RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design/Methodology
 The research design is the master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing
the needed information.
Research Design
Research
Design
Operational
design
(techniques)
Sample design
(Method of selecting
item for study)
Observational design
(Observational
condition)
Statistical design ( no
of item, gathering
info)
Research Design
 Sample design: this deals with the technique of selecting items and thus requires
careful observation for the given research study.
 Observational design: this relates to the conditions under which the experiments are
to be conducted.
 Statistical design: this concerns the question of how many items are to be observed,
and how are the collected data and information going to be analyzed.
 Operational design: this deals with the methods by which the procedures specified
in the sample, observational and statistical designs can be conducted.
Need of Research Design
 It facilitates smooth sailing of various research operation
 It makes research efficient as possible yielding, maximum
information with minimal expenditure of effort ,time and
money.
 Eg . In house building ,we require map or design of house. Similarly we
require research design for data collection and analysis of data of our
research project
Sampling
 Measuring a small portion of something and then making a
general statement about the whole thing.
 Ex: Average height of Dehradun people. How to calculate this?
Why sampling?
 Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous
(different characteristics) population.
 Sampling is for economy.
 Sampling is for speed.
 Sampling is for accuracy.
Good Sample
1. Accuracy – bias is absent from the sample
(Ex. A company is thinking of lowering its price for its soap bar product. After
making a survey in the sales of their product in a known mall in Makati they
concluded that they will not cut down the price of the soap bar since there was an
increased in sales compared to last year. Bias is present in this study since the
company based its decision for the sales of a known mall which have consumers
who can afford high price products. They did not consider the sales of their
products in other area wherein they have middle class or low class consumers.)
Good Sample
2. Precision – sample represents the population
(Ex. Customers who visited a particular dress shop are requested to log in their phone
numbers so that they will receive information for discounts and new arrivals.
Management wish to study customers satisfaction for that shop.
By means of
interviewing thru phone they get comments and reactions of their client. Samples used
are not an exact representative of the population since it is limited only to those
customers who log in their phone numbers and they did not consider customers without
phone numbers indicated.)
STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
1.
What is the target population?
Target population is the aggregation of elements (members of the population) from which
the sample is actually selected.
2.
What are the parameters of interest?
Parameters are summary description of a given variable in a population.
3.
What is the sampling frame?
Sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample is actually drawn. Complete
and correct list of population members only.
STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
4.
What is the appropriate sampling method?
Probability or Non-Probability sampling method
5.
What size sample is needed?
There are no fixed rules in determining the size of a sample needed. There are guidelines that should
be observed in determining the size of a sample.
When the population is more or less homogeneous and only the typical, normal, or average is desired to
be known, a smaller sample is enough. However, if differences are desired to be known, a larger
sample is needed.
When the population is more or less heterogeneous and only the typical, normal or average is desired
to be known a larger sample is needed. However, if only their differences are desired to be known, a
smaller sample is sufficient.
Example
A Company would like to make a study in the quality of digital cameras it
manufactured.
 Target population – consumers of digital cameras
 Parameters of interest – quality of digital cameras (scale of 1 to 5 , 5 being the most
satisfactory)
 Sampling frame – database of stores in which digital cameras are sold, usually customers
gives information about them for warranty purposes
 Sampling method – Probability sampling (Stratified sampling).
 Size of sample – it is more on heterogeneous population, average responses would like to
know by the manufacturer, so large proportion will be needed from the population.
Types of sampling
 Probability Sampling
 Pure random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Non Probability sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Purposive sampling
• Quota sampling
• Judgmental sampling
Probability sampling
 Probability sampling
 the sample is a proportion (a certain percent) of the
population
 some systematic way of selection from population in which
every element of the population has a chance of being
included in the sample.
Non Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling



