GIVENS HUM 212 NOTES
Alex Consentino
SPRING 2022 Pepperdine University
Hum 212
Hum 212................................................................................................................................ 1
Jan 20 class notes...........................................................................................................................4
Outline..................................................................................................................................................................4
Ad Fontes: ............................................................................................................................................................4
Francesco Petrarch ..........................................................................................................................................4
Influence ..........................................................................................................................................................4
Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) .....................................................................................................................4
New techniques of scholarship ............................................................................................................................5
Lorenzo Valla (1405-1477) ..............................................................................................................................5
General statements .........................................................................................................................................5
The revival of Greek .............................................................................................................................................5
The rebirth of Greek learning ..........................................................................................................................5
Greek Philosophy in the Renaissance ..............................................................................................................5
Humanism and the Recovery of Virtue ................................................................................................................6
Humanism and Virtue......................................................................................................................................6
Humanism and Education ...............................................................................................................................6
Jan 31 ............................................................................................................................................6
Renaissance Politics and the New Monarchs .......................................................................................................6
Renaissance Politics and the New Monarchs ..................................................................................................6
Florence and the de Medicis ...........................................................................................................................7
Late Medieval England ....................................................................................................................................7
France under Louis XI (r.1461-1483) ...............................................................................................................7
Fifteenth-Century Castile ................................................................................................................................7
The Catholic Monarchs ....................................................................................................................................7
The Spanish Inquisition ...................................................................................................................................8
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) .....................................................................................................................8
Feb 10th .........................................................................................................................................8
The Conquest of the Americas .............................................................................................................................8
Further Exploration – Western Hemisphere ...................................................................................................8
The Conquest of the Mainland .............................................................................................................................8
Hernan Cortes and the Aztecs .........................................................................................................................8
Francisco Pizarro and the Incas .......................................................................................................................9
Feb 21st ..........................................................................................................................................9
Background ..........................................................................................................................................................9
Matin Luther( 1438-1546) ....................................................................................................................................9
The Key Principals ..............................................................................................................................................10
Feb 24th ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Protestantism Unleashed and Controlled ..........................................................................................................10
The German Peasants’ War (1524-1525) ......................................................................................................10
The Princes Convert ......................................................................................................................................11
Anabaptism ...................................................................................................................................................11
Confessionalization .......................................................................................................................................11
The Münster Commune (1534-1535) ............................................................................................................12
Henry VIII (r.1509-1547) ................................................................................................................................12
The Later Tudors ...........................................................................................................................................12
John Calvin (1509-1564) ................................................................................................................................12
Christendom Divided, c. 1555 .......................................................................................................................13
March 7th ..................................................................................................................................... 13
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE ..................................................................................................................................13
The Failure of Reunion ..................................................................................................................................13
THE INQUISITION ...............................................................................................................................................14
The Roman Inquisition .......................................................................................................................................14
THE COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-1563) ................................................................................................................14
The Accomplishments of Trent ..........................................................................................................................16
THE NEW ORDERS ..............................................................................................................................................16
The Jesuit Order .................................................................................................................................................17
The Other Orders ..........................................................................................................................................17
Missions, Home and Abroad .........................................................................................................................17
MANNERIST AND BAROQUE ART .......................................................................................................................17
Key Terms ...........................................................................................................................................................17
March 10th .................................................................................................................................. 24
The Wars of Charles V ........................................................................................................................................24
The Inheritance of Charles V (r.1519-1556) .................................................................................................24
The Habsburg-Valois Conflict ........................................................................................................................24
The Turkish Threat – Suleiman the Magnificent (r.1520-1566) ...................................................................25
The Conquests of Suleiman ...........................................................................................................................25
Trouble in the Empire ....................................................................................................................................26
Charles’ Abdication (1556) ............................................................................................................................26
The Battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571) .............................................................................................................26
The Wars of Religion ..........................................................................................................................................26
Religious Strife in England .............................................................................................................................26
The Wars of Religion in France ......................................................................................................................27
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (Aug.24, 1572) .............................................................................................27
France Descends into Chaos ..........................................................................................................................27
The Dutch Revolt ................................................................................................................................................28
The Challenge of the Netherlands .................................................................................................................28
The Iconoclats Riots (1566) ...........................................................................................................................28
The Fighting Begins .......................................................................................................................................28
The “Enterprise of England” ..........................................................................................................................28
March 21st ................................................................................................................................... 29
The Search for Stability – Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe .............................................29
The Early Reign of Louis XIV (r.1643-1715) ........................................................................................................29
The Fronde (1648-1653) ................................................................................................................................29
Louis’ Personal Reign .....................................................................................................................................29
The Power of Image ......................................................................................................................................30
Colbert and Mercantilism ..............................................................................................................................30
The War of Devolution (1667-1668) and The Dutch War (1672-1678) .........................................................30
The Aftermath of the Dutch War (1678-1688) .............................................................................................30
The Stuart Restoration .......................................................................................................................................31
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) ........................................................................................................................31
The Reign of Charles II (r.1660-1685) ............................................................................................................31
The Succession Crisis .....................................................................................................................................31
The Triumph of Constitutionalism in England ....................................................................................................31
The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) ...........................................................................................................31
John Locke (1631-1704) ................................................................................................................................32
April 4th ....................................................................................................................................... 32
The Enlightenment .............................................................................................................................................32
What is Enlightenment ..................................................................................................................................32
Causes for French Centrality .........................................................................................................................33
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and the Encyclopedia ..................................................................................................33
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Seconde, Baron de (1689-1755) .................................................................33
François-Marie Arouet, a.k.a. Voltaire (1694-1778) ......................................................................................33
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) ............................................................................................................................33
The Encyclopedia ...........................................................................................................................................33
The Radical Enlightenment ................................................................................................................................34
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Early Life .............................................................................................34
Rousseau the Political Theorist .....................................................................................................................34
The Marquis de Condorcet ............................................................................................................................34
The Scottish Enlightenment ...............................................................................................................................34
Overview .......................................................................................................................................................34
Adam Smith (1723-1790) ..............................................................................................................................34
April 11th The Struggle for Europe and for Empire ......................................................................... 35
The Reign of Louis XV .........................................................................................................................................35
Louis XV (r.1715-1774) ..................................................................................................................................35
The Ministry of Fleury (1726-1743) ...............................................................................................................35
Madame du Pompadour (1721-1764) ...........................................................................................................35
France in the 18th Century .............................................................................................................................35
April 18th French revolution ......................................................................................................... 35
The Moderate Revolution (1789-1791) .............................................................................................................35
The National Assembly (1789) ......................................................................................................................35
The Issue of the Church .................................................................................................................................36
April 21st The Napoleonic Wars .................................................................................................... 36
The Thermidorian Reaction ................................................................................................................................36
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory ..............................................................................................36
The Rise of Napoleon ....................................................................................................................................36
Napoleon Triumphant ........................................................................................................................................37
Austria Defeated, Napoleon Crowned ..........................................................................................................37
The War of the Third Coalition ......................................................................................................................37
The Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805) ..........................................................................................................37
The Defeat of Prussia ....................................................................................................................................38
The Peninsular War .......................................................................................................................................38
Napoleon Defeated ............................................................................................................................................38
The Russian Campaign (1812) .......................................................................................................................38
The Wars of Liberation ..................................................................................................................................38
The Fall of Napoleon .....................................................................................................................................38
The Congress of Vienna (1815)......................................................................................................................39
Final Exam Study Guide ....................................................................................................... 39
Jan 20 class notes
Outline
 ad fontes- rediscovering the classical past
a. petrach
b. Giovanni boccacio
 new techniques of scholarshipa Lorenzo valle
b. general statements
 the revival of Greek
a. meoel crysolaras
b. marsillo ficino
c. Giovanni pico della mirandola and the oration of the dignity of man

The Recovery of Virtue
A. Humanism and Virtue
B. Humanism and Education
What was the renaissance?
