NAME:
ANDREW MENAS IGETEI.
MATRICULATION NUMER:
SSC1708151
DEPARTMENT:
POLITICAL SCIENCE.
FACULTY:
SOCIAL SCIENCES.
RESEARCH TOPIC:
RESPONSE AND OPINIONS OF THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY TOWARDS CORONAVIRUS VACCINATION:A CASE STUDY OF OREDO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
OF EDO STATE.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
The world at large is witnessing a global health crisis in the form of a flu-like infection
that is caused by the Corona-virus. This pandemic comes with some surprising and traumatic
impacts, causing health hazards of heartbreaking significance. The World Health Organization
(WHO) calls it COVID-19 on the 11th February 2020, the disease still remains a major
development hurdle and public health concern in many developed and developing countries,
"United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(2020)". More than two years after its
discovery, COVID-19 still constitutes a devastating health problem with significant morbidity
and mortality consequences, Mbunge E. (2020). More importantly, the pandemic is a candid
reflection of Africa’s vulnerability to global health hazards due to economic reintegration and
globalization, Yaya S, Out A and Labonté R(2020).
Corona-virus has brought phenomenal changes to the society as a global pandemic.
Either we like it or not, the world as we know it can never remain the same. As corona-virus
outbreak posed significant challenges for the public health, medical communities and research.
Governmental policies and processes were introduced to curtail the spread of the virus across the
2
nations of the world. This included instituting temporary restrictions on travel with dramatic
reduction in the number of travelers, self distancing, self isolation, quarantine of international
travelers, regular hand washing and the use of face masks and sanitizers
Corona-virus has been on the increase with every giving day, and to this end, a vaccine
was created to bring about a form of immunity to the people of the world. But how is the world
in general and Nigeria in particular, specifically Edo state citizens taking the news of vaccination
with regards to the corona-virus pandemic? This vaccination process has been responded to by
many in different ways while creating a wide range of opinions among Nigerian and Edo state
citizens in particular.While the Corona-virus availability and supply is key to obtaining high
level of vaccination in Nigeria, so is the demand and willingness to accept it by the general
population. Vanguard media limited, Nigeria(2022).News; covid-19:Nigeria records 880 fresh
infections as NCDC raises alarm. Available:https//www.vanguardngr.com/2022/07/covid-19nigeria-records-880-fres-infection-as-ncdc-raises-alarm/
Statement of Problem
There are lots of mixed feeling arising in Nigeria, most especially Edo state which
influences the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the coronavirus vaccination
from the lam man on the street to the elites irrespective of the home background, place and
environment towards the vaccination processes.
Illiteracy and poverty are likely common factors that create problems which can affect
the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination taking
Oredo local government area of Edo state as a study case.
3
The problem of poor socio-economic home leads to the absence of medical aids, which
could be gotten from adverts, promotional programs gotten from various mediums e.g. television,
pictures, radio, and domestic discussions etc. This creates way for poor health participation and
performance. If the home is economically sound, the sources of motivation will aid participation
and performance mostly when individuals watch and listen to health educational programmes,
podcast and shows. NCDC (2020) COVID-19 Outbreak in Nigeria Situation Report.
Society, environment that if full of health barriers or obstacles such as improper
dissemination of information, population explosion such as in Oba market, in Oredo local
government area of Benin city Edo state can constitute a health hazard, which in turn affects or
reduces response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to examine response and opinions of the Nigerian society
towards the corona virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo Local Government Area of Edo
State).
The specific objectives of the study are to:
1. Examine the causes of poor participation in the of individuals mostly of the low class
citizens in the corona virus vaccination processes in Oredo Local Government Area of
Edo State.
2. Investigate the remedies of individuals mostly of the low class citizens in the corona virus
vaccination processes in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State.
4
3. Determine the extent to which the corona virus vaccination processes influences the
individuals mostly of the low class citizens in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo
State.
Research Questions
The aim of this study is to answer the following question:
1.
Does the financial status of individuals causes a poor participation in mostly the low
class citizens in the Corona-virus vaccination processes in Oredo Local Government Area
of Edo State?
2.
Does the location of the vaccination centre hamper individuals, mostly of the low
class citizens in the corona virus vaccination processes, in Oredo Local Government Area
of Edo State?
3.