The sample is not a proportion of the population
No systematic way of selection.
The selection depends upon the situation.
Pure random sampling
 Every one in the population of the inquiry has an equal chance of being selected to
be included in the sample. (random number)
 Also called the lottery or raffle type of sampling.
 This may be used if the population has no differentiated levels, sections, or classes.
 Done with or without replacement
Systematic sampling
 Every kth name in a list may be selected to be included in a sample.
 Also called as interval sampling, there is a gap or interval, between each selected
unit in the sample.
 Used when the subjects or respondents in the study are arrayed or arranged in
some systematic or logical manner such as alphabetical arrangement
Stratified sampling
 The process of selecting randomly, samples from the different strata of the
population used in the study.
 Ex: A call center company wants to seek suggestions of their agents for a new marketing
strategy for their new services.
 Variable of interest is age and three strata or subgroup (30,30-45,>45)
 Classify the agent in to subgroup
• 20% of the sample under age 30
• 65% should be age 30 to 45
• 15% should be over age 45
CLUSTER SAMPLING
 Total population is divided in two groups (cluster) and the
sample of group is selected randomly.
 Required information is collected from sampled group
randomly.
Convenience sampling
 Process of picking out people in the most convenient and
fastest way to immediately get their reactions to a certain hot
and controversial issue.
Purposive sampling
 The respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the information
desired.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
•
Specified number of persons of certain types are included in the
sample.
 JUDGEMENT SAMPLING
•
Sample is taken based on certain judgements about the overall
population. The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study
Process of Data Collection
1.
Define the objectives of the survey or experiment.
Example: Estimate the average life of an electronic component. ( Research topic)
2.
Define the variable and population of interest.
Example: No of years (life span of electronic components)
3.
Defining the data-collection and data-measuring schemes.
This includes sampling
procedures, sample size, and the data-measuring device (questionnaire, scale, ruler, etc.).
4.
Determine the appropriate descriptive or inferential data-analysis techniques.
Define the variable and population of interest
 Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a
population or sample.
 Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age
of faculty.
• Population: All faculty member
• Sample: subset of population (Ex: 10 faculty member from population)
• Variable: “Age” of faculty member
Two types of variable
 Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical, Variable: A variable that categorizes or
describes an element of a population. Ex: color, smell, quality etc
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and averaging, are not meaningful
for data resulting from a qualitative variable.
 Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable that quantifies an element of a
population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and averaging, are meaningful for
data resulting from a quantitative variable.
 Nominal Variable: A qualitative variable that categorizes (or describes, or names) an element
of a population.
 Ordinal Variable: A qualitative variable that incorporates an ordered position, or ranking.
 Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume a countable number of values.
Intuitively, a discrete variable can assume values corresponding to isolated points along a line
interval. That is, there is a gap between any two values.
 Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume an uncountable number of
values. Intuitively, a continuous variable can assume any value along a line interval, including
every possible value between any two values.
Data Collection
 Data collection is one of the most important stage in conducting a
research.
 Data collection starts with determining what kind of data
(Qualitative or Quantitative) required followed by the selection of
a sample (sampling design) from a certain population
Need of Data Collection
 To get information for analysis.
 To get idea about real time situation.
 For comparison between two situation
Types of Data
Primary Data
• Data is collected by
researcher himself
• Data is gathered
through questionnaire,
interviews,
observations etc.
Secondary Data
Data collected,
compiled or
written by other
researchers eg. books,
journals, newspapers
Effective way
of gathering
information
Involves verbal
and non-verbal
communications
INTERVIEW
Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through mail
Useful to collect
quantitative and qualitative
information
The most common
data collection instrument
Survey
Questionnaire
Should contain 3 elements:
1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
Observe verbal &
non-verbal communication,
surrounding atmosphere,
culture & situation
Need to keep
meticulous records of
the observations
Observations
Can be done through discussions,
observations of habits, rituals,
review of documentation,
experiments
4. Data Analysis
 Descriptive statistics are methods for organizing and summarizing
data.
 For example, tables or graphs are used to organize data
 Inferential statistics are methods for using sample data to make
general conclusions (inferences) about populations.
Comparison
Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency Distributions
# of Ss that fall
in a particular category
3. Summary Stats
Describe data in just one
number
2. Graphical Representations
Graphs & Tables
Sample
Population
Sample
Sample
Sample
Inferential Statistics
Draw inferences about the
larger group
Sampling Error: variability among
samples due to chance vs population
Or true differences? Are just due to
sampling error?
Probability…..
Error…misleading…not a mistake
data
Are our inferences valid?…Best we can do is to calculate probability
about inferences
CREATING RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
INTRODUCTION
• Questionnaires are one of the most popular
methods of conducting research.
• They provide a convenient way to gathering
information from a target population.
• They are cost-effective and easy to construct and
analyze.
• A questionnaire is a planned self-reported form
designed to elicit information though written or
verbal responses of the subjects.
• In the words, a questionnaire is a research
instrument used for data collection.
• It is a set of questions that may or may not
provide with response alternatives which are to
be answered by subject.
DEFINITION
A questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of
a series of data prepared by researcher that a research
subject is asked to complete,to gather data from
individuals about knowledge,attitude,beliefs and
feelings.
• The instrument is called a questionnaire or sometimes
a
self-administered
questionnaire
(SAQ),when
respondents complete the instrument themselves,
usually in a paper and pencil format but occasionally
directly onto a computer.
• A questionnaire is structured self-report paper and
pencil instrument that a research subject is asked to
complete.
•
Steps in survey research

