Project report, 2016
MAKERERE
UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ART, DESIGN AND
TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FINAL YEAR ENGINEERING PROJECT REPORT
TOPIC: APPLICATION OF CLEANER PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN CEMENT
INDUSTRY IN UGANDA
(A CASE STUDY AT TORORO CEMENT LIMITED)
NAME OF STUDENT:
MUGABI JULIUS
REGISTRATION NUMBER:
12/U/8632/PS
STUDENT NUMBER:
212017851
MAIN SUPERVISOR
CO-SUPERVISOR
Dr. J.I. OKWARE
Dr. ABRAHAM MUWANGUZI
……………………………..
………………………………….
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Dedication
To my mum and brother Edson
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Acknowledgment
I wish to express my deepest and heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. John Okware for his
constant guidance, invaluable suggestions, positive criticisms encouragement and support
throughout this study. May God bless you. Many thanks are also extended to the Department
Mechanical Engineering and to the staff of the same, for all the help given during this study.
This study would not have been possible without the invaluable assistance from my brother
Edson. Thanks for providing me with the financial support and the opportunity to pursue my
Bachelors‟ degree and to carry out this research.
I also wish to acknowledge the generous support given by TCL especially the Process
department without which it would have been impossible to conduct my research in their
premises. I appreciate the assistance given to me by the process manager Mr. Peter Karanja, the
process engineer Mr. Vicent Olinga and the Environmental officer Mr. Robert Isanga
I also wish to extend my sincere appreciation to the executive director as well as the entire staff
of UCPC (Uganda Cleaner Production Centre) for their valuable assistance throughout this
study.
And to my family especially my Mum thanks for the love, support and constant prayers. May
God continue to bless all your endeavours.
And lastly, I would also like to thank my special friends: Akampurira Arthur, Mbusa Chrispus,
Medard Owoyesiga, Natumanya Derek, Alinaitwe Roggers, Mpumwiire Ambrose, Ampumuza
Brian, Mubatsi Joard, Edwin, Fadson, Nuwamanya Junior- my roommate and all the members of
Mitchel cell for their help, comfort and friendship during my stay at campus. Special thanks are
extended to my classmates for their moral support and friendship throughout my studies in
MAK.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE: .......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Objectives of the Research.................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 Main objective ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.2 Specific objectives ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Justification ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research Scope ................................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: ......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Defining Cleaner Production .............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Evolution of Cleaner Production......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Benefits of Cleaner Production ........................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Cleaner Production Practices .............................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Regulatory Framework of Cleaner Production ................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 International Declaration on Cleaner Production ......................................................................... 8
2.5.2 Legal Framework for Environmental Management in Uganda ................................................... 9
2.6 Barriers to Cleaner Production Application in Uganda‟s Cement Industry ...................................... 10
2.7 Cleaner production motivators and drivers. ...................................................................................... 11
2.8 The Uganda Cement Industry ........................................................................................................... 12
2.8.1 Tororo Cement Limited Contribution to Uganda‟s Economy. .................................................. 12
2.8.2 Cement Production Process ....................................................................................................... 13
2.8.3 Description of cement manufacturing process at TCL............................................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE: ................................................................................................................................... 19
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 19
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3.2 Literature review ........................................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Preliminary tour to the selected industry. ..................................................................................... 19
3.4 Design of an interview guide/ observation checklist .................................................................... 19
3.5 Data collection .............................................................................................................................. 20
3.6 Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.7 Report writing ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.8 Report presentation ....................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER FOUR:...................................................................................................................................... 21
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 21
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Process flow of TCL ......................................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Common Wastes at TCL ................................................................................................................... 23
4.3.1 Sources of these wastes .............................................................................................................. 23
4.3.2 Some of the measures to reduce flue gas and dust emissions .................................................... 36
4.4 Energy Usage at TCL........................................................................................................................ 38
4.4.1 Energy as it Relates to Overall Business Factors ....................................................................... 41
4.5 Evaluation Cleaner Production Options and Opportunities at TCL.................................................. 43
4.5.1 Cleaner production options for production ................................................................................ 43
4.5.2 Cleaner production options for maintenance ............................................................................. 44
4.5.3 Cleaner production options for employee health and safety ...................................................... 45
4.5.2 Cleaner production options for management ............................................................................. 46
CHAPTER FIVE: ....................................................................................................................................... 48
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................... 48
5.1 Problems faced at Tororo Cement Limited. ...................................................................................... 48
5.2 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 48
5.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 49
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 51
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: stacker yard ................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 2: Raw meal silo and the preheater silo.......................................................................................... 15
Figure 3: A kiln .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 4: A cement mill .............................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 5: Simplified Process Schematic for Cement Making ..................................................................... 18
Figure 6: Process Flow at TCL .................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 7: Simplified Process flow chart for cement production ................................................................. 22
Figure 8: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for January 2015 ...................................................................... 25
Figure 9: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for February 2015 ...................................................................... 25
Figure 10: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for March 2015 ......................................................................... 26
Figure 11: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for April 2015 ........................................................................... 26
Figure 12: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for May 2015 ............................................................................ 27
Figure 13: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for June 2015 ............................................................................ 27
Figure 14: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for July 2015 ............................................................................. 28
Figure 15: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for August 2015 ........................................................................ 28
Figure 16: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for September 2015 .................................................................. 29
Figure 17: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for October 2015 ...................................................................... 30
Figure 18: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for November 2015 ................................................................... 30
Figure 19: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for December 2015 ................................................................... 31
Figure 20: Trend of total dust emission per month for the year 2015 ........................................................ 31
Figure 21: Mass Balance of 1kg of Cement ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 22: Trend of Flue Gas Emissions for the Year 2015 ....................................................................... 35
Figure 23: Energy Flow in a Cement Industry (Worrell, E. and C. Galitsky. 2004) .................................. 39
Figure 24: Energy Trend for the Year 2015 ............................................................................................... 41
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Showing Dust Emissions for the Year 2015.................................................................................. 24
Table 2: Showing Flue Gas Emissions for the Year 2015 .......................................................................... 34
Table 3: Showing ISO Standards on Emissions to the Atmosphere (ISO, 2012) ........................................ 36
Table 4: Showing Energy Consumption by the two main consumers of Energy at TCL for the Year 2015 40
Table 5: Comparison of alternative fuels, (Biomass Energy Centre) ......................................................... 41
Table 6: Showing the Rating of Business Factors at TCL .......................................................................... 42
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LIST OF ACCRONYMS
UNEP ………………………… United Nations Environmental Programme
UNIDO ……………………… United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UCPC ………………………… Uganda Cleaner Production Centre
NCPCs ……………………… National Cleaner Production Centre
IPPC…………………………
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
SDGs ………………………… Sustainable Development Goals
United
UNGA…………………………
Nations
General
Assembly
CP …………………………… Cleaner Production
CPT …………………………. Cleaner Production Technology
TCL………………………….. Tororo Cement Limited
NOX ………………………… Nitrogen Oxides (Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitrogen Monoxide)
CO2 ………………………
Carbon Dioxide
SOX …………………………
Sulphur oxides
UNEP-DTIE‟s …………