Does the socio-economic status of the individuals have a great influence on the
participation of individuals in the covid-19 vaccination process?
4.
Does the home front affects an individual in his or her opinion and response in the
covid-19 vaccination of individuals from polygamous and monogamous homes?
5.
Does the occupation of individuals affect the covid-19 vaccination process?
6.
Does provision of vaccination facilities or centers close to an individuals residential
area affect the turnout of people in the covid-19 vaccination process?
5
Research Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were raised for the study:
1) There is no significant difference in the financial status of individuals, mostly of
the low class citizens and their participation in the Corona-virus vaccination
process in Oredo local government area of Edo State.
2) The location of the vaccination centres has the possibility to hamper individuals,
mostly of the low class citizens in the corona virus vaccination processes, in
Oredo local government area of Edo State?
3) There is no significant difference in the socio-economic status of individuals has
great influence on the covid-19 vaccination process in Nigeria?
4) Home front of Nigerian citizens from the various ethnic groups around the nation,
has an adverse effect on the opinions and responses of individuals towards the
Covid-19 vaccination process.
5) There is no significant difference in the occupation of individuals, which in turn
affect the covid-19 vaccination process.
6) Direct access to vaccination facilities and well equipped centers close to
residential areas can influence the turnout rate to Covid-19 vaccination.
Significance of the Study
This study will give the government and health workers the opportunity of getting
suggestions from the public on how to deal with the problems arising from corona virus
vaccination processes in Nigeria. It will help the health ministry and policy makers to find out
6
the effects of corona virus vaccination processes on the masses. This study will go a long way in
letting the authority concerned be aware of the effects of corona virus vaccination processes on
the masses cultural background, occupation, socio-economic life, home background, physical
environment and developmental background before, during and after vaccination. The
knowledge gotten from the findings will help both health workers and health ministry, in their
respective services. This will also help to provide lasting solutions to the problems emanating as
a result of response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards vaccination and other health
issues.
Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is to identify the reasons behind the actions taken by
individuals towards the covid-19 vaccination process. This study is limited to the people of
Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State Nigeria and their response and opinions towards the
corona virus vaccination.
Clarification of key concept
Corona virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): This is a contagious disease caused by a
virus, the severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2. it is a communicable respiratory
disease caused by a new strain of corona virus(COVID-19) that causes mild to moderate upper
respiratory tract illness in humans. (https//doi.org/10.118/radio.2020, 200274).
7
Vaccine:
Is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular
infectious disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing
microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms, (children hospital of
philadelphia: https//language.Idc.upenn.edu).
Response:
It is an act of responding to a stimulus or an external influence. something
constituting a reply or a reaction: such as. a : a verse, phrase, or word sung or said by the people
or choir after or in reply to the officiant in a liturgical service, (Meriam-webster dictionary,
available:https/www.Meriam-webstar dictionary.com).
Opinion:
This is a view or judgement formed about something, not necessarily based on fact
or knowledge.
Vaccination:
Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting an individual or
group of persons against harmful diseases, before people come into contact with them.
Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity
from a disease.
Society:
This is an aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community. It
is also a situation of being in the company of other people, (Oxford advanced learners dictionary).
ORGANIZATION OF WORK
The following is a breakdown of the project work organization;
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study.
Statement of Problem.
Purpose of the Study.
Research Questions.
Research Hypothesis.
Significance of the Study.
Scope/Limitations of the Study.
Clarification of key concept.
References.
CHAPTER TWO
RELATED LITERATURE
Review of Related Literature.
Summary of Review of Related Literature.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHOD OF STUDY
Design of the Study.
Area/Population of the Study.
Sample and Sampling Technique.
Instruments for Data Collection.
Validity of the Instrument.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
Demographic characteristics of respondents.
Testing of hypothesis.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Conclusion
Recommendation
10
Suggestion for Further Research
References
Appendix
REFERENCES
Mbunge E. Effects of COVID-19 in South African health system and society: An explanatory
study. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev. 2020;14:1809–1814.