 Art
 Religion
 Philosophy
Ad Fontes:
“to the sources” -latin
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)
- Well off background
- Father was exiled from Florence
- Went to lawschool, liked to study classic latin literature
- Got a job as a church advocate
- Used office to travel
- Had a “lust” for books
- Born after the dark ages
Influence
o Greatest scholar of his day
o Advocated study of humanities
o Discovered and restored manuscripts  developed textual and philological
criticism
o Advocate of classical greatness
Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375)
• Background
• Big fan of dante
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• Was more fond of tuscan over latin unlike Petrarch
Friendship and Quarrels with Petrarch
The Decameron (1348-1353)
• Story of people who flea to Naples during plague
• They share stories
Genealogies of the Pagan Gods (c.1360)
Vita di Dante (1364)
Discovered and translated many classical texts, especially Tacitus
New techniques of scholarship
Lorenzo Valla (1405-1477)
• Greatest Humanist Scholar before Erasmus
• Disproving the authenticity of The Donation of Constantine (1440)
• He showed that this document that the papacy was using wasn’t true
• Said that pope healed him and Constantine converted
• Harsh critic of scholasticism
• Thought it was pointless
• Didn’t encourage anything good
• Annotations on the New Testament  criticism of Jerome’s Vulgate
• Thought that bible was a flawed translation
General statements
• Interests of Humanists led to the discovery of more texts 
• More texts  textual criticism  critical texts
• More texts also led to closer study of words and style  philology
• As more texts from the same author were found, content could be compared 
• Broader textual knowledge  ability to distinguish between genuine and spurious texts
(historical criticism)
The revival of Greek
The rebirth of Greek learning
• The Motives for Greek Learning
– Manoel Crysoloras seeking military help
– Is conviced to teach Greek and settle
• Manoel Crysoloras (1353-1415)
• Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499)
– Head of the Platonic Academy in Florence from 1462
– Fluent in Greek, loved Plato
– Plato’s work wasn’t well known
– Aristotle was more dominant
– Wrote Platonic Theology
– Principal figure in Renaissance revival of Plato  Renaissance Neoplatonism
– Translated all of plato to latin
– Plato believed in the eternal life of the soul
Greek Philosophy in the Renaissance
• Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494)
– Humanist/Neoplatonist author
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Prodigy
At 23 he offered a whole series of propositions to be debated by the church
The Apologia (1486)
Wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)
• Pico's Oration attempted to remap the human landscape to center all
attention on human capacity and human perspective. Arriving in a place near
Florence, he taught the amazing capacity of human achievement. "Pico
himself had a massive intellect and studied everything there was to be
studied in the university curriculum of the Renaissance; the Oration in part is
meant to be a preface to a massive compendium of all the intellectual
achievements of humanity, a compendium that never appeared because of
Pico's early death
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• That man’s freedom is what makes one so wonderous
• Stated that their was wisdom to be had from other religions philosphers
Interest in the Kaballah
The Unity of Knowledge
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The Spread of Greek Philosophy
• Stoicism
• Epicureanism
• Skepticism
Humanism and the Recovery of Virtue
Humanism and Virtue
• Ad Fontes
• We need to go to the source
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The Rediscovery of Cicero
• Argued that as the roman republic collapsed into to dictatorship, how do you
remain a good person
• Neoplatonism and the Great Chain of Being
• The Pursuit of Virtue
• How to live a good life compared to how to live a successful one
Humanism and Education
• Humanist vs. Scholastic Education
• The uomo universale  the ideal of the “Renaissance Man”
• If you love virtue, you need to be inspired
• Pier Paolo Vergerio – On Good Manners (1402)
• Civic Humanism
• Wealth, Glory, and Virtue
• The Meaning of Life
Jan 31
Renaissance Politics and the New Monarchs
Renaissance Politics and the New Monarchs
• By 1454, most medieval communes had been replaced by Princely regimes
• Five Major Powers
– Milan
– Venice
– Naples
– Florence
– The Papal States
• The Peace of Lodi (1454)
• 45 years of Italian peace
• This is because ottomans took Constantinople
Florence and the de Medicis
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Medicis
Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464)
• Banker to the papacy
• One of the richest men in Europe
Lorenzo “the Magnificent” (1449-1492)
Maintaining control in Florence
The Medicis and patronage
The Florentine Republic (1494-1512)
The Republic of Florence and the de Medicis
Late Medieval England
• The Aftermath of the Hundred Years War
• The War of the Roses (1455-1485) – White Rose of York vs. Red Rose of Lancaster
• The Tudors
• Henry VII (r.1485-1509)
• The Marriage of Prince Henry
France under Louis XI (r.1461-1483)
• “The Universal Spider”
• Son of king Charles XII
• Domestic Policies
• The League of Public Weal (1465)
• Helping His Neighbors’ Enemies
• Charles the Bold (r.1467-1477) and the Issue of Burgundy
• Wanted to create a new kingdom
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• The Treaty of Arras (1482)
Fifteenth-Century Castile
• Aftermath of the Great Castilian Civil War (1366-1369)
• The Struggle with the Grandees
– John II (r.1406-1454) and Alvaro de Luna vs. the Infantes
– Henry IV “the Impotent” (r.1454-1474)
•  Chaos
The Catholic Monarchs
• Ferdinand and Isabella
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The War of Succession (1469-1479) vs. Juana la Beltraneja
– Isabella wins
• The Re-Establishment of Order – La Santa Hermandad
– The holy brotherhood/ militia
– Psudo police force
– Isabella centralizes all of them
• The Re-Establishment of Royal Power
– The Act of Resumption
– The Concejo Real
– New royal council
• A New Foreign Policy = Rivalry with France in Italy
The Spanish Inquisition
• The Converso Problem (from 1391)
• The Revolt of Toledo (1449)
• The Inquisition Established (1478)
• Tomás de Torquemada (1420-1498)
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)