Determine the purpose of your survey: what do you want
to know?

Develop a sampling plan: who do you want to know it
from?

Develop your interview, instrument, or questionnaire.

Pilot test your questionnaire on a representative sample
and make any adjustments.

Develop a coding scheme and analysis plan.

Conduct survey.

Compile, analyze, and interpret responses. Communicate
responses.
Identifying participants
Who is the population of interest? Identify a
“representative sample” of that population.
Lots of types of sampling techniques (here are a
few):
Random = everyone has chance to be selected
Cluster = sample intact groups within a population
Stratified = take a sample from each of several
groups
Convenience = subjects selected by accessibility
Purposeful = subjects selected because they inform
the study
45
Quality aims in survey research
Goal is to collect information that is:
Valid: measures the quantity or concept that is supposed to
be measured
Reliable: measures the quantity or concept in a consistent or
reproducible manner
Unbiased: measures the quantity or concept in a way that
does not systematically under- or overestimate the true value
Discriminating: can distinguish adequately between
respondents for whom the underlying level of the quantity or
concept is different
TYPES
OF QUESTIONS
Open-format / Open ended questions
• Open ended questions are those questions which
provide opportunity to the respondents to express
their opinions and answers in their own way.
• Open –format questions have followings
characteristics:
1. There is no predetermined set of responses.
2. They provide true, insightful and unexpected
suggestions.
3. An ideal questionnaire contains open-ended
questions towards the end of all the questions
that would ask respondents about the
suggestions for changes or improvements.
Ex: state your opinion about the quality of health
care services in punjab?
Closed-format questions
• These questions offer respondents a number of
alternative replies, from which the subjects must
choose the one that most likely matches the
appropriate answer.
• Closed-format
questions
have
following
characteristics:
1. They facilitate easy statistical calculation of
data.
2. Provide easy preliminary analysis
3. Can be asked to different groups at different
intervals.
4. Facilitate efficient tracking of opinion.
Closed-format questions
could be of the following subtypes
1. Dichotomous
questions
2. Multiple-choice
questions
3. Cafeteria questions
4. Rank order questions
5. Contingency questions
6. Rating questions
7. Importance questions
8. Likert questions
9. Bipolar questions
10.Matrix questions
Dichotomous questions
• These requires the respondent to make a
choice between two responses such as yes/no
or male/female.
Ex:
Q) Have you ever been hospitalized?
a. Yes
b. No
Multiple-choice questions
These questions require respondents to
make a choice between more than two
response alternatives.
Ex:
Q)Which of the following disease is sexually
transmitted ?
a.DM
b. Hypothyrodism
c. Syphilis
d. HTN
Cafeteria questions
• These are special type of MCQ’s that ask the
respondents to select a response that most closely
corresponds to their views.
• Ex:
Q) What do you think about hormone replacement
therapy?
a. It is dangerous, should be avoided.
b. One should be cautious while using it.
c. I am uncertain about my views.
d. It is beneficial, should be promoted.
Rank order questions
• These questions ask respondents to rank their
responses from most favorable to least
favorable.
Ex:
Q) What according to you is most important for
your life. Rank from most favorable to least
favorable.
a. Money
b. Education
c. Family
d. Health
Contingency questions
• A question that is asked further only if the
respondents gives a particular response to
previous question.
Ex:
Q) Are you stressed?
a. No
b. Yes, if yes what are the reasons?.........
Rating questions
• These questions ask respondents to judge
something along an ordered dimension.
• Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue
on a scale that ranges from Poor to Good.
•They may provide a number of choices.
Ex:
Q) How you rank the education quality in India?
1
2
3
4
Good
Fair
Poor
Very Poor
Importance questions
• In this, respondents are asked to rate the importance
of a particular issue, on a rating scale of 1-5. This
helps to know that the things/issues that are
important to a respondent.
• Ex:
Q) Exercising every day is ……..for the health.
1
Extremely
important
2
3
Very
Some what
important important
4
5
Not very
important
Not at all
important
Likert questions
• Likert questions help to know how strongly the
respondent agrees with a particular statement. These
questions help to assess how respondent feels
towards a certain issue/ services.
Ex: Q) This community a good place to raise
children?
1
2
3
4
5
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Bipolar questions
• Bipolar questions are questions that have two
extreme answers.
• Respondent has to mark his or her response
between two opposite ends of the scale.
• Ex: Q) what is your balance of preference here?
I Like Going For Walks [ ]
[]
[]
[]
[ ] I Like Watching Movie
Matrix questions
• It include multiple questions and identical
response categories are assigned.
• Questions are placed one under another,
forming a matrix.