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[(accessed on 15 July 2021)]. Available online:
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-
document/osg2020d1_en.pdfVanguard media
limited, Nigeria(2022).News; covid-19:Nigeria records 880 fresh infections as NCDC raises
alarm.
https//www.vanguardngr.com/2022/07/covid-19-nigeria-records-880-fres-infection-as-ncdcraises-alarm/
Yaya S., Out A., Labonté R. Globalisation in the time of COVID-19: Repositioning Africa to
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11
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
This section is intended to discuss the response and opinions of the Nigerian society
towards the corona virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo local government area of Edo state).
We shall consider several factors, related journals and dependable information to help us in the
study of this topic. The following steps will be examined;
a.
The Government Policies.
b.
Occupation and Prior Diagnosis for COVID-19.
c.
Nigeria and the Covid-19 Vaccines (Urban and Rural).
d.
Individual Perception of the Covid-19 vaccination.
e.
Theoretical Framework.
f. Decision-Making and Pure Science of Politics.
g.
Summary of Review of Relevant Literature.
Most books and materials help to point out how the various headings above intend to
influence the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
12
The Government Policies
The COVID-19 pandemic affected the Nigerian economy because of a global decline in
oil prices, World Bank Nigeria Overview. (2020). The pandemic was another form of
unprecedented economic shock that came barely four years after the country escaped from
economic depression, World Bank . Migration and Remittances (2019). After 25 years of steady
economic growth, the recession between 2014 and 2015 resulted in the contraction of Nigeria’s
gross domestic product (GDP) by 1.6% World Bank . Migration and Remittances (2019).
According to World Bank Nigeria Economic Update: Resilience through Reforms. 2021,
available statistics revealed that in 2020, the Nigerian economy shrank by 1.8%, which was the
highest negative growth rate in the GDP since 1983. Andam K., Edeh H., Oboh V., Pauw K.,
Thurlow J. (2020), said in their publication to be precise, the gross domestic product (GDP)
declined by USD 11 billion (23%) within the first eight weeks of national lockdown.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank (2020), stated that the
COVID-19 pandemic is now hurting Nigeria’s economic recovery, driving slow economic
growth, unemployment and inflation rate.
To this end, government made policies and these policies created by the government have
their economic implications to both developed, and developing nations. Nigeria as a country
adopted some of these global policies and implemented them without a review of their
effectiveness and implications to the socio-cultural climate of the nation, and its location. For
instance, physical distancing measures may save many lives in high-income countries, but are
less effective in poor countries with younger populations who are less susceptible to COVID-19,
According to Andam K., Edeh H., Oboh V., Pauw K., Thurlow J. (2020) Such measures are
13
associated with health care systemic, economic and sociocultural challenges. People living in
poverty are less willing to make economic sacrifices, not because they place greater value on
their livelihood concerns than contracting COVID-19, but because they lack the resources and
social protections to isolate themselves and sacrifice economic opportunities. The country
formulated new policies, developed new guidelines and standard operating procedures, and
established several committees including the National Emergency Organizing Committee and
Presidential Task home has a great influence on the students’ psychological, emotional, social
and economic state.
Occupation and Prior Diagnosis for COVID-19
The common predictive factor that influences the awareness, perception, and willingness
to get vaccinated in this study were occupation and prior diagnosis for COVID-19. To a large
extent, it can be seen that respondents who were health workers and those who were previously
positive of COVID-19 disease had high awareness, has positive perceptions, and were ever ready
and willing to get the vaccine. The influence of prior COVID-19 exposure of respondents to
these outcome variables may be heightened due to their real-time experience of COVID-19
disease. Publicized experience sharing by victims or people with a prior diagnosis of COVID-19
disease gives a sound picture of how deadly the disease can be and the essence of getting the
vaccine.
Health workers were more likely to be willing to get vaccinated compared to non-health workers.
As found in literature, the majority of those unwilling to receive the vaccine were non-health
14
workers.This imply that the subsequent phases of the COVID-19 vaccination exercise, which
involves the public, will experience a low turnout of people. Continuous targeted messages and
education focusing on the effectiveness and safety assurance of the vaccine are essential to
improve the COVID-19 vaccination exercise and increase uptake. There should be the active
involvement of all cadres of health workers (physicians, pharmacists, nurses, community health
workers, and others) in ensuring health education of COVID-19 vaccination programs. Health
care workers play an important role in a successful vaccination program. Their knowledge and
awareness determine a recommendation to non-health workers, Adejumo O.A, Ogundele O.A,
Madubuko C.R, Oluwafemi R.O, Okoye O.C, Okonkwo K.C, et al (2021).