United Nations Environment Programme – Division of
Technology, Industry and Economics
OPC ………………………..
Ordinary Portland Cement
PPC …………………………
Portland Pozzolana Cement
ESP …………………………
Electrostatic precipitator
BDC ………………………..
Bag Dust Collector
ELV ……………………….
Emission Limit Value
ISO ………………………..
International Standards Organisation
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CHAPTER ONE:
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The global cement industry contributes around 6% of all man-made CO2 emissions and is
consequently responsible for around 4% of man-made global warming. CO2 emissions‟ trading is
likely to be of huge importance to the industry in the future. (European Commission Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control, IPPC)
The cement industry therefore, is a main emitter of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, both
because of its high energy use and the calcinations reaction. The emission of CO2 is estimated at
900 to 1,000 kg/tonne of clinker, related to a specific heat demand of approximately 3,500 to
5,000 MJ/tonne of clinker. Approximately 60% originates in the calcinations process and the
remaining 40% in fuel combustion (European Commission Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control, IPPC)
In Uganda, the cement industry is growing and the demand for cement is also increasing on a
high rate due to the increase in infrastructural development. Its growth rate is expected to
increase further in the next 15 years in order to achieve the Sustainable development Goals
(SDGs) outlined by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA, 2015) in September 2015.
Goal 9 of the SDGs states thus “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”.
Although Uganda is enriched with
abundant limestone and its environment is highly unspoiled, the negative effects of industrial
growth are becoming more evident. Through environmental conservation bodies like National
Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), the environment protection legislation has
become increasingly stringent and industrial pollution will if not controlled lead to financial
penalties.
Cleaner Production is one of the environmental concepts that use potential indicators and
benchmarks in assessing the environment performance. In principle, instead of dealing with endFinal year project report, Application of cleaner production technology in cement industry
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of-pipe impacts approach on the environment, Cleaner Production deals with pollution
reduction/prevention at the source. Cleaner Production can also clearly show how the
organization is performing, and provide a firm basis for future targets and improvement. The
long term purpose of Cleaner Production in Uganda is to promote sustainable industrial
development. Cleaner Production has been studied, developed and adjusted to assess the
performance of sustainability of industries. In Uganda, it is the Uganda Cleaner Production
Centre (UCPC) that is spear heading the national CP activities, (UCPC, 2004).
Recognizing the interconnectedness of sustainable production and consumption, UNIDO and
UNEP have called upon NCPCs to expand their scope of activity to include sustainable
consumption. In its Cleaner Production Global Status Report 2002, UNEP urged NCPCs to
“focus now on the expanded vision of Cleaner production that links explicitly with sustainable
consumption”. This was recently reinforced by Goal 12 of the SDGs adopted by UNGA 2015
which states thus; “Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”
However, sustainable consumption issues have not yet been expanded into the activities of
UCPC and as such only Cleaner Production activities have been considered in this study (UCPC,
2004). Therefore Uganda as a country has a task at hand to prevent environmental pollution and
reduce or eliminate industrial waste in cooperation with the cement industry.
At Tororo Cement Limited, the old plant, the machinery and other infrastructure, which were
handed over under Privatization scheme were either completely dilapidated or outdated. The new
management, with planned investments under various phases installed some new modern
equipment for production.
The management added a new Cement Mill and a Silo, which has enhanced and doubled the
capacity of Cement production. A new electrical rotary packer was also installed. However some
old machinery is still being used.
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1.2 Problem Statement
TCL employs end-of-pipe strategies in waste management and environmental protection mainly
due to competing business priorities, in particular, the pressure for a short term profits. These
strategies have been found to be inefficient in waste management and pollution mitigation. The
emission values (particulate matter and flue gases) from production processes are above the
maximum permissible values by ISO, an organisation that certifies TCL.
1.3 Objectives of the Research
1.3.1 Main objective
This research seeks to find ways in which productivity can be increased and wastes minimised in
the cement industry in Uganda.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
 To investigate the sources of waste during the cement production process.
 To quantify the waste and assess the quality of the emissions from production processes.
 To propose ways to reduce waste and achieve employee safety at Tororo cement limited.
1.4 Justification
Different industries have adopted different strategies for reaching their goals for example, by
applying advanced environmental technologies, extending recycling and reuse, or by setting
goals and targets for reducing the use of materials in their production. These strategies were
made stronger by the establishment of the Uganda Cleaner Production Centre (UCPC) in 2001
whose main goal was to promote and implement the CP concept to industries. This was mainly
done through the Eco-Benefits program in which CP was promoted to industries as a
preventative strategy to deal with current and future environmental problems as well as offering
them better efficiency, economic and social benefits. As such industries were encouraged to join
the Eco-Benefits programs and implement CP. In this way the industries would comply with the
NEMA requirements as they improved their environmental performance. Today the UCPC
works alongside NEMA towards environmental sustainability of industries in Uganda (UCPC,
2004).
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Despite of the benefits associated with the application of CP technologies, cement industries in
Uganda have not yet adopted this strategy. Therefore this research study is important because it
will bring environmental protection awareness to Uganda‟s cement industry.
These are some of the benefits expected once the recommendations are adopted;
 Improving of health safety and environmental protection by improving the quality of
emissions from cement production processes.
 Increase in cement output by minimizing wastes generated.
 Reduction in costs of cement production
1.5 Research Scope
This research was conducted at Tororo Cement Limited, a cement factory located in Tororo
town, Tororo district in eastern Uganda which is 230km away from Kampala city, the capital city
of Uganda. It is 10Km before the Uganda/Kenya border town of Malaba. Access from Kampala
is by an all-weather tarmac road
The researcher‟s intention was to study the cement production process and identify the sources of
waste at TCL and recommend a suitable cleaner production technology programme. Following
the firm‟s management‟s advice, only emissions (particulate matter and flue gases) and energy
efficiency were studied.
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CHAPTER TWO:
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Defining Cleaner Production
Cleaner Production (CP) can be viewed as a widely recognized and proven strategy for
increasing the efficiency of natural resources‟ use as well as minimizing wastes. In CP, pollution
and risks to human health and safety are reduced at the source, rather than at the end of the
production process, that is, the „end-of-pipe‟ stage. CP typically involves improving maintenance
practices, reduction of risks, upgrading or introducing new technology, or changing production
processes. It results in meeting consumers‟ needs with more environmentally compatible, quality
products and services and leads to the more efficient use of energy and raw materials. As well as
reducing pollution, this strategy also generates tangible economic savings for a business
enterprise by improving overall efficiency of production (UNEP, 2001).
Based on the above understanding of CP, this study adopts the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) definition of CP. According to UNEP, “Cleaner Production (CP) is a
Preventive Integrated Continuous Strategy for modifying processes, products and Services for
improved environmental performance and reduced Costs” (UCPC 2004).
2.2 Evolution of Cleaner Production
The concept of CP has its roots in the sustainable development discourse. In 1987, sustainable
development was proposed as a way to steer the understanding of development. Sustainable
development implies meeting the needs of the present generation, without compromising the
needs of future generations (Brundtland report, 1987). The true challenge of sustainable
development, however, is how to put the theory into practice. Cleaner production is one practical
way to achieve sustainable development. CP is neither a new concept nor a mere environmental
initiative. In 1989, the UNEP-DTIE‟s Cleaner Production Programme was launched. Its main
aim was to create concept awareness, institutional capacity building and demonstrate its benefits
to foster sustainable development. In 1992, Cleaner Production was adopted as one of the key
strategies to achieve sustainable development. In Agenda 21, reference is made to CP as a blue
print to sustainable development. Agenda 21 also provided a basis for CP as a multi-stakeholder
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and multi-partnership matter. Today the CP emphasis is more action oriented and embodies the
spirit of partnership through establishment of an enabling framework. Cleaner Production is now
a global movement program of not just UNEP-DTIE, but also of several organizations in the
world that have adopted and adapted it (Cleaner Production Global Status Report, 2002).
2.3 Benefits of Cleaner Production
According to UNEP, the major benefits from a Cleaner Production program are: low production
costs, preventing pollution and complying with environmental legislation. These are discussed in
more detail below;
 Low production costs
Through Cleaner Production, companies save money from the better use of their valuable
resources. This can include the recycling of wasted raw materials, maximum utilization of water,
as well as waste treatment and disposal (UNEP, 2004). Cleaner Production strategies typically
cost less than „end-of-pipe‟ technologies. The CP strategies, such as housekeeping and process
improvements, can be implemented at a low cost but can have immediate benefits. Changes to
plant and equipment definitely requires capital but many Cleaner Production projects that have
been undertaken show that they can easily become self-funding in less than one year. As such,
companies can often perform better than their environmental requirements as an outcome of
running a profitable and efficient business.
 Preventing Pollution
Business work practices and processes are reviewed throughout the entire operation to identify
ways to reduce waste at the source rather than trying to control the pollution at the „end-of-thepipe‟. This will reduce the risk of causing environmental harm or nuisance.
 Complying With Environmental Legislation
There is assistance in maintaining or improving compliance with environmental legislation
through Cleaner Production. This may result in benefits such as reduced regulatory intervention,
avoids regulatory compliance costs and leads to the more efficient use of energy and raw
materials. Regulations regarding the transport and disposal of wastes are becoming stringent.
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In Uganda, The National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, 1999 require
industries to adopt Cleaner Production methods so these benefits are rapidly becoming a reality
