Министерство Транспорта Российской Федерации
Федеральное агентство железнодорожного транспорта
Федеральное государственное бюджетное учреждение
высшего образования
Дальневосточный государственный университет путей сообщения
Кафедра «Иностранные языки и межкультурная коммуникация»
А.С. Цыганкова, Т.Н. Тагирова
НАУЧНАЯ СТАТЬЯ НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ:
СОВЕТЫ НАЧИНАЮЩИМ
RESEARCH PAPER IN ENGLISH:
TIPS FOR BEGINNERS
Рекомендовано
Методическим советом по качеству
образовательной деятельности ДВГУПС
в качестве учебного пособия
Хабаровск
Издательство ДВГУПС
2018
Рецензенты:
кафедра восточных языков Педагогического института
Тихоокеанского государственного университета (и.о.
заведующего кафедрой, кандидат филологических наук, доцент
О.И. Рукавишникова)
кандидат педагогических наук, зав. учебной частью Хабаровского
филиала Санкт-Петербургского университета гражданской
авиации Е.В. Цыганкова
Цыганкова А.С., Тагирова Т.Н.
Научная статья на английском языке: советы начинающим =
Research Paper in English: tips for beginners : учеб. пособие / А.С.
Цыганкова, Т.Н. Тагирова. – Хабаровск : Изд-во ДВГУПС, 2018. –
101 с.
Учебное пособие предназначено для магистрантов
специальности 08.04.01 «Строительство», изучающих дисциплину
«Иностранный язык для специальных целей», а также может быть
полезно для магистрантов всех направлений подготовки и
аспирантов, осуществляющих подготовку к сдаче экзамена
кандидатского минимума по английскому языку.
Пособие
состоит
из
семи
уроков:
Структура
исследовательской статьи (Structure of a research paper), Введение
(Introduction), Методология (Methods and Materials), Результаты
(Results), Обсуждение (Discussion) и Аннотация (Abstract). В уроках
предлагается практический алгоритм написания научной статьи в
формате IMRаD (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion).
В основе пособия лежат аутентичные англоязычные тексты
по методологии научного исследования, оригинальные научные
статьи из рецензируемых журналов.
Учебное пособие разработано в соответствии с ФГОС ВО и
рабочей программой дисциплины «Иностранный язык для
специальных целей» специальности 08.04.01 «Строительство» и
может использоваться как для аудиторных занятий, так и для
самостоятельной подготовки.
2
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
ВВЕДЕНИЕ……………………………………………………………4
Unit 1
Academic writing……………………………………….. 5
Unit 2
Structure of a research paper…………………………22
Unit 3
Introduction……………………………………………. 33
Unit 4
Methods and Materials………………………………....52
Unit 5
Results………………………………………………….. 64
Unit 6
Discussion……………………………………………… 77
Unit 7
Abstract………………………………………………… 86
Appendix……………………………………………………………… 95
БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК……………………………...100
3
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Учебное пособие «Научная статья на английском языке: советы
начинающим» («Research Paper in English: Tips for Beginners»)
разработано авторами для магистрантов специальности 08.04.01
«Строительство», изучающих дисциплину «Иностранный язык для
специальных целей», но универсальное содержание позволяет
использовать его широкому кругу заинтересованных лиц.
Основная цель пособия – сформировать у обучающихся комплексные
представления о научной статье на основе систематического анализа
научного дискурса и обеспечить обучающихся широким спектром
практических компетенций: от анализа научных текстов в области
исследования, обусловленной их специальностью, до написания
собственных научных текстов.
Пособие состоит из семи уроков: Академическое письмо (Academic
Writing), Структура исследовательской статьи (Structure of a Research
Paper), Введение (Introduction), Методология (Methods and Materials),
Результаты (Results), Обсуждение (Discussion) и Аннотация (Abstract).
Структура каждого урока унифицирована: теоретические основы
(Theoretical background), описывающие методологические основы
построения научного дискурса, универсальные для любой отрасли
знания, за которыми следуют упражнения, направленные на
практическое освоение материала урока. В рамках каждого урока
выделены лексические (Vocabulary Focus) и грамматические (Grammar
in context) аспекты изучаемого материала. В пособии поэтапно
предлагается практический алгоритм написания научной статьи в
формате IMRаD (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion),
выработанный авторами на основе их опыта ведения собственных
исследований и переводческой деятельности в научно-теоретическом
журнале.
Материалом для анализа в пособии служат аутентичные англоязычные
тексты по методологии научного исследования и оригинальные научные
статьи из рецензируемых журналов.
4
UNIT 1
ACADEMIC WRITING
Unit objectives
1. Types of academic texts
2. Features of academic texts
3. Academic texts analysis
Theoretical background
Types of Academic Texts
1.
Work in pairs. Which of these text types are common for the
academic writing?
research articles
dissertation / thesis
report
essay
journal articles
newspaper articles
magazine articles
project
2.
Study the difference between scientific journals and popular
science magazines.
5
Scientific Journals





New knowledge
Enable others to repeat the experiment
Logical clear structure
Technical terms
Tables, figures
Popular Science Magazines





Knowledge review
Arouse interest
Teach or influence the reader
Illustrations and heading to facilitate reading and understanding
Examples
6
3. Match the types of academic texts on the left to the definitions on
the right.
research article
report
dissertation
project
essay
journal
academic magazine, which contains articles about
the latest research in a particular academic field and
reviews of existing research
a written paper that illustrates the results of scientific
research with supporting data
the most common type of written work, with the title
given by the teacher, normally 1,000–5,000 words
the longest piece of writing normally done by a
student (20,000+ words), often for a higher degree,
on a topic chosen by the student
a piece of research, either individual or group work,
with the topic chosen by the student(s)
a description of something a student has done
The features of academic writing
4.
Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
A checklist of academic writing features
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Formal vocabulary
Hedging language
References
Abbreviations
Complex sentences
Sub-headings
Diagrams, tables
• Citations
Glossary
hedging language (n phr) уклонение от предписывающего характера
reference (n) ссылка
sub-heading (n) подзаголовок
table (n) таблица
citation (n) цитата
7
5. Read STUDY SKILLS. Then choose the correct word or phrase in the
italics in sentences below to make them formal.
STUDY SKILLS
Register (formal and informal)
The register of language is the type of language you use, either formal or
informal.
show / demonstrate
find out / discover
main / principle
talk / discuss
loot at / examine
try / attempt
do / carry out
say / declare
begin / commence
 All students will be able to obtain their results from the exam office.
(Formal)
 When did you get the results? (Informal)
1.
The government estimates / guesses that prices will rise by 1%
this year.
2.
Phones today just don’t look like / resemble phones from the 60s.
3.
It is a good idea / advisable to arrive ten minutes before the
examination begins.
4.
The use of Wi-Fi technology is now widespread / everywhere.
5.
The cost of mobile phones is expected to decrease / go down
rapidly within the next two years.
6.
The government has made considerable / great progress in
solving the problem.
7.
We got / obtained excellent results in the experiment.
6. Look at the following extract from an informal talk. Replace the
underlined words with a more formal word or phrase from the box.
(1) remainder
(6) attempt
(11) present
(2) rise
(3) however
(4) approximately
(7) evolve
(8) discuss
(9) two
(12) intend
(13) examine
8
(5) consider
(10) various
Today I’m going to discuss different problems associated with book
publishing. First, I will give an overview of trends in book publishing over the
last couple of hundred years. Then I’ll talk about recent trends in book
publishing and finally I’ll try to make predictions about the future of publishing.
Ok, I’ll begin by looking at how the book has changed since the 19th
century. Of course, we have to think about the question of literacy. In Britain
in the 19th century not everyone was literate. In 1841 about a third of the male
population and 44% of the female population were not able to write their
names. But with the spread of schooling, literacy rates continued to go up
during the rest of the century.
7.
Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
Hedging language
Academic texts discuss theories and propose solutions and mostly
these things are not absolute facts. This means that authors often
use “hedge” (смягчение) or soften what they say to avoid sounding
too certain. They do it through the use of specific language.




Modal verbs: can and may
Verbs: seem and appear
Adjectives: likely, possibly, probably, unlikely
Adverbs: perhaps, probable, unlikely, often, usually, generally
Compare the sentences:

Formal education has an effect on intelligence.

Formal education can have a continuous effect.
8. Underline the hedging language in the sentences below. Translate
the sentences using the dictionary.
1. The development of these tests seemed to promise the possibility that
the relationship between material inequalities and social inequalities could be
studied with mathematical precision.
2. General intelligence is a cognitive ability that underlies all other specific
forms of intelligence and can be accurately measured by IQ tests.
3. Each of these assumptions can be questioned.
9
4. It may be more useful to regard intelligence as a set of intellectual
capacities rather than a single one.
5. Cross-cultural studies have shown that the relatively high IQ of East
Asians, as compared with North Americans, is due to the length and type of
schooling, the extent of parental support.
9. Read the paragraph below. Translate it using the dictionary.
Underline the hedging language used by the writer. What do you think
is the effect of the hedging language used in the paragraph below?
There is, perhaps, even greater disparity in the availability of and access
to technology between the young and the elderly, a gap that is difficult to
bridge. However, despite the public image of being technophobes and
technologically illiterate, the elderly seem to be able to use technology more
than is realized, so a simple solution would be to harness what already exists.
For example, there seem to be great potential for using older teachers to teach
their peers in clubs at their own pace, which would, in fact, be an ideal
solution. Looking at the situation from another educational perspective, it is
likely that both older people and young people would benefit from the former
being involved in the school process, exchanging their life knowledge for
computer skills especially with pupils at primary and early secondary schools.
There is also the possibility that pupils at primary and secondary schools could
be encouraged to teach a grandparent how to use technology and share the
skills they learn. This practice would help both groups enormously. It is also
even possible for special computer clubs targeted specifically at the elderly to
be set up with the aim of connecting them to the world, keeping their minds
active and saving them money. This would be highly effective, benefiting all
elderly people but especially those who are less mobile. So, it may seem
initially impossible for the problems faced in this area to be overcome, but
they are not insurmountable. They just need time.
10
10. Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
BA
BSc
EU
DIY
CV
GM
PG
UG
MA
AGM
Common abbreviations
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Sciences
European Union
do-it-yourself
curriculum vitae
genetically modified
postgraduate
undergraduate
Master of Arts
annual general meeting
STUDY SKILLS
PhD
Doctor of Philosophy
HE
higher education
FE
further education
ICT
information and communication
technology
GNP
gross national product
HRM
human resource management
WTO
World Trade Organization
BCE
before common era
VC
Vice-Chancellor
PR
Public Relations
SE
South Eastern
Abbreviations in writing
anon.
anonymous (no author)
asap
as soon as possible
cf.
compare
ed.
editor/edition
e.g.
for example
c. circa (in dates – about)
Fig.
figure (for labelling charts and
graphs)
i.e.
that is
K
thousand
NB.
take careful note
nd
no date (i.e. an undated source)
op. cit. in the source mentioned previously
p.a.
yearly (per annum)
pp.
pages
PS
postscript
re:
with reference to
vs
versus
et al.
and others
11. Explain the abbreviations in the following sentences.
1. The failure rate among ICT projects in HE reaches 40 per cent (Smith et
al., 2008).
2. GM technology is leading to advances in many fields (e.g. forestry).
3. The world’s most populous country (i.e. China) joined the WTO in 2001.
4. NB. CVs must be submitted to HR by 30 June.
5. The city seems to have been destroyed c.2,500 BCE.
6. Her PhD examined the threat of hurricanes in SE Asia.
7. The VC is meeting the PG students.
8. Director of PR required – salary approx. $75K.
9. Re: the AGM next month: the report is needed asap.
10. Prof. Wren claimed that the quality of MSc and MA research was falling.
11
Academic texts analysis
12. Skim the Texts 1-3 and complete the following tables. Then check
your answers in groups.
Table 1
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
What type of text is it?
Who is the intended reader?
(целевая аудитория)
What is the purpose of the text?
Table 2
Features of academic writing
Text 1
Formal vocabulary
Complex sentences
Hedging language
Sub-headings
Abbreviations
References
Diagrams, tables
Citations
12
Text 2
Text 3
Text 1
Examinations are a well-established feature of most education systems
around the world. However, in recent years, their existence has been called
into question as a result of the pressure they put students under. In this paper,
we will argue that examinations are not, on the whole, beneficial to learning.
We will first analyze the effects of examinations on the way students learn.
We will then go on to discuss how examinations affect teaching. The final
point deals with the psychological problems often caused by examinations.
Examinations have a powerful influence on the approach students take
to learning. Biggs (1989) presents evidence to show that the existence of
examinations encourages students to take a surface approach to their
studies, that is, they memorize enough information to pass examinations but
do not enquire more deeply into the subjects they are studying. Some writers
claim that examinations provide a target for students to aim for and so help
them achieve the highest possible standards (Green et al., 1995). However,
if high grades are achieved at the expense of truly effective learning, then they
are meaningless. As well as encouraging students to take a superficial
learning approach, examinations can also adversely affect approaches to
teaching. In some educational systems, the examinations determine what is
taught and how it is taught. Fullilove (1992, p.131) makes the point that in
many countries: “Examinations establish the aims and objectives which
actually serve as teaching guidelines for schools. Teachers, then, tend to
teach to the requirements of the examinations rather than the needs of their
students”.
Perhaps the worst consequence of examinations, however, is their
harmful psychological influence. While most people would agree that a degree
of stress is necessary to achieve one's best performance, examinations can
cause severe psychological problems for many students. Proponents of
examinations should bear in mind the research findings which suggest that
relaxed students tend to perform better in academic tasks than those suffering
from anxiety (Corno, 1981). Examinations clearly cause stress but, on the
other hand, may well not lead to better results.
In this paper, we have attempted to present the argument against
examinations by focusing on the negative effects they often have on students.
It is undeniable that examinations can have some benefits but, unfortunately,
these are outweighed by their very serious drawbacks. The problems caused
by examinations are in urgent need of satisfactory solutions if we are to
maximize real learning in educational institutions.
13
References
1.
Biggs, J. (1989). Approaches to the enhancement of tertiary teaching. Higher
Education Research and Development, 8, pp.7-25.
2.
Green, L., Mitman, A. & Hedges, L. (1995) The influence of direct instruction on
student self-appraisals: A hierarchical analysis of treatment and aptitude-treatment and
interaction effects. American Educational Research Journal, 18, pp. 39-61.
Text 2
Envy and Jealousy in Sibling Relations
Abstract: The investigation of such feelings between siblings as envy and jealousy is very
important since sibling relations influence future interpersonal relations of a child. The
purpose of this paper is to determine if there are differences in envy and jealousy in sibling
relationships in so-called "full" families and one-parent families. The findings of the
research indicated that expression of envy and jealousy between children from "full"
families is mostly average, whereas expression of envy and jealousy between children
from one-parent families is usually close to maximum or minimum. In addition, the results
of the investigation showed that girls and boys in one-parent families tend to behave in
different ways toward their siblings.
Introduction
It is proved that family determines the development of many aspects of a
child's character, his/her attitudes, intentions and relations. The way a child
will communicate with other people (friends, class-mates, etc.) is usually
formed by the way he/she deals with his/her family members, especially with
siblings. In particular, it has been found that love and friendship between
siblings lead to good relations between each sibling and other people. At the
same time problems connected with communication can be anticipated in
case siblings feel envy, jealousy and rivalry toward each other. This connection demonstrates the importance of investigating such feelings between
siblings as envy and jealousy and, as a result, influencing the development of
the main aspects of a child's future interpersonal relations.