• Career in the Republic
• After the Republic
• Writings:
– The Prince (1513; pub. 1531)
– The Discourses (1518; pub. 1531)
– The Art of War (1521)
• Influence
Feb 10th
The Conquest of the Americas
Further Exploration – Western Hemisphere
• Amerigo Vespucci (1499-1502) – Mundus Novus- new worlds (1503)
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• Balboa discovers the Pacific (1513)
• Magellan circumnavigates the globe (1519-1522)
• Led first expedition
• Killed in philipenes
• Motives and Myths – El Dorado and the Seven Cities of Cíbola
• 7 Portuguese bishops and set up their own society
• The Encomienda System
• The Requirement (1513)
• Legal fiction to justify punishment of natives
• You can submit peacefully
• Or they conquer you
The Conquest of the Mainland
Hernan Cortes and the Aztecs
• Cortez heads to the Mainland (1519)
• Without permission
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La Malinche
Tlaxcala and the Aztec Empire
Tenochtitlán
Moctezuma
La Noche Triste (July 1, 1520)
Cuahtemoc and the Conquest of the Tenochtitlan (Aug. 13, 1521)
Francisco Pizarro and the Incas
• Balboa and Francisco Pizarro (1513)
• Smallpox: Huayan Capac, Atahualpa, and Huascar
• Cajamarca (Nov. 15, 1532)
• Atahualpa executed (Aug. 29, 1533)
• Lima Founded (Jan. 6, 1535)
• The Rule and Rebellion of Manco Inca (1535-1544)
• Pizarro Assassinated (June 26, 1541)
Feb 21st
Background
 The catholic reformers- cardinal Cisneros (1436-1517)
 The failure of curial reform- fifth lateran council (1512-1517)
 New learning
o More people became unsure if church was on the right track
Matin Luther( 1438-1546)
 Early Life
o Upper middle class- father owned mines
 Father wanted him to go to law school
 The vow to St. Anne(1505)
o Call made in desperation of his life, if he were rescued he would become a monk
o Entered augustinians -strictest of the monks in Germany
 Would profusely confess for hours
 Struggled to find peace
o Thought that god was imposing an impossible moral
standard
 The problem of sin- the tower experience (1515)
o Epiphany- realized that was reading everything wrong
 God knew we couldn’t achieve moral perfection
 Said that god required faith
 Johann Tetzel and the indulgence controversy
o Paying for being forgiven for sins
 The 95 Theses (oct 31. 1517)
o In response to indulgence
 Provoke formal debate
 Questioned whether pope had the right to do indulgences at all
 Diet of Augsburg (1519)
o Demanded to say that he was wrong and that pope was right
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 Calls pope antchrist
The reformation treatises(1520)
o Freedom. Of a Christian
o The Babylonian captivity of the church
 Argumentative criticism of medieval sacramental system
 Should only be three
o Address to the German Nobility
 Direct appeal to German Princes
 Said they had a responsibility to reform the Church
The diet of worms (1521)
o Summoned by emperor Charles V
 Given choice to accept or reject choices
 He accepts that he believes he is right
o Kidnapping
 Luther kidnapped himself into protective hiding
Translation of New testament(1522), old testament (1534)
Dis mf look like Kevin James ngl
o
The Key Principals
 Sola fide
 Sola scriptura
o Do only what scripture says
 Ran into issue of what tradition is and what scripute doestn cover
 The priesthood of all believers
o You can have a direct connection to God
o You receive forgiveness directly from god
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 The difference between law and grace
Feb 24th
Protestantism Unleashed and Controlled
The German Peasants’ War (1524-1525)
• Background of Violence
• Prevented logging
• Made them mill grain in government owned mills
• Thomas Müntzer (c.1488-1525)
• The Twelve Articles (April 1525)
• Sporadic outbreaks of violence in southern germany
• Peasants tired of abuse
• First starts off as small attacks then transitioned to bigger ones
• Some articles inspired by Luthers ideas
• All practices of the church judged by the word of scripture
• Violence on both sides begin to spread as tension rises
• Luther’s Changing Attitude
• At first was sympathetic to peasants
• However he condemned their violence
• If lords don’t change, then they should accept suffering
• As word spreads about violence, he becomes less and less sympathetic
• Hears about former college who is rallying peasants
• Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525)
• Largest battle between nobles and peasants
• Oppression on peasants throughout holy roman empire
• Over a year 100,000 people were killed
The Aftermath
• Life got worse for peasants
The Princes Convert
• Teutonic Order/Prussia, 1525
• Duke Johan and Electoral Saxony, 1525
• Philip of Hesse, 1526
• Brandenburg, 1539
• Scandinavia, 1520s-1540s
 Coloquy at Marburg (1529)
 Diet of Speyer (1529)  “Protestants”
Anabaptism
• The Issue of Infant Baptism
• Break with Zwingli
• Three disciples that began to question baptism
• Only adults should be baptized
• Threat to Society
• Reject christindom as corrupt
• Take issue with luther and Zwingli
• Believed there needed to be more reform
• Intense Moralism
• Counter Culturalism and Persecution
Confessionalization
• Confessionalization  Institutionalization
• Set up new institutions
• Come up with new reformed creeds
• Philip Melancthon (1497-1560)
• Left cathothic church in favor of luther
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• The Augsburg Confession (1530)
• The Schmalkaldic League (1531)
• Defensive alliance
• If emporer tried to use force, they would resist using military
The Münster Commune (1534-1535)
• John of Leyden
• The Siege of Munster
• Menno Simons
• The Question of Control
Henry VIII (r.1509-1547)
• Catherine of Aragon and the Issue of the English Heir
• Anne Boleyn and the King’s “Great Matter”
• Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cramner
• The Act of Supremacy (1534)
• Says that the king is the leader of the church in England
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• The Trial of Sir Thomas More (1535)
• The Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1539) and the Pilgrimage of Grace (15361537)
The Later Tudors
• The Spread of Protestantism
• Edward VI (r.1547-1553) and Thomas Cranmer
• The Reign of “Bloody” Mary (r. 1553-1558)
• Elizabeth I (r.1558-1603)
– The Doctrine of Adiaphora
– Puritans and Recusants
– Royal Supremacy
John Calvin (1509-1564)
• Early Life
• Flight to Basel (1533)
• Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536, 1555)
• Calvin in Geneva (1541)
• Calvin’s Theology = T.U.L.I.P.