for industry. Although cleaner production has many benefits, only benefits that are directly or
indirectly linked to waste minimization will be considered in this study
2.4 Cleaner Production Practices
 Good house keeping
Take appropriate managerial and operational actions to prevent; spills, leaks and to reinforce
existing operational instructions.
 Input substitution
Input materials are substituted with less toxic, or by renewable materials, or by adjunct materials
which have a longer service lifetime in production.
 Better process control
Production and operational procedures, equipment instructions and process record keeping are
modified in order to run the processes more efficiently and at lower waste and emission
generation rates.
 Equipment modification
The existing production equipment and utilities are modified in order to run the processes at
higher efficiency and lower waste and emission generation rates.
 Technology change
The technology, processing sequence and synthesis pathway are replaced in order to minimize
waste and emission generation during production.
 Onsite recovery or reuse
Reuse of the wasted materials in the same process for another useful application within the
company.
 Product modification
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The product characteristics are modified in order to; minimize the environmental impacts of the
product during or after its use (disposal) and minimize the environmental impacts of its
production.
 Use energy efficiently
Reduce the environmental impact from energy use by improved energy efficiency and using
energy from renewable sources.
2.5 Regulatory Framework of Cleaner Production
This section highlights the global and Ugandan regulatory framework of CP. It can be argued
that the speed of growth of CP in Uganda was a result of the enabling environment in the
country. This environment allowed for mainstreaming of CP within the laws and regulations. A
CP bill that will be presented to Parliament is in the process of being drafted (UCPC, 2006). It is
such moves that show that CP is well accepted and valued by the Ugandan government and will
therefore be sustainable once it is passed as an Act in Parliament.
2.5.1 International Declaration on Cleaner Production
This International Declaration is a voluntary but public commitment to the strategy and practice
of Cleaner Production. The Declaration outlines a set of principles, which when implemented
will lead to increased awareness, understanding and ultimately, greater demand for Cleaner
Production. For Cleaner production advocates, the Declaration is a tool to encourage more
governments, companies and organizations to adopt and promote the strategy (UNEP, 2001).
The International Declaration on CP is a tool, which if used, can help to overcome barriers
related to limited awareness and understanding of the implementation of CP. Cleaner Production
is a proven strategy to achieve the goal of sustainable production and consumption of goods and
services. Reorientation to more sustainable practices is required; The declaration considers the
fact that each sector (public, private, non-governmental, academic, etc) has a role to play. And as
a framework for action, its six principles provide a general overview of activities for each sector
to move towards the adoption of the Cleaner Production strategy. Commitment from political,
public and private business leaders will reinforce the endorsement of a more diverse, intense and
broader adoption of Cleaner Production worldwide (UNEP, 2001).
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2.5.2 Legal Framework for Environmental Management in Uganda
Among the principal laws regulating the environment in Uganda is the National Environment
Legislation. Industries and businesses in Uganda are required to comply with environmental
standards as set out by the law. The 1995 National Environment Statute is the principal
environmental protection law. The statute established the National Environment Management
Authority (NEMA) which came into being in January 1996. NEMA is the principal regulatory
agency for environmental matters. In order to direct environmental protection, NEMA has issued
guidelines for environmental auditing and among these guidelines is Cleaner Production.
Part of the NEMA guidelines states that “A person who owns or controls a facility or premises
which generate waste is required to minimize waste generated by adopting Cleaner Production
methods” The National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, 1999. It requires
industries to adopt the following Cleaner Production methods:
 Improvement of production process through the conservation of raw materials, and the
reduction of toxic emissions and waste;
 Monitoring the product cycle from the beginning to the end by identifying and
eliminating potential negative impacts of the product, enabling the recovery and use of
new products where possible and reclamation and recycling; and
 Incorporating environmental concerns in the design and disposal of products.
In light of the above, industries/businesses in Uganda should prioritize compliance with the
environmental requirements. As such, industries should avoid as much as possible, business
operations that are contrary to the established environmental standards and legal requirements.
Non-compliance with the provisions of the 1995 National Environment Statute, and the various
regulations can result in significant penalties. For example, the industry/business can be made to
pay penalties and/or its activities that have an effect on the environment may be restricted or
prohibited by a court. This prohibition could be in form of an injunction.
Moreover in Uganda, industries and businesses need to know that the Polluter-Pays- Principle
(PPP) applies. Any person who pollutes the environment has to bear the cost of stopping,
controlling or limiting such pollution. This, in most cases, is an unforeseeable cost met by
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businesses and is additional to the damage to the reputation, public perception and
competitiveness of one‟s products and services (UCPC, 2004).
2.6 Barriers to Cleaner Production Application in Uganda’s Cement Industry
From the perspective of cement industries considering application of Cleaner Production
technologies, the barriers to Cleaner Production investments in developing countries particularly
in Uganda have been grouped into six main categories namely: Financial, Economic, Policy
Related, Organizational, Technical and Conceptual (CP Issue Paper, 2000). These barriers
discussed below are also faced by Ugandan cement industries.
Financial Challenges
 The high cost of external capital for investments in industry.
 Lack of funding mechanisms appropriate for CP investments.
 There is a perception that investments in CP present a high financial risk due to its
supposedly innovative.
 CP is not properly valued by credit providers in their evaluation procedures (for lending,
equity contribution etc.).
 Lack of knowledge in industry, especially among small and medium sized industries, on
available funding channels.
 CP investments are seldom hard assets.
 There is lack of confidence in non-biased expertise of environmental consultants.
 Competing business priorities, in particular, the pressure for a short term profits
Economic Challenges
 CP investments are not sufficiently cost effective (compared with other investment
opportunities), given present resource prices.
 Immaturity of the company‟s internal cost calculation and cost allocation practices.
 Immaturity of the company‟s internal capital budgeting and capital allocation procedures.
Policy-Related Challenges
 There is insufficient focus on CP in environmental, technology, trade and industrial
development policies and strategies.
 The failure of existing regulatory approaches.
 Immaturity of the environmental policy framework such as the lack of enforcement.
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Organizational Challenges
 Lack of leadership for environmental affairs.
 The perceived management risk related to CP does not allow for incentives to managers
to put their efforts into CP implementation.
 Immaturity of the environmental management functions in the company's operations.
 Lack of communication in Firms.
 Limited experience with employees‟ involvement and project work.
 Low environmental protection awareness.
Technical Challenges
 There is absence of a sound operational basis such as well established production
practices, maintenance schemes etc.
 Complexity of CP such as the need to undertake a comprehensive assessment of all
production processes to identify appropriate CP opportunities.
 There is limited access to equipment supportive to CP e.g. high quality process
instrumentation devices.
 Limited accessibility of reliable technical information tailored to the company's needs
and capacity to assimilate.
Conceptual Challenges
 There is indifference in perception regarding the industry‟s own role in contributing to
environmental improvement.
 The narrow interpretation or misunderstanding of the CP concept results in resistance to
change (CP Issue Paper, 2000).
2.7 Cleaner production motivators and drivers.
Internal to the company
 Improvements in productivity.
 Environmental management systems and continuous improvement.
 Corporate environmental reports.
 Environmental leadership and environmental accounting.
External to the company
 Innovative regulation
 Economic incentives
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 Continuous education and training of employees
 Soft loans from financial institutions
 Community involvement
 International trade incentives.
2.8 The Uganda Cement Industry
After an extensive feasibility study of Tororo Carbonate Limestone was carried out by Building
Research Centres in U.K, Russia and Japan, it was decided that a cement factory be built in
Tororo area to utilize the carbonate limestone as raw materials. The study outlined the steps to be
taken to process the raw materials so that normal Portland cement could be produced. In
December 1952, Uganda Cement Industry (UCI) LTD. was incorporated. It was later taken over
by the Uganda Development Corporation (UDC) in 1953.The ownership of Tororo Cement
changed hands at the end of 1995 to the present owners under the Government Privatization
Scheme.
The plant currently produces and markets two brands of cement namely New Rock Brand and
Nyumba. TCL produces two types of cement that is; ordinary Portland cement and Portland
pozzolana cement on the market with a production capacity of over 1,800,000 metric tonnes per
year.
The factory is well served with infrastructure such as Road & Rail power. The railway siding
from Tororo main station services the factory‟s main areas of production of Cement, Iron sheets,
Wire products, and Raw materials.
2.8.1 Tororo Cement Limited Contribution to Uganda’s Economy.
Tororo cement limited is one of the two manufacturers of cement in Uganda which is an essential
construction material and plays a key role in infrastructural development especially at the time
when the government of Uganda has taken infrastructure as a high priority development vehicle.
The company is among the largest employers with a total of more than 700 direct employees 200
of which are permanent employees and the rest are sub-contractors. Tororo cement limited is a
totally integrated unit owning a limestone mines in Tororo and Moroto and a production plant in
Tororo, in eastern Uganda.
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The company is involved in efforts to advance Uganda‟s economic development through
infrastructural development by producing quality cement. Tororo cement limited also help in
exploiting Uganda‟s mineral resources of limestone and clay.
This helps the country earn vital foreign exchange and meet the growing demand at home.
2.8.2 Cement Production Process
The basic chemistry of the cement manufacturing process begins with the decomposition of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at about 900°C to leave calcium oxide (CaO, lime) and liberate
gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2); this process is known as calcination.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
This is followed by the clinkering process in which the calcium oxide reacts at high temperature
(typically 1400-1500°C) with silica, alumina, and ferrous oxide to form the silicates, aluminates,