Nigeria and the Covid-19 Vaccines (Urban and Rural)
Nigeria got an estimated 4 million doses of the AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccine through
the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) facility, a partnership between Coalition for
Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations
(GAVI), United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) in
March 2021, retrieved from https://www.gavi.org/news/media-room/covax-updates-participantsdelivery-delays-vaccines-serum-institute-india-sii-az.
The National Primary Health Care Development Agency (NPHCDA), through the State’s
Primary Health Care Board, commenced the vaccination of Nigerians’ priority groups in March
2021, starting with front line health care workers, strategic leaders, security officials and other
public personnel identified as eligible for the first phase of vaccination, retrieved from
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-west/449895-first-phase-of-covid-19vaccination-only-for-health-frontline-workers-lagos-govt.html. While the government is doing
15
its best to ensure that most Nigerians gets vaccinated, there has been hope, fear, government
distrust, hesitancy, rejection, and conspiracy theories as the COVID-19 vaccination exercise
continues
retrieved
from
http://nigeriahealthwatch.com/conspiracy-theories-and-covid-19-
vaccine-introduction-in-Nigeria/. Studies both globally and locally have shown that there is a
diverse rate of variability in the awareness, perception, willingness, and acceptance rate of the
COVID -19, vaccine Mannan DKA, Farhana K.M (2020). In the United States, willingness to
vaccinate declined during the pandemic compared with Malaysia and Bangladesh who generally
had more positive attitudes to receiving the COVID-19 vaccine Enitan S, Oyekale A, Akele R,
Olawuyi K, Olabisi E, Nwankiti A, et al 2020;4(1):1–13. In a study carried out in Australia to
understand the perception towards future COVID-19 vaccination, the majority of the public held
positive view Seale H, Heywood AE, Leask J, Sheel M, Durrheim DN, Bolsewicz K, et al (2021).
A study in Bangladesh showed vaccine uptake was affected by inadequate knowledge and
perception of respondents. Nigeria and Ghana had just over 50% of the population studied as
willing to take the vaccine and recommend it to others. In the United Kingdom, Black African
and Black Caribbean groups were less likely to be vaccinated (50%) compared to White groups
(70%). Another study in Yemen found that vaccine acceptance was significantly affected by
gender, misinformation, cost, and income. In a survey carried out before the commencement of
the vaccination exercise in Nigeria, respondents showed poor perception and a lots were
unwilling to participate in COVID-19 vaccine trial.
The provision of a lasting solution to this pandemic is therefore a collective goal that had
been pursued by international policy makers and stakeholders in the health sector. The World
Health Organization (WHO) has advocated for mass vaccination, to reduce associated morbidity
and mortality from the pandemic. This is commendable because vaccines are notable
16
components of effective health care service delivery, and they are able to enhance the immune
system through the production of antibodies, Rodrigues C.M.C., Plotkin S.A. More importantly,
the contributions of vaccines in the elimination of previously infectious diseases across different
regions of the world cannot be overemphasized, Rubin L.G., Levin M.J., Ljungman P., Davies
E.G., Avery R., Tomblyn M., Bousvaros A., Dhanireddy S., Sung L., Keyserling H., et al. (2013).
Similarly, the antecedents of vaccine hesitancy in different parts of the world had been
acknowledged.
Individual Perception of the Covid-19 vaccination
In Nigeria, the non-availability of vaccines initially slowed the pace of addressing the
COVID-19 pandemic. It was also not certain if majority of the population would be willing to be
voluntarily vaccinated. This was due to COVID-19-related misinformation making the rounds on
some social media platforms, Islam M.S., Kamal A.-H.M., Kabir A., Southern D.L., Khan S.H.,
Hasan S.M.M., Tonmoy S., Shayla S., Shiuli D., Tuhin RoyDear L., et al (2021). Historical
records of vaccine hesitancy in Nigeria also raised some concerns. For instance, the polio
vaccine was boycotted in northern Nigeria, based on speculations of its adverse side effects,
Jegede A.S. (2007). The procured COVID-19 vaccines in Nigeria are AstraZeneca, Moderna,
Pfizer and Johnson & Johnson. According to Olu-Abiodun O., Abiodun O., Okafor N. (2022)
The slow pace of the COVID-19 vaccine turnout and acceptability in Nigeria is reflected by the
fact that only about six million people received the first dose as of 19 November 2021, while
3,369,628 had already taken the second dose. According to NPHCDA COVID-19 Vaccination
Update Abuja: National Primary Health Care Development Agency. As of 18 February 2022,
more than 20 million doses of the vaccines had been administered, and approximately 44 million
17
had been administered as of 27 May 2022. Acceptance rates of COVID-19 vaccines in Nigeria
among the adult population vary based on demographic characteristics and geopolitical zones
and are between 20.0% to 58.2%.