• Total Depravity
• Unconditional election
• Limited Atonement
• Irresistible Grace
• Perseverance of the saints
• The Spread of Calvinism
• Influence
Christendom Divided, c. 1555
March 7th
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
The Failure of Reunion
All sides of religious division there was a cohesive belief that Christians should be united,
disagreement fell regarding what type of Christianity.
 The Diet of Augsburg (1530)
o “Alternative Creed”
o Official statement that is different from Roman Catholic creed
o Still hope to debate and find common ground
 The Continuing Desire for Reform
 The Spirituali
o Want to find compromise?
 The Zelanti – Gian Pietro Carafa
o Thought there should be no compromising
 The Papacy of Paul III (r.1534-1549) → The Reform Commission (1536-1537)
o Considered first of Counter-reformation stuff (papacy)
o First pope who says the real issue is confronting Protestantism
o Appoints reform commission to propose solutions
o Chooses cardinals from both sides of debate
 The Coloquy of Regensburg (1541) – The Last Hope for Reconciliation
o More peace-keeping people on protestant side
o Tried to find a way for both sides to agree and division to be healed
o Both sides complimented each other – they were sincere
o Sadly coloquy could not work out the differences on the authority of the Pope and
the role of a priest – gap between theologies was too great
o Both sides failed when leaving Regensburg
 The Aftermath of Failure
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Popular preachers in Italy became so frustrated by failure that they perceived as
unwillingness, they fled Italy and became Protestant – HUGE scandal
THE INQUISITION
The Spanish Inquisition
 Persecution of Erasmians (1530s-1540s)
o “Authority of Pope is problem”
o Spain first implements systematic way of fixing problem → Censorship
 Books, pamphlets writings all became censored
 List of Books came out that were banned … including Erasmus
 1550 : huge scandal happened? Clamping? lmao
 The Index (1551)
 The Lutheran Scare (1557-1558)
 The Great Autos-de-fé
o Huge shift
o Huge public ceremony that sometimes would last for days, hundreds of penatents
would walk to the church to repent
o “Social occasion”
o Reason it became public was, because both church and state wanted to shower
power of triumphing over enemies
 Expanded Jurisdiction
 Portugal (from 1531)
o Based on Spanish model
The Roman Inquisition
Modeled on Spanish Inquisition
 Establishment (1542)
o Created to hunt down Protestants
o Now there is competition
 Persecution vs. Protestants
o Desire to show that they're the one true Church
 Persecution vs. Superstition
 The Index (1559)
o Created own index of Abolished books
 Social Disciplining
 France – La Chambre Ardente (from 1547)
o Never really existed, but mirrored La Chambre
o Made it so you could be executed for heresay
THE COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-1563)
Pressures for a Council
The Location Chosen – Trent

Compromised location to be close to everyone
The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563)
 The First Period (1545 - 1547)
o Recognized that Protestants are spreading all over
 Council members had conflicting ideas
 Emperor Charles V- wanted to maintain power and keep land away from
the Turks
 The gallicans- another group of Bishops interested in protecting national
churches
o Reform or Doctrine?