and ferrites of calcium which comprise the clinker. The clinker is then ground or milled together
with gypsum and other additives to produce cement.
Clinker is the main ingredient in cement. These hardened granules are obtained by firing a
mixture of approximately 80% limestone and 20% clay to a high temperature. Cement is
obtained by grinding clinker, in some cases supplementing it with additives.
There are four main process routes for the manufacture of cement; the dry, semi-dry, semi-wet
and wet processes:
In the dry process, the raw materials are ground and dried to raw meal in the form of a flow able
powder. The dry raw meal is fed to the pre-heater or pre-calciner kiln or, more rarely, to a long
dry kiln.
In the semi-dry process dry raw meal is pelletized with water and fed into a grate pre-heater
before the kiln or to a long kiln equipped with crosses.
In the semi-wet process the slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The filter cake is extruded
into pellets and fed either to a grate pre-heater or directly to a filter cake drier for raw meal
production.
In the wet process, the raw materials (often with high moisture content) are ground in water to
form a pumpable slurry. The slurry is either fed directly into the kiln or first to slurry drier.
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The choice of process is to a large extent determined by the state of the raw materials (dry or
wet). At Tororo cement limited a dry process is employed, thanks to the availability of dry raw
materials.
All processes have the following sub-processes in common:
 Winning of raw materials.
 Raw materials storage and preparation.
 Fuels storage and preparation.
 Clinker burning.
 Cement grinding and storage.
 Packing and dispatch.
The raw materials used at Tororo cement limited are mainly limestone which provides the source
of calcium carbonate and clay which provides the source of silica
2.8.3 Description of cement manufacturing process at TCL
 Mining and Quarrying
The raw materials used for cement production at TCL are limestone, sandstone and clay. The
major component of the raw materials, the limestone, is extracted from Tororo and Ram hill
quarries (Low grade) and Amudat quarry (High grade). Limestone provides the required calcium
oxide and some of the other oxides, while clay and other materials provide most of the silicon,
Aluminium and iron oxides required for the manufacture of Portland cement. The quarried
material is reduced in size by processing through a series of gyratory crushers. The crushed
material is screened and stones are returned.
The raw materials (crushed lime stone, clay, and iron ore) are selected and mixed using a stacker
so that the resulting mixture has the desired chemical composition for delivery to raw mill. It is
often necessary to raise the content of silicon oxides or iron oxides by adding sand stone and iron
ore, respectively. After mixing, the mixed raw material is piled in the stacker yard for temporary
storage before it is reclaimed by the reclaimer to be feed to the raw mill.
More than 1.5 tons of raw materials are required to produce one ton of Portland cement.
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Figure 1: stacker yard
 Raw Material Preparation
After primary and secondary size reduction, the raw materials are further reduced in size by
grinding. In dry processing, the materials are ground into a flow able powder in horizontal ball
mills. In a ball mill, steel-alloy balls are responsible for decreasing the size of the raw material
pieces in a rotating cylinder, referred to as a raw mill. Waste heat from the kiln exhaust, clinker
cooler hood, further dry the raw materials. When the raw materials are milled to form a fine
powder, it is stored in the raw meal silo. The moisture content of the raw meal in the raw meal
silo is typically around 0.5%.
 Clinker Production (Pyro-Processing)
From the raw meal silo, the raw meal is fed into the pre-heater system that consists of four
cyclones (including the twin cyclone). These cyclones are at a temperature of 9500c and part of
the clinkerization process (40% calcination) takes place in these series of cyclones in a process
called pyro processing.
Preheater tower
Raw meal silo
Figure 2: Raw meal silo and the preheater silo
Chemical composition of kiln feed,
 Quick lime (calcium oxide)
 Silica (silicon iv oxide)
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 Iron (iii) oxide
 Aluminium (iii) oxide
The partially calcined ground raw material (kiln feed) is fed into the top of the kiln at 14500c,
moves down the tube counter current to the flow of gases and toward the flame-end of the rotary
kiln, where the raw meal is dried, calcined, and enters into the sintering zone. In the sintering (or
clinkering) zone, the combustion gas reaches a temperature of 14500c. The Coal imported from
S. Africa is the primary fuel in the kiln at TCL. The remaining 60% calcination takes place in the
kiln.
Clinker is chemically made up of the following,
 Alite (tricalcium silicate) (Ca3S)
 Berlite (Dicalcium silicate) (Ca2S)
 Tetra calcium aluminium ferrite (Ca4AlFe)
Once the clinker is formed in the rotary kiln, it is cooled rapidly to minimize the formation of a
glass phase and ensure the maximum yield of alite (tricalcium silicate) formation, an important
component for the hardening properties of cement. The main cooling technology used at TCL is
the grate cooler. In the grate cooler, the clinker is transported over a reciprocating grate through
which air flow perpendicular to the flow of clinker. The cooling air is used as secondary
combustion air for the kiln.
Figure 3: A kiln
 Cement milling
After cooling, the clinker is stored in the clinker silos. The material handling equipment used to
transport clinker from the clinker coolers to storage and then to the cement mill is similar to that
used to transport raw materials i.e. conveyor belts. To produce powdered cement, the nodules of
cement clinker are ground to the consistency of face powder. Milling of cement clinker, together
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with additions (3-5% gypsum to control the setting properties of the cement and pozzolana in
case of PPC) is done in two separate cement mills (ball mills). Coarse material is separated in a
classifier that is re-circulated and returned to the mill for additional grinding to ensure a uniform
surface area of the final product.
Figure 4: A cement mill
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Figure 5: Simplified Process Schematic for Cement Making
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CHAPTER THREE:
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the processes and the approach that were used to carry out the research.
The study was based on both qualitative and quantitative information. It gives an account of
methods, techniques and tools that were employed to collect and analyse data useful to this
research.
In order to achieve the objectives of the research study, a number of methods were employed.
It is noted that “researchers should not only consider the most appropriate method for the study
of their chosen topic or problem but also what combination of research methods will produce a
better understanding of it” (Hansen et al, 1998). In this sense the research was carried out based
on the case study methodology which uses a combination of methods to collect data.
The following methods were be used;
3.2 Literature review
Literature already published about cleaner production and the cement manufacturing processes
was reviewed. Sources of information were mainly previous academic work done on cleaner
production, monthly brochures from UCPC, cleaner production experts most especially my
project supervisors. Environmental protection policy and other monthly reports and company
manuals that are available on the website of TCL were also reviewed.
Some information was also accessed via internet and from the journals in the university library.
3.3 Preliminary tour to the selected industry.
The aim of this tour was to obtain a general overview of the industry. Information regarding the
general production and waste management operations was obtained. This tour also gave ideas
about what should be put in the interview guide. Data obtained during this tour was used to
design an interview guide/ observation checklist.
3.4 Design of an interview guide/ observation checklist
An interview guide that was used to get information from different employees in the industry
was designed. The emphasis was put on the production processes used, source, quality and
quantity of waste and how this waste is disposed of.
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3.5 Data collection
Different documents, especially environmental management reports and maintenance reports
were also used to access some useful data. Most of the data collected was from the production
department, this consists of; quantity of waste and its composition, quality of emissions, raw
materials used quantity of rejects, fuel (quantity and form) used and costs of disposal.
3.6 Data analysis
This involves analysis of both primary and secondary data and responses from employees,
interviews and observations using appropriate standard techniques. Tools used in analysis of
quantitative data include Microsoft excel, this assisted in drawing of tables, graphs, and pie
charts showing the concentration of air with each emission at normal conditions and energy
usage. This was then compared to maximum permissible emission values according to ISO.
3.7 Report writing
At the end of the research study a report was prepared, this case study report follows the
traditional research study format of Problem, methods findings and discussion in the form of
IMRAD that is. Introduction, Methods, Results And Discussion.
3.8 Report presentation
The prepared report is to be presented to the panel of lecturers and then to the staff at Tororo
Cement Limited.
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CHAPTER FOUR:
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the data collected is presented in its raw form i.e. as obtained in either its primary
or secondary state. Data is then analysed using particular techniques, methods software packages
and theories so as to obtain a statistical representation and diagnostic illustration of the data
collected.
Data in primary form was obtained through observations and self-conducted tests. While
secondary data was conducted through self-conducted interviews and from archived records
4.2 Process flow of TCL
Cement manufacturing uses energy to process raw materials consisting mainly, limestone
(calcium carbonate, CaCO3), clay (aluminium silicates), sand (silica oxide), and iron ore to
produce clinker, which is ground with gypsum, limestone, etc. to produce cement.
After an initial pre-blending stage, the raw materials are mixed to form a homogeneous blend
with the required chemical composition (the raw meal). The fineness and particle size
distribution of the raw meal are important characteristics for the burning process. Following
mixing, calcining the raw meal (e.g. decomposing CaCO3 at about 900°C), releasing carbon
dioxide (CO2) and leaving CaO. This is followed by the clinkering process, in which CaO reacts
at a high temperature (1,400°C to 1,500°C) with silica, alumina, and ferrous oxides. Other
constituents may be added in the raw material mix to meet the required composition (e.g. silica
sand, foundry sand, iron oxide, alumina residues and gypsum residues). The temperature of the
flame and produced gases is close to 2,000°C. The hot clinker falls from the kiln onto the cooler,
where it must be cooled as quickly as possible to improve the clinker quality and to recover
energy by heating secondary air. Grate coolers are typically employed for this purpose. The
cooled clinker is then ground with gypsum and limestone to produce Portland cement and ground
with other additional constituents like pozzolana to produce composite or blended cement in this
case PPC. Cement is then stored in silos or bags. The blending constituents are materials with
hydraulic properties e.g. natural pozzolana
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Figure 6: Process Flow at TCL
Figure 7: Simplified Process flow chart for cement production
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4.3 Common Wastes at TCL
 Particulate matter
 Waste water
 Waste oil
 Metal solid waste
 Wastes from packaging
 Raw materials (lime stone) not crushed to the required size
 Flue gas emissions