There has been some research connected with the topic of jealousy and
envy between siblings. Some of it has received interesting results. For
instance, Winnicott (1994) confirmed that the first jealousy manifestations
usually occur at the age of 15 months. A child can express jealousy toward a
parent, his/her sibling, inanimate objects, especially a doll looking like a real
child. Newcomb (2002) found out that the way siblings interact depends on
their relations with their mother. If a mother discusses with her first-born needs
and feelings of a new-born, she contributes to the development of trusting and
affectionate relations between them; if not, she intensifies the feelings of rivalry, envy and jealousy. At the same time Romeo (1994) developed the ideas
14
of Alfred Adler (1954) that jealousy, envy and rivalry between siblings could
be closely connected with a child's birth order and confirmed that they could
mean not only hostility and competition between brothers and sisters but
could be also beneficial to their growth and development.
To sum up, we can see that the problem of envy and jealousy in sibling
relations has been investigated by different researchers. However, the results
of the research are mostly not systematized. At the same time, very little is
known about the differences in sibling relationships in so-called "full" families
and one-parent families.
The purpose of this paper is to determine if there are differences in envy
and jealousy in sibling relationships in two above-mentioned types of families.
Our research could have some theoretical and practical value. On the one
hand, it may extend the theoretical knowledge about family relations in
general and sibling relations in particular. On the other hand, this investigation
could help to solve family conflicts practically, influence the processes of
forming sibling relations and developing their future relations with other
people.
Methods
The conducted investigation had the following restrictions. The objects of
the research were 49 children (22 boys and 27 girls) aged 7-10 years old that
had a sibling and were brought up in so-called "full" families (11 boys and 16
girls) and in one-parent families (11 boys and 11 girls). As the materials for
the research two projective methods were used. The first method was
"Fairytales of Duss". The second material was provided by the method of R.
Giel.
On the first stage of the research a child was asked questions about
his/her family, siblings, relations with them, his/her feelings toward them, etc.
On the second stage of investigation the child had to listen to each of the
fairytales of Duss and answer the questions following each fairytale. On the
third stage of the research the pictures of the method of R.Giel were shown
to the child, the child should have stationed the members of his/her family at
the dinner table, in the house, on the meadow during the picnic and at the
cinema. Three kinds of distances were measured: between a child and his/her
sibling; between a child and a parent; between a sibling and a parent. The
ratio of the first distance to the third one was computed as the most impartial
index of the relations between siblings as they are perceived by a child.
Results
Children being brought up in two different types of families expressed
rather friendliness and care toward each other than detachment and hostility.
At the same time children being brought up in one-parent families needed
15
more attention from their parents and closer interaction within the family than
children being brought up in so-called "full" families.
Children being brought up in two different types of families had mostly the
same type of behavior (pro-social or hostile) in different fairytales. However,
the type of behavior of children being brought up in one-parent families was
much more pronounced than the type of behavior of children being brought
up in so-called "full" families. For instance, in the fairytales 1 and 3 the prosocial reaction was demonstrated by 56% and 56% accordingly by children
being brought up in so-called "full" families and 73% and 73%) accordingly by
children being brought up in one-parent families; in the fairytales 2, 4, 5 the
hostile reaction was demonstrated by 59%, 67%, 89% accordingly by children
being brought up in so-called "full" families and 68%, 82%, 95% accordingly
by children being brought up in one-parent families.
Girls and boys being brought up in one-parent families tended to behave
in different ways toward their siblings. Girls usually expressed jealousy that
was directed at a sibling or a parent, whereas boys usually expressed autoaggression.
Clearly, the findings indicated that there is some correlation between level
of envy and jealousy in sibling relationships and the type of family siblings are
being brought up. This is consistent with our original assumption that children
being brought up in two different types of families have different level of
jealousy and envy in their relations.
Discussion
The original hypothesis of the investigation was the assumption that
expression of envy and jealousy between children from "full" families is mostly
average, whereas expression of envy and jealousy between children from
one-parent families is usually close to maximum or minimum.
The findings of the research accord with the original hypothesis. The
results could be explained by assuming that an older sibling in a one-parent
family may carry out the responsibilities of a parent being absent and a
younger one perceives him/her as a parent; in a so-called "full" family children
have the same responsibilities, are approximately equal in their rights and
perceive each other as rivals and competitors, this leads to the fact that there
is much envy and jealousy in their relations. At the same time it could happen
that no one of siblings in one-parent families would tend to carry out the
functions of a parent or both of them would tend to do this. This would lead to
the rivalry between them for the parent love and attention that have obviously
decreased because of absence of another parent. In case both of them want
to have the functions of the parent being absent jealousy and envy between
them would also increase.
16
This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the relationship
between level of envy and jealousy in sibling relations and the type of family
siblings are being brought up. It is possible, of course, that the same
investigation when the objects have other age (for instance, adolescents or
adults) may produce entirely different results. In addition, it is important to
emphasize that methodological problems in the research design limit our
interpretations.
The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in other
investigations studying envy and jealousy and other aspects of sibling
relations in order to construct a multifaceted model of such relations and
define the role of them in future interpersonal relations of a child.
References
1.
Adler, A. (1954). To understand human nature. Leipzig Hirzel.
2.
Ardelt, M., Day L. (2002). Parents, siblings and peers: close social relationships and
adolescent deviance. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 3, pp. 310-349.
Text 3
The decline in the number of visitors to London: causes and
possible solutions
1.
Introduction
This report was requested by Mrs. Gillian Brown, Director of the London
Tourist Authority (LTA), on 20 June, 2015. The report is a response to the
falling numbers of visitors from overseas to London, a phenomenon which is
losing millions of pounds for the UK economy. The main aim of the report is
to identify the causes of the decline in tourist numbers and recommend ways
to increase these numbers. In the report, we (the members of the Special
Task force of the LTA) present findings which attempt to explain the decline
in the number of visitors from overseas; a decline which can be traced back
five years. Following the findings, brief conclusions are drawn and a number
of recommendations are made as to how visitor numbers might be increased.
2.
Procedure
Data for the report were gathered between July and August, 2015. Primary
data were collected by interviewing 2,000 randomly selected overseas visitors
to London. Twenty London hotels offering three-star service or above were
surveyed in order to determine their room occupancy rates. Secondary data
were obtained by extensive reading of relevant newspaper and journal
articles.
17
3. Findings
Perhaps the most important cause of declining numbers of visitors over
the past five years has been the lack of Americans willing to take the long
flight to the UK. American visitors are clearly concerned about possible
terrorist attacks and are increasingly spending their holidays in the US.
American visitors tend to occupy top-end hotel accommodation and the drop
in their numbers is reflected in the room occupancy rates for superior London
hotels. The rates have been in the region of 50-60%.
American fear of terrorism is by no means the only reason behind the
declining numbers of visitors. A greater concern is that the expectations of
tourists have changed. Tourists demand far more than they used to and are
determined to get good value for money. Twenty years ago, seeing a show in
London and visiting its many museums and historical places represented
excellent value for money. However, prices for visitor-related activities in
London are now some of the highest in the world and this fact has impacted
more negatively on visitor numbers than perhaps any other single factor.
Another important concern for London is that visitors are becoming
increasingly aware of environmental issues and while other cities have been
cleaning up their environments, London has lagged behind in environmental
initiatives. The air is more polluted than ever from vehicle fumes and the river,
although less polluted than previously, is still smelly and littered with countless
tones of rubbish. The level of noise pollution is also high. Increasingly, tourists
are not willing to tolerate a bad environment in the places they visit. Most of
the Americans we interviewed stated that, as a direct result of the heavily
polluted environment, they would probably not return to London in the future.
Nearly three quarters of the Australians interviewed and more than half the
French agreed with these views.
The final problem is that London has a reputation abroad for rudeness to
visitors. The results of the report reveal that service in shops and restaurants
and in public services such as transportation is generally considered to be
poor compared with other major cities. We asked our interviewees to rate
different aspects of service in three cities on a five-point scale (1 = very poor
to 5 = excellent).
The overall mean score for London is 2.0, which may be described as
'poor'. Singapore and New York achieved significantly higher overall means.
A comparison of tourists' views on the friendliness and helpfulness of shop
assistants presents a very unwelcome result for London. Sometimes the
service of shop staff is more than just rude, it also involves cheating. People
who are cheated are unlikely to return to London and will probably mention
their experience to their friends who, in turn, will be put off from visiting
London.
18
4.
Conclusion
The findings clearly indicate that tourists are now looking for value for
money; they are seeking a complete experience with plenty of attractions to
visit, good service, a pleasant environment and all at a reasonable price. Our
market research has shown, however, that London's tourist attractions are
grossly overpriced and do not offer value for money. It can be concluded that
to encourage visitors to stay longer (and hence spend more money) and to
get greater numbers to come here, London must develop a new and less
polluted tourist-friendly infrastructure with good-value attractions.
5.
Recommendations
Since London no longer presents good value for tourists, the London
Tourist Authority should increase motivation to visit the city by encouraging
London-based businesses that rely on tourism to discount the prices of their
goods and services significantly.
American tourists are important to London's economy and to encourage
them to return, the LTA should emphasize in its literature that London has
suffered no major terrorism events in recent years and that airlines offering
flights from America to London have excellent safety records.
Tourists are now far more aware of pollution in all its different forms than
was the case ten years ago. London is regarded as having an unacceptable
level of air pollution caused by fumes from vehicles. To reduce polluting
emissions from cars, the LTA recommends that the government should
consider charging motorists heavily for driving in London and should promote
the use of public transport in the city.
In view of the poor standard of service experienced by many tourists, we
suggest that steps should be taken to improve the attitude of service staff
towards tourists. An advertising campaign and rewards for courteous staff
would probably help to achieve improvements in this area.
Follow-up
13. Analyze the text below using the tables from Activity 12.
Deep and surface approaches to learning
Introduction
Current educational philosophy tends to minimize the importance of the
teacher, focusing instead on the centrality of the student in their own learning,
especially with regard to independent study. Some tutors demand far more of
19
the learner than they did in the past. This may be due to an expectation among
academic staff that students will always be highly motivated by interest in their
own subject areas. The very definition of what it means to be a student in
many cases rests on this expectation. Barnett, for instance, defines a student
as 'someone who ... throws herself into her studies' (Barnett, 2007, p.18).
Courses and assessments are frequently designed on the assumption of deep
student interest and desire for knowledge.
With the increased focus on the centrality of students in the learning
process, particular attention has been paid to the way that students approach
their studies. The concept of deep and surface approaches to learning, first
suggested by Marton and Saljo (1976), has had a profound influence on
teaching theory. The consensus among academic staff is that deep
approaches are superior to surface approaches, and it is these which they
would expect their students to adopt. It is widely acknowledged that more
effective teaching is that which can help students develop a deep approach,
while less effective teaching methods concentrate on rote learning and exam
performance, resulting in a tendency for students to adopt surface
approaches.
A surface approach to learning
Students who take a surface approach to learning tend to be those who
see education solely as something necessary for career success.
Consequently, they have less interest in their subject matter, and value the
tangible outcomes of their studies - satisfactory grades, passing exams, and
gaining certification - more than the growth of knowledge itself. Students who
take a surface approach study only what they are required to do in order to
successfully complete their courses, and in this way are more passive
learners than those taking a deep approach. Learners taking a surface
approach are less likely to spend time doing extra research in order to fully
understand a subject. Such learners also take a narrower view of their
subjects than deep learners do. In this sense, surface learners are more
reliant on their teachers: they expect to be told, essentially, what they should
be learning, and believe that if they study diligently what the teacher has
assigned to them, then they will be successful in their assessments. As a
consequence, surface learners depend more heavily on rote memorization of
details provided in lectures or course books, and they are less successful at
applying the knowledge they gain in their studies to new areas.
A deep approach to learning
Students who take a deep approach, on the other hand, are more active
learners. They tend to be more interested in their subjects, and are more
motivated by curiosity and a desire to learn than by the promise of high grades
or success in exams. For a deep learner, the subject itself has intrinsic value.
20
They study more dynamically than surface learners, spending extra time to
fully understand the subjects that they learn, and, if necessary, reading
beyond what their teachers have assigned to them. They have a clearer
understanding of the connections between ideas and information. Deep
learners are more intellectually curious than those taking a surface approach.
Research shows clear differences in the defining characteristics of
student approaches to learning. However, it would be a mistake to
characterize any student as taking a deep or surface approach all the time.
Instead, it is more likely that students tend to adopt different approaches in
different contexts. A simple distinction, therefore, between deep and surface
learners is not necessarily an accurate picture of student learning styles. The
most successful students are likely to be those who take a blended approach,
and combine the positive aspects of surface approaches (memorization, when
necessary, and goal focus) with the interest and engagement in a subject that
is typical of the deep approach.
14. Skim a journal to find an article of your interest. Present the analysis
of the article to a group.
15. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
Box 1.
ACADEMIC TEXTS FEATURES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Formal vocabulary
Hedging language
References
Abbreviations
Complex sentences
Sub-headings
Diagrams, tables
 Citations
21
UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
Unit objectives
1. Types of academic articles
2. IMRaD format
3. A research article analysis
Theoretical background
Types of Academic Articles
1. Read the text. Complete the table.
Academic publications
Before selecting articles from academic journals it is good to know
something about the different types of articles. Each has its own value, so the
key is to recognize those which are most relevant to your needs.
Research Articles
In Research articles authors report the results of their own studies so
these are considered primary sources. Look at the title, abstract or
introduction for terms like experiment, research or study. Research articles
should clearly state that the authors conducted research, ran surveys, did
experiments, collected data, etc.
Review Articles
Review articles are also scholarly but not empirical. A review is a critical
evaluation of existing studies in this or that field. Review articles assess the
state of the literature on a topic and suggest steps for future research. So
review articles provide good overviews and the bibliography can lead you to
empirical research on your topic. The phrase «literature review» is usually
featured in the title, abstract or article introduction.
Theoretical Articles
Theoretical articles have a purpose to contribute to the theoretical
foundations of specific fields of study. Look for terms like concepts, theoretical
framework or a model.
22
Editorial Articles
Editorial articles appear quite often in academic journals. These are not
considered academic but they can help you find more sources for your
research. They are usually written in a literary style. They should give an
opinion but without being prescriptive. You may find the word ‘editorial’ in the
title of the article.
Glossary
primary source (n phr) первоисточник
scholarly (adj) научный
evaluation (n) оценка
assess (v) оценивать
lead (v) приводить
contribute (v) делать вклад
prescriptive (adj) предписывающий
Types of articles
Key words and phrases
IMRaD format
2. Read and translate the following text.
IMRaD FORMAT
IMRAD is an acronym, standing for Introduction, Methods, Results, and
Discussion. It is generally used to describe the structure of a scientific journal
article of original research. For the most part, these types of articles will follow
the IMRAD format.
Introduction
(What question was asked?)
Methods
(How was it studied?)
Results
(What was found?)
Discussion
(What do the findings mean?)
23
An hourglass is an old-fashioned piece of technology that was used to
count one hour. Hourglass has a striking resemblance to the structure of the
four sections of the IMRaD research paper (Fig. 1) so we can say that the
research paper is shaped like an hourglass.
Fig.1
The Introduction section typically begins with wide, general statements
about the importance of the area of study, and then progressively reports what
is known about the area, what is still not known, and then states the specific
focus of the paper. The Introduction moves from content that is general, to
content that is specific. Visually, this is pictured as moving from wide to
narrow, as in the top portion of the hourglass. The middle sections of the
research paper continue to narrow focus of the specific research being
reported in the Methods and Results. This is pictured as the narrow central
area of the hourglass. The Discussion usually begins with comments about
the specific research and progressively connects the findings to the wider
literature in the field. This move from specific content of the research
investigation to the larger field is pictured as a moving from narrower to wider.
IMRaD has proven to be remarkable standard in scientific journals since
the middle of the 20th century. Many publications also expect an abstract,
which is a stand-alone section that provides the article in brief. IMRAD formats
facilitate literature reviews, allowing readers to locate exact information with
ease (Fig.2).
