seven is a violent Maori .
"Bomb! Bomb! I want bomb!"
So Seven gets his word "bomb" and challenges anyone to take it from him.
And so on through the rest of them. They ask for a new word each morning and never have I to repeat to them what it is, And if you saw the condition of these tough little ca rds the next morning you'd know why they need
to be of tough cardboard or heavy drawing paper rather rhan thin paper.
(Ashton-Warner 1965: 32-3 )
We have found that for most of the approaches and methods we have
reviewed, there is a lack of detailed description. Most methods exist
primarily as proposals, and we have no way of knowing how they are
typically implemented by teachers. The protocols in the procedure sec.ion of each chapter represent an attempt to provide at least partial
descrip tions of how methods are used in the c1asstoom.
Observational data
(lbservational data refer to recorded observations of methods as they
.Ire being taught. Such data can be used to evaluate whether the method
." it is implemented actually conforms to its underlying philosophy or
.Ipproach. The observer is typically not the teacher, but a trained observer
widl a note pad, tape recorder, video equipment, or some other means
"I c:lI'lilting the moment-to-moment behaviors of teachers and learners
III rhe classroom. Gathering observational data is much more prob1'·"I:"i c:ll.h"" ob taining descriptive data, but ultimately more essential,
,, 1I1l'!.' it provides ;1 more accurate record of what actuall y occurred,
1"lyitlg:ls it docs 0 11 ;l ll o ut"sider's observatio ns rather than on what the
16 1
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Comparing and evaluating methods
teacher thought occurred or should occur. Classroom observation studies
are a well-establ ished and reasonably noncontroversial part of educational reporting in other fields, and we should expect reports in language
teaching to be equivalent in quality to those in general education. Studies
carried out in L2 classrooms in recent years have highlighted the potential
contribution of observational studies to method evaluation .
Long and Sato (1984), for example, looked at language use in classes
taught by teachers trained in "communicative" methodology and compared it with the language of real communication outside of classrooms
(native speakers addressing nonnatives of the same level of proficiency
as the classroom learners). They found the type of language used by the
"communicative" teachers to be very different from the language of
natural communication outside the classroom. The teachers' language
shared many of the features of the mechanical question-and-answer drills
characteristic of audiolingual classrooms. Such studies emphasize the
need for empirical study of the classroom processes (i.e., the types of
interactions between learners and learners, learners and teachers, learners and materials) as well as the classroom discourse (i.e., the types of
utterances, question-and-answer exchanges, turn taking, feedback, and
so on) that characterize methods as they are actu ally used in the classroom, as opposed to how they are described by writers on methods.
O bserved differences between methods at the level of cl assroom processes and classroom discourse may be less marked than differences at
the descriptive or theoretical level.
Swaffar, Arens, and Morgan (1982), for example, conducted a study
of differences between what they termed rationalist and empiricist approaches to foreign language instruction. By a rationalist approach they
refer to process-oriented approaches in which language learning is seen
as an interrelated whole, where language learn ing is a function of comprehension precedingiproduction, and where it involves critical thinking
and the desire to communicate. Empiricist approaches focus on the four
discrete language skills. Would such differences be reflected in differences
in classroom practices?
One consistent problem is whether or not teachers involved in presenting
materials created for a particular method are actually reflecting the under1y-
ing philosophies of these methods in their classroom practices. (Swaffar et al.
1982: 25 )
Swaffar et al. found that many of the distinctions used to contrast meth ods, particularly those based on classroom activiti es, did not ex ist in
actual practice.
•
M ethodologic::d bbcls :lssigncd 1'0 ten 'hing nClivilics nrc, ill Ihcl1Isc1v·s. nor
inform nl'ivc, hcc[w SC Ihey l'eft'1' to n pool of dnssroolll I""UI Iknol whk h IIrc
I II
used uniformly. The differences among major methodologies are to be found
in the ordered hierarchy, the priorities assigned to tasks. (1982: 31)
The implications of these findings for the study of methods are profound. They suggest that differences among methods of the kind highhghted In the present analysis need to be complemented by observational
studies of methods as they are implemented in classrooms. For example,
what kinds of techniques and strategies do teachers operating with different methods use for such tasks as clarifying meanings of words, eliciting repetition, giving feedback, correcting errors, giving directions, and
controlling learner behavior? What patterns of turn taking are observed?