Carbon dioxide

Carbon monoxide

Nitrogen oxides

Hydrocarbons
4.3.1 Sources of these wastes
4.3.1.1 Particulate matter (Dust)
According to the International Standardization Organization (ISO 4225 - ISO, 1994),
Dust are small solid particles, conventionally taken as those particles below 75μm in diameter,
which settle out under their own weight but which may remain suspended in the atmosphere for
some time.
Particulate matter (PM) emissions are among the most significant impacts of cement
manufacturing at TCL. PM emissions are associated with intermediate and final materials
handling and storage including crushing and milling of raw materials; handling and storage of
coal, transportation of materials (e.g. by trucks or conveyor belts), and bagging activities.
Dust is mainly emitted in the stacker and reclaimer yard, at the crusher, the coal mill, cements
mills and also caused by trucks. Dust that settles on the ground is collected and re-circulated in
the system.
Chemical Composition of dust at TCL
Cement plant dust is primarily mineral. It contains traces of the raw material used to manufacture
it, notably CaCO3 (limestone), as well as SiO2 (shale) (silica), Al2O3 (Bauxite) (alumina) and
Fe2O3 (Iron ore).
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Table 1: Showing Dust Emissions for the Year 2015
MONTH COOLER ESP STACK
AVERAGE TOTAL
BAG HOUSE STACK
AVERAGE TOTAL
(mg/NM3)
(mg/NM3) (mg/NM3)
(mg/NM3)
JAN
35
1076
35.8
1079
FEB
33.3
935
36.4
991
MAR
39.1
1193
38.2
1101
APRIL
37.7
1213
36.8
1080
MAY
13.9
427
13
447
JUNE
40.9
1242
38.7
1087
JULY
34
899
48.5
1183
AUG
42.1
1306
50.1
1477
SEPT
33.4
995
39.6
1188
OCT
35.4
1034
34.3
1046
NOV
28.5
840
28.7
861
DEC
37.9
1200
41.6
1291
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Graphs Showing Daily Dust Emissions for the Year 2015
60
D
U
S
T
C
O
N
C
E
N
T
R
A
T
I
O
N
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR JANUARY 2015
50
ELV= 30 mg/NM3
40
30
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
20
(
NOTE: READINGS WERE ZERO
WHENEVER THERE WAS A
PLANT STOPPAGE.
KILN WAS DOWN ON 14/15TH
JAN DUE TO COOLER JAM
10
)
m
g
/
N
M
3
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31st
0
MONTH : JAN ' 2015
Figure 8: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for January 2015
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FEB 2015
60
50
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m 40
g
/
30
N
M
3 20
COOLER ESP mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE EMISSION mg/NM3
)
D
U
S
T
C
O
N
C
E
N
T
R
A
T
I
O
N
10
27th
25th
23rd
21st
19th
17th
15th
13th
11th
9th
7th
5th
3rd
1st
0
NOTE:NOTE: READINGS WERE ZERO
WHENEVER THERE WAS A
PLANT STOPPAGE.
KILN WAS DOWN ON 2nd-4th
JAN DUE TO COOLER JAM
MONTH : FEB ' 2015
Figure 9: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for February 2015
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TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION MARCH 2015
60
C
50O
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
COOLER ESP mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE mg/NM3
)
N
C
40 E
D N
U30 T
S R
T A
20 T
I
10O
N
0
MONTH : MAR ' 2015
Figure 10: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for March 2015
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION APRIL 2015
60
C
50O
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
COOLER ESP mg/NM3
)
N
C
40E
D N
U T
S30R
T A
T
20I
O
N
BAG HOUSE mg/NM3
10
0
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th
MONTH : APR ' 2015
Figure 11: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for April 2015
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Project report, 2016
60
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR MAY 2015
50
C
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
O
N
40
C
m
E
g
N
30 /
T
N
R
M
A 3
T
20
I
O
N
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
)
D
U
S
T
READINGS WERE ZERO
WHENEVER THERE WAS A
PLANT STOPPAGE.
KILN WAS DOWN BTN 7TH -27TH
DUE TO PLANT SHUTDOWN
10
0
MONTH :MAY 2015
Figure 12: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for May 2015
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION JUNE 2015
60
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
COOLER ESP mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE mg/NM3
)
50C
O
N
40C
E
D N
U30T
S R
T A
20T
I
O
10
N
0
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th
MONTH : JUNE ' 2015
Figure 13: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for June 2015
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60
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR JULY 2015
C
O
N
C
40
E
N
30
T
R
A
20
T
I
O
10
N
50
(
D
U
S
T
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
m
g
/
N
M
3
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
)
READINGS WERE ZERO
WHENEVER THERE WAS A
PLANT STOPPAGE.
KILN WAS DOWN ON 21ST, 22ND
0
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th 31st
MONTH : JULY 2015
Figure 14: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for July 2015
80
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR AUGUST 2015
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
)
70
C
O
60
N
C
E
50
N
D
U T
R
S 40
T A
T
30
I
O
20
N
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
10
0
MONTH AUGUST 2015
Figure 15: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for August 2015
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TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR SEPT 2015
60
ELV = 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
)
C
50 O
N
40 C
E
N
D
U T
30
S R
T A
20 T
I
O
10
N
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
8TH - 10TH KILN IN
MAINTENANCE
0
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th MONTH SEPT 2015
Figure 16: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for September 2015
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TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION OCTOBER 2015
60
D
U50
S
T
ELV= 30 mg/NM3
(
40
C m
O g
N /
C30N
E M
N 3
T20
R
A
T
I10
O
N
COOLER ESP mg/NM3
)
BAG HOUSE mg/NM3
Between 28th -31st
the Kiln was not in operation
0
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th 31st
MONTH : OCT ' 2015
Figure 17: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for October 2015
50
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR NOV 2015
45
40
ELV= 30 mg/NM3
(
C
35
O
N
30
C
25 m
E
g
N
20 /
T
N
15
R
M
A
10 3
T
I5
O
0
N
D
U
S
T
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
6TH - 12TH AND 26TH KILN
IN MAINTENANCE
)
1st 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th 21st 23rd 25th 27th 29th
MONTH NOV 2015
Figure 18: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for November 2015
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Project report, 2016
60
TREND OF PLANT DUST EMISSION FOR DEC 2015
ELV= 30 mg/NM3
(
m
g
/
N
M
3
COOLER ESP STACK (mg/NM3)
BAG HOUSE STACK (mg/NM3)
)
50
C
O
N
40
C
E
D N
T
U 30
S R
T A
T
20
I
O
N
10
EMISSIONS HIGH AT THE
BAG HOUSE STACK DUE TO
DELAYED REPLACEMENT
OF BAG FILTERS
8TH KILN IN MAINTENANCE
0
MONTH DEC 2015
Figure 19: Trend of Plant Dust Emission for December 2015
TREND OF TOTAL DUST EMISSION PER MONTH FOR
THE YEAR 2015
DUST CONCETRATION (mg/Nm3)
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
COOLER ESP STACK
600
BAG HOUSE STACK
400
200
0
MONTH
Figure 20: Trend of total dust emission per month for the year 2015
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4.3.1.2 Flue Gas Emissions
Flue gas emissions in cement manufacturing are generated in the kiln, preheater system due to
the calcination reactions and coal combustion. These are then emitted to the atmosphere via the
kiln stack, cooler stack and bag house stack. Flue gases from the kiln are both due to calcination
reactions and from combustion of furnace oil and coal.
The following is the list of flue gases emitted from a cement factory;