An individual’s perception of health risks can be associated with the decision to comply
with disease preventive behavior like vaccination. According to Savadori L., Lauriola M. (2021),
the perception of health risks and the decision to be vaccinated are often interrelated.
Compliance with preventive measures is possible when individuals can properly evaluate their
levels of health risk. This is the heart of behavior change models such as the subjective expected
utility theory Ronis D.L. (1992), the health belief model, the theory of reasoned action and the
theory of planned behavior. Some authors found that perception of health risks that are
associated with COVID-19 increased the willingness to be vaccinated in the United States of
America (USA), Germany, and France Ward J.K., Alleaume C., Peretti-watel P. (2020), while it
reduced it among some Australian respondents. Moreover, of concurrent importance is vaccine
safety, which appears to be the bottom line for ongoing vaccine hesitancy. Specifically, COVID19 safety concerns are diverse and most of them are related with immediate side effects and
effectiveness according to Msomi N.(2021).
Decision-Making and Pure Science of Politics
It has been claimed by many, specifically by Robert Dahl (Modern Political Analysis,
Fifth edition) that decision-making processes constitute the pure science of politics. Now, the
question is what is meant by pure science of politics? Dahl says that in earlier time’s pure
science of politics denoted evaluation and normative analysis of politics because in those days’
normative approaches to the study of politics was considered scientific. Political phenomena and
18
concepts were evaluated in the background of norms or normative values and the norms which
could win the test were considered scientific. This outlook underwent sea changes in course of
time and political scientist began to show indifference to normative aspects of political science.
Modern approach such as behaviouralism of Easton or structural-functionalism of Almond
heavily relied upon empirical analysis and the decision-making theory could not keep itself away
from this type of approach. For arriving at decision, it was thought, facts, data, information etc.
are essential as well as their interpretation and application appeared to be a must. Robert Dahl
says: “the term ‘science’ has increasingly come to mean an empirical science of politics.
According to this view, empirical science of politics would be concerned exclusively with the
validity of the factual or empirical elements”. The implication of this contention is that without
the help of data, facts and information, the policy maker cannot make any decision. Rationality
along with the data is the most important element of decision-making process.
In order to arrive at an acceptable and viable decision, the application of rationality is not
all, in order to be the decision, rational empirical analysis is also essential which demands that
the policy maker must test his decision empirically. Here several conceptual processes are
mingled together. For example, decision-making process is inextricably associated with
rationality, empiricism, application of other scientific methods. The amalgamation of all these
methods or streams of analysis has become inevitable because of the fact that decision-making,
nowadays, is increasingly being considered very important part of the management of
government business. Naturally it is asserted that decision, as far as practicable, should be
rational and scientific. That is why it has been found that the decision maker of the present epoch
has become dependent on the empirical data and scientific methods. Dahl, R.a.(1991). Modern
Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
19
Advent of scientific methods has become crucial because of the reason that modern age
and the management of governmental agencies is becoming complex and in such circumstances
speculation and inept handling will make any decision inchoate. The interference of the scientific
methods thus seems to be ineluctable. Application of sophisticated technology in management
and globalization has not adversely affected the importance of management in organization.
Rather all these have made management and politics more scientific. Courtney JF,(2001),
Decision making and knowledge management in inquiring organizations:Towards a new
decision-making paradigm.
Summary Review of Relevant Literatures
In conclusion the corona virus vaccination process do not exist in a vacuum; a host
of factors contribute to peoples perception for a successful vaccination process. Some persons
come to vaccination centers or health care centers with all they need: stable and supporting
families, adequate financial resources and good health. For persons who do not enjoy these
advantages, making provisions to help them meet outside-of-health care challenges can just be
the boost they need to get vaccinated.