24
Fig.2
3. Work in pairs. Put the headings for the sections of a research article
in the diagram.
a. References
b. Discussion
с. Title
d. Methods and Materials
e. Introduction
f. Results
g. Conclusions
h. Abstract
25
4. Match the sections of a research article with their purposes.
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
References
It summarizes the data collected and
calculates totals of the trends.
It describes both specific techniques and the
overall experimental strategy used by
researchers.
It summarizes the research and results of the
study: it is included in article database and is
usually free to a large audience.
It lists the sources cited by the author of the
article.
It clearly indicates the content of the article
and helps interested readers to find the
article quickly in a database.
It describes the theoretical background,
indicates why the work is important, states a
specific research question, and poses a
specific hypothesis to be tested.
It explains research findings.
A research article analysis
5. Analyze the structure of a research article below.
Awareness of the Low-income People in Russia of their
Rights and Social Protection Programs
Abstract: Nowadays there are a great number of methods to help the weakest people
in our society. That is why it has been necessary to learn if those people are provided with
necessary information. The data was collected by means of interviews. The results showed
that the majority of participants were well informed. We have come to the conclusion that
in our country there is a good system of informing the population about this kind of services.
Introduction
During the last ten-fifteen years Russia has experienced lots of changes
in social relations, politics, economy, culture that have led to worsening of
people's living conditions. Though our state has made a lot in the sphere of
social policy and social defense, the "weakest" groups of our society still are
not equal to the whole population, in their living standard, welfare, and work
opportunities. Such categories of people as disabled ones, single parents,
26
retired people, refugees and families bringing up three and more children
belong to this group.
Since all the groups mentioned above have low income level, we can try
to find out the reasons of such situation. Sharp (1990) suggested the following
ideas: “The market places a low value on the services they provide in the
market. The low productivity and, therefore, the low pay to them are due to
low levels of training and education, misfortune, discrimination". The author
claims that two approaches solving this problem should be used in
Governmental politics. First, the productivity of the employable poor should
be increased. And second, a minimum annual income should be guaranteed.
To support this idea, Stevenson (1994) offers the following programs for these
groups: training and employment, social services, health care services,
housing assistance, etc. Schaefer (1998) adds that programs designed for
low-income groups should have two major goals: to provide a minimum living
standard for people who otherwise would live below the minimum; to provide
the opportunity for those currently living in poverty to move out of poverty and,
at the same time provide the opportunity for people currently not living in
poverty to remain living above the poverty level.
Although many studies have been done on social policy and social
protection, still little information is available on the consumer's awareness of
the measures and programs provided by the state and social organizations.
The objective of the present research is to demonstrate that stipulation
of social protection by social policy and their interaction may be effective only
if people are aware of their rights in the sphere of social protection and the
programs in action.
This study may lead to a wider distribution of information concerning the
measures taken in the field of social protection.
Methods and Materials
The subjects under study were so-called low-income groups. The
participants of the research were purposively selected. Their age, gender and
social status were taken into consideration.
The number of representatives from different age groups, gender and
social status were statistically calculated from the total sample. The sample
consisted of 398 respondents.
Face-to-face interview was used as a research technique. The form
included 36 questions. The advantages of face-to-face interview consisted in
the opportunity to get larger volume of non-verbal information useful for the
research. This method was the most effective and flexible for data research,
because the discussion between an interviewer and a respondent allowed
taking into account individual statements and remarks concerning the issue.
The respondents were interviewed at the places of their residence.
27
Results
Table 1 presents the number of representatives in each age group,
gender and social status.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of answers to the question "Which
organization provides you with social help?” Here it can be seen that the
majority of the participants were consumers of the state organizations' help.
Figure 2
Results of the distribution of answers to the question "How aware are you
of your rights to any kind of privileges? " are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3
28
Discussion
The main hypothesis put forward was that people under study were not
aware of their rights in the field of social protection and about all the measures
provided by the state and social organizations. The findings, however, go
against this statement. The majority of respondents knew very well about the
programs provided to support their welfare and conditions. Moreover, they
were aware of all the privileges they had in accordance with the law.
One possible conclusion is that nowadays the services spread all the
necessary information in different kinds of advertising, pamphlets, etc. Social
workers do great work seeking for and identifying "the needies".
This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the level of social
awareness among the specific groups of population. But not all categories
were included in the study, and that was the main limitation of the present
research.
References
1.
Labour Markets and Social Policy In Central and Eastern Europe (1994),
UK.
2.
Schafer, RT. (1987) Introducing Sociology, USA.
3.
Schafer, RT. (1995) Sociology, USA.
4.
Sharp, A. M. (1990) Economics of Social Issues, USA.
5.
Stevenson, D. K. (1994) American life and Institutions, USA.
Follow-up
6. Read the following text using the dictionary. Then answer the
questions below.
1.
What is IMRaD?
2.
When did the first scientific journals appear?
3.
Who invented the IMRaD format?
4.
When did IMRaD become a standard?
5.
Why has IMRAD been adopted by almost all research journals so
widely and quickly?
6.
List the benefits of IMRaD.
7.
Will IMRaD evolve in the future?
29
IMPROVING THE WRITING OF A RESEARCH PAPER:
IMRaD AND BEYOND
IMRAD as an outcome of the evolution of scientific publishing
Everyone in science may know something about IMRAD—the
introduction-methods-results-and- discussion structure. But its history is
rather brief when compared to that of scientific writing as a whole.
The first scientific journals appeared in the 17th century, when articles
were published mainly in the form of descriptive letters and narratives
structured chronologically (Meadows 1985; Day 1989). For more than two
centuries, scientific papers were published without a generally accepted
format. During this period of time, however, the idiosyncrasy in scientific
publishing gradually withered as both the journals and the papers in them
became increasingly formalized by developing some form of organization in
structure (Meadows 1985). Day (1989) argued that it was Louis Pasteur who
invented the first IMRAD-like writing structure in his classic book, Etudes sur
la Biere (studies on fermentation), originally published in 1876 (Fig.1).
Fig.1 Louis Pasteur
Pasteur's book had identifiable sections of "introduction", "methods", and
"discussion"—although such headings were not explicitly used (Day 1989).
However, IMRAD did not become the "standard" until the 1970s, when
the American national standard for the preparation of scientific papers for
written or oral presentation was published in 1972 and again 1979.
IMRAD began to be adopted by scientific journals around the 1940s, and
quickly became the dominant format for research papers in a majority of
leading scientific journals by the late 1970s.
Today, IMRAD is the standard for all major journals.
Why has IMRAD been adopted by almost all research journals so widely
and quickly, with no sign of being abandoned anytime soon? According to
Meadows (1985, 1998), changing the internal organization of research papers
is one way for the scientific community to respond to the exponential growth
30
of scientific information, and thus IMRAD is a result of that evolutionary
process. Most, if not all, editors and scientists agree that IMRAD provides a
consistent framework that guides the author to address several questions
essential to understanding a scientific study: Introduction—Why did you do it
in the first place? Methods—How did you do it exactly? Results—What did
you find? Discussion—What does it mean after all and so what? (Fig.2)
Fig.2
According to experts who specialize in the history and practice of
scientific writing, IMRAD offers several benefits. The modular structure of
IMRAD helps the author to organize ideas and remember critical elements; it
makes easier for the editor and the reviewer to evaluate manuscripts; and it
improves the efficiency of the scientist to locate specific information without
going through the entire paper.
IMRAD as an adaptable structure for research papers
IMRAD is primarily for original research articles, and has little relevance
to other types of papers commonly seen in scientific journals, such as
reviews, theoretical, and editorials. Even for research papers, IMRAD is silent
about several other components of a modern research paper: title, abstract,
acknowledgments, and references. It does not even say anything about how
the sections of I, M, R, and D should each be constructed. So, IMRAD is not
really a straight-jacket. It has plenty of room for creativity and innovation.
IMRAD as an evolutionary process
As discussed above, the format of scientific papers has evolved during
the past several centuries, and will continue to evolve. The evolution of the
article format is more than just a way of coping with the ever- increasing kinds
and amount of information. As Meadows (1985) stated: ''The construction of
an acceptable research paper reflects the agreed view of the scientific
community on what constitutes science. A study of the way papers are
constructed at any point in time therefore tells us something about the
scientific community at that time.''
31
As science and information technology continue to advance, IMRAD will
undoubtedly evolve as well. In fact, changes have already taken place. For
example, abstract, keywords, acknowledgments, and references have
become common parts of the IMRAD structure.
Since the early 1990s, structured abstracts—which are organized into
several sections with headings or sequential numbers—have become
increasingly common in scientific journals. A common format of structured
abstracts is: Abstract [background, aims (or objectives), methods, results,
conclusions (or synthesis)]. Many leading journals in medical and physical
sciences now have them.
7. Find an article in your own language and an article from an Englishmedium journal. Compare the format and structure of both articles and
note down the differences, if there are any.
8. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
Box 2.
IMRaD Format
32
UNIT 3
INTRODUCTION
Unit objectives
1. Stages of Introduction
2. Vocabulary focus
3. Grammar focus: Present Simple, Past Simple
Theoretical background
Stages of Introduction
IMRaD
INTRODUCTION
1. Study the scheme below and answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the purposes do research paper introductions serve?
What functions do they perform?
How are the major purposes of introductions achieved?
What constituent parts can be distinguished in the introductions?
The introduction
(straightforward narrative of several consecutive paragraphs)
WHAT FOR
?
to prepare readers for the specific information that follows
HOW
?
providing sufficient background information based on
33
literature analysis (contextual
setting and discussion of
the previous work of other researchers)
+
orientating to the purpose and scope of the report
+
giving perspective needed to understand the detailed
information in later sections
+
focusing the attention of the readers on
the specific research problem the author will be dealing
with in the main body of the research paper
INFORMATION
ELEMENTS
IN
INTRODUCTION
SECTION
STAGE I
establishes a context, a frame
of references to help readers
understand how the research
fits into a wider field of study; it
gives the setting for the
problem.
General statement(s) about
a field of research to provide
the reader with a setting for
the problem to be reported
STAGE II
history of research in the field:
review of the findings of other
researchers who have already
published in the area of the
writer’s interest. It is an
organized collection of
references or citations to other
works.
More specific statements
about the aspects of the
problem already studied by
other researchers
STAGE III indicates an area that is not
treated in the literature and
indicates the need for more
investigation.
34
*** may be a whole chapter
in larger writings
(dissertation)
Statement(s) that indicate
the need for more
investigation
STAGE IV formally announces the
purpose of the research.
Very specific statement(s)
giving the purpose/
objectives of the writer’s
study
STAGE V
Optional statement(s) that
give a value or justification
for carrying out the study
indicates possible benefits or
applications of the work.
***often omitted
BORROWED INFORMATION
Carefully document each source researchers to pay respect and
acknowledge your debt to predecessors in the field of research.
PARAPHRASE = use of your own
words to write someone else’s idea
without changing the meaning
SUMMARY = conveying the main idea
or ideas of a paragraph, a section, or
an article
NB! Citation
=
bibliographic
abbreviation to
help the reader
find the source of
the information
on the reference
list
QUOTATION = use someone else’s
exact words
2. Skim the Introduction to the research article originally published in a
professional journal. Analyze the stages the Introduction contains.
USING MICROCOMPUTERS IN TEACHING
During the past 40 years, the United States has experienced the
integration of the computer into society. Progress has been made to the point
that small, inexpensive computers with expanded capabilities are available for
innumerable uses. Many schools have purchased and are purchasing
microcomputers for infusion into their directed learning programs.
Most individuals seem to agree that the microcomputer will continue to
hold an important role in education. Gubser /1980/ and Hinton /1980/
35
suggested phenomenal increases in the numbers of computers both in the
school and the home in the near future. Schmidt /1982/ identified three types
of microcomputer use in classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool,
and a means of providing instruction. Foster and Kleene /1982/ cite for uses
of microcomputers in vocational agriculture: drill and practice, tutorial,
simulation and problem solving. The findings of studies examining the use of
various forms of computer-assisted instruction /САI/ have been mixed.
Studies by Hickey /1968/ and Honeycutt /1974/ indicated superior results with
CAI while studies by Ellis /1978/, Caldwell /1980/ and Belzer /1976/ indicated
little or no significant effect.
Although much work has been done, more studies need to be conducted
to ascertain the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in teaching
various subjects in a variety of learning situations.
The purpose of this study is to ascertain the effect of using
microcomputer-assisted instruction as compared to a lecture-discussion
technique in teaching principles and methods of cost recovery and investment
credit on agricultural assets to graduate students in agricultural education.
This topic was identified as being of importance to teachers in providing
them the necessary background to teach lessons.
3. Read the Introduction which parts are jumbled. Put the parts into a
logical order and match them with the stages in Activity 1. Compare your
answers in pairs.
1.
The objective of the present research is to demonstrate that
stipulation of social protection by social policy and their interaction may be
effective only if people are aware of their rights in the sphere of social
protection and the programs in action.
2.
Although many studies have been done on social policy and social
protection, still little information is available on the consumer's awareness of
the measures and programs provided by the state and social organizations.
3.
During the last ten-fifteen years Russia has experienced lots of
changes in social relations, politics, economy, culture that have led to
worsening of people's living conditions. Though our state has made a lot in
the sphere of social policy and social defense, the "weakest" groups of our
society still are not equal to the whole population, in their living standard,
welfare, and work opportunities. Such categories of people as disabled ones,
single parents, retired people, refugees and families bringing up three and
more children belong to this group.
4.
This study may lead to a wider distribution of information
concerning the measures taken in the field of social protection.
36
5.
Since all the groups mentioned above have low income level, we
can try to find out the reasons of such situation. Sharp (1990) suggested the
following ideas: "The market places a low value on the services they provide
in the market. The low productivity and, therefore, the low pay to them are due
to low levels of training and education, misfortune, discrimination". The author
claims that two approaches solving this problem should be used in
Governmental politics. First, the productivity of the employable poor should
be increased. And second, a minimum annual income should be guaranteed.
To support this idea, Stevenson (1994) offers the following programs for these
groups: training and employment, social services, health care services,
housing assistance, etc. Schaefer (1995) adds that programs designed for
low-income groups should have two major goals: to provide a minimum living
standard for people who otherwise would live below the minimum; to provide
the opportunity for those currently living in poverty to move out of poverty and,
at the same time provide the opportunity for people currently not living in
poverty to remain living above the poverty level.
Vocabulary focus
LITERATURE
REVIEW
the literature on … has established few theoretical
grounds to guide the selection of … .
provides detailed accounts of ….
studies the relationship between … and
a researcher…
BORROWED
INFORMATION
(quotations
and
sources):
found
showed
reported
noted
observed
proposed
suggested
hypothesized
that …
that…
As … (XXXX) observed / pointed out/ suggested /
noted / indicated “…”.
…(XXXX) found / revealed / claimed / stated / that
“…”.
37
… supports this contention with the following words:
“…”.
The idea of … was already expressed by … (XXXX)
in the following terms: “…”.
To use … (XXXX) expression, “…”.
For example, … (XXXX) argued that “…”.
The need for…is widely recognized: “…”.
Writing in …, … commented that “…”.
To quote …: “…”.
Following a research tradition inaugurated by …
(XXXX), who proved that “…”.
Thus, … et al. conclude the following ...
GAP
an
important
aspect
of
the
research area has
out of attention of
the other authors
However,
But
few studies have been done on …
little literature is available on …
very little is known about …
no work has been done on …
Although
While
some literature is
available on …,
many studies have little information
been done on …,
is available on
much research
….
has been devoted
to …,
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effect of … on …. .
The present research examines the relationship
between …and … .
In the present paper the attention will center on … .