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Sulphur dioxide

Sulphur trioxide

Nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogen monoxide

Hydro carbons
Sources of flue gases

CO2 – Calcination of Limestone (CaCo3) and fuel combustion [900-1000 kg/tonne
clinker]

NOx – Fuel combustion by oxidation of chemically bound Nitrogen in the fuel and by
thermal fixation of Nitrogen in the combustion air.
In the kiln NOx is formed at high temperature (thermal NOx) and at lower temperature from the
nitrogen in the fuel (fuel NOx)

SOx – Combustion of sulphur compounds (pyrites) in the raw materials and fuel
SO2 from fuels are trapped in the pre-heater. Almost all SO2 emissions are linked to pyrite in the
raw materials evaporated at the top of the pre-heater
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Mass Balance for 1kg of Cement
AIR EMISSIONS
CO2 – 650g
N2 – 1566g
O2 – 262g
H2O –69g + raw material
moisture
Air
750g
Clinker
INPUTS
BURNING
1000g Cement
MILLING
1150g raw material
63g fuel
984g air + raw
material moisture
1050g Air
INPUTS (250g)
(Gypsum +pozzolana)
Air
Figure 21: Mass Balance of 1kg of Cement
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Table 2: Showing Flue Gas Emissions for the Year 2015
MONTH
KILN
KILN
PH
INLET INLET OUTL
BAG
BAG
BAG
BAG
BAG
BAG
HOUS
HOUS
HOUS
HOUS
HOUS
HOUS
CO
O2
ET CO E
E
E
E
E
E
mg/N
mg/N
mg/N
STAC
STAC
STAC
STAC
STAC
STAC
M3
M3
M3
K CO K
O2 K SOx K Nox K HC K CO2
mg/N
mg/N
mg/N
mg/N
mg/N
mg/N
M3
M3
M3
M3
M3
M3
JAN
0
840
0
0
720
184
98
0
600
FEB
0
880
0
0
800
186
88
0
780
MARCH
0
760
0
0
820
180
88
0
680
APRIL
0
900
0
0
920
186
88
0
760
MAY
0
300
0
0
290
47
29
0
260
JUNE
0
810
0
0
820
183
90
0
720
JULY
31
845
16
18
361
180
79
0
200
AUG
35
820
18
18
650
118
112
0
780
SEPT
36
844
20
19
678
195
123
0
221
OCT
0
800
18
0
720
180
80
0
600
NOV
0
825
16
0
820
180
88
0
220
DEC
0
830
16
18
640
120
79
0
200
AVERA
9
788
9
6
687
162
87
0
502
GE
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FLUE GAS EMISSION mg/NM3
TREND OF PLANT FLUE GAS EMISSION YEAR 2015
KILN INLET CO mg/NM3
KILN INLET O2 mg/NM3
PH OUTLET CO mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK CO mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK O2 mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK SOx mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK Nox mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK HC mg/NM3
BAG HOUSE STACK CO2 mg/NM3
MONTH
Figure 22: Trend of Flue Gas Emissions for the Year 2015
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Project report, 2016
The Maximum Permissible Emission Values According to ISO
Table 3: Showing ISO Standards on Emissions to the Atmosphere (ISO, 2012)
Description
The production and cooling of cement clinker, grinding and blending of
clinker to produce finished cement and packaging of finished cement
Substance
or
mixture
of Mg/Nm3 per day under normal conditions of 10% O2, 273K
substances
and 101.3kPa
Chemical
Chemical
name
symbol
Particulate
N/A
30
N/A
30
matter (kiln)
Particulate
matter
(cooler ESP)
Particulate
30
matter
(clinker
grinding)
Sulphur
SO2
150
dioxide
Oxides
nitrogen
of NOX
110
expressed as
NO2
This implies that, TCL violates International ISO regulations on dust and flue gases emission and
thus appropriate measures should be taken to keep the emission values within acceptable ranges.
4.3.2 Some of the measures to reduce flue gas and dust emissions
 Reducing Material Input
The environmental impact (flue gas generation) of cement manufacturing is largely caused by
clinker production. Many manufacturers work to lower the clinker content, e.g. by adding fillers,
such as sand, slag, fly-ash and pozzolana, in the grinding step. One technique is to exchange 50%
Final year project report, Application of cleaner production technology in cement industry
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of the clinker with maintained product quality/performance and without increased production
cost. Cement standards define some types of cement with less than 20% clinker, the balance
being made of blast furnace slag.
Recycling of collected dust to the production processes lowers the total consumption of raw
materials. This recycling may take place directly into the kiln or kiln feed or by blending with
finished cement products.
The use of suitable wastes as raw materials can reduce the input of natural resources, but should
always be done with satisfactory control on the substances introduced to the kiln process.
Reduced emissions of NOX can be achieved by reduced flame and burning temperatures and the
consumption of fuel, as well as by zones with a reducing atmosphere in the kiln system. Control
of oxygen content (excess air) is critical to NOX control.
Generally the lower the oxygen content (excess air) at for instance a cement kiln back end, the
less NOX is produced. NOX reductions of up to 30% can be achieved. (Alsop, P.A. and J.W.
Post, 1995)
 Flame cooling.
Addition of water to the fuel or directly to the flame reduces the temperature and increases the
concentration of hydroxyl radicals. This can have a positive effect on NOX reduction in the
burning zone. Reduction efficiency from 0-50% can be achieved.
Designs of low-NOX burners where by coal and air are injected into the kiln through concentric
tubes.
The primary air proportion is reduced to some 6-10% of that required for stoichiometric
combustion (typically 20-25% in traditional burners). The net effect of this burner design is to
produce very early ignition, especially of the volatile compounds in the fuel, in an oxygendeficient atmosphere. NOX reductions of up to 30% are achievable in successful installations.
(Alsop, P.A. and J.W. Post, 1995)
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
This reduces NO and NO2 to N2 with the help of NH3 and a catalyst at a temperature range of
about 300-400°C. This technology is widely used for NOX abatement in other industries (coalFinal year project report, Application of cleaner production technology in cement industry
Page 37
Project report, 2016
fired power stations, waste incinerators). Large NOX emission reductions are potentially
achievable by SCR high dust systems (85-95%). (Alsop, P.A. and J.W. Post, 1995)
 Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
This involves injecting NH2X compounds into the exhaust gas to reduce NO to N2. The reaction
has an optimum in a temperature window of about 800 to 1000°C; sufficient retention time must
be provided for the injected agents to react with NO. The most common NH2X agent is about
25% ammonia in water.
The achievable NOX emission level is 80-85% reduction. (Alsop, P.A. and J.W. Post, 1995)
 Staged combustion
This can be applied at cement kilns supplied with several combustion stages. This technique is
mostly carried out with specially designed pre-calciner. The first combustion stage takes place in
the rotary kiln under optimum conditions for the clinker burning process. The second combustion
stage is a burner at the kiln inlet, which produces a reducing atmosphere that decomposes a
portion of the nitrogen oxides generated in the sintering zone. The high temperature in this zone
is particularly favourable for the reaction which reconverts the NOX to elementary nitrogen.
The addition of mineralisers, e.g. calcium fluoride, to the raw material to adjust the clinker
quality allows the sintering zone temperature to be reduced, which leads to less NOX formation.
(Alsop, P.A. and J.W. Post, 1995)
Other wastes from the plant
 There are coal wastes that spill from the bucket elevator at the coal mill
 Lime stone waste from the crusher; stones that are not crushed to a suitable size (
80mm) are screened out and re-circulated.
 Unwanted rocks that are removed from raw materials during preparation
4.4 Energy Usage at TCL
Energy use associated with mining and quarrying raw materials for cement production are not
included in this section because it is accounted for in the mining sector. As such, the cement
industry energy consumption is comprised of energy used for raw material preparation, clinker
production, cement milling.
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Raw material preparation is an electricity-intensive production step requiring about 23-32
kWh/ton depending on the state of the raw materials although it could require as little as 10
kWh/ton.
Clinker production is the most energy-intensive stage in cement production at TCL, accounting
for over 90% of total plant energy use.
For the clinkerisation process, fuel consumption varies between 2.7 and 3.0 MBtu/ton of clinker.
Coal and furnace oil are used for clinker burning and kiln ignition respectively. (Calmac Study
Id: Pge0251.01)
The chart below shows the energy consumed by the kiln and the two cement mills which are the
highest power consumers at TCL.
These two stages in cement production (clinkerisation and cement milling) consumed an average
of 136.2kwh of energy per month,
Figure 23: Energy Flow in a Cement Industry (Worrell, E. and C. Galitsky. 2004)
Final year project report, Application of cleaner production technology in cement industry
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Table 4: Showing Energy Consumption by the two main consumers of Energy at TCL for the
Year 2015
MONTH
PLANT SECTION ENERGY USAGE IN kwh
KILN
CEMENT
CEMENT
MILL 1
MILL 2
JAN
47.4
41.7
43.7
FEB
46.6
39.9
42.9
MARCH
46.2
37.6
41.9
APRIL
43.5
40.9
50.2
MAY
63.5
43.3
47.2
JUNE
48.6
38.8
49.5
JULY
47.0
39.8
49.7
AUGUST
48.3
38.8
49.6
SEPT
45.3
39.6
52.2
OCT
45.4
39.2
49.9
NOV
46.8
41.5
53.6
DEC
42.9
40.6
50.5
AVERAGE
47.6
40.1
48.4
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ENERGY USAGE TREND FOR 2015 (kwh)
JAN
DEC
NOV
OCT
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
FEB
MARC
H
KILN
APRIL
SEPT
CEM MILL 1
CEM MILL 2
MAY
AUGUS
T
JUNE
JULY
Figure 24: Energy Trend for the Year 2015
Comparison of Alternative Fuels
Table 5: Comparison of alternative fuels, (Biomass Energy Centre)
Fuel
Specific
carbon
content
(kgc/kgfuel)
0.75
Coal
0.86
Diesel
Biomass 0.375
(25%
MC
wood)
Specific
energy
content
(kwh/kgfuel)
7.5
11.8
3.5
Specific
CO2
emission
(kgco2/kgfuel)
2.3
3.2
1.4
Specific
CO2
emission
(kgco2/kwh)
0.37
0.24
0.007
4.4.1 Energy as it Relates to Overall Business Factors
In the interview, members of management staff were asked to list the factors that were very
important to their business. All indicated that energy costs and market conditions were two of the
factors that were very important to their businesses. Three of the five interviewees indicated that
environmental regulations were also a very important consideration, while two members cited
production management as a very important factor.