What is the nature of teacher and learner discourse, both quantitatively
and qualitatively, and how do these, as well as the other features noted
here, vary according to level? We know a great deal about methods and
approaches at the level of philosophy and belief, that is, in terms of how
the advocates of a particular method believe a method or technique
should be used; but few data are available on what actually happens to
methods when teachers use them in the classroom. It is no exaggeration
to say that in reality, there is virtuall y no literature on the Natural
Approach, Communicative Language Teaching, the Silent Way, and so
on; what we have is a number of books and articles on the theory of
these methods and approaches, but almost nothing on how such theoty
IS reflected In actual classroom practices and processes. Hence the crucial
question is, Do methods really exist in terms of classroom practices, or
do teachers, when using methods, in fact transform them into more
complex but less distinctive patterns of classroom processes?
Effectiveness data
T he third kind of information needed is data on the extent to which
particular methods have been found to be effective. What is needed
minimally for specific methods is (1) documented studies of instances
where a method has been used with reference to a specific set of objectives
and (2) reliable and valid measures of gains in proficiency made by
lea rners relative to the objectives. Our profession will indicate its maIllrity by mea ns of the candor with which we are able to design, carry
0 111', and report measures of effectiveness in something like normal teachill l\ circumstances. The need to provide such data is considered normal
III 1I10st other a reas of educational planning, but data of this kind are
vi rllla\ly nonex istant in the literature on language teaching methods. It
IN silrely 1I0t
too mil ch
1'0
demand of method promoters documentation
IIf illsl'n lleeS wh 'r stlldelli's hov . 1I1:lde ga ins in pro fi ciency from being
1.lIl ght n 'CO rdlll l\ to " partielli ar appro" 'h or method. To demonstrate
II d,"I , iI Is 1Il'l:l'I'ISII ry 11 0 1 0 111 Y 10 l't 1111 p lll'C P"(' ll'st' nlid POSlI't's t reS Il II'S (:1 nd
l id
Comparing and evaluating methods
Approaches & methods in language teaching
state clearly what is being tested) but to show that the results were
achieved as a result of method rather than despite it.
The St. Lambert French immersion program in Canada offers perh aps
the closest one can come to a model evaluation study of this kind. In
that project, a reasonably large number of students have been followed
longitudinally over a six-yea r period, and their language progress and
language attitudes have been measured against the standard of cohort
groups of monolingual French and monolingual English students. An
o utline of the domains of the evaluation and summary statements of
results in four of the domains will suffice to suggest the findings:
The evaluation covered seven separate domains :
1. English language arts.
2. French language arts.
3. French-and-English-speaking skill s.
4. French phonology.
5. Achievement in content subjects.
6. Intelligence.
7. Attitudes toward French Cana dians, Engli sh Ca nad ians, European French,
and self.
In the area of English Language Arts (as measured by the Metropolitan
Achievement Tests and the Peabody Vocabulary Test), the students in
the experimental class performed as well as their English peers who had
been educated in their native language.
In the area of French Language Arts, the bilingual students when
compared with native French-speaking students are somewhat behind
in vocabulary knowledge; write compositions in French which, although
they contain no mo re grammatical errors, are less rich in content; and
score at approximately the 60th percentile on a test of French achievement.
When asked to tell in English abo ut a film they had been shown, the
bilingua l students performed simil a rl y to their English in structed
counterparts on all measures taken which included the number of episodes,
details, and inferences recounted, as well as the number of false sta rts,
grammatical self-corrections, and content self-corrections made. When
asked to tell in French about the film , the bilingual students made morc
grammatical and content self-correctio ns than native French students
but otherwise performed similarl y to them.