The purpose of this study is to examine … to
establish what impact, if any, the character of … has
had on … .
The goal of this paper is to examine whether … differ
in ….
VALUE
The application of the strategies described here may
(should) increase / improve …
The system described here could serve as the basis
for further research
38
into the relationship between … and … .
This study may lead to a better understanding of
correlation between … and … .
4. Add some more expressions to the Vocabulary focus table from the
Introductions below.
Introduction (1)
It is proved that family determines the development of many aspects of a
child's character, his/her attitudes, intentions and relations. The way a child
will communicate with other people (friends, class-mates, etc.) is usually
formed by the way he/she deals with his/her family members, especially with
siblings. In particular, it has been found that love and friendship between
siblings lead to good relations between each sibling and other people. At the
same time problems connected with communication can be anticipated in
case siblings feel envy, jealousy and rivalry toward each other. This connection demonstrates the importance of investigating such feelings between
siblings as envy and jealousy and, as a result, influencing the development of
the main aspects of a child's future interpersonal relations.
There has been some research connected with the topic of jealousy and
envy between siblings. Some of it has received interesting results. For
instance, Winnicott (1994) confirmed that the first jealousy manifestations
usually occur at the age of 15 months. A child can express jealousy toward a
parent, his/her sibling, inanimate objects, especially a doll looking like a real
child. Newcomb (2002) found out that the way siblings interact depends on
their relations with their mother. If a mother discusses with her first-born needs
and feelings of a new-born, she contributes to the development of trusting and
affectionate relations between them; if not, she intensifies the feelings of rivalry, envy and jealousy. At the same time Romeo (1994) developed the ideas
of Alfred Adler (1954) that jealousy, envy and rivalry between siblings could
be closely connected with a child's birth order and confirmed that they could
mean not only hostility and competition between brothers and sisters but
could be also beneficial to their growth and development.
To sum up, we can see that the problem of envy and jealousy in sibling
relations has been investigated by different researchers. However, the results
of the research are mostly not systematized. At the same time, very little is
known about the differences in sibling relationships in so-called "full" families
and one-parent families.
The purpose of this paper is to determine if there are differences in envy
and jealousy in sibling relationships in two above-mentioned types of families.
39
Our research could have some theoretical and practical value. On the one
hand, it may extend the theoretical knowledge about family relations in
general and sibling relations in particular. On the other hand, this investigation
could help to solve family conflicts practically, influence the processes of
forming sibling relations and developing their future relations with other
people.
Introduction (2)
The notion of creativity was suggested by Guilford (1967). There are
many definitions of creativity in psychology of today. One of the reasons is
that creativity is rather difficult and broad field for investigation. In a common
case, creativity is defined as the capacity to generate or recognize ideas,
alternatives that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with
others etc.
There have been many different approaches to the study of creativity.
Often creativity has been considered in close connection with giftedness,
mental abilities and intelligence in general. Much effort has been devoted
towards the measurement of creative potential (Guilford, 1989; Torrance,
1974). Numerous research has also been conducted to investigate the
development of creativity of children. Some attention has been paid to the
problem of relations between children’s creativity and imagination (Nelson,
1991).
However, little is known about the dynamics of creative abilities among
children of 5-8 years.
Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the
development of creative abilities among children of 5-8 years and to describe
possible changes in the dynamics of creativity.
The study may lead to better understanding of the nature of creativity,
which also may be the basis for further investigations. Moreover the findings
could be used to elaborate special developmental methods of creative
abilities. The results, described here, may also supply current knowledge in
the sphere of Developmental psychology, Psychology of Giftedness and so
on.
Grammar focus (1)
40
Present Simple
Context of the problem
A gap
A purpose
5. Read the following Introduction to the research article. Pay special
attention to Present Simple and the verb TO BE.
Malnutrition among Children under 5 Does Not Correlate with
Higher Socio Economic Status of Parents in Rural Communities
INTRODUCTION
The term malnutrition generally refers to both under nutrition and over
nutrition. Malnutrition is frequently part of a cycle that includes poverty and
disease. These three factors are interlinked in such a way that each
contributes to the presence and permanence of the others. Socioeconomic
and political changes that improve health and nutrition break the cycle.
Inadequate diet and disease, in turn, are closely linked to the general standard
of living, the environmental conditions, and whether a population is able to
meet its basic needs such as food, housing and health care.
The World Food Programme (WFP) defines malnutrition as “a state in
which the physical function of an individual is impaired to the point
where he or she can no longer maintain adequate bodily performance
process such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, physical work and recovering
from disease”.
Malnutrition contributes to more than one third of all child deaths,
although it is rarely listed as the direct cause. The impact of malnutrition
usually falls mainly on children under five years of age. Contributing to more
than half of deaths in children worldwide, child malnutrition was associated
with 54% of deaths in children in developing countries in 2001.
Certain groups are particularly vulnerable to food insecurity, including
women (especially low income pregnant and lactating women), victims of
conflicts, the ill, migrant workers, the elderly, and children under five. The
establishment of properly functioning economic and political structures help
to lead countries to food security, as well as help to improve the overall
wellbeing of the people.
41
Malnutrition affects poor households since the poorest families spend
the greatest proportion of their income on buying staple foods, making them
highly vulnerable to price fluctuations. The burden of malnutrition was
directly linked to poverty, quality of food intake, excessive disease and poor
health status. Nearly one of every four human beings alive today exists only
on the margins of survival, too poor to obtain the food they need to work, or
adequate shelter, or minimal health care, let alone education for their children.
Poverty is the driving factor in the lack of resources to purchase
food, but the root causes of poverty are multifaceted. Improving the
educational status of parents, especially of mothers, on nutrition, sanitation
and common disease prevention strategies should logically reduce the
malnutrition related mortality.
This problem is very crucial in Africa, where access to formal education
for the girl child in certain communities is still a major challenge.
This study aims to understand the socio-demographic characteristics of
families in relation to their nutritional status of their children under the age of
5 years so as to determine vulnerability to malnutrition per parents’ status.
Glossary
malnutrition (n) плохое питание
poverty (n) бедность
disease (n) болезнь
contribute to (v) являться причиной
permanence (n) устойчивость
be impaired (v) ухудшаться
maintain (v) поддерживать
vulnerable (adj) уязвимый
food insecurity (n phr) нехватка продовольствия
staple foods (n phr) базовые продукты питания
poor households (n phr) бедные семьи
price fluctuation (n phr) колебание цен
exist on the margins of survival (v phr) находиться на грани выживания
be multifaceted (v phr) быть многогранным
crucial (adj) актуальный
42
6. Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
TO BE
(AM – IS – ARE)
(WAS-WERE)
Present
Past
1st person I am (was) a researcher.
We are (were) researchers.
nd
2 person You are (were) a scientist. You are (were) scientists.
3rd person It is (was) a crucial problem. City inhabitants are (were) in
danger.
 The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the importance of
business and education to collaborate more closely.
 The world is a different place from the one in which our parents and
grandparents worked and lived.
STUDY SKILLS
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
THE PRESENT SIMPLE
I collect data.
You collect data.
She collects data.
We discuss the problem.
You discuss the problem.
They discuss the problem.
 This article focuses on the educational aspect.
 The article starts with an Introduction.
7. Analyze the sentences below. Mind the use of the Present Simple.
The term malnutrition generally refers Термин «плохое питание» обычно
to both under nutrition and over относится как к недоеданию, так и
nutrition.
перееданию.
Malnutrition is frequently part of a Плохое питание часто является
problem cycle that includes poverty частью круга-проблем, который
and diseases.
включает в себя бедность и
болезни.
43
The World Food Programme (WFP) Всемирная
продовольственная
defines malnutrition as…
программа определяет плохое
питание как…
The impact of malnutrition usually Плохое
питание
обычно
falls mainly on children under five негативно влияет на здоровье
years of age.
детей младше пяти лет.
Certain groups are particularly Определенные группы людей
vulnerable to food insecurity.
особенно
уязвимы
нехватке
продовольствия.
8. Translate the sentences below. Mind the use of The Present Simple.
1. Socioeconomic and political changes that improve health and nutrition
break the cycle.
2. Malnutrition contributes to more than one third of all child deaths.
3. Low-income pregnant and lactating women, victims of conflicts, the ill,
migrant workers, the elderly, and children under five are vulnerable to food
insecurity.
4. The establishment of properly functioning economic and political
structures help to lead countries to food security, as well as help to improve
the overall wellbeing of the people.
5. This study aims to determine vulnerability of children to malnutrition
per parents’ status.
6. The access to formal education for the girl child in certain communities
is still a major challenge.
9. Translate the verbs in the sentences below. Use the Present Simple.
(1) to spend (2) to exist (3) to be (4) to affect (5) to aim (6) to be
1. Nearly one of every four human beings alive today живет only on the
margins of survival.
2. Poverty является the driving factor in the lack of resources to
purchase food.
3. This study имеет своей целью to understand the socio-demographic
characteristics of families.
44
4. This problem является very crucial in Africa, where access to formal
education for the girl child in certain communities является still a major
challenge.
5. Malnutrition влияет poor households since the poorest families тратят
the greatest proportion of their income on buying staple foods.
10. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Термин «плохое питание» относится как перееданию, так и
недоеданию (to refer).
2. Плохое питание, бедность и болезни являются причинами многих
проблемами в Африке (to be).
3. Плохое питание сказывается на физическом состоянии человека:
его росте, развитии, способности организма справляться с болезнями (to
affect).
4. Плохое питание является причиной одной третьей всех детских
смертей (to be).
5. Определенные группы особенно уязвимы к плохому питанию:
беременные и кормящие женщины с низким доходом, жертвы
конфликтов, больные, мигранты, пожилые и дети младше пяти лет (to be
vulnerable).
6. Развитая экономика стремится улучшить общее благосостояние
населения (to aim).
7. Бедные семьи тратят большую часть своего дохода на покупку
базовых продуктов (to spend).
8. Один из четырех людей, живущих на планете находится на грани
выживания (to exist).
9. Причины бедности многогранны (to be).
10.
Повышение уровня образования родителей, особенно
матерей, сокращает смертность, связанную с плохим питанием (to
reduce).
Grammar focus (2)
Present Simple
Past Simple
Literature Review
45
11.Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
Bryan
Christiansen
THE PRESENT SIMPLE - THE PAST SIMPLE
PRESENT SIMPLE
PAST SIMPLE
shows - показывает
notes - отмечает
reports - сообщает
lists - перечисляет
suggests - предлагает
showed - показал
noted - отметил
reported - сообщил
listed - перечислил
suggested - предложил
examines - рассматривает
studies – изучает
adds – добавляет
describes - описывает
suggests – предлагает
examined - рассмотрел
studied - изучил
added – добавил
described - описал
suggested - предложил
12. Read the following Literature Review of the research articles. Pay
special attention to Present Simple and Past Simple.
Literature review (1)
Blumler & McQuail (1968) in Television and Politics: Its Uses and
Influences were among the first researchers to study the use of a mass
medium as source of political information. Their findings indicated that, when
both radio and television were available to British voters, television was
preferred as a source of political information. Nimmo (1970) looking at the
same issue, from an American perspective, said that studies "dating back to
1959 indicate that increasing proportions of Americans get most of their news
from television rather than from radio, newspapers or magazines" (p. 114). In
spite of strong arguments by Schwartz (1974) who indicated that radio
provides the bulk of political news to voters, Nimmo (1978), when examining
the political media, found that television was still the most widely-used source
of political news. Likewise, when examining The Effects of Mass
Communication on Political Behavior, Kraus & Davis (1978) concluded that "a
majority of those who do notice some political news in the printed media,
nevertheless, feel that they learn more about what is going on
politically from the spoken media [radio and television]" (p. 51).
Additionally, when reviewing The Royal Commission on Newspapers (1981),
46
Siegel (1983) found that between 80 % and 85 % of Canadians indicated that
electronic media was the most believable, influential, fair and unbiased media.
As well, they felt that electronic media keep them up-to-date on information.
He also suggested that although Canadians "continue to be ardent newspaper
readers, their enthusiasm for the electronic media, especially television is
tremendous" (p. 244). Siegel's (1983) findings are consistent with those of
Rust, Baja, & Haley (1984) which showed television, followed by magazines
and newspapers, were the media used most frequently by voters to obtain
political information.
Literature review (2)
Available literature about how television news has been influential in
relation to peace processes remains notably thin (Wolfsfeld, 1997, 1998), and
in the case of Northern Ireland, studies have centered on the actions of the
British rather than the Irish, so emphasizing one side of the story. The studies
of Feeney (1997) and Miller and Mclaughlin (1996) are indicative of this work
and reveal a picture of news management by the British which served to
create a 'primary definition' of events (Hall, 1978) and shape subsequent
discussion in ways advantageous to government aims. Feeney refers to how
the British manipulated television news in order to gain the public relations
initiative over the Irish, and how the government adopted a strategy of reacting
rapidly to news interest in order to define representations of key political
summits and reports, which weakened the Irish position and strengthened the
apparent credibility of the British approach. Miller and Mclaughlin, on the other
hand, assess the British government's ability to conduct a damage limitation
exercise about secret contacts with the Provisional IRA which were leaked to
the press in 1993. The authors identify a particular apathy by journalists in
asking questions about inconsistencies in government stories about the
contacts, and provide a picture of British control over news which finds parallel
with Feeney's account of centralized and well-managed responses to
journalistic interest.
13. Translate the following sentences from the research article
«Структурирование научной статьи в формате IMRaD». Use the
Present Simple and the Past Simple.
1. О.Г. Попова уточняет, что читатель получает первоначальную
информацию во введении (firsthand information).
2. Автор подчеркивает, что такое разъяснение содержит
общеизвестные истины (clarification, to contain, the obvious).
47
3. По мнению многих специалистов, научные статьи
ориентируются на опытного читателя (according to, focus on).
4. Более глубокий уровень структурирования научного текста, И.Б.
Короткина называет «организацией» и сравнивает с конструкцией
здания (deeper level, to compare).
5. Научное сообщество заявляет, что структурирование
исследовательской статьи является основным требованием при подачи
ее в академический журнал.
Follow-up
14. Read the Introduction to the article BICULTURAL MANAGERS AND
THEIR ROLE IN MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS by Parissa
Haghirian. Analyze the stages and introductory vocabulary. Underline
the linking words.
Parissa Haghirian
BICULTURAL MANAGERS AND THEIR ROLE IN
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Exposure to other cultures is common through extensive travel, living in
ethnically diverse environments, attending universities abroad, or having work
assignments in other countries. Even people who have not traveled abroad
are exposed to other cultures through TV, movies and class work. Some
places in the world are highly multicultural, due to either historic mixture of
cultures (e.g., Hong Kong or Singapore), or high levels of migration (e.g., New
York). Moreover, cultural “diversity” has moved from just being a process of
48
including different people from different countries to a team or a school
classroom to being a process that occurs within an individual (Bunderson &
Sutcliffe, 2002; LaFramboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). In countries such
as the USA, increasingly more people cannot fit themselves into certain ethnic
categories, instead thinking of themselves as being “mixed” or bicultural.
This phenomenon has been recognized and increasingly researched in
recent years (e.g.,Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000).The
development of a new “global” culture with people who are distinctly
international is being discussed by some scholars (e.g., Anthias, 2001). Early
research on biculturals suggests that individuals must surrender their identity
with one culture to identify with a new one (LaFramboise, 1993). Today, it is
the prevailing opinion that individuals can internalize more than one culture
without losing their original cultural identity. In other words, they can maintain
multiple cultural systems within themselves. Bicultural individuals can identify
with two distinct cultures and their values, attitudes, beliefs and behavioral
assumptions. So, they can easily operate within and between those cultures.
Hence, biculturals not only bring the knowledge of their dominant culture, but
also the hidden abilities to understand and bridge between other cultures.