• Response categories are placed along the top
and a list of questions down the side.
EX:
• Q) please let us know your weekly schedule of
the following:
Mon
Gym
(weight
Traning)
Aerobics
Eating
(Dinner/Lunc
h)
Drink
(Alcoholic
breverages)
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat
Sun
Guidelines for designing a good questionnaire
General points:
1. The questionnaire must be developed exactly in
accordance with study objectives
2. The questionnaire should be begin with the
instructions for the respondents to provide the
responses.
3. The drafting of the questionnaire should be
concise, precise and brief, because the lengthy
questionnaires may lead to boredom among
respondants.
4. The language of the questionnaire should be
according to the respondents knowledge about a
particular knowledge.
5. Questions outside the respondents experience
should not be asked.
6. In asking questions about past events, too much
reliance should not be placed on the respondents
memory.
7. Questions which are likely to lead to bias in the
respondents should be avoided.
8. Questions should be very clear and simple. Avoid
professional jargons.
9. As for as possible, open ended questions should
be avoided.
10.Avoid questions with difficult concept, which are
not easily understandable for respondents.
11.Controversial and ambiguous questions should be
avoided.
12.The structure of the questionnaire should be
according to the form in which the responses are
to be recorded.
13. Cross check the respondents by asking the
same information in two different ways.
14. A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied
by introduction to the study, purpose and
directions to fill the questionnaire.
15. Abrupt ending of the questions and
questionnaire should be avoided.
Sequence of the questions
• There should be logical sequence of the questions in
the questionnaire.
• Researcher must ensure that the answer to question is
not influenced by previous question.
• Questions should flow from more general to more
specific.
• Questions should be flow from least to most sensitive.
• Sandwich theory states that a questionnaire should
generally start with demographic profile of subjects,
followed by specific questions according to the
objectives of the study.
Question construction
• Use statements which can be interpreted in same
way by all subjects.
• Use statements where persons that have different
opinions or traits will give different answers.
• Use only one aspect of the construct in which you
are interested.
• Avoid asking double-barreled questions which
contain two distinct ideas or concepts.
Ex: are you satisfied with pay and fringe benefits?
• Avoid leading, loaded, ambiguous and long
questions.
Questions researcher must consider before developing a
questionnaire
The sample
 Who are you going to ask?
The method
 How are you going to ask them?
The questionnaire  What are you going to ask them?
The result
The cost
The time scale
 What will you do with information?
How much do you want to pay for
answer?
 By when do you need information?
•
•
•
•
•
Avoid negative and double negative questions
Use a positive statements
Do not make assumptions about respondent.
Use clear and comprehensible wording.
Use
correct
spelling,
grammar
and
punctuation.
Methods of questionnaire administration
• A questionnaire may be administered with
following methods; each method has it unique
advantage as listed below.
1) Postal
2) Phone
3) Electronic
4) Personally administered
Postal
• low cost
• Not labour intensive
• anonymity
Phone
•
•
•
•
High speed
Rapport with respondent
Detailed questions
High response rate
Electronic
•
•
•
•
Low cost
High speed
Anonymity
Not labour intensive
Personally administered
• Detailed questions
• High response rate
Advantage of questionnaire
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Questionnaire are cost-effective.
They are easy to analyze.
They require less time and energy to administer.
Questionnaire offer the possibility of anonymity.
They reduce bias as interviewer not present.
Questionnaire are used for large sample size.
Questionnaire are less intrusive than phone or
face-to-face interview.
Disadvantage of questionnaire
•Questionnaire are not suitable for all.
Ex: children, blind and illiterates.
• Low response rate.
• Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by
someone other than the intended person.
• Questionnaire provide only superficial information.
• Probing of response is not possible.
• There are chances of misinterpretation.
• People can lie and answer the question vaguely.
ASKING SENSITIVE
QUESTIONS
1. Use open rather than closed questions about socially
undesirable behavior.
2. Use long rather than short questions about socially
undesirable behavior.
3. Use familiar words when asking about socially undesirable
behavior.
4. Use data from informants.
5. Deliberately load questions so that overstatements of
socially desirable behavior and understatements of socially
undesirable behavior are reduced.
6. With regard to socially undesirable behavior, firstly ask
whether the respondent has engaged in that behavior
previously, and then move to asking about current behavior.
ASKING SENSITIVE
QUESTIONS
7. Locate sensitive topics within a discussion of other less
sensitive matters.
8. Use alternative ways of asking standard questions.