A number o f phonological tra its not cha racter istic of Fren ch n:Hive
speakers were noted in th e speech of many of the hi lingll :li chi ILiI·." " ,
They included the diphthongiz:nion of "h e mid-vowels, Ih,. aspl !'O I'I""
of voiceless stops, an I inappropri :ll e placill); of Slr!'ss olll il e firsl sy ll nhk,
(Swa ill and 11:II'ik 197H: ,1.1)
1M
Comparative data
The most difficult kind of data to provide is that which offers evidence
that one method is more effective than another in attaining program
objectives. St. Pierre (1979) describes the conventional method for such
eva luations:
Both experim enta l and quasi-experimental evaluatio ns exhib it many of the
same idea l characteristi cs. Program goals subject to eva lu ation are selected,
success criteria are stated, lIlt;:asures arc selected/constructed, an evaluation
design is developed, (reatment and comparison groups are formed , data are
coll ected and ana lyzed , conclus ions about the effectivenes s of the program
are drawn, and a report is written. (St. Pierre 1979 : 29)
However, the history of attempts at method comparisons should be kept
in mind. Since the 1950s a number of ambitious attempts have been
made at testing the comparative effectiveness of methods. Most often,
researchers have been unable to demonstrate the effectiveness of specific
methods. For exa mple, a maj or large-scale investigatio n of the Audiolingual Method (Smith 1970), like other methods studies before it,
fa il ed to demonstrate that the Audiolingual Method had any significa nt
impact on improvement of language learning. As Kennedy observes,
The repeated ly amb iguous results of th ese and oth er attempts to demonstrate
experimentally the superiori ty of one or another foreign language teaching
method suggest, it would seem, not only that it is extremely difficult to compare methods experim enta ll y, but, more important, that methodology may
not be the critica l va ri ab le in successful foreign language teaching. (Ken nedy
1973: 68)
Critics of the conventional model have noted that "not all sciences are
experimental; not all aspire to be. An approach to evaluation that stresses
the experimental test of causes is no t ipso facto a more scientific approach" (Glass and Ellett 1980: 223).
One way to minimize the difficulties of large-scale comparative method
evaluatio ns is through studies that are much more restricted in scope.
An example of an evaluation of this kind is a study by Wagner and
Tilwey (1983). The method they examined was derived from Suggeslopeci ia (Lozanov 1978) and Superlearning (Ostrander, Schroeder, and
Osr"111cier 1979). Advocates of Superlearning claim that learners can
k " I'll 2,000 lexical items in twenty-three ho urs by studying just three
hOllrs a day . Wagner and Tilney designed a study to evaluate these
,", ,, illl s. In their study, twenty-one subjects were rando mly assigned to
\llle of I'hrce experimental treatments or modes of vocabulary presenI.Hioll . The ex perim ental group received German language training with
SlIper! 'arni ng methodology. A second group received the same Super1e.1I'lIilll\ II I 'Ihodology but withOllt the use of Ba roqu e music - the use
1(, \'
Approaches & methods in language tea ching
of which is a key feature of Lozanov's method. A third group received
language training in the classroom and served as a no-contact control
group . Levels of vocabulary learning in each gro up were compared. The
resu lts revealed no significant improvement across the five-week experimental period. When modes of presentation were compared, those subjects taught by a traditional classroom method learned significantly more
vocab ulary than those taught according to Superlearning principles. Although this study contained a very limited number of subjects, it suggests
how specific claims of a method can be tested before a commitment is
made to implementation on a wider scale.
None of the four levels of evaluation we have described here can be
considered sufficient in itself. Descriptive data often lack reliability; they
record impressions and recollections rather than facts. Observational
data record processes and interactions but do not enable us to determine
how these affect learning outcomes. Effectiveness data record results,
but do not always tell us how or why these results were brought about.