Definition
There are many definitions of biculturalism ranging from general to
psychologically specific. Bicultural individuals can be immigrants, refugees,
sojourners like international students or expatriates, indigenous people, ethnic
minorities, individuals in interethnic relationships, and mixed-ethnic
individuals (Berry, 2003). From a psychological viewpoint, there is more than
one definition of biculturalism. Loosely defined, a bicultural individual is
somebody who labels himself e.g. ‘I am bicultural’ or ‘I am JapaneseAmerican’ and this reflects their cultural dualism. More strictly defined, a
bicultural individual can be described as having internalized two cultures and
both cultures are alive inside of him or her. Accordingly, both of these cultures
guide biculturals’ thoughts, feelings and behavior. This implies that
internalized cultures are not necessarily mixed, and adopting a second culture
does not always mean replacing the original culture with the new one.
Furthermore, it is believed bicultural individuals can combine cultural norms
from two groups into one behavioral repertoire (Rotheram-Borus, 1993), or
they are able to switch between cultural schemas, norms, and behaviors in
response to cultural stimulus (Hong et al., 2000). It should be noted that
bicultural competence is related to, but different from, cultural intelligence.
Cultural intelligence is defined as “a person’s capability to adapt effectively to
new cultural contexts” (Earley & Ang, 2003, p. 9). Biculturalism refers to the
49
presence within an individual of two cultural systems (Benet-Martinez et al.,
2002; Hong et al., 2000; LaFramboise et al., 1993).
Bicultural Competence
Sundberg and his colleagues (1978) defined competence itself as the
personal characteristics (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) leading to
achievements which pay off in significant environments. Benet Martinez
(2006) discovered that biculturals are able to switch between dual cultural
schemas and have a greater cognitive complexity than are monocultural
individuals. Those researchers give some insights about the construct of
bicultural competence, but their definitions are only culture-specific. Little
research is available in the international management literature on bicultural
competence. However, Friedman and Liu (2009) assume two main elements
of bicultural competence: adaptability and boundary spanning. Their definition
is quite narrow, but suggests biculturals have the ability to behave
appropriately in cross-cultural business contexts by using their dual cultural
schemas. Other researchers believe biculturals have higher levels of culturegeneral skills like cultural metacogniton (Brannen et al., 2009; Thomas et al.,
2008). Hence, biculturals can manage complex interactions and act more
effectively in multicultural context. These skills seem to be of great importance
for modern corporations, which often operate in more than one cultural
environment, and are increasingly searching for employees with multilingual
and intercultural skills. Whether biculturals have an influence on effectiveness
in international organizations yet has to be explored. For example, abilities of
biculturals such as operating across cultural contexts raise a number of
questions for international management.
Those questions and the lack of research in this area suggest exploring
the role of biculturals for multinational corporations. As many multinational
corporations face problems with culturally diverse subunits, the growing
proportion of biculturals in the global workforce could provide companies with
hidden skills in this area (Hong, 2010).
15. On the Internet find an article in your major. Read the Introduction.
Write out key phrases indicating the main stages.
16. Read the literature review sections taken from different articles.
Analyze the way the author used citations (are they focused on
information or on authors; are they ordered chronologically or in
accordance with approaches, etc.).
17. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
50
Box 3.
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
1. Before you begin, answer the basic questions
What do I have to say?
Is it worth saying?
What is the audience for the paper?
What is the right journal for the paper?
2. Tell the readers why you have undertaken the
study.
3. Clarify what your work adds.
4. Make sure you are aware of earlier studies.
5. Be sure the readers are convinced of the
importance of your study.
51
Unit 4
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Unit objectives
1. Stages of Methods and Materials section
2. Vocabulary focus
3. Grammar focus: the Passive
Theoretical background
Stages of Methods and Materials section
IMRaD
THE METHOD OF RESEARCH
1. Study the scheme below.
WHAT YOU DID
?
• general information on methodology;
• procedural description:
the steps you followed in conducting your study
&
materials and procedures you used at each step;
• what influenced your results;
• possibilities for replication or extension of the study
HOW YOU DID IT
?
52
INFORMATION ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN
METHODs (AND MATERIALs) SECTION
1. Overview of the experiment.
2. Objects (people, laboratory equipment).
3. Methods (surveys, questionnaires, tests, computer and mathematical
models)
4. Step-by-step procedures employed.
2. Read the Methods and Materials sections of the articles. Identify the
stages.
Methods (1)
The conducted investigation had the following restrictions. The objects of
the research were 49 children (22 boys and 27 girls) aged 7-10 years old that
had a sibling and were brought up in so-called "full" families (11 boys and 16
girls) and in one-parent families (11 boys and 11 girls). As the materials for
the research two projective methods were used. The first method was
"Fairytales of Duss (Despert)". The second material was provided by the
method of R. Giel.
On the first stage of the research a child was asked questions about
his/her family, siblings, relations with them, his/her feelings toward them, etc.
On the second stage of investigation the child had to listen to each of the
fairytales of Duss and answer the questions following each fairytale. On the
third stage of the research the pictures of the method of R.Giel were shown
to the child, the child should have stationed the members of his/her family at
the dinner table, in the house, on the meadow during the picnic and at the
cinema. Three kinds of distances were measured: between a child and his/her
sibling; between a child and a parent; between a sibling and a parent. The
ratio of the first distance to the third one was computed as the most impartial
index of the relations between siblings as they are perceived by a child.
Methods (2)
Children for investigation were recruited from kindergartens and schools.
There were two samples. The first sample consisted of 20 children of 5-6
years. The second one consisted of 20 children of 7-8 years old.
The Torrance Test of Creative thinking was used for the aim of the study.
TTCT was a standard test which allowed us to evaluate one’s ability to expand
thinking beyond traditional forms. The test included 10 cards with unfinished
pictures. For our research only 4 pictures were taken. Children were asked to
complete graphic problems so that new images could be received. Each
53
picture was offered four times; hence children were to complete 16 pictures.
Scoring
evaluated
the
number
of
responses
(fluency),
originality, extension of the basic images (elaboration). In general, fluency had
to do with the number of different drawings, originality with the uniqueness of
the picture and elaboration dealt with the number of different pertinent details
and with structure of the picture. Each child worked individually. There were
not any time restrictions.
Vocabulary focus
Describing
In order to identify / understand / investigate / study
purpose of testing / analyze X …
/ methods used
To enable / allow us to … , we …
To see / determine / check / verify / determine
whether …
To control / test for X, Y was done.
So that we could / would be able to do X, we …
In an attempt / effort to do X, we …
X was done / We did X in order to …
Describing the
The instrument used / utilized / adopted / employed
apparatus and
was …
materials used
The apparatus consists of / is made up of / is
and their source
composed of / is based on …
The device was designed / developed / set up in
order to …
X incorporates / exploits / makes use of the latest
technological advances.
The system comes complete / is equipped / is fully
integrated / is fitted with a …
It is mounted on / connected to / attached to /
fastened to / fixed to / surrounded by / covered with
/integrated into / embedded onto / encased in /
housed in / aligned with …
It is located in / situated in / positioned on ….
X was obtained from / supplied by Big Company
Inc.
X was kindly provided / supplied by Prof Big.
54
Explaining why
you chose your
specific method,
model,
equipment,
sample etc.
The aim / purpose of X is to do Y. Consequently we
/ As a result we / Therefore we / We thus …
This method / model / system was chosen because
it is one of the most practical / feasible / economic
/ rapid ways to …
We chose this particular apparatus because / on
account of the fact that / due to / since …
It was decided that the best procedure / method /
equipment for this investigation / study was to …
An X approach was chosen / selected in order to …
The design of the X was based on / is geared
towards …
We opted for / chose a small sample size because /
due to / on the basis of …
By having / By exploiting / Through the use of X, we
were able to …
Having an X enabled us to / allowed us to / meant
that we could do Y.
Describing
benefits of your
method,
equipment etc.
This method represents a viable / valuable / useful /
groundbreaking / innovative alternative to …
This equipment has the ability / capacity / potential
to outperform all previous Xs.
This apparatus has several / many interesting
features / characteristics.
Our method has many interesting / attractive /
beneficial / useful / practical / effective / valuable
applications.
Of particular / major / fundamental interest is …
The key / basic / chief / crucial / decisive / essential
/ fundamental / important / main / major /
principal advantages are:
Our procedure is a clear improvement / advance on
current methods.
We believe this solution will aid / assist researchers
to …
This solution improves on / enhances / furthers /
advances previous methods by …
The benefits / advantages in terms of X far outweigh
the disadvantages with regard to Y.
55
3. Make up sentences using the active expressions from the Vocabulary
focus table.
Grammar focus
Passive
The passive form is a feature of
much academic writing, making it
more impersonal and formal, but
the passive should not be
overused.
4. Read the Methods and Materials section of the following article.
Present the key ideas of every paragraph. Pay special attention to the
passive forms.
Malnutrition among Children under 5 Does Not Correlate with
Higher Socio Economic Status of Parents in Rural Communities
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Study Area
Kano State is located in the North Central part of Nigeria; it occupies a
total surface area of 20,131 km2 and has a total population of approximately
11 million.
Kano State is a commercial and agricultural region known for the
production of groundnuts and cotton. It is also the second largest industrial
center in Nigeria, with textile, footwear, cosmetics, plastic, and other
industries. The state consists primarily of Sudan savannah type vegetation,
with an annual rainfall of 800 -900 mm, a temperature that ranges between
56
25˚C - 40˚C, and a relative humidity of 47.43%. The climate of the study area
is a tropical dry-and-wet season type typical of West African savannah. The
wet season lasts from May to October, while the dry season extends from
November to April. In collaboration with primary healthcare personnel in each
local government area, one district each was selected randomly.
2.2. Study Design
This is a country-cross study to determine relationship between
nutritional status and the socio-demographic characteristics such as child
school status, parents’ educational status, occupation, etc. in Kano State
between February and December 2016. Children under the age of 5 years
were selected randomly. MUAC measurement and socio-demographic
variables such as age, gender, mother alive, father alive, educational status
of parent/guardian, social class, child’s educational status and occupation of
parent/guardian were noted and recorded into a questionnaire.
2.3. Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Research
and Ethics Committee of Kano State’s Ministry of Health. When seeking
consent from the volunteers in each facility, the objectives and procedures of
the study were explained clearly to them in the local language, Hausa.
Participants were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at
any time without consequences. Thus, written and signed or thumb-printed
informed consents were obtained from all adult participants and
guardians/parents on behalf of their children before starting the survey; the
ethics committees approved these procedures as well. All malaria-positive
individuals were treated with the standard medication according to national
malaria drug policy.
3. Statistical Analysis
Data recorded on the questionnaire was transferred to a proforma (in
excel format), developed on and then analyzed using the statistical package.
Frequency and percentage analysis were done for the categorical variables.
Data was presented in charts, descriptive and analytical tables. Bar and pie
charts were used to illustrate the results obtained from the participants.
Association between studied variables was compared using Chi-Square (χ2)
and Fisher’s exact tests. Logistic regression analysis was used to generate
odds ratio to assess contribution of the various independent variables such
as low educational level, parent alive (both mother and father), employment
status of parents, educational status of child was taken.
Glossary
approximately (abv) примерно
groundnuts (n) арахис
57
humidity (n) влажность
variables (n) переменные
questionnaire (n) анкета
obtain (v) получать
consent (n) согласие
participant (n) участник
withdraw (v) отказываться
without consequences (n phr) без последствий
on behalf of от лица
odds ratio (n phr) коэффициент отношения вероятности
5. Read STUDY SKILLS.
Active – Passive
STUDY SKILLS
Active
Present
Past
Passive
Singular
 I collect data.
 He discusses
rotation mechanism.
Plural
 She outlines the  The advantages of the
advantages
of
the method are outlined.
method.
 We
study
new  New
problems
are
problems.
studied.
Singular
 She conducted the
research.
 He examined one
patient.
Plural
 The data is collected.
the  The rotation mechanism
is discussed.
 The research was
conducted.

One
patient
examined.
was
 She
found
rare  Rare documents were
documents.
found.
 He established two  Two
levels
were
levels.
established.
6. Analyze the sentences below. Mind the use of the Passive.
58
Kano State is located in the Central Штат Кано располагается
part of Nigeria.
центральной части Нигерии.
в
Children under the age of 5 years Дети младше пяти лет были
were selected randomly.
отобраны случайным образом.
Age, gender, educational status of Возраст,
пол,
уровень
parents were recorded into a образования были занесены в
questionnaire.
анкету.
The objectives and procedures of Цели и ход исследования были
the study were explained clearly to четко разъяснены им на родном
them in the local language, Hausa. языке Хаузе.
Participants were also informed that Участники
также
были
they could withdraw from the study проинформированы о том, что
at any time without consequences. они могут отказаться от участия в
исследовании в любое время без
последствий.
7. Translate the sentences below. Mind the use of the Passive.
1. Data was presented in charts, descriptive and analytical tables.
2. Bar and pie charts were used to illustrate the results obtained from the
participants.
3. Association between studied variables was compared using exact
tests.
4. Logistic regression analysis was used to generate odds ratio to assess
contribution of the various independent variables such as low educational
level, parent alive (both mother and father).
5. Educational status of child was taken.
8.Translate the verbs in the sentences below. Use the Passive.
(1)do
(2) obtain
(3) treat
(4) receive
(5) transfer
(6) analyze
1. Ethical approval for the study protocol было получено from the
Research and Ethics Committee
59
2. Written and signed or thumb-printed informed consents были приняты
from all adult participants.
3. All malaria-positive individuals обращались with the standard
medication according to national malaria drug policy.
4. Data recorded on the questionnaire были перенесены to a proforma
(in excel format) and then проанализированы using the statistical package.
5. Frequency and percentage analysis были произведены for the
categorical variables.
9. Translate the following sentences into English.
1.
Штат Кано располагается в северной части Нигерии.
2.
Штат Кано известен сложными климатическими условиями.
3.
Один из районов штата был выбран случайным образом.
4.
Исследование проводилось с февраля по декабрь 2016 г.
5.
Полученные данные были занесены в таблицы.
6.
Согласие на обработку данных было получено от каждого
участника.
7.
Участники были проинформированы о том, что они могут
отказаться от участия в опросе в любое время.
8.
Данные были проанализированы и сгруппированы.
Follow-up
10. Read the Methods and Materials section to the article BICULTURAL
MANAGERS AND THEIR ROLE IN MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS.
Analyze the vocabulary. Underline the linking words.
BICULTURAL MANAGERS AND THEIR ROLE IN
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
BEING A BICULTURAL MANAGER IN JAPAN
The survey presented in this chapter investigates the relevance of
bicultural skills and, consequently, the roles that bicultural managers play in
multinational corporations. To investigate this issue, the survey was
conducted among managers who had one Japanese and one non-Japanese
parent, and who worked in a multinational corporation in Japan. This
60
arrangement was chosen because the issue at-hand is more controversial in
Japan than in other industrialized countries. In Japan, an individual is only
considered Japanese if he or she is ethnically 100% Japanese and if the
person was raised in Japan and learned how to act and think like other
Japanese (Kanno, 2003). Japanese government statistics state that 98% of
the people in Japan are ethnically Japanese—a fact which makes the country
very homogeneous. However, the number of international marriages and
children with one foreign national parent is increasing in Japan. In 1980, there
were only 5,545-recorded international marriages in Japan compared to
49,000 in 2006, which accounts for 6.6% of all marriages in Japan (Japan
Times, 2008). Additionally, a survey by the Health, Labor and Welfare Ministry
showed that one of every 30 babies born in Japan in 2006 had at least one
parent originating from overseas. The survey indicates there are an increasing
number of foreign nationals who came to Japan to work or study and have
now settled in the country. The number of multiracial individuals is, therefore,
growing in Japan. Despite this, non-Japanese citizens and individuals with
only one Japanese parent still stand out and are often stigmatized in
Japanese society. One of the earliest terms describing half-Japanese people
was “ainoko”. It describes a child with parents from two different races, and
became common after World War II. However, this label implied social
problems such as poverty, impurity, and discrimination. In the late 1950s, the
word was slowly replaced by “konketsuji”, which literally means child of mixed
blood. But this label also became taboo because of its negative connotations.