9. Ask respondents to keep diaries.
10. At the end of an interview ask respondents their views on
the sensitivity of the topics that have been discussed.
11. Find ways of validating the data.
12. As questions become more threatening and sensitive,
expect greater bias and unreliability.
7 Common Questionnaire Mistakes Market Researchers
Should Avoid
Mistake #1: Leading the Respondent
This issue results when an adjective is used that can cause bias. While often
unintentional, it is sometimes seen in political polling when trying to provoke
a certain reaction to an issue. When it occurs in market research surveys, it
tends to inflate ratings in aspects like customer satisfaction or product
research.
Examples:
#1: Our dedicated, top-rated customer service representatives do their best to
serve your needs. How satisfied are you with your experience today?
[SATISFACTION SCALE]
Issue: The preamble to the actual question "signals" to the respondent that
the representatives are highly rated and may lead to a respondent to discount
a less than satisfactory experience. Eliminate any language that may add to a
respondent's knowledge (good or bad) about a product or service.
#2: How likely are you to purchase the newly designed, state-of-the-art cell
phone? [PURCHASE LIKELIHOOD SCALE]
Issue: The adjectives "newly designed" and "state-of-the-art" adds and/or
highlights information about the product; use this type of language in
product/concept descriptions, not in the question itself.
Mistake #2: Overlapping, Incomplete or Unclear Response Choices
Response options should almost always be mutually exclusive and definitive. Any
ambiguity will confuse and/or frustrate respondents.
Examples:
#1: How long have you been in your current occupation?
1 - 2 years
2 - 5 years
5 - 10 years
Issue: The options do not take into account under 1 year or over 10 years. And the
overlap of time would lead to those in the occupation for exactly 2 or 5 years to
potentially answer differently, resulting in incorrect results. Add more granularity to
choices or use number fill-ins when appropriate.
#2: What type of vehicle do you own?
2-door
4-door
Van
Hatchback
Truck
SUV
Sedan
Issue: A respondent's vehicle would likely fall across multiple categories from the
options provided, and some vehicle types are not included. Analyzing the results from
this question would not provide a clear or accurate picture of the marketplace. Be sure
lists are exhaustive and cover all possibilities.
Mistake #3: Vague Questions
Having respondents guess what response the study is looking for is a
wasted opportunity. This most often occurs in open-ends when looking
for something specific, but the respondent takes the question in a
different direction. Also, be specific with timeframes.
Examples:
#1: How can we improve our food menu?
Issue: "Improve" could be taken many ways, from the type of food
offered to the size of the type used on the menu. Be specific and clear
when asking for input to gather more relevant data.
#2: How likely will you be to purchase [PRODUCT] in the near
future?
Issue: The researcher likely assumes a certain timeframe for the
phrase "in the near future," however it could be interpreted many
different ways as respondent buying and consumption cycles can vary
greatly. Use specific timeframes relevant to the category.
Mistake #4: Ignoring Cultural Differences and Sensitivities
Respondents in different regions can be sensitive about certain topics related to income, sexual
orientation, religion, personal care, and consumption/use of certain products and services.
Examples:
#1: What is your annual household income?
Below $45,000
$45,000 or more
Issue: While simplifying income levels can help encourage respondents to answer unless it is
a screener question, income, and other potentially sensitive questions should include "prefer
not to answer" as a choice.
#2: Which of the following beverages have you consumed in the last 6 months?
Beer
Coffee
Liquor
Softdrink
Tea
Water
Wine
Other
Issue: In the majority of Muslim countries, including questions about alcohol consumption
may offend certain respondents. Especially in global studies, be sure to utilize local resources
to ensure the questionnaire is culturally appropriate.
Mistake #5: Combining Questions/Attributes
As mentioned previously, it is important that the
respondent clearly understands the question they are
answering or the attribute they are rating. Make sure
each question focuses on one attribute/behavior.
Example:
#1: Which delivery service do you consider the
fastest and most economical?
Issue: While the overall goal may be to determine
the fastest and most economical service, breaking
these features into two questions will provide clarity
to both the respondent and provide more detail for
the researcher during analysis.
Mistake #6: Too many open-ended questions
Open ends can be revealing, but often they are used
when response options have not been well-thoughtout or as a substitute for qualitative examination.
Too many open-ends results in faster respondent
fatigue, which means higher drop-out rates and/or
less consideration when answering. Both issues
compromise data quality. If real unstructured data is
the goal, consider a different methodology such as
in-person qualitative or an online community.