 Doctrine first then second session to deal with corruption
o The Question of Justification
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How do we get to heaven
Vote against any concession to protestants
o The Question of Residency
 Non-residency is a problem and decide to discuss it later
o Keep reassuring Catholic form
o No concessions given to Luther or Protestants
The Conclave of 1550-1551
The Second Period (1551-1552)
o No compromise
 On issue of Mass
 Host was on valid if blessed by a priest
o Rebellion in Germany
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Carrafa becomes Pope Paul IV (r.1555-1559)
 The Ghetto
 Forced Jews to wear distinctive clothes and made them live in
specific neighborhoods
 The Index (1559)
 Created first roman index
 The Spanish Question
 From Naples thus he hated Spanish
 Emperor and Pope never got along
 Banned nude renaissance art
The Third Period (1562-1563)
o Final session
o After Paul IV dies
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The Accomplishments of Trent
 Provided dogmatic statements of doctrine
o Defined doctrine, enabled them to clearly rule out protestants
 Defined Catholic moral norms more clearly
o Practice of weddings with priests became rule
 Instituted some reforms of hierarchy
o Confessional boxes
o Eliminated unjust practices
 Emphasized pastoral care at parish level
o Every parish would have a requirement for clergy to know latin
o More dedicated clergy
THE NEW ORDERS
Iñigo de Loyola (1491-1556)
 Wounded in Pamplona (1521) → conversion
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Warrior, fought in battle between France and spain
During recovery he found God
The Spiritual Exercises
The Vow at Montmartre (1534)
o He will dedicate himself to the Roman Church
Jesuit Order approved (1540)
o Approved as extension of Church monks
o Grew rapidly
The Jesuit Order
 Centralized, military organization
o Ran like the military
o Obedience stressed on
 Active Order
o Wanted to be out in the world and attempt conversions
 Role : Preaching in Europe
o Prime role of the order
o Smuggle themselves into protestant areas to attempt conversions
o Taught rural areas about proper church ettiquete
 Role : Tutors to Elite
 Role : Advisers
The Other Orders
 Capuchins – Fr. Matteo de Bascio (1528)
o Emphasis on true poverty
 Ursulines – Angela Merici (1532)
o Female jesuits
Missions, Home and Abroad
 Preaching in the countryside
 Preaching in Protestant areas
 Preaching Outside Europe
o The New World
o St. Francis Xavier’s mission to India (1542-1548)
o Mission to China (1549-1551)
MANNERIST AND BAROQUE ART
Key Terms
 The Spanish Siglo de Oro
 Mannerism
o El Greco-Greek Painter
o Deliberate distortion of art to add dramatic effect
o

Baroque Art
o

Rococo
EL GRECO (1541-1614)
St. Andrew and St. Francis (1595)
Added height for dramatic effect
St. Mary Magdalene (1576-1578)
Depiction of Mary as a reformed prostitute
Christ Driving the Traders from the Temple
More emotion
The Dream of Philip II (1579)
PETER PAUL RUBENS (1577-1640)
Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (c. 1616)
Never seen a hippo so painted what he thought from a description
St. George and the Dragon (1607)
Chained Prometheus (1612)
Bacchanalia (c.1615)
Venus at a Mirror (c.1615)
Bathsheba at the Fountain (c.1635)
DIEGO VELAZQUEZ (1599-1660)
March 10th
I.
The Wars of Charles V
A. The Inheritance of Charles V
B. The Habsburg-Valois
Conflict
C. The Turkish Threat –
Suleiman the Magnificent
D. Trouble in the Empire
E. The Abdication of Charles V
F. The Battle of Lepanto
II.
The Wars of Religion
A. Religious Strife in
England
B. The Wars of Religion
in France
III. The Dutch Revolt
A. The Challenge of the
Netherlands
B. The Fighting Begins
C. “The Enterprise of England”
The Wars of Charles V
The Inheritance of Charles V
(r.1519-1556)
The Habsburg-Valois Conflict
• Four Wars (1515-1544) vs. Francis I of France (r.1515-1547)
• Actually led his armies
• Habsburg controlled austria and spain,
• Valois had France and were controlling family
• The Battle of Pavia (Feb. 25, 1525)
• King Francis captured
• The Sack of Rome (May 6-14, 1527)
• Imperial army that hadn’t been paid thus the threatened to attack Rome
• Stormed walls of Rome and spared no one
• 8 days of pillaging
• Perception that Habsburg army was attacking the holy city
• The Spanish Tercio
• Spanish infantry
• Highly trained
• Gave significant advantage
• Spain Ascendant
The Turkish Threat –
Suleiman the Magnificent (r.1520-1566)
The Conquests of Suleiman
• The Conquest of Syria and Egypt by Selim I ‘the Grim’ (r.1512-1520)
• Turks begin to control eastern Europe
• Belgrade (1521)
• Rhodes (1522)
•
• The Battle of Mohács (1526)  Hungary Falls
• Turks fight Hungarians
• Hungarians are destroyed
• King drowns
• The Siege of Vienna (Sept. 26 – Oct. 16, 1529)
•
•
•
Charles is occupied and lets Ferdinand deal with it
Ferdinand is completely out numbered
Western Europeans terrified of Turks
• They hold them off till winter thus Turks stops attack
• The Advance Across North Africa (1530s-1540s)
• After Vienna he moves to North Africa
• Cuts deal with most of the leaders
• Charles captures Tunis (1535)
• Preveza (1538)  Greece Falls
• Christians lost naval supremacy and cant supply Greece
Trouble in the Empire
• The German Peasants’ War (1524-1525)
• Charles didn’t understand Luther
• Delayed reinforcements against Turks
• The Schmalkaldic League (1531)
• Lutherian Army
• The Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547) – Mühlberg (1547)
• Charles vs Prodestant by catching them off guard
• Swiftly defeats them
• Charles wants to use this victory to his advantage
• The Peace of Augsburg (1555) – Cuius regio, eius religio
• Peace treaty that ended wars of religion
• Who ever the rulers religion is can be imposed
• Gave this power to Lutherian princes too
Charles’ Abdication (1556)
• The Abdication (Jan. 12, 1556)
• Gave up all his powers
• Dividing the Empire – Ferdinand and Philip II
• Divided up empire between brother and philip
• First State Bankruptcy (1557)
• Left massive debt to son
• First of six bankruptcys
• Battle of Saint-Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557)  Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559)
• Spanish defeat French
• Leads to peace treaty
• Very pro Spanish treaty
The Battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571)
 Overwhelming Spanish victory
The Wars of Religion
Religious Strife in England
• Elizabeth I (r.1558-1603)
• Maintains religious practices
• Prodestant
• John Knox and the Scottish Reformation
• Scottish prodestants run out catholics
• Install 1 year old son on throne as token prodestant
• The Struggle with Mary, Queen of Scots
• Mary flees to England
• Elizabeth doesn’t like Mary that much
• Is afraid Mary may take throne
• Arrests Mary and keeps her on house arrest for 20 years
• The Struggle with Spain
• Elizabeth allows pirates to attack Spanish Ships
The Wars of Religion in France
• The Spread of Calvinism in France
• The Death of Henri II (1559)
• The king decided he wanted to Joust
• Gets killed
• Charles IX and Catherine de Medici
• Charles becomes King
• The Guise, the Montmorency, and the Bourbons
• The Hugenots, the Catholic League, and the Politiques
• Catholic league hates protestants
• Hugenots were protestants
• Politiques are monarchs
• The Outbreak of Violence (1562)
• Sends France in to 35 years of religious warfare
• Henry of Navarre and Admiral Coligny
• Protestands (Navarre- head of Bourbon family)
• Coligny- allie
• Guise seeking revenge
• Plan to marry Henry to Guise Princess
• Try to Kill Coligny but fail
• Guise go to Queen and say that Protestant leaders want to
overthrow Queen
• Word gets out that Protestant is banned and they attach
Hugenots
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
(Aug.24, 1572)
 Mobs kill 4000-5000 people
 Protestants are being killed
 Spread outside Paris too
 Puts France back in civil war

France Descends into Chaos
• Henri III (r.1574-1589), Philip II, and the Catholic League
• Henri III reputation is weakened by rumors that he is gay
• Philip II opposed to protestants
• Henry IV (r.1589-1610)
• Decent military commander
• Uncertainty
• Converts to Catholicism
• Defeats Bourbons
• The Edict of Nantes (1598)
• Grants Huganoes religious freedom
• Spends 12 years trying to help France recover
The Dutch Revolt
The Challenge of the Netherlands
• Philip II of Spain (r.1556-1598) “The Paper King”
• Most powerful man in Europe
• First Royal Burecrat
• Took role very seriously/ very hardworking
• Challenges: Constitutional, Financial, and Religious
• Philip was Castilian
• He raised taxes because of wars
• Tried to keep peace
• The Iconoclast Riots (Summer, 1566)
• Calvinist mobs attached Churches in major cities
• Negotiation or Repression?