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In addition to energy costs, these were asked to rate a number of factors that are of importance to
their business. Results are tabulated and summarized in Table below. Clearly, the most important
factor cited is the need to comply with regulatory requirements. This is not surprising as the
plants could not operate long in non-compliance. One of the primary regulatory factors involves
compliance with air emissions standards.
The next highest rated business factor involves maintaining product quality and meeting
production requirements. Having a reliable supply of electricity was rated of medium importance
by most interviewees.
It is interesting to note that one member with a more-efficient section indicated that maintaining
technological competition was of extreme importance. This member works in the process
department which is considered the most important department at Tororo cement limited.
Table 6: Showing the Rating of Business Factors at TCL
Business Factors
Department
Proc
Qual Prod HR
R&
Ave
ess
ity
D
rage
ucti
on
Product quality and consistency
4
4
5
4
5
4.4
Meeting your production schedule
5
5
3
5
4
4.4
Meeting regulatory requirements (such as
5
5
5
5
5
Keeping up technologically with competitors
5
2
1
1
3
2.4
Keeping up with new or shifting market demands
3
3
4
3
2
3
Having a reliable supply of electricity
5
3
5
3
5
4.2
Maintaining your market niche
3
3
3
2
4
3
Maintaining a happy and productive staff
2
2
3
5
2
2.8
Identifying and implementing cost saving
1
1
2
1
5
environmental requirements)
measures
5
2
Rating of Key Business Factors
(0 = Unimportant, 5 = Extremely Important)
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4.5 Evaluation Cleaner Production Options and Opportunities at TCL
This includes the discussions of some of the cleaner production options that may be utilised at
TCL so as to improve production, energy efficiency, quality of the working environment and
comply with the environmental protection regulations.
CP options are those probable remedies that may be utilised so as to conserve company
resources, e.g. time, raw materials, human labour, energy, capital and other consumables.
However CP opportunities are those CP options that are viable to that particular company thus
not all CP options are opportunities.
4.5.1 Cleaner production options for production
Production is the main goal of any manufacturing industry. Before any industry can be in
business it should ensure that products to be made are of satisfactory quality, satisfies customer
needs and in the right quantities and right time. Other departments e.g. maintenance, quality
assurance, Human resource, purchase and all others offer support services to production.
1) Suggestion; All sections in the production department should reaffirm their position on
raw materials quality. The quality of raw materials should always meet the requirements
of the production engineer.
Justification; low grade limestone was identified as the main source of flue emissions like
sulphur dioxide.
2) Suggestion; Old and inefficient machines should be replaced by modern ones to improve
on energy efficiency, productivity and minimise waste generation and emissions.
Justification; sections with old machines (equipment) like the ESP, bucket elevator on the
coal mill, limestone crusher and trucks were identified as point sources of emissions, wastes
and high energy use.
3) Suggestion; A pre-calciner should be installed to increase productivity, minimise flue
emissions by reduction of on the amount of coal used, and furnace oil.
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Justification; in presence of a pre-calciner, 60% of the calcination reactions takes place in
the pyro process and 40% in the kiln. This means if a pre-calciner is installed, fuel used in the
kiln will be reduced and productivity will also be increased. Reducing the amount of fuel
used (coal) results in a reduction in flue emissions.
4) Suggestion; TCL should resort to using biomass as a source of heat in the preheater and
the kiln. For example, since eastern Uganda is a rice and coffee growing region, rice and
coffee husks can be utilised.
Justification; coal combustion was identified as one the sources of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide gases. Biomass combustion emits fewer amounts of greenhouse gases
compared to coal. Also coal is imported from South Africa which is more expensive than
collecting husks from eastern Uganda.
5) Suggestion; furnace oil should be replaced with diesel as an ignition fuel so as to reduce
power used to pump this fuel and minimise carbon monoxide emissions.
Justification; furnace oil emits carbon monoxide and has high viscosity so it requires high
pressure (implying high energy) to be pumped. Furnace oil also has lower calorific value
compared to diesel.
4.5.2 Cleaner production options for maintenance
Well-designed and carefully managed maintenance systems are required to enable the plant to
perform at desired levels. This in turn substantially increases plant and product availability.
6) Suggestion; the organisational structure should be rearranged to put maintenance
department on the same level with production. This helps in setting up adequate technical
specifications for the purchase of new equipment, taking into account better
maintainability and the measures to ensure proper maintenance such as technical
documentation, training, and spare parts.
Justification; As the objective of the production and maintenance department is the same;
production at minimum cost under good quality and safety conditions, it is indispensable that
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both departments are placed on the same hierarchical level in order to allow interrelations, based
on an equivalent decision making power.
7) Suggestion; the maintenance department should practice continuous training of its
workforce to help the maintenance personnel to acquire the knowledge and skills to better
accomplish their work with quality and efficiency.
Justification; at TCL only senior officers are taken for training once in a while. This not only
demotivates other technicians but also leads to lack of proper maintenance records as these
technicians are not well trained to record all the maintenance activities. It also increases the
equipment‟s down time during maintenance when it‟s not done as fast as possible.
8) Suggestion; a comprehensive Computerised Maintenance Management System (CMMS)
should be designed to provide management with timely and accurate information that will
assist management to plan, schedule, budget, staff, direct and control plant maintenance
operations.
Justification; according to the maintenance schedule, preventive maintenance for the kiln is
scheduled for every Friday for the whole year but surprisingly kiln was stopped 2-5days every
month for corrective maintenance. With CMMS in place the condition of the kiln and all other
equipment will be monitored continuously and the records kept. This will reduce on the plants
down time thus increasing on productivity and reducing on costs of operation.
4.5.3 Cleaner production options for employee health and safety
Health refers to the general condition of a person‟s body and mind. On the other hand, safety
refers to the state of being free from occupational accidents, health hazards and eventually
fatalities.
Safety may also refer to that state for which the risks are judged to be acceptable.
8) Suggestion; all machines that require machine guards should be fitted with some.
Sensitisation on the importance of these machine guards should then be given to all the
technicians. Strict rules can as well be used to enforce the use of these machine guards in
order to reduce accidents occurrence in the factory.
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Justification; the researcher noticed that all machines in the mechanical workshop and the
limestone crusher are not fitted with machine guards. This increases the occurrence of accidents
which reduces on the employee‟s productive time.
9) Suggestion; the company should ensure continuous training of personnel on issues such
as safety, machine setting, and first aid.
Justification; according to the responses received from supervisors which are not included in
this report due to the scope of the project, one of the main causes of waste generation and
accidents especially in the mechanical workshop and the steel plant is inadequate training for
machine operators in material handling, safety, machine setting. It‟s therefore important that
continuous training be given to the personnel in these aspects.
10) Suggestion; a more efficient BDC should be installed to reduce on amount of dust
emissions. This will improve the quality of working environment and reduce on the loss
cement dust per ton of clinker produced.
Justification; dust is the main threat to the personnel working environment at TCL, yet the BDC
installed is just 45% efficient in dust collection. On the market, there are more efficient dust
collectors (80%). Once this is installed, working environment and thus employee safety will be
improved.
11) Suggestion; customers who clean their trucks with in the factory should be directed to
stop. These trucks carry dust from where ever they come from and are cleaned from TCL
premises, this pollutes the working environment.
4.5.2 Cleaner production options for management
Some of the decisions that may minimise waste generation and improve on working environment
include;
12) Suggestion; Management should seek alternative use of wastes that are inevitable as a
direct or indirect result of production, for example waste oil and other operational wastes.
This waste oil can be sold out to people who want to treat their building timber and those
who mark play grounds instead of taking it for incineration in Nakasongola.
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Justification; it should be noted that cleaner production application does not eliminate waste
generation as some waste wastes are inevitable but these wastes can be recycled and or
reused to minimise their effects on the environment.
13) Suggestion; the importance of both timed and condition based preventive maintenance
must be emphasized and strictly honoured.
Justification; on more than one occasion management has directed a delay in scheduled
preventive maintenance so as to meet market requirements.
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CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter makes some recommendations arising from the whole study and presents
concluding remarks.
5.1 Problems faced at Tororo Cement Limited.
The following are the problems faced by TCL that need attention;