One must note both labels emphasize blood impurity and that half-Japanese
are separated from the majority of Japanese. Today, people in Japan of mixed
parentage are typically called “hafu”. This label comes from the English word
“half” which indicates ethnically half-Japanese. The “hafu” image portrays an
ideal type because most of the “hafus” are bilingual, have international cultural
experience, and have western physical features which make them prominent,
particularly because of their increased appearance in Japanese media. Some
parents of half-Japanese children believe “half” implies that someone is not
complete, seems diminishing, and is an epithet of “half-breed”. Therefore, the
new term “daburu”, deriving from the English word “double”, emerged in the
1990s. On a social level, half-Japanese have to face ethnic and racial hurdles.
Therefore, many “half” Japanese are confronted with personal
challenges concerning their identity and their family history from very early
age. Since the number of bicultural marriages and the number of bicultural
citizens is increasing, many of them do grow up in the more international
environment of Japan`s bigger cities, attend international schools and
universities in Japan, and after graduation enter multinational corporations
where they are hired for their bilingual and multicultural skills. However, in
61
many cases the unique situation of growing up biculturally in Japan has made
them very sensitive regarding bicultural issues.
EMPIRICAL STUDY
For this study, ethnically half-Japanese individuals were interviewed. The
interviews were conducted in June, 2010. In total, five bicultural individuals
with half-Japanese and half-Western origins were interviewed in a one-hour
interview. The interviews were all conducted in Tokyo. Out of the five
interviewees, two were female. The half-Japanese interviewees were
between 24 and 33 years old, and they have all been working in Japan for at
least one year. To diversify the sample, some of the interviewees have spent
most of their lives in Japan, while others came to Japan only a few years
earlier. Moreover, the environment in which the interviewees work differs from
Japanese to very international. The interviewees work in business fields such
as investing, IT and design, news, and recruiting.
Most interviewees feel comfortable in between both cultures, they know
and understand them, and they are able to adapt their behavior according to
social contexts. In this manner, the interviewees can keep a positive,
bidirectional relationship with their two internalized cultures. Although they
have this positive relationship with both cultures, all of them mentioned they
felt like foreigners in the homogeneous Japanese society, and sometimes
they do not feel accepted.
Some of the interviewees have lived at least 10 years in both of their
internalized cultures and confirm that the parents have a large impact on the
level of cultural-specific knowledge. Other interviewees spent most of their
lives in Europe and had little Japanese cultural influence. However, one of the
interviewees learned much about the Japanese culture such as food, rituals,
daily practices and his mother spoke Japanese with him.
11. Read the Methods sections taken from the articles published in
different professional journals. Read the one which is closer to the field
you are majoring in and write out the verbs describing procedural steps.
1. Did the author include in this section the elements other than procedures
and materials?
2. Why do you think the author chose to order the elements in this way?
3. Did you find the procedural description clear and easy to understand?
4. What verb tense is used in the description of procedural steps?
5. What is the proportion of active voice verbs to passive verbs in this
section?
6. Does this proportion result in a personalized or depersonalized style of
description?
62
7. Can you find any exceptions to the tense rules we have studied here?
If so, can you explain the exceptions?
8. How do labeled subsections vary in each report? Can you give the
reason why?
12. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
Box 4.
WRITING METHODS AND MATERIALS
1. Give accurate details of materials used.
2. If your study is descriptive, you will need to
answer the questions “Who, what, why,
when, and where?”
3. If your research aims to answer a question,
you should state exactly what hypothesis
was tested.
4. Describe the methodology.
5. Describe in logical sequence how your study
was designed and carried out.
63
UNIT 5
RESULTS
Unit objectives
1. Types of visuals
2. Language of change
3. Grammar focus: Present Simple, Past Simple
(active/passive)
Theoretical background
Types of visuals
IMRaD
Results
1.
Match the types of visuals with the purpose they are used for in
academic texts.
64
bar chart
1.
2.
3.
4.
line graph
table
pie chart
A_______________is used to show proportions of a whole.
A_______________is used to show trends.
A_______________is used to show exact numbers.
A_______________is used to display relations between items.
Language of change
2. Read STUDY SKILLS.
STUDY SKILLS
The language of change
The prices, numbers
increased
grew
rose
decreased
declined
dropped
fell
fluctuated
insignificantly
slightly
gradually
moderately
steadily
sharply
significantly
dramatically
rapidly
considerably
There was a
slight
gradual
steady
considerable
sharp
dramatic
rapid
increase
growth
rise
decrease
drop
fall
65
3. Work in pairs. Look at the line graph below and describe it.
4. Read the description below.
The line graph in Figure 3 shows the number of articles submitted to
different journals by researches between 2005 and 2012. In 2005, the number
constituted approximately 40 articles. From 2005 to 2006, it rose sharply to
120 articles. Then, as you can see, it increased again, reaching its peak of
140 articles in 2007. There was a dramatic drop in 2008 when the number hit
a low of about 20 articles. After this, the number experienced a gradual rise
to 100 articles. From the middle of 2011, the number of articles remained
stable.
5. Describe the line graph below.
66
6. Read the following descriptions of the chart below. Which is better,
and why?
(1) The chart (Figure 2) shows the quantity of tea consumed by the
world's leading tea consuming nations. India and China together
consume more than half the world's tea production, with India alone
consuming about one third. Other significant tea consumers are
Turkey, Russia and Britain. 'Others' includes the United States, Iran
and Egypt.
(2) The chart (Figure 2) shows that 31 per cent of the world's tea is
consumed by India, 23 per cent by China, and 8 per cent by Turkey.
The fourth largest consumers are Russia, Japan and Britain, with 7
per cent each, while Pakistan consumes 5 per cent. Other countries
account for the remaining 12 per cent.
7. Work in pairs. Look at the bar chart below and describe it.
67
8. Read the description below.
The bar chart in Figure 1 shows number of women researchers in five
countries. The vertical Y-axis illustrates a percentage of female researchers;
the horizontal X-axis presents a time period from 2004 to 2010. It can be
clearly seen that the figures for all countries has remained relatively stable
with some fluctuations between approximately 11 % in Korea in 2004 and
42% in the Slovak Republic in 2010. It also demonstrates that two of the
countries, the number of female researches has not changed. In general,
countries experienced no dramatic changes in the rates of women
researches.
9. Look at the Figure 1 in Activity 7 again. Complete each sentence below
with the name of the country.
1. In________figures continued to rise slowly and reached almost 20%
in 2010.
2. In________ and________the trend remained almost unchanged at
over 40% and 35% respectively.
3.________ proved to be the country with the highest rate of women
researchers, at approximately 41% in 2004 and 42% in 2010.
4. The figures for women researchers in________ grew slowly from
about 23% in 2004 and they stabilized at around 28% in 2008 and 2010.
5. During the whole period, rates in ________remained stable at around
25%, which put the country in a mid-position between Korea and the Slovak
Republic and________.
6. _______, however, appeared to be the only country with a steady
downward trend, from approximately 35% of women researchers in 2004 to
slightly less than 30% in 2010.
Vocabulary focus
Explaining how you
got your results
To assess / evaluate / distinguish between …
and …, (a method) was used.
X analysis was used to test / predict / confirm Y.
Changes in … were identified / calculated /
compared using …
68
The correlation / difference between … and …
was tested.
The first set of analyses investigated / examined /
confirmed / highlighted the impact of …
Reporting results
from questionnaires
and interviews
Of the study population / initial sample / initial
cohort, 90 subjects completed and returned the
questionnaire.
The response rate was 70% at / after / for the first
six months and …
The majority of respondents / those who
responded felt that ….
Over half / Sixty per cent of those surveyed /
questioned reported that …
Almost / Just under / Approximately two-thirds of
the participants (64%) said / felt / commented
that …
Only / Just a small number / Fifteen per cent of
those interviewed reported / suggested / indicated
that …
The overall response to this question was
surprisingly / unexpectedly / very / quite negative.
Stating what you
found
These tests revealed / showed / highlighted that
…
Strong / Some / No evidence of X was found …
Interestingly / Surprisingly / Unexpectedly, for
high values of X, Y was found.
There was a significant positive / no correlation
between …
On average / Generally speaking / Broadly
speaking, we found values for X of …
The average / mean score for X was …
This result is significant only / exclusively at an X
level.
Further analysis / analyses / tests / examinations /
replications showed that …
Stating what you did
not find
No significant difference / correlation was found /
identified / revealed / detected / observed /
highlighted between ….
69
There were no significant differences between X
and Y in terms of Z / with regard to Z / as far as Z
is concerned.
The analysis did not show / reveal / identify /
confirm any significant differences between …
None of these differences were / Not one of these
differences was statistically significant.
Overall / Taken as a whole / Generally speaking /
With a few exceptions, our results show X did not
affect Y.
Highlighting
significant results
and achievements
Interestingly / Curiously / Remarkably /
Inexplicably, this correlation is related to ….
The correlation between X and Y is interesting / of
interest / worth noting / noteworthy / worth
mentioning because …
The single most striking / conspicuous / marked
observation to emerge from the data comparison
was …
10. Make up sentences using the active expressions from the
Vocabulary focus table.
Grammar focus
Present Simple
Past Simple
Active/Passive
Results
11. Read the Results section of the following article. Present the key
ideas of every paragraph. Underline the use tenses.
70
Malnutrition among Children under 5 Does Not Correlate with
Higher Socio Economic Status of Parents in Rural Communities
Results
Socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants were
collected from five hundred and five (505) participants who took part in the
study. The age range is widely distributed among children. Their age ranges
from eight months to 59 months, the mean age 30.39 months. There were
260 (51.5%) males and 245 (48.5%) females sampled (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Children who had their father alive are the most predominant
constituting 410 (81.2%) followed by children who lost their father with 95
(18.8%) (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Also, children who responded mother alive were also predominant with
450 (89.1%) where as children sampled without mother alive constitute 55
(10.9%) respectively (Figure 3).
71
Figure 3
The occupational prestige of the parents counts those who responded
none of the options were 110 (21.8%), whereas farmers making up 260
(51.5%) about the half of the samples taken, those responded Petty traders
connotes 50 (9.9%), Beggars makes only 15 (3%) of the respondent,
commercial motorist makes 15 (3%), commercial cyclist were 20 (4%),
company workers makes 20 (4%). Moreover, those responded laborers takes
the remaining 15 (3%) of the sample (Figure 4).
Figure 4
The highest educational level of the parent (father) were taken from none
to tertiary level where parents who never attended any formal or semi-formal
school(none) makes 40 (7.9%), literacy classes 85 (16.8%), primary 235
(46.5%) constituting the highest counts in the respondent, secondary 125
(24.8%), while tertiary education completes 20 (4%) making the lowest counts
in the data recorded (Figure 5).
72
The educational status of the children was taken as schooling and nonschooling where children schooling makes 135 (26.7%) where the nonschooling makes 370 (73.3%).
Nutritional status of the children sampled were also recorded (MUAC)
where the undernourished makes 345 (68.3%) and the nourished were 160
(31.7%).
The number of times each child felt sick within the last one year shows
that out of the total 505 children, 140 (27.72%) fall sick once, 155 (30.69%)
fall sick twice in the previous year, 65 (12.87%) fall sick three times, 55
(10.89%) fall sick four times due to either malaria, malnutrition or others
factors (Figure 6).
Figure 6
Glossary
mean age (n phr) средний возраст
constitute (v) составлять
respond (v) отвечать
respectively (adv) соответственно
whereas (pr) в то время как
make up (v phr) составлять
73
remaining (adv) оставшиеся
undernourished (adj) голодающие
Follow-up
12. Read the Results section to the article BICULTURAL MANAGERS
AND THEIR ROLE IN MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. Analyze the
vocabulary.
BICULTURAL MANAGERS AND THEIR ROLE IN
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
Bicultural Managers and their Roles in Multinational Corporations
“I’m the Cultural Advisor”
Most of the interviewees mentioned it is easy for them to build up social
ties with people from other cultures. One reason might be that other people
are curious about bicultural individuals and their different background.
Moreover, the cognitive, emotional and behavioral flexibility of biculturals
makes it easier for others to connect with them.
Throughout the interview, one of them stated that his flexibility creates
smooth interactions with a variety of people. Additionally, another mentioned
that because she “can understand both sides better”, she can communicate
without difficulty, and people trust her. Therefore, it is possible for her to close
structural holes inside a team and bring the team members closer together. It
is trust that makes knowledge transfer in a team possible. This can also be
seen in the statements of the interviewees. Three participants accented their
colleagues respect and trust them, and as a result consult them when they
have questions regarding culture. One of the interviewees exemplifies this in
a similar sense: The German side [wanted] (…) this feature but [they] (…)
don’t think it’s needed. (…) [So my co-workers] ask me for advice sometimes.
Hence, she feels like an important part of the group. Another interviewee also
highlights he assumes the role of a “cultural advisor”. His team members ask
him how to confront culturally different clients, and what he thinks about
problems, investment decisions, etc.: They expect me to give some new idea,
some new opinion. So they always ask me what’s your opinion, what do you
think? His Japanese coworkers asked him for advice after they could not
improve the outcome in one of the Brazilian factories. They tried to pressure
74
the Brazilian people to work faster, which resulted in their resistance to even
go to work. He proposed an incentive system, which ultimately worked best.
Consequently, it can be said that people trust him, like to communicate with
him and seek his advice.
“I’m the Buffer”: Bicultural as Conflict Mediators
Biculturals often do not only find themselves in a role in which they
explain other cultures, but often they are asked to solve conflicts and problems
in the field. The role of cultural advisor mostly leads to another one: The role
of a cross-cultural conflict mediator. Some interviewees narrate that:
Communication (…) is the main problem (in my team) but I don’t think it’s a
constant issue, it’s not a problem that escalades. (…) It can blow out to
misunderstanding/ argument but most of the times it’s quite well contained.
The reason such problems do not escalate might be the biculturals’ ability
to mediate between conflicting parties. Three interviewees mention they often
stand between their Japanese client and their Western boss. Another
interviewee’s superior wanted her to pressure her client to get certain
information, but she always stayed calm and polite so as not to offend anyone.
Hence, she describes herself as being “the buffer” in such conflicting
situations. She turned out to have “a huge argument” with her boss about how
to talk and deal with clients. But, he finally acknowledged the fact that she has
the cultural specific knowledge about Japan, and not he. He trusted her
because of her bicultural competence. Like the ability to span boundaries, it
requires a kind of emotional and cognitive flexibility to adjust oneself to the
way the disputing parties think and to mediate a conflict.
Two of the interviewees work in a very international environment, and the
Japanese employees as well as the Western employees have a certain
amount of experience from both cultures. The companies deliberately chose
employees who studied abroad and who are bilingual. Japanese people adapt
really well in our company, they are really straightforward (…), and Americans
(…) are not as blunt, (…) so both parties kind of come forward and adapt.
Hence, everyone is more lenient when it comes to problems or
misunderstandings. As a result, conflicts do not arise that often. Nevertheless,
there are many companies where the employees have only experienced their
majority culture and it is difficult for them to understand another person’s way
of communicating or solving problems.
During the interview, one of the interviewees thought of a situation
experienced by her half-Japanese boyfriend, who also works for Bloomberg.