Comparative data likewise compare outcomes, but fail to take account
of processes and actual classroom behaviors. The need for an integrated
approach to evaluation is consequently stressed:
1. Evaluation ... can be seen as a continuing part of management rather than
as a short-term consu lting contract. 2. The eva lu ator, instead of running
alo ngside the train making notes through the windows, can board the train
and influence the engineer, the conductor and the passengers. 3. The evaluator need not limit his concerns to objectives stated in advance; instead he can
also function as a naturalistic observer whose enquiries grow out of his observations. 4. The eva luator should not concentrate on outcomes; ultimately
it may prove more profitable to study just what was delivered and how people interacted during the treatment process. 5. The evaluator should recognize (and act upon the recognition) that systems are rarely influ enced by
reports in the mail. (Ross and Cronbach 1976: 18)
Unfortunately, evaluation data of any kind are a ll too rare in the vast
promotional literature on methods. Too often, techniqnes and instrnctional philosophies are advocated from a philosophical or theoretical
stance rather than on the basis of any form of evidence. Hence, despite
the amount that has been written about methods and teaching techniqnes, serious study of methods, either in terms of curriculum development practice or as classroom processes, has hardly begun. Few method
writers locate methods within curriculum development, that is; within
an integrated set of processes that invo lve systema tic data gathering,
planning, experimentation, and eva lu ation. A method proposa l is typically a rationale for techniques of presentation and practice of t.nnguag '
items. Seldom is it accompnnied by :111 CX;llllill:1riOIl or out'COll1 '8 or
classroom processes . Lnllgtlngc It,'n 'lIill g hilS l'lJolVt'd!l •.:ollsldt'l·uhk' hody
16 ('
Comparing and evaluating methods
of educational techniques, and the quest for the ideal method is part of
this tradition. The adoption of an integrated and systematic approach
to language curriculum processes underscores the limitations of such a
quest and emphasizes the need to develop a more rigorous basis for our
educational practice.
Bibliography
Ashton-Warner, S. 1965. Teacher. New York: Bantam.
Cohen, D. N. 1984. Historical TEFL: a case study. REL C Journal 51(1) : 3050.
Curran, C. 1976. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, III.:
Apple River Press.
Glass, G. V., and F. S. Ell ett. 1980. Evaluation research. Allnual Review o(
Psychology 31: 211-28.
Guba, E. G., and Y. S. Lincoln. 1981. E((ective Evaluatioll: Improving the Use(ulness o( Evaluation Results Through Responsive and Naturalistic Approaches. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kennedy, G. 1973. Conditions for language learning. In ]. W. Oller and ]. C.
Richards (eds.), Focus on the Learner, pp. 66-80. Rowley, Mass. : Newbury
House.
Liskin-Gasparro,]. 1984. The ACTFL proficiency guidelines: an historical perspective. In T. Higgs (ed.), Teaching (or Proficiency, pp. 11-42. Lincolnwood, III.: National Textbook Co.
Long, M. H. 1984. Process and product in ESL program evaluation. TESOL
Quarterly 18 (3) : 409-25 .
Long, M. H., and C. Sato. 1983. Classroom foreigner talk discourse; forms and
functions of teacher's questions. In H. Seliger and M. Long (eds.), Classroom Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition, pp. 268-86.
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Lozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines o( Suggestopedy. New York:
Gordon and Breach.
Ostrander, S., L. Schroeder, and N. Ostrander. 1979. Super/earning. New York:
Dell.
Richards, J. C. 1984. Language curriculum development. RELe Journal 15(1):
1-29.
Ross, L., and L.]. Cronbach. 1976. Review of the Handbook o( Evaluation
Research. Educational Researcher 5(9) : 9-19.
Smith, P. D. Jr. 1970. A Comparison o( the Cognitive and Audiolingual Approaches to Foreign Language Instruction. Philadelphia: Center for Curricu lum Development.
Swafb r, J. K., K. Arens, and M. Morgan. 1982. Teacher classroom practices:
redefining method as task hierarchy. The Modern Language Journal 66(1 ):
24- .13.
SI. Pierre, R. C. '1979. The role of multiple analyses in qua si-ex perimental eva l11 :11 iOll s. l~rlllcafj0111l1 J~vfllllnli()11 (1Nd Policy Al1alysis 1(6): 5- 10.