Mistake #7: Not Considering the Respondent Experience
As Jun Uematsu, Chief Operating Officer at data Spring,
mentions in the blog Understanding Questionnaire Design
in Japan, market research participation rates are declining
significantly, in part due to poor respondent experience: long
surveys, confusing questions, multiple attribute matrix, and
multiple open-ends try the patience of even the most
dedicated respondent.
As Jun recommends, "Now the recommended maximum
length of interview (LOI) is 10 minutes, which is keeping
with today's busy consumer. In addition, limit matrix/grid
questions and minimize open-ends, which causes drop-out
and irregular answers. Also avoid unnecessary screening
questions, which can be tedious for the respondent and also
contribute to higher drop-outs."
SEQUENCING QUESTIONS
Take care with order effects
Earlier responses affect later responses
Early tone/mood-setting affects later moods in completing
questionnaires
Primacy effect
Items high in a list tend to be chosen more than items lower in
a list
Respondents choose the first reasonable answer from a list,
even though a later response statement might be more fitting
Avoid placing sensitive questions at the start
Embed them later questions
Move from objective facts to subjective views
QUESTIONNAIRES
CONTAINING FEW
VERBAL ITEMS
A questionnaire might:
> include visual information and ask
participants to respond to this (e.g. pictures,
cartoons, diagrams)
> might include some projective visual
techniques (e.g. draw a picture or diagram)
join two related pictures with a line, write the
words or what someone is saying or thinking
in a ‘bubble’ picture
THE COVERING LETTER SHOULD . . .
1. Provide a title to the research;
2. Introduce the researcher and contact details;
3. Indicate the purposes of the research;
4. Indicate the importance and benefits of the
research;
5. Indicate why the respondent has been selected
for receipt of the questionnaire;
6. Indicate any professional backing,
endorsement, or sponsorship of, or permission
for, the research;
7. Set out how, where and by what date to return
the questionnaire;
8. Indicate what to do if questions or uncertainties
arise;
THE COVERING LETTER SHOULD . . .
9. Indicate any incentives for completing the questionnaire;
10. Provide assurances of confidentiality, anonymity and nontraceability;
11. Indicate how the results will and will not be disseminated,
and to whom;
12. Thank respondents in advance for their co-operation.
PURPOSES OF PILOTING
> To check clarity of items/layout/sections/presentation/
instructions;
> To gain feedback on appearance;
> To eliminate ambiguities/uncertainty/poor wording;
> To check readability;
> To gain feedback on question type (suitability/feasibility/
format (e.g. open/closed/multiple choice);
> To gain feedback on appropriateness of question stems;
> To generate categories for responses in multiple choices;
> To generate items for further exploration/discussion;
> To gain feedback on response categories;
> To gain feedback on length/timing (when to conduct the data
collection as well as how long each takes to complete
(e.g. each interview/questionnaire))/coverage/ease of
completion;
PURPOSES OF PILOTING
>To identify redundant items/questions (those with little
discriminability);
> To identify irrelevant questions;
> To identify non-responses;
> To identify how motivating/non-engaging/threatening/
intrusive/offensive items may be;
> To identify sensitive topics and problems in conducting interviews;
> To test for inter-rater reliability;
> To minimise counter-transference;
> To gain feedback on leading questions;
> To identify items which are too easy/difficult/complex/ remote from
experience;
> To identify commonly misunderstood or non-completed items.
INTERVIEW METHOD IN RESEARCH
Interview
is
the
verbal
conversation between two people
with
the
objective
of
collecting
relevant information for the purpose
of research.
DEFINITION
According to McNamara, 1999
 Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story
behind a participant’sexperiences.
 The interviewer can pursue in-depthinformation
around the topic.
 Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain
respondents.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Personal Interview
2. Telephone Interview
3. Focus Group Interview
4. Depth Interview
5. Projective Techniques
Personal Interview
 Personal
Interview
communication
is
between
a
face
the
to
face
two
way
interviewer
and
the
respondents.
 Generally the personal interview is carried out in a planned
manner and is referred to as ‘structured interview’.
 This can be done in many forms e.g. door to door or as a
planned formal executive meeting.
Methods of conducting an
Personal Interview
A personal interview involves a lot
of preparation. Generally an
personal interview should go
through the following five/5 stages
they are as follows.
a. Rapport Building
Interviewer should increase the
receptiveness of the respondent,
2. by making him believe that his
opinions are very useful to the
research, and is going to be a
pleasure rather than anordeal(trial).
1.
b. Introduction
 An
introduction
involves
the interviewer
identifying himself by giving him his name,
purpose and sponsorship if any.
 An introductory letter goes a long way in
conveying the study’s legitimacy.
c. Probing