A Japanese employee working in sales could not sell a product to a regional
bank in Japan. The American boss reacted uncomprehendingly because the
product sold so well in other countries. The boyfriend tried to mediate between
75
both parties, and explained the markets work differently. The boss just told
his Japanese employee that he had not been selling it correctly, and he should
therefore try harder. Subsequently the Japanese co-worker quit his job.
13. Read the Results sections taken from the articles published in
different professional journals. Read the one which is closer to the field
you are majoring in and write out the verbs describing results of
research.
14. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
Box 5.
WRITING THE RESULTS SECTION
1. The results section is the easiest to write.
The introduction has defined the questions
and the methods the means of getting the
answers.
2. Decide during the design stage of your study
how the results will be presented.
3. Remember to follow the general design of
the results section: the text should tell the
story, the tables will summarize the
evidence, the illustrations will show the
highlights, and the statistics should support
your statements.
4. Keep it all straightforward – and always keep
the reader in mind.
76
UNIT 6
DISCUSSION
Unit objectives
1. Information elements of Discussion section
2. Vocabulary focus
3. Grammar focus
Theoretical background
Information elements of Discussion section
IMRaD
DISCUSSION
1.
Study the scheme below.
DISCUSSIONS = EFFECTIVE CONCLUDING SECTION
specific information
reported in the methods
and the results sections
general view of how
the findings should be
interpreted
NOTE! Many readers will scan only portion of the main body of your paper,
but will carefully read the last section – ‘Discussion’ or ‘Abstract’ which
briefly preview your report.
Focus
>> on your main contributions <<
 evaluate the results and interpret their implications
77
 clear state the support or non-support for your original hypothesis
 clarify and confirm your conclusions on the basis of similarities and
differences between your results and the work of others
 critique your own work = point out what is important, what is
significant, and why the results are valid
 include some negative aspects, show the gaps in your work or your
design.
 point out directions for future work and applications
 discuss trends that seem to be evident and the conclusions you
draw from your analysis and interpretation
 remark on certain limitations of the study
 propose new research or suggest improvements on your research
INFORMATION ELEMENTS
INCLUDED IN DISCUSSIAN SECTION
1. A reference to the main purpose or hypothesis of the study.
2. A review of the most important findings, whether or not they support the
original hypothesis, and whether they agree with the findings of other
researchers.
3. Possible explanations for or speculations about the findings.
4. Limitations of the study that restrict the extent to which the findings can be
generalized.
5. Implications of the study (generalizations from the results).
6. Recommendations for future research and practical applications.
2. Read the following Discussion section from a research article.
Analyze its structure. Translate the highlighted expressions.
The decrement theory of aging led us to infer that older workers in
speed jobs would have poorer performance, greater absenteeism, and more
accidents compared with other workers.
The findings, however, go against the theory. The older workers generally
earned more, were absent less, had fewer accidents, and had less turnover
than younger workers.
One possible conclusion is that the requirements of the speed jobs in the
light manufacturing industry under study do not make physical demands on
the older workers to the limits of their reserve capacity. The competence and
78
experience of the older workers in these specific jobs may have compensated
for their reduced stamina.
This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the relationship
between age, experience, and productivity in one particular industry. It is
possible of course that other industry with a different complex of speed jobs
and skill jobs may produce entirely different results. In addition, it is important
to emphasize that methodological problems in the research design limit our
interpretations.
The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in other
manufacturing plants, as well as in other occupational areas in light, medium,
and heavy industries in order to construct a typology of older worker
performance in a variety of jobs.
Glossary
decrement theory of aging (n phr) теория снижения производительности с
возрастом
infer (v) предполагать
performance (n) производительность
absenteeism (n) поведенческая модель, при которой работник
систематически отсутствует на рабочем месте и избегает своих
обязанностей
turnover (n) текучесть кадров
stamina (n) выносливость
outline (v) обозначать
Vocabulary focus
Expressing
opinions and
probabilities
To the best of our knowledge / As far as we know / We
believe that no other authors have found that
x = y.
It would seem / appear that …
Our findings would seem to show / demonstrate /
suggest / imply that x = y.
This factor may be responsible / is probably responsible
/ could well be responsible for this result.
Presumably / We hypothesize / I argue that this factor is
…
79
We believe that our method could be used / probably be
usefully employed in…
Our approach would lend itself well for use by / may be
useful for …
In our opinion / view, this method could be used in …
We believe / feel strongly that …
There is evidence to suggest / support the hypothesis
that …
It is proposed / This may mean / It seems likely / It may
be assumed that …
This implies / suggests / would appear to indicate that …
The results point to the likelihood / probability that …
There is a strong / definite / clear / good probability that
…
Outlining
possible
applications
and
implications of
your work
This study is the first step / has gone some way towards
enhancing our understanding of …
These observations have several / three main / many
implications for research into …
This work has revealed / shown / highlighted /
demonstrated / proved that …
The present findings might help to solve / have important
implications for solving / suggest several
courses of action in order to solve this problem.
X is suitable for / has the potential to …
Our method / technique / approach / procedure could be
applied to …
One possible / potential / promising application of our
technique would be …
Results so far have been very promising / encouraging
and …
This approach has the potential / requirements /
characteristics / features to …
This could eventually / conceivably / potentially /
hypothetically lead to …
3. Make up sentences using the active expressions from the Vocabulary
focus table.
80
Grammar focus
Present Simple
Past Simple
Active/Passive
Discussion
4. Read a part of the Discussion section of the following article. Present
the key ideas of every paragraph. Underline the use tenses.
Malnutrition among Children under 5 Does Not Correlate with
Higher Socio Economic Status of Parents in Rural Communities
Discussion
There is high prevalence of malnutrition among children in rural
communities which is often underestimated for the fact that rural dwellers of
Kano are mostly farmers and that they are adequate to provide for their
children. Frequency of illnesses among the children of rural dwellers is
associated with the nutritional status of the children. Malnutrition is not always
dependent on the occupation and educational status of the parents or whether
child parents are alive or not. Children of farmers and learned persons are
also very susceptible to malnutrition in the rural communities of Kano.
Recommendations
Based on this study, it is recommended that nutritional education in both rural
and urban communities should be directed at not only the poor parents, but
of particular importance to the educated, wealthy and farmers whose children
appeared to be worse affected by under nutrition. Programs in rural
communities should rather than focusing on the provision of Ready to Use
Therapeutic Foods, concentrate on enlightening caregivers on the use of the
locally available farm produce to enhance the nutritional status of their
81
children. It is also recommended that another study be conducted with sample
children drawn from within the communities to cover those malnourished
children whose parents have no faith in modern health care.
Follow-up
5. Read the Discussion section to the article BICULTURAL MANAGERS
AND THEIR ROLE IN MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. Analyze the
vocabulary.
BICULTURAL MANAGERS AND THEIR ROLE IN
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
DISCUSSION
The origin of this research project was to define biculturalism and provide
a summary on previous research regarding biculturalism. Hong’s (2010) work
is central to this study, and suggests only the combination of culture-specific
and culture general skills lead to bicultural competence. Furthermore, she
proposes a bicultural competent individual can assist a multicultural team to
be more effective by playing roles such as “boundary spanner” or “conflict
mediator”. In this article, the authors attempted to investigate this aspect in
greater detail analyzing qualitative interviews with ethnically half-Japanese
individuals, working in Tokyo, Japan. In the interviews, the bicultural
managers were asked about their experiences working in a multinational firm
in Japan. The analysis of the interviews led to new insights about roles of
bicultural managers in a modern workplace.
Positive Effects of Being Bicultural
All interviewees describe positive effects about being bicultural and felt
comfortable living in between two cultures. This echoes the prevailing opinion
in literature about biculturalism today (e.g. Benet-Martinez et al., 2002; Hong
et al., 2000; LaFramboise et al., 1993). Some of them merely experienced
some difficulties when they were teenagers, asking themselves where they
really belong, and sometimes struggled dealing with bullying schoolmates.
Everyone copes differently with growing up between two cultures, so there is
no universal answer on how biculturalism affects an individual’s well-being.
However, the level of bicultural competence is crucial for having a positive
relationship with both of one’s internalized cultures and being able to adopt
82
one’s behavior according to social context (e.g. Hong, 2010; LaFramboise et
al., 1993). Similarly, the bicultural competent participants of this study saw
their heritage as a great gift compared to the participants with a lower level of
bicultural competency, who pointed out some disadvantages about being from
two cultures. Nevertheless, all interviewees regretted they will never be
completely accepted in Japanese society even if they have spent all of their
lives in Japan. Therefore, it is very difficult for them to get a job in a domestic
Japanese company, and some of the bicultural individuals suggested it is a
greater advantage to be bilingual and not necessarily bicultural. The
respondents did view the dual language proficiency as a primary skill in
contrast to monocultural individuals, and this skill gave them a competitive
advantage in the job market. However, in Multinational Corporations (MNCs),
they can also utilize their other bicultural skills and help communicate in crosscultural negotiations. Hence, they can act as the missing link between
culturally diverse corporate subdivisions. This is possible by playing roles
such as boundary spanner or conflict mediator (Friedman & Liu, 2009; Hong,
2010). The interviewees mentioned they can build ties with others easily, and
therefore they tend to be respected and trusted more. They are able to span
boundaries and therefore improve the knowledge transfer within the team.
From the narratives of the participants of this study, one could learn that
biculturals are able to enhance team processes with their cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral flexibility.
Stressful Effects of Being Bicultural
The role as cross-cultural expert and advisor has a one major liability.
Biculturals are very often also consulted when cross-cultural conflicts of
communication problems occur. One solution is to mediate between
conflicting parties because they are in a better position to empathize with and
understand disputants, and therefore help resolve those disputes (Friedman
& Liu, 2009). The evidence given, based on the narratives of the interviews,
suggest even the bicultural competent participants of this study sometimes
experienced problems resolving such conflicts. Because of their culturespecific and culture general knowledge, some misunderstandings are
prevented from escalating, but there are some conflicts they cannot solve.
This is due to the different hierarchy levels of the disputing parties. Speaking
out against a superior is more difficult than against a coworker who is on the
same level of the company’s hierarchy. Another aspect is the bicultural
competency of the individual. Being bicultural refers to growing up in a
bicultural environment. Whether a bicultural individual develops a deeper
understanding of the cultures in which he or she grew up, and how this
knowledge is applied in a professional context, is a very subjective matter.
Often, the interviewees felt it is difficult to be in between two parties, and that
83
it is their task to mediate conflicts. Bicultural skills do not automatically include
mediations and conflict solutions skills. Not being able to cope with
expectations in this field, can cause a lot of stress for bicultural managers.
By analyzing the results, we can assume biculturally competent
individuals obtain and retain certain roles that positively impact the
effectiveness of a team; however, it is questionable if the biculturals
appreciate playing those roles. From an organizational perspective, we can
conclude biculturals provide obvious advantages in a diverse workplace, and
can therefore enhance team effectiveness. In turn, this eventually contributes
to an organization’s overall success. However, for the bicultural manager, the
roles provided by the organization often involve situations perceived as
emotionally stressful.
6. Read the Discussions sections taken from the articles published in
different professional journals. Read the one which is closer to the field
you are majoring in and write out the expressions describing aspects
enlisted in the chart below.
original hypothesis
findings
explanation for findings
limitations
need for further research
7. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
84
Box 6.
WRITING THE DISCUSSION SECTION
1. Be consistent with target journal’s style.
2. Three ways to start your piece: miniseminar, main finding, or what is different.
3. Summarize relevant important previous
work
4. Put your results in context
5. Mention doubts and weaknesses
6. Offer data supported practical advice
7. Three ways of ending: problem solved,
more research needed, or uncertainty
remains.
85
UNIT 7
ABSTRACT
Unit objectives
1. Typical elements of informative abstracts
2. Vocabulary focus
3. Grammar focus
Theoretical background
Typical elements included in an abstract
1.
Read the text below.
The length of the abstract should be restricted to the limit set by the journal or
relevant academic regulation, often about 250 words (say about 15
sentences). The abstract consists of 5 linked parts – background, problem,
methods, results, and implications. The proportion of the abstract taken by
each part varies considerably. You need to get the attention of the reader with
the abstract – make them interested in your work.
Background:
Purpose:
Methods:
Briefly set up the background and context to the study,
its rationale and significance. Within this background,
you need to touch the problem…
Here you need to identify the particular research
problem under investigation, the purpose of the study,
and any specific research objectives or hypotheses
Outline the approach you took and the methods you
used to investigate the problem. Describe the extent
of the study, what you did or measured, and how you
did it. Specify the location of the study and when it was
performed
86
Results:
Conclusion:
give any important data. Be specific, not vague.
Quantify if possible; avoid terms such as "most" or
"some" if you have the specific numbers. State the
major interpretations and findings, how the findings
relate to the original research problem, and any
limitations/caveats on the results
Finish by stating the contribution of the work and its
implications. There may be implications for associated
problems, or for previous studies, e.g., reinterpretation
of a previous model may be necessary in the light of
your findings. Do your results have general or specific
application or relevance?
A GOOD ABSTRACT
concise
coherent
informative
written in plain English
2. Put these steps for writing an abstract in order.
a.
___ Look through the article and choose sentences with key ideas.
b.
___ Give the abstract to a colleague and ask him / her if it makes
sense.
c.
___ Check that your abstract conveys only the essential
information.
d.
___ Read your draft and delete extra words and phrases.
e.
___ Organize the information you have gathered into a draft.
f.
___ Check to see if it meets the requirements of the target journal.
Count the words.
g.
___ Read the abstract as if you were another researcher deciding
if to read your article.
h.
___ Write the final version of the abstract.
i.
___ State your hypothesis or method used in the first sentence.
j.
___Omit literature review and detailed description of methods.
87
3. Read the informative abstract. Divide it into five parts. They are
highlighted in different colors.
Abstract
Metalinguistic awareness contributes to effective writing at
university. Writing is a meaning-making process where linguistic,
cognitive, social and creative factors are at play. University students need
to master the skills of academic writing not only for getting their degree but
also for their future career. It is also significant for lecturers to know who
the students are, how they think and how we can best assist them. This
study examines first-year undergraduate Australians and international
engineering students as writers of academic texts in a multicultural setting
at the University of Adelaide. A questionnaire and interviews were used
to collect data about students’ level of metalinguistic awareness, their
attitudes toward, expectations for, assumptions about and motivation for
writing. The preliminary results of the research show that students from
different cultures initially have different concepts about the academic
genres and handle writing with different learning and writing styles, but
those with a more developed metalanguage are more confident and
motivated. The conclusion can also be drawn that students’ level of
motivation for academic writing positively correlates with their opinion
about themselves as writers. Following an in-depth multi-dimensional
analysis of preliminary research results, some recommendations for
writing instruction will also be presented.
Glossary
metalinguistic awareness (n phr) метаязыковая компетенция
contribute (v) способствовать
cognitive(adj) познавательный
significant (adj) важный
questionnaire (n) анкета
attitude (n) отношение
assumption (n) предположение
preliminary results (n phr) предварительные результаты
correlate (v) соотноситься
multi-dimension analysis (n phr) всесторонний анализ
4. Read the abstract. Divide it into parts.
88
Abstract
This research was carried out in order to determine the hand and eye
dominance (left-hand dominant or right-hand dominant) of the women
participating in Turkish senior women’s archery championship and to find
out whether there were any differences among the scores gained by the
archers as general total and at the end of their 1st and 2nd 50-m targetbased shootings when using compound bow. 44 elite-level women archers
under the Turkish Federation of Archery participated in the research. We
determined the hand dominance and eye dominance of all participants. To
determine hand and eye dominance, participants completed the Edinburgh
Handedness Inventory-Short Form. According to that, 5 of the archers were
left-hand dominant whereas 39 of them were right-hand dominant. A mini
survey form was used in order to determine certain bio-motor (age, height,
weight and sports age) characteristics of the archers. Results: Laterality
might be one of the most significant factors for the archers to become
successful. Thus, considering that left-hand dominant archers might gain
competitive edge in the archer selection process, these archers can be
considered to be advantageous for being selected. Sportive success can
be enhanced if trainers attach a particular importance to and support these
archers and if they consider this situation particularly during target-based
shooting trainings. Furthermore, taking into consideration that left-hand
dominant persons are more successful that right-hand dominant persons in
certain sports branches, it can be said that, such persons must not be
forced to use their right hand.