Approaches & methods in language teaching
Swam, M., and H . Ba n k. 1978. BIlingua l educa tion in Canada: French and
English . In B. Spolsky and R. Cooper (eds.), Case Stud.es in Bilingual
EducatIOn Pl'. 22-71. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Wagner, M.
and G. T il ney . 1983 . The effect of "superl earn ing techniques"
on the vocabu la ry acquis ition and alpha brainwave productIon of language
lea rners . TESOL Quarterly 17(1 ): 5-19.
Index
J.:
acqu isitio n/lea rn ing hy pothesis, ·13 1
a ffective filter hypothesis, 133
Anthon y, E. , '15- "16
J pos teriori sy llabus, 2 1
a pplied lingui stics, 8, 11
a pproac h
Anthon y's model, 15
defined, "16-19, 28
th eory of language, J6-17
theory o f la nguage learn ing, 18-19
a priori sy ll abus, 2 1
Army Method , see Army Speciali zed
Tra in ing Prog ram
Arm}' Special ized Train ing Program ,
44-5
As her, .I., 87
Aud io lingua l Method, 1'1, 17, 44-60
com pa red ro Communicative Language Teaching, 67-8
co mpa red to SinIJtiolla l Language
Teaching, 6 1
Aural-Ora l Approach, 47
l!o nero ft, ]., J 50
hehaviora l psychology, 50-1
Ikrl irz, M., 9-10
hio -program , 90
Hloomfie ld, L. , 44-5
hr;lin, 9 -1
111' :1 i 11 Ia rc r;:tl i z~ltio n , 90
n.....T ll , M. , 77
HHHlk cs, N., 52, 53, 57, 142
Hlown, It., I I
Bl lIlIl til, C., X I
1I1111H"1', ,I. . 99- 100
•
( ,HIlII III , ( '" 77
( IU1t Il ,> k )r,
N .• )\), (v i , 10
\ 111\11 11 l VI' ~\f dt , 11 ' .11111 11 1\, itO
Col eman Repo rt, 11, 15
Communi ca tive Approach, see Com municative Langu<l ge Teaching
commun icatiye co mpetence, 69
Co m mu nica ti ve Lan guage Teac hi ng,
22,64-8 3
co mmunicati ve syll a bus, 65, 74
COllllTIu nity Language Lea rn ing, 1821 , 26, 113-26
compared with Total Ph ys ica l Response, 154-5
co mp etence, 59-60, 7 1
Co mprehension Approach, 87
co ntrastive ana lys is, 46, 53
co n vali dat io n, 11 8
Council o f Europe, 65, 73
Co un sel ing-Learning Theo ry, see
Commu nity Langua ge Learning
cui senai re rods, 99 , 110- 11
Curran, c., 18, 113
curricu lulll dev elop ment, 155
Dav ies, P., 41
deductive approac h, 4
des ign, 20-6
content, 20-2
defined, 20, 28
learner rol es, 23
o bjectives , 20
rol e of instructio!l::1 1 materia ls, 24
teac he r roles, 23
types of learn ing and teaching activities, 22
Direct Method, 9-11 , 33, 129
dri lls, 53-6
cc k CI i..: lllL'dHH.I, 1S~
1': lI gli sh for Specifi c l'urposL's (I-:S I)),
17, 'I
\ 'V. dll . lIIHII ,
I ,N (IN
,Index
In dex
Fidel charts, 108
Finocch iaro, M., 81
Firth, J., 35, 68-9
" foreigner ta lk," ] 33
Mackey, W., 15-16
Ma lays ian syllabus, 7.5
Franke, F., 9
freque ncy counts, 32
Fries, c., 45, 46, 47
funct ional a pp roach, 66
see also co mmunicative Language
method (defined), 11-12, 15-29
M a lin ows ki, B., 68
Marcel, C., 5
Teachin g
fun ction a l linguists, 64
fU llction al view of language, 17
funct ions of la nguage (Ha llid ay),