Probing is the technique of encouraging the
respondents to answer



completely,
freely
relevantly.
d. Recording
 The interviewer can either write the response at
the time of interview or after the interview.
 In certain cases, where the respondent allows
for it, audio or visual aids can be used to record
answers.
e. Closing
 After the interview, interviewer should
thank the respondent and once again assure
him about the worth of his answers
 And also the confidentiality of the same.
2. Telephone
Interview
 Telephone interview the information is
collected from the respondent by asking
him questions on the phone is called as
telephone interview.
 The combination of telephone and
computer has made this method even more
popular.
 It has certain advantages and disadvantages.
3. Focus Group Interview
 Focus group interview is an unstructured
interview which involves a moderator
leading a discussion between a small group
of respondents on a specifictopic.
4. Depth Interview
Depth interview is nondirective in nature where
the respondent is given freedom to answer within
the boundaries of the topic of interest.
5. Projective Techniques
 Projective Techniques involve the presentation of
an ambiguous, unstructured object, activity or
person that a respondent is asked to interpret and
explain.
 Respondents asked to interpret the coloursof dress.
 In Projective Techniques, the respondents are
asked to interpret the behaviour of others/objects
and this way they indirectly reveal their own
behaviour in the same situation. Some of these
techniques are discussed below.
Cont..
 Word Association Test: Respondents are presented
with a list of words one at a time and they are asked to
respond immediately with the first things that come to
their mind
 e.g. in a study on book reading habits the respondents can be
presented with words like 2 statesetc.

Where do you useInternet?