Glossary
archery(n) стрельба из лука
score (n) результат
bow (n) лук
laterality (n) асимметрия
5. Read the abstract. Analyze its structure. Translate the highlighted
expressions into English. Mind the use of passive voice.
АННОТАЦИЯ.
Данная
статья
посвящена
выявлению
особенностей переживания одиночества студентами. В статье
обозначены основные подходы к изучению одиночества и показана
необходимость и недостаточность изучения одиночества в
студенческий период жизни. На основе когнитивного подхода
сформулировано рабочее определение одиночества и представлены
результаты эмпирического исследования переживания одиночества
89
на выборке студентов. По уровню одиночества студенты
распределены на группы, сравнительный анализ которых показывает
особенности переживания одиночества одинокими и не одинокими
студентами. Выделены следующие эмоции и эмоциональные
состояния, которые характерны для одиноких студентов и не
одиноких студентов: это сочувствие к себе, чувство незащищенности,
ранимость,
отчужденность,
неловкость,
изолированность,
покинутость, смирение, гнев, злость. Обнаружено, что причиной
одиночества студентов являются сложности в общении, проблемы с
самооценкой, неуверенность в себе, отсутствие близких друзей.
Выделены типично мужские реакции на одиночество: игра в
компьютерные игры, прогулка по городу на машине/велосипеде и
типично женские реакции: чтение, заполнение времени учебой или
работой, поход в магазин за покупками, телефонный звонок другу.
Vocabulary focus
1. Background
Xs are among the most widely used / commonly
discussed / well-known / well-documented /
widespread / commonly investigated types of …
importance of the topic
Xs are attracting considerable / increasing /
widespread interest due to …
+
Last century X was considered to be / viewed as
/ seen as the most …
the past-present
Scientists / Researchers / Experts have always
history outline of the seen X as …
research without direct Recent developments in / findings regarding X
references to the
have led to …
literature
X has become a central / an important / a critical
issue in…
2. Problem
the gap in knowledge
Few researchers have addressed the problem /
issue / question of …
Previous work has only focused on / been
limited to / failed to address …
90
+
possible limitations
3. Methods
4. Results
5. Conclusion
the aim of your paper
+
its contribution
+
possible future of
research
The characteristics of X are not well understood
/ are misunderstood / have not been dealt with
in
depth.
This particular / specific area of X has been
overlooked / has been neglected / remains
unclear …
However, there is still a need for / has been little
discussion on …
There is little / no general agreement on …
In order to identify / understand / investigate /
study / analyze X …
To enable / allow us to … , we …
To see / determine / check / verify / determine
whether …
Measurements were taken using purpose-built /
custom-built / customized equipment.
By having / By exploiting / Through the use of X,
we were able to …
The sample was selected / subdivided on the
basis of X and Y.
Analysis / analyses / tests / examinations /
replications showed that …
These tests revealed / highlighted that …
Strong / Some / No evidence of X was found …
The most striking / remarkable result to emerge
from the data is that …
The aim of our work / research / study / analysis
was to further / extend / widen / broaden current
knowledge of …
The aim of this study is to study / evaluate /
validate / determine / examine / analyze /
calculate /
estimate / formulate …
We undertook this study / initiated this research
/ developed this methodology to …
We describe / present / consider / analyze a
novel / simple / radical / interesting solution for
91
6. Make up sentences using the active expressions from the Vocabulary
focus table.
Grammar focus
WRITE WITH STYLE:
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING CLEAR SENTENCES
1. Word order
subject-verb-object
(usually produces the clearest, most concise sentences)
2. Easy-to-read Sentences of 12 to 25 words
3. Parallel structures = similar structure for similar elements
(of equal value in a sentence)
Faulty
Management guarantees that
the old system will be replaced and
to consider the new proposal.
A successful firm is capable of
manufacturing a product, marketing
it, and make a profit.
Parallel
Management guarantees that
the old system will be replaced and
that the new proposal will be
considered.
A successful firm is capable of
manufacturing a product, marketing
it, and making a profit.
4. Put the main idea first
Place the sentence’s main idea – its subject – first. When you do so,
you provide context for what follows.
5. Avoid clichés (worn-out expressions that add words to your writing.
as plain as day leaps and bounds
ballpark figure
needless to say
efficient and effective reinvent the wheel
few and far between skyrocketing costs
last but not least
step in the right direction
92
6. Cut out extra words
(1) do not add an unnecessary translation between ideas or
(2) do not provide new information to the reader
(3) get rid of redundant phrasing &needless connecting words
Follow-up
7. Following are the abstracts from reports in different fields. Read
them and analyze each sentence for the type of information it contains.
THE NEWS MEDIA: IT’S ROLE AS A SOURCE OF
INFORMATION AND NEWS TO ACTIVE POLITICAL
PARTY MEMBERS
Abstract: The relative contribution of several sources of information in
providing information and news about the political affairs of New Brunswick to
"active" political party members is explored. As well, differences between the
two major linguistic groups (French and English) of New Brunswick in their
usage of news media to obtain political information are illustrated.
TELEVISION AND FEAR OF CRIME: PROGRAM TYPES,
AUDIENCE TRAITS, AND THE MEDIATING EFFECT OF
PERCEIVED NEIGHBORHOOD RACIAL COMPOSITION
Abstract. Recent work in the area of media and fear of crime suggest that both
program content and audience traits are important factors in predicting fear of
crime. Working from these premises, this article explores the relationship
between watching television and fear of crime among twelve different
audience sub-samples and six program types. Additionally, we examine
whether respondents' perception of the racial composition of their
neighborhood provides a mediating context for the television/fear relationship.
Using a random telephone survey of 1,490 adults in Leon County, Florida, we
find that program content and audience traits influence the television/fear
relationship. More importantly, these findings demonstrate that perceived
racial composition of neighborhood is a crucial dimension in structuring the
93
TV/fear relationship, with television effects for several different program types
located primarily among individuals who perceive they live in a neighborhood
with high percentages of blacks. Results are discussed in terms of "social
threat."
8. Study the key ideas of the Unit.
Box 7.
WRITING THE ABSRACT
1. Check the maximum number of words. This
varies between journals, but it usually ranges
between 200 and 300words.
2. Check whether the abstract makes sense and
that you are getting your message across. Ask
a colleague who is not involved in the research
to read it. Do they understand your message?
3. Check for consistency. The abstract should
reflect the paper and describe your message
succinctly and accurately.
4. Finally, remember that more people read the
abstract than the whole paper.
94
Appendix
КАК НАПИСАТЬ НАУЧНУЮ СТАТЬЮ
Д.В. Веселкин
Научная публикация – основной, а в фундаментальной
науке – практически единственный результат деятельности
ученого. Соответственно написание публикаций – основное
занятие ученого. Главная цель научной публикации для автора:
во-первых, сделать свою работу достоянием других исследователей и,
во-вторых,
обозначить
свой
приоритет
в
избранной
сфере исследований. Это достигается публикацией трех блоков
информации: 1) результаты исследований; 2) результаты анализа; 3)
сообщение
о
себе,
как
об
авторе(ах)
исследований
и/
или анализа. С точки зрения читателя публикация выполняет
иную цель. Она должна содержать краткий, но в то же время
подробный отчет о проведенном исследовании, а также объективное
обсуждение
его
значения.
Отчет
должен
содержать
достаточное количество данных и ссылок на опубликованные
источники информации, чтобы коллегам можно было оценить
и самим проверить работу. Написать хорошую публикацию –
значит, достичь этих двух целей.
Работа над статьей
Прежде чем начать работу над статьей, полезно ответить на
следующие вопросы и держать ответы в голове, а лучше на листочке
перед собой.
1. Какова основная цель Вашей работы? Ответ поможет четко
определить и выдержать формат изложения:
– описываете ли Вы новые и важные результаты исследований
(экспериментальная статья наиболее распространенный тип);
– даете ли Вы новое толкование ранее опубликованным
результатам (сводная аналитическая статья; обычно используется для
выдвижения и обоснования крупной гипотезы);
– делаете ли Вы обзор литературы или крупной темы.
2. В чем состоит отличие этой работы от других работ по
данной теме, ее новизна?
– какой новый вклад в науку дают результаты;
– печатался ли этот материал ранее;
– какое он имеет отношение к другим работам в этой области.
95
3. Где будет опубликована статья, на кого она ориентирована?
Желательно познакомиться с «Правилами для авторов», чтобы с самого
начала стараться выдержать требования редакции конкретного
журнала.
Следующий этап работы – определение идеи, или основной
гипотезы. Безусловно, она у Вас давно есть, раз Вы надумали
писать статью. Однако проанализировать ее не помешает. Идея
должна быть простой. В идеале в статье должен быть задан
один вопрос и содержаться такой объем информации, который
позволяет исчерпывающе на него ответить. Сформулируйте
рабочие гипотезы, продумайте весь возможный спектр ответов на
основной вопрос статьи: и те, которые Вы собираетесь
доказать, и те, которые намерены опровергнуть. Если Вам это
удалось, считайте, что статья наполовину написана – во всяком случае
Вы имеете название.
Название. Это очень важный элемент статьи! Поэтому помните: не
вникнув
в
смысл
названия
статьи,
многие
просто
не
станут читать Ваш труд. Основные достоинства названия –
краткость и ясность. В большинстве рекомендаций длина заголовка
ограничивается
10–12
словами.
Работа
над
приданием
заголовку краткости, содержательности и выразительности –
работа непростая, поэтому не бойтесь переделывать заголовок
много раз. Ключевые слова, отражающие суть работы, старайтесь
ставить в начале. Название должно в большей степени характеризовать
проблему, над которой Вы работаете, чем полученные Вами результаты.
Структура статьи. Экспериментальная статья обычно строится по
единому стандарту:
– введение (основной вопрос, на который в нем предстоит
ответить,
– «Зачем это надо?»);
– описание материала и методов работы («Как это получено?»);
– результаты («Что, где и когда наблюдается?»);
– обсуждение, заключение и/или выводы («Почему это наблюдается
и что это означает?»);
– список цитированных источников.
Обычно статья включает также «Аннотация» и «Ключевые
слова». В обзорных и аналитических статьях некоторые разделы могут
быть опущены, а рубрикация может быть значительно сложнее.
Введение имеет целью:
96
– определить гипотезу;
– дать вводную информацию;
– объяснить, почему Вы предприняли исследование;
– критически проанализировать исследования в данной области;
– показать актуальность темы.
Нередко «Введение» пишется на последнем этапе, после
изложения результатов и их обсуждения, т. е. «под результат». Это не
страшно. Во всяком случае, проверить соответствие «Введения»
остальным частям статьи после завершения работы необходимо.
Однако подготовка «Введения» в начале работы структурирует процесс
мыслительной активности автора и дальнейшее изложение.
Готовое «Введение» необходимо проанализировать по следующим
ключевым пунктам:
– четко ли сформулированы цели и исходные гипотезы, если они
существуют?
– нет ли противоречий?
– упомянули ли Вы основную использованную литературу?
– подчеркнули ли Вы актуальность и новизну работы?
Методы исследований. Смысл информации, излагаемой в
данном разделе, состоит в том, чтобы другой ученый достаточной
квалификации смог воспроизвести исследование, основываясь на
приведенных
методах.
В
статьях
по
биологической
тематике в этом разделе принято описывать место, время, условия
проведения исследований, при необходимости объект исследований,
объем
и
структуру
материала,
план
эксперимента
для экспериментальных работ, использованные лабораторные
и статистические процедуры. Обязательно укажите ограничения и
допущения для использованных методов и пути их «обхода», если это
предпринималось.
Отсылка к литературным источникам без описания сути метода
возможна только при условии его стандартности или в случае написания
статьи
для
узкоспециализированного
журнала.
При ориентации на широкий круг читателей или при комбинации
исследовательских подходов из нескольких научных дисциплин методы
должны
быть
изложены
предельно
подробно.
При использовании сложного экспериментального или аналитического
оборудования,
от
работы
которого
существенно
зависят последующие результаты, указывайте марку прибора и
производителя, так же как и производителей уникальных
97
веществ, программных продуктов и пр. При необходимости в «Методах»
следует давать определение используемых терминов.
Результаты. Это основной раздел, цель которого – показать,
какими данными подтверждается рабочая гипотеза (гипотезы). При
структуре статьи, включающей отдельные разделы «Результаты» и
«Обсуждения»,
в
первом
следует
описывать
только данные. К вопросам «Почему результаты таковы?» и «Что они
означают?» следует обращаться только в том объеме, в
каком это необходимо для сохранения логики повествования.
Раздел «Результаты», как правило, наиболее насыщен иллюстрациями
– таблицами, графиками, фотографиями, которые несут основную
функцию доказательства, представляя в свернутом виде Ваш исходный
материал. Важно, чтобы данные иллюстраций не дублировали текст. В
текстовой части в идеале должны приводиться только объяснения
значений
данных таблиц и рисунков и разъясняться логика перехода к
следующему блоку данных или к следующему шагу анализа.
Повествовательная текстовая часть уподобляется, таким образом,
ниточке,
на
которую
нанизываются
отдельные
бусины
– Ваши фактические данные.
Обсуждение результатов может быть вынесено в отдельный
раздел, но может входить и в раздел «Результаты». Важно, чтобы
такое обсуждение было. Его задача состоит в том, чтобы показать,
почему представленные результаты именно таковы и как
они соотносятся с основной идеей статьи. В «Обсуждении» надо
указать характерные особенности результатов работы, оценить
пределы работы, т.е. те рамки, в которых правомерны выводы.
Практически никогда не бывает так, чтобы полученные результаты
можно было бы с очевидностью распространить на смежные
области знаний. Чем более широкими Вы хотите представить
свои заключения, тем труднее это будет доказать. Необходимо
сравнить представленные результаты с предыдущими работами
в этой области – как Вашими, так и других авторов.
Заключение.
В
разделе
необходимо
сопоставить
полученные результаты с начальной целью работы. Насколько
они совпадают? Чему способствует Ваша статья? Чем Вы обогатили
науку? Важно определить значение Ваших результатов для дальнейших
исследований.
Для
этого
необходимо
ответить
на
98
следующие вопросы: Какие направления для будущей работы
предполагают Ваши результаты? Может быть, Ваши результаты
выявили тупиковую ситуацию, и продолжение работ бессмысленно?
Отрицательных
результатов
в
науке
не
бывает,
даже
если они указывают на необходимость отказа от выбранного
направления исследований. Лучше быть честным до конца.
Чем раньше Вы выявите перспективность или безнадежность
дальнейших работ, тем меньше лет своей жизни потеряете на
пути к успеху. От Вашей объективности зависит успех или неудача
Вашей работы.
Аннотация. Этот раздел готовится последним. Характерная
черта хорошей аннотации – освещение ключевых моментов без
их детализации. Большинство журналов ограничивают размер
аннотации, который должен отражать следующие моменты:
– цель исследования;
– использованные методы или технологии;
– основные результаты;
– авторские выводы.
Список цитированной литературы – еще один очень важный
элемент статьи. Большинство журналов не примут Вашу статью, если
список
литературы
будет
составлен
не
по
правилам.
Причина этого понятна: если Вы не справились даже с литературой, что
говорить о самой статье.
99
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