Gattegno, c., 19, 99
Go uin, F., 5-6, 9
Method, 3-5,
32
Hall iday, M., 35, 70
Ho rnby, A., 31
Howatt, A., 66
humanistic approach, 11 3, 114
Hymes, D. , 69-70
inductive approach, "' 0,36,51,92
in formant method , 45
infor mation gap/transfer, 22
in put hypothesis, 130, 132 , 133
instru ctio nal materi als, 24, 26
interactio na l view o f language, 17,
11 6
International Phonetic Association, 7
Jes persen, 0., 14
Kra shen, S., 18, 72, 128
La Forge, P. , 115, 11 6
language curriculum develo pment,
156-9
language teachin g histo ry, 1-12
Larin , teaching of, 1- 4
lea rner ro les, 23
learnin g ;) nd ;) cCjllisili o ll , 1.11
Li trl cwood . W,' 72·-.1
I ,Ol'll IlIlV, (; '. I ' l l
1'/11
159-67
mon itor theory/h ypothesis, 18, 13 1-
2
Moskowitz., G., 114
Moul to n, W., 49
Natio nal Defense Educatibn Act, 47
Natu ral Approac h, 18, 128-41
70
G r a mmar ~Tra n s l at i o n
method co m'p ar ison and evaluat io n,
natu ra l meth ods, 7- '10, 129
natura l order h ypothes is, 132
need s analys is, 78, 156
notio nal -functi onal app roach, 27, 66
see also Comm un icative Language
Teach in g
noriona l syllabus, 17,65,74
objecti ves, 20, 157
Oral Approach, 3 1-4
SARD, 11 8
Sauveu r, L., 9
Scovel, T., 142, 152
Silent Way, 17, 19, 27, 99-111
Situatio nal Approach, see Situ ati o nal
Language Teaching
Situational Language Teachin g, 6,
3 1-43,64
co mpared to Co m municative Language Teac hing, 64, 83
si tuatio~a l sylla bus, 37
Skinner, B., 51
Stevick, E., 27
stimulu s- respo nse learn ing, 49-50,
89
Structural Approach, 47
stru ctural ism, '17,35,49
stru ctu ral ling ui sti cs, 46, 48
st ru ctural-s ituat io nal approach,
34
st ru ctu ral sy ll a bus, 37, 104
substitut io n tab les, 33
suggest ion, 144
Suggcstology, 142
Suggesro pedia, 142-52
super learn in g, 146
Pa lmer, H. , 14,3 1,88
Passy , P., 7, 8
pattern pract ice, 46
ph oneti cs, 7
Pittman , G., 34
Prendergast, T" 5
Sweet, H., 7, 11 , 14
syllabus, 20, 2 J
tas ks, 72, 80
(ask sy llab us, 75
Ta te, G., 33
teacher roles, 2.1
techn ique, 15, 16
Terrell , T., 18, 128
theory, '17
of language, 17- 18
of language-learni ng, 18- 19
thres hold level, 65, 74
Total Ph ys ica l Res ponse, 6, 17, 19,
87-97
co mpared to Com muni ty La n v
guage Learn ing, 154-5
transformat ional gram mar, 59
Vietor, W., 7-8
voca bulary co ntro l, 32
West, M., 32
Whole-person lea rnin g, 11 7
Wi ddowson, H., 71
Wilkins, D., 17, 65
proced ure (defi ned), 16, 26- 7, 28
com ma nds, 95-6
di alogues, 58, 67, 81, 93
rea li a, 41
repetition, 40
use of tape recorder, 125
proccsslcondirio n theories, see theory
process/prod uct objectives, 20
profi ciency guideli nes, 157
Pruss ian M ethod, see Gra mm a rTra ns la tion MedlO<.1
readin g 11l(;t ho d , I I , 15
Refo rm MOVe llll' lI t, 7- X
Robl' l'I s, .I "
"I
•
rod s. S f'(' l'lli st' IHlil'l' l'od 1'o
I tuHt' I ~. C" I I I
I(ONN II t' I , H •• ' 11
I~I