• Chose to repress calvinsits
The Iconoclats Riots (1566)
The Fighting Begins
• The Duke of Alba’s governorship (1567-1573)
• Experienced commander, became governor of Netherlands
• Immediately begins to persecute heretics
• Had 1000 heretics executed
• Imposed taxes
• William the Silent, Prince of Orange
• The Gueux Capture Brill (April 1, 1572)
• The “Spanish Fury” (1576)
• Spain runs out of money and troops mutiny
• The Treaty of Arras and the Union of Utrecht (1579)
• The Apologia (1581)
• Williams justification for why they broke off from spain
• William’s Assassination (July 10, 1584)
The “Enterprise of England”
• The Plan (1583)
• English send supplies to Dutch
• Capture of Antwerp (Aug. 15, 1585)  English Intervention
• Spanish loose Antwerp
• English has to openly join
• The Spanish Armada (1588)
•
•
•
•
• Spanish has 130 ships and head to English Chanell
•
The Battle (July 29-August 7, 1588)
•
Gravelines (August 8, 1588)  The “Protestant Wind”
• Forces Spanish ships around UK
The Aftermath
Truce with the Dutch (1609)
• Philip III make truce for 12 years
March 21st
The Search for Stability – Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe
The Early Reign of Louis XIV
(r.1643-1715)
The Fronde (1648-1653)
• The Minority of Louis XIV
• Resistance to the royalist policies of Richelieu and Mazarin
• Created a strong central government- royalist policies
• A Revolt of the Parlements (1648) and the Princes (1649-1653)
• France is still at war with Spain
• Uprising due to taxation and inflation
• Caused by parlement denying tax from government
• The Legacy of the Fronde
• Mini civil war in France
• Monarchy extremely unpopular
• Revolt falls apart as there was no common goal
Louis’ Personal Reign
• No Chief Minister
• Kept Mazarin originally but wanted to do all the work himself
• The Hard Work of Being King
• Did the hard work himself
• The Nobles at Court, the Ministers in Power
• Didn’t allow ministers to have control over him
• Brought all the nobles who may challenge him and kept them occupied and out of
all of the government business
• Ministers were commoners who he could trust
• “Robe” Nobles vs. “Sword” Nobles
• Sword- great warriors, traditional hagiarchy
• Robe- role in office
The Power of Image
• A Patron of the Arts
• Would have plays and arts curated
• Beautifying the Towns of France
• Wanted to make France beautiful
• Guarding the Royal Image – Louis as the Sun King, Apollo
• Versailles (from 1682)
• Created Versailles
Colbert and Mercantilism
• Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683)
– Noble, becomes chief minister, economy, tax, and navy
• Mercantilism
– Wealth is gold and silver
• Policies:
– Regulation and Protection
– Sponsoring Trade and Industry
– Building a Navy
– Improving Infrastructure
– Tax Reform
The War of Devolution (1667-1668)
and The Dutch War (1672-1678)
• The Issue of the Spanish Netherlands
– Marched troops in and just took control
• The War of Devolution (1667-8)
• The Dutch War (1672-1678)
– William of Orange (1650-1702)
• Leader of the dutch
– French Gains
– The High Cost of War
– Suspicion of France
The Aftermath of the Dutch War
(1678-1688)
• Vauban fortifies the border (1679-1687)
• Line of fortresses on new northern border
• Colbert dies (1683)  Louvois and War Party dominant
• Aggressive foreign policy
• Madame de Maintenon
• The Huguenots and the Policy of the Dragonnades (1681)
• Said that hugenots must quarter soldiers
• The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (Oct. 1685) 
• Forces all French citizens to be catholic
• This aggressions makes a lot of people nervous
•  The League of Augsburg (1686)
The Stuart Restoration
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Political Theorist; Tutor to Cavendish, Earls of Devonshire
• Exile to Paris (1640)
– During English civil war
• Leviathan (1651)
– Based on natural law theory of sovereignty
• Argument for secular absolutism
– Theory of Man = Primal Egotism
• You can’t trust peoples good nature
– Sovereignty must be undivided for peace
The Reign of Charles II (r.1660-1685)
• The “Merry Monarch”
– Fun king, all he wanted to do was party
– English were sick of puritanism
• The Convention Parliament (1660)
– People didn’t like it
• The Cavalier Parliament (1661-1679)
– Harsh religious settlement = Test Act (1673)
• Agreed that bishops should be restored
• Parliament didn’t want anything to do with Catholics
• Test act- if you wanted to serve in the government you must be Anglican
– Assertion of Parliamentary Supremacy
• Parliament could bully the king
The Succession Crisis
• James’ open conversion (1668)
– Very catholic
• The Popish Plot (1678)  Second Test Act
– To wave of anti catholic hysteria
– Said that Pope was going to install a Catholic pope
– All MP’s must be Anglican
• The Exclusion Crisis (1679)
– MP’s wanted to cut out James from line of succession
– Charles protests and wins
• James II (r.1685-1688)
– Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)
– Declaration of Indulgence (1688)
The Triumph of Constitutionalism in England
The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)
• Queen Mary gives birth to a son (June 10, 1688)  fear of Catholic succession
• William of Orange and the Dutch Republic
• William’s Crossing (Oct. 19-Nov.5, 1688)  James flees to France
•
Convention Parliament (1689)
•
•
•
Toleration Act (June 3, 1689)
Bill of Rights (Dec. 26, 1689)
Significance
John Locke (1631-1704)
• Physician who wrote The Second Treatise of Government in the early 1680s, published in
1690. Key points:
– Men are, in the state of nature, equal and free
– Sovereignty comes from the consent of the governed
– Sovereignty is inalienable
– Political societies are created for mutual good
– Right to property inalienable
– Law, enacted by representative assembly, is the only cure for arbitrary
government
April 4th
I.