Library

Cyber café

Hostel

Home
 Cloud Picture Test: This shows two or more character
conversing with each other and cloud of one character is
left empty.
 Then a response to be filled by the respondents according
to his interpretation of what the other characters are
saying.
Which e-resource you usemost?
Cont..
 Sentence Completion Test: It is similar to a word
association test where instead of a word, a sentence is
left incomplete and the respondent is asked to fill it
with the first thought that comes to his mind
 e.g. People who uses public library are …………
 Story Completion Study: A step further to sentence
completion, is the story completion study
 Under this a story is created by the researcher which defines
the topic of research and the respondents are asked
complete the story.
to
Other types
 Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined
questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as
possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the
interview the interviewer “goes with theflow”.
 General interview guide approach - intended to ensure that
the same general areas of information are collected from each
interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational
approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in
getting the information from theinterviewee
 Standardized, open-ended interview - the same
open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees;
this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be
more easily analyzed andcompared.
 Closed, fixed-response interview - all interviewees
are asked the same questions and asked to choose
answers from among the same set of alternatives. This
format
is
interviewing.
useful
for
those
not
practiced
in
Advantages of Interview Method
1.
2.
Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide direct
feedback to the respondent, give clarifications .
Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can investigate if
the respondent’s answer is too brief or unclear. This gives
interviewers some flexibility in dealing with unstructured
questions
is especially suited for handling complex questions.
3.
Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is very
lengthy, the personal interview is the best technique for
getting respondents to cooperate, without overtaxing
their patience
Cont..
4. Complete Questionnaires – Respondent will answer all
questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the
respondent may hang up or in mail questionnaire where
some questions may gounanswered.
5. Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have the opportunity
of showing respondents items such as sample products,
graphs ands sketches, which can aid in their answers.
 Respondents
can show the encyclopedia,
periodical while asking questions onthem.
6. High
indexing
Participation – Interviewing respondents
personally can increase the likelihood of their
participation, many people participatedirectly.
Disadvantages of Interview Method
1.
Cost – Personal interviews are usually more expensive than
mail, telephone and internetsurveys.
 Factors influencing the cost of the interview include the
respondents’ geographic proximity, the length and complexity of
the questionnaire, and the number of non-respondents
2.
Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are not anonymous in a
personal (face-to-face) interview and may be unwilling to
disclose certain information to theinterviewer.
3.
Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selected for
interview cannot be reached the first time, a callback has to be
scheduled which result in extra cost and time spent.
Cont..
4.
Variance Effects – It has been shown that the demographic
characteristics of the interviewer can influence the answers of the
respondents. In one study, male interviewers had a much larger variance
of answers than female interviewers in a sample of most female
individuals
5.
Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their life easier and save time
and effort
6.
Personal Style – The interviewers individual questioning
style,
techniques, approach and demeanor may influence the respondents’
answers.
7.
Global Considerations – Cultural aspects may influence peoples’
willingness to participate in an interview (e.g. Brutal Middle Eastern
cultures discourage females from being questioned by male interviewers)
Criteria for the Interviewer
 Knowledgeable -being familiar with thetopic.
 Structuring -outline the procedure of the interview.
 Clear -simple, easy and short questions which are spoken distinctly and understandably.
 Gentle -being tolerant, sensitive and patient to provocative and unconventional opinions.
 Steering -to control the course of the interview to avoid digressions from the topic.
 Critical -to test the reliability and validity of what the interviewee tells.
 Remembering -retaining the subject information from the interviewee.
 Interpreting -provide interpretation of what is said by theinterviewee.
Types of Topics in Questions
 Behaviors -what a person has done or is doing.
 Opinions/values -what a person thinks about the




topic.
Feelings -what a person feels rather than what a
person thinks.
Knowledge -to get facts about the topic.
Sensory -what people have seen, touched, heard,
tasted or smelled.
Background/demographics -standard background
questions, such as age, education,etc.
After the Interview
 Verify if the tape recorder, if
used, worked throughout the
interview.
 Make
any
notes
on
your
written notes.
 Write down any observations
made during the interview.
Conclusion
 So we can use the interview technique as
one of the data collection methods for the
research.
 It makes the researcher to feel that the data
what he collected is true and honest and
original by nature because of the face to face
interaction.