Low grade limestone was identified a major cause of wastes and SOX
The whole factory is too dusty; Fugitive emission sources mainly arise from storage and
handling of raw materials, fuels and clinker and from vehicle traffic at the site.

Particulate matter and flue gas emissions above the maximum permissible levels as given
by ISO an organisation that certifies TCL

There are spillages of coal from the bucket elevator on the coal mill

Raw material fall off from the conveyer belts during transit

The pile of unwanted rocks which are removed during raw material preparation

Operators lack appropriate skills in machine s and raw materials handling

Unnecessary excess energy in clinker production.

Fuel costs too high (coal imported from S. Africa

High energy used to pump furnace oil from the oil house to the kiln due to the fact that
furnace oil is thick.
5.2 Conclusions
Basing on the researcher‟s findings at Tororo Cement Limited, it can be deduced that the
company is characterised by;

Inappropriate waste management practices

Unsafe working environment

Inefficient energy use

Un motivated workforce
TCL is the main polluter of environment in Eastern Uganda emitting about 25600mg/Nm3 of
particulate matter (dust) and 6500mg/Nm3 of carbon dioxide per year. TCL spends relatively
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huge amounts (undisclosed) of money every month to pay 30 workers who are specifically
employed to collect dust that settles on the ground.
Tororo Cement Limited is a large energy consumer; however this energy can be reduced if
appropriate measures are taken.
5.3 Recommendations
The following are cleaner production opportunities that should be implemented at TCL;

Production engineers in cooperation with the quality control department should approve
the quality of limestone and other raw materials before they enter the production system

Proper and complete maintenance of all the equipment and machines to increase their
efficiency

Outdoor storage piles of dusty materials should be avoided. (the stacker yard should be
enclosed with a wall)

Point sources of dust should be controlled by a water spray injection system over the
stackers.

All areas used by Lorries should be paved. Those roads which cannot be paved should be
watered daily especially during dry weather.(including the road to the crusher)

Apply the following techniques to reduce NOX emissions,
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 Selective non catalytic reduction (SNCR)
 Flame cooling

The old bucket elevator on the coal mill should be replaced with a new one.

Shields should be fitted on the conveyer belt drives to avoid falling off of raw materials
from the belts.

The use of low grade limestone from Ram hill and Tororo quarries should be reduced.

Personnel should continuously be trained on issue of machine setting, raw material
handling as well as safety related issues

The precalciner should be installed between the pyro process and the kiln to increase
productivity, reduce energy usage and reduce on the flue gas emissions.
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
TCL should switch to biomass as an alternative fuel in order to minimise flue gas
emissions and reduce cost of fuel.

Furnace oil should be substituted with diesel to reduce on flue gas emissions and reduce
on energy requirement for pumping.
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REFERENCES
1) European Commission Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, IPPC
2) Climate change and the cement industry‟ McCaffrey, R. GCL October 2001
3) Sustainable Industrial Development in Uganda through Cleaner Production, B A RBARA
2006
4) Cleaner Production Global Status Report, 2002 United Nations Environment Program at
http://www.mindfully.org/Sustainability/Cleaner-Production- 2002UNEPJun02.htm
5) CP Issue Paper, 2000. Promoting Cleaner Production Investments in Developing
countries:
Issues
and
Possible
Strategies
at
http://www.financingcp.org/library/PDF/Issuepaper04001.pdf#search
6) Sustainable Development Goals September 2015
7) Patton, Michael Quinn (1987). How to Use qualitative Methods in Evaluation. Newbury
Park, California
8) UCPC Eco-benefits programme reports http://www.ucpc.co.ug/publications.htm
9) UNEP,
2001.
Production
and
Consumption
Unit
at
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/cp/declaration/
10) UNEP‟s Proposal for a Work Programme on Promoting Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns (August 2002).
11) Alsop, P.A. and J.W. Post, 1995. The Cement Plant Operations Handbook, (First edition),
Trade ship Publications Ltd., Dorking, UK.
12) Worrell, E. and C. Galitsky. 2004. Energy Efficiency Improvement Opportunities for
Cement Making: An ENERGY STAR
Guide for Energy and Plant Managers. Berkeley,
CA: Lawrence, Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-54036).
13) Alan Moris. S, ISO 14000 Environmental management standards.
14) Industrial Case Study: The Cement Industry, Calmac Study Id: Pge0251.01
15) Nomita T. Yap, cleaner production and consumption: challenges and opportunities in
East and Southern Africa.
Final year project report, Application of cleaner production technology in cement industry
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