II.
Overview
A. Definition
B. Causes of French
Centrality
Montesquieu, Voltaire and the Encyclopedia
A. Montesquieu
B. Voltaire
C. Denis Diderot
D. The Encyclopedia
The Enlightenment
What is Enlightenment
• The Philosophes
– Think for one’s self
– New application of the sciences
– Basically those who accept the englightenment theory
• Core Ideals
– Faith in Reason
• Deductive logic of decart- alt to aristotile
• If something is unreasonable it gets thrown out
– Faith in Scientific Method
– Faith in power of Education
– Suspicion of superstition and tradition
– Generally optimistic
–
Varied Outcomes
• Rational orthodoxy- people who wanted to retain core doctrine of
Christianity
• Open atheists
• Didn’t believe in democracy
Causes for French Centrality
• Centered in France due to wealth, population, and cultural influence
• Due to widespread salon culture
• Banquet where wealthy people would come together and discuss things
• Due to influence of Cartesianism
• Due as well to memory of grandeur of Louis XIV
Montesquieu, Voltaire,
and the Encyclopedia
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Seconde, Baron de (1689-1755)
• From an old noble family; educated in Law
• Publishes The Persian Letters anonymously (1721)
– Disguised critique of French absolutism
• The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
– Rejected classical tripartite forms of government, instead looked at motivating
values
• Questions ethos of government
• Best for is republic
• Virtue motivates people
– Argued for a separation of powers
–  Immediate fame, but placed on Index in 1751
François-Marie Arouet,
a.k.a. Voltaire (1694-1778)
• Background
• Exile in England (1726-1728)
• Publishes the Letters from England (1734) 
• Flees to Madame du Châtelet  publishes Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738)
• Work on Encyclopedia
• Publishes Essay on the Customs and Spirits of Nations (1754)
• Correspondence and Activism
• Legacy
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
• From upper middle class
• Early crisis of faith
• Philosophic Thoughts (1746) and Indiscreet Jewels (1748)  reputation
• Essay on Blindness (1749)
• Work on the Encyclopedia (1751-1765)
The Encyclopedia
• Inspired by Ephraim Chamber’s Cyclopedia (1728)
• Editors – Mathematician Jean d’Alembert (1745) and Denis Diderot (1746)
• 28 volumes
• Enlightened Authors
• Editing Tone
• Influence
• The Public Sphere
The Radical Enlightenment
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Early Life
• Early Childhood in Geneva (1712-1722)
• The Baronne de Warens
• Music and Philosophy
• Friendship with Diderot
• Therese Lavasseur
• Moment of Illumination (1749)  A Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts
Rousseau the Political Theorist
• Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)
• The Social Contract (1762)
• Quarrel with Voltaire and Diderot (1762)
• Legacy
The Marquis de Condorcet
• Jean-Marie-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)
• Member of Academy and contributor to later editions of the Encyclopedia
• Early advocate of the Revolution
• Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (pub. 1795) 
unlimited progress
• Death in Prison (March 29, 1794)
The Scottish Enlightenment
Overview
• Period in 18th Century of remarkable output of philosophical, intellectual and scientific
works from Scotland
• Centered on Edinburgh, especially through the Royal Edinburgh Society (1783)
• Empiricist vs. Rationalist
• Causes unclear
• Examples: Adam Ferguson, David Hume, Thomas Reid
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
• Scottish political economist and father of modern economics
• The Wealth of Nations (1776)
– Four Stages of Humanity
– “The Invisible Hand”
– Written vs. “Moral Economy” theories and Mercantilism
April 11th The Struggle for Europe and for Empire
The Reign of Louis XV
Louis XV (r.1715-1774)
• The Character of Louis
• “The Father of the Nation”
• Dominated by a series of Ministers and Mistresses
The Ministry of Fleury (1726-1743)
• Andre-Hercule de Fleury – Cardinal and Tutor
• Louis XIV left massive debt
• Desire to Retrench
• Limitation on expenditures
• Convinced Louis XV to reduce money spent on parties
• Improving infrastructure
 Peace and prosperity
• Peace with Austria, War with Austria  The War of the Austrian Succession (17401748)
• Most of debt was caused by louis XIV wars
Madame du Pompadour (1721-1764)
• Louis’ mistress from 1745 to 1750; advisor from 1750 to 1764
• Patron of art and literature
• Supported enlighten thinking
• The continuing problem of debt  the Edict of Marly (1749)  resistance  the King
backs down (1751)
• Nobles didn’t pay taxes
• Louis initially backs but ends up backing down
• The claims of the Parlement of Paris
• Underground literature – poissonnades
• Pamphlets that mocked the king and his mistress
France in the 18th Century
• Despite increasing weakness of Monarchy and the growing debt, it was a time of
prosperity
• Population Growth = 20 million  28 million
• Uneven growth in manufacturing
April 18th French revolution
The Moderate Revolution
(1789-1791)
The National Assembly (1789)
• “What is the Third Estate?” – Sieyès
•
•
•
•
•
•
Estates-General Convenes at Versailles (May 5)
• Huge debate on how voting should occur
The Question of Voting
Mirabeau and Sieyès
Third Estate proclaims itself National Assembly (June 17)
The Tennis Court Oath (June 20)
• Body of the people would not be dissolved till the wrote a constitution
• Goal to end absolutism
The Issue of the Church
• Nov. 2, 1789 – Church lands nationalized
• Louis seizes church land
• Try to use it to pay off massive debt
• Dec. 12, 1789 – Assignats issued
• Paper money back by church property
• July 12, 1790 – The Civil Constitution of the Clergy decreed
• Division of Church land scrapped, Bishop regions matches political map, Bishops
and Priests elected, limitations on Pope power in French church
• Nov. 27, 1790 – The Oath  Jurors and Non-Jurors
• April 14, 1791 – Pope Pius VI condemns the Civil Constitution
April 21st The Napoleonic Wars
The Thermidorian Reaction
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory
• Reaction vs. Jacobins (July-Dec. 1494)
• Economic troubles
• Govt. was still revolutionary
• Believed in private property, thus it didn’t help working class
• Robespierre unseen
• Sansculottes suppressed
• Shut down Jaquelin clubs
• The “Whiff of Grapeshot” (Oct. 5, 1795)
• French general shoots artillery at protestors
• Napoleon was the leader
• The “White Terror”
• The Constitution of 1795  Five-Man Directory
• Not a strong government
The Rise of Napoleon
• Continuous War
• Call to fame as revolutionary France has war with rest of Europe
• The Background of Napoleon
• Artillery major, once feudalism was abolished he was able to rise to higher ranks
•
•
•
•
The Italian Campaign (1796-1797)
• Fights against Austrians
• Quickly gets them out of Italy
• New tactics with heavy use of artillery
The Coup of Fructidor V (Sept. 1797)
The Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799)  War of the Second Coalition
• Plan to conquer Egypt and hurt England economically in India
• French Navy is nowhere near as good as British
• French Defeat, they get stuck in Egypt
Napoleon’s Coup (Nov. 9-10, 1799)  Constitution of 1799  The Consulate
• 3 of 5 of the Directory ask him to overthrow their own government
• Consulate was new form of government and he becomes leader of France
Napoleon Triumphant
Austria Defeated, Napoleon Crowned
• The Battle of Marengo (June 4, 1800)
• The Battle of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3, 1800)  Treaty of Lunéville
• The Concordat of 1801
• 1802 – The Treaty of Amiens
• Ruling France, Reforming France
• The Napoleonic Code (1804)
• No legal classes
• Every citizen is equal
• Minus women
• Reinforces role of patriarchal authority of men in the household
• Religious toleration
• Claims hereditary empire
• Hereditary Empire proclaimed (May 28, 1804)  coronation
The War of the Third Coalition
• The Third Coalition
• England, Russia, Austria
• The Battle of Ulm (Oct. 16-19, 1805)
• The Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805)
• Destroys Austrian Army
• The Kingdom of Naples
• Austrians gives up all of Italy
• Makes Italy a papal state
• The Confederation of the Rhine  The End of the Holy Roman Empire (1806
• Abolishes Holy Roman Empire after taking Germany
• Spreading the Revolution
The Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805)
 Naval Battle against British Navy
o Shows French limitation of Power
 Pressure Spanish to join fleets and fight British
 British still wins
The Defeat of Prussia
• Prussia enters the War
• The Battle of Jena (Oct. 14, 1806)
• The Continental System
• The Battle of Friedland (June 14, 1807) 
• The Treaty of Tilsit (June 27, 1807)  The Grand Duchy of Warsaw
• The Continental System extended
The Peninsular War
• The Continental System and the Problem of Portugal
• The Invasion of Spain (1808)
• The Fifth Coalition (1809)
• Guerrilla War and “The Spanish Ulcer”
• Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington
• The Battle of Wagram (July 5-6, 1809)
Napoleon Defeated
The Russian Campaign (1812)
• Czar Alexander I opens ports (Dec. 31, 1810)
• La Grande Armée
• The Invasion
• The Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7)
• Moscow taken (Sept. 14)
• The Retreat begins (Oct. 19)
• The Retreat Ends (Dec. 22)
The Wars of Liberation
• The Battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813) – The French retreat from Spain
• The Battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16-19, 1813) – “The Battle of Nations”
The Fall of Napoleon
• The Allies enter Paris (March 30, 1814) 
• Napoleon abdicates (April 6)
– Napoleon exiled to Elba
– Louis XVIII restored
– Napoleon escapes Elba (March 1, 1815)  “The One Hundred Days”
• The Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815)  final defeat, exile to St. Helena
• Metternich and The Congress of Vienna (1815)
The Congress of Vienna (1815)
Final Exam Study Guide
1.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Wrote the social contract, believed in a fair govt. system and that people were inherently good
2. The Social Contract
a. Agreement between the people that they agree to be governed for the greater good
3.
Marquis de Condorcet
French economist an political scientist who believed in liberal economic policies
4.
Adam Smith
Scottish economist wrote wealth of the nations
5.
Louis XV
a. Lazy King who got france into the seven years war and was known for his mistress
Andre-Hercule de Fleury
a. Bishop and advisor to LXV, helped stabilize economy and build infanstructure
The Diplomatic Revolution
6.
7.
8. Madame du Pompadour
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
King Frederick William I of Prussia
Frederick the Great
The War of the Austrian Succession
Maria Teresa
The Seven Years War
The Treaty of Paris (1763)
The riangle Trade
The Atlantic Slave Trade
Enlightened Absolutism
Maria Teresa
Joseph I
Catherine the Great
Pugachev’s Rebellion
The Boston Tea Party
The American Revolution
The Declaration of Independence
The Battle of Saratoga
The Battle of Yorktown
René de Maupeou
Louis XVI
Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès
Tennis Court Oath
The Storming of the Bastille
“The Great Fear”
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
The Jacobins
36. The Sansculottes
37. The Declaration of Pillnitz
38. The Battle of Valmy
39. The Committee of Public Safety
40. Georges Danton
41. Maximilian Robespierre
42. Jean-Paul Marat
43. The Vendée Rebellion
44.
45. The Thermidorian Reaction
46. The Directory
47. The Consulate
48. Napoleon Bonaparte
49. The Napoleonic Code
50. The Battle of Trafalgar
51. The Continental System
52. The Battle of Jena
53. The Peninsular War
54. The Duke of Wellington
55. The Russian Campaign
56. The Battle of Leipzig
57. The Battle of Waterloo
58. The Congress of Vienna