Health care and health workers has a lot to play in the character/perception moulding
and vaccination achievement of the people in a locality. Parents can assist their children through
the selection of programs they watch in television and also motivate them through the provision
of books, and other reading creative materials on corona virus and the effects/needs to be
20
vaccinated. This has a long way in contributing to the rising interest of the entire vaccination
process, in order to enhance efficacy and effectiveness of the covid-19 vaccination.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This work is based on the decision making theory. Decision making theory is a theory of how
rational individuals should behave under risk and uncertainty. It uses a set of axioms about how
rational individuals behave which has been widely challenged on both empirical and theoretical
ground. “Decision-making is usually defined as a process or sequence of activities involving
stages of problem recognition, search for information, definition of alternatives and the selection
of an actor of one from two or more alternatives consistent with the ranked preferences”.
Definition offered by the C.O.D. is, the mathematical study of strategies for optimal decisionmaking between options involving different risks or expectations of gain or loss depending on
the outcome.
Decision making theory is a theory of how rational individuals should behave under risk
and uncertainty. It uses a set of axioms about how rational individuals behave which has been
widely challenged on both empirical and theoretical ground. This definition has been offered by
the author of an article published in Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics. The author
emphasizes on the rationality of individuals and at the same time how they should behave. So we
can say that decision-making denotes the formulation of general policy for the management of an
organization which may be business organization or administrative organization. The point to
note is that the nature and implementation of decision-making may be different in both places
21
but it remains that in every case the importance of decision-making remains intact. To sum up,
decision-making means the adoption and application of rational choice for the management of
private, business or governmental organization in an efficient manner.
Decision-making does not relate to one issue or question but to a number of issues. Some of
the categories of decision have been identified by Wasby:
(a) Who made the decision?
(b) What was the decision?
(c) When was the decision made?
(d) How was the decision made?
(e) Where was the decision made?
(f) What were the characteristics of the decision situation?
(g) To what class or subclass of decisions does the decision belong?
(h) Why was the decision made?
Whenever a department or an agency of a government takes any decision or decides to take a
decision that automatically comes into any one of the above noted categories, the decisions are
never taken in vacuum. The decisions are made to serve definite purposes/purpose. We have
already noted that behind every decision there must be rationality of the decision maker and
there is no place of idiosyncrasy.
22
Accessed:https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/articles/decisions-making-theory-definitionnature-and-theories/743.
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Challenge: Nigeria’s COVID Response. World Bank; Washington DC, USA: 2020.
[(accessed on 15 July 2021)]. Available online:
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/34921/Rising-to-theChallenge-Nigerias-COVID-Response.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Google Scholar]
Islam MS, Siddique AB, Akter R, Tasnim R, Sujan MSH, Ward PR, et al. Knowledge, attitudes
and perceptions towards COVID-19 vaccinations: a cross-sectional community survey
in Bangladesh. medRxiv. 2021. pmid:34645399
Dahl, R.a.(1991). Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
Lamptey E, Serwaa D, Appiah AB. A nationwide survey of the potential acceptance and
determinants of COVID-19 vaccines in Ghana. Clinical and Experimental Vaccine
Research. 2021;10(2):183–90. pmid:34222131
25
Mannan DKA, Farhana KM. Knowledge, Attitude and Acceptance of a COVID-19 Vaccine: A
Global Cross-Sectional Study. International Research Journal of Business and Social
Science. 2020;6(4).
Mohamed NA, Solehan HM, Mohd Rani MD, Ithnin M, Che Isahak CI. Knowledge, acceptance
and perception on COVID-19 vaccine among Malaysians: A web-based survey. Plos one.
2021;16(8):e0256110. pmid:34388202
Nigeria Health Watch. Conspiracy theories and COVID-19 vaccine introduction in Nigeria
2021 [cited 2021 1st April]. Available from: http://nigeriahealthwatch.com/conspiracytheories-and-covid-19-vaccine-introduction-in-Nigeria/.
Premium Times. First phase of COVID-19 vaccination only for health, frontline workers–Lagos
Govt 2021 [cited 2021 18th June]. Available from:
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-west/449895-first-phase-of-covid-19vaccination-only-for-health-frontline-workers-lagos-govt.html.
Seale H, Heywood AE, Leask J, Sheel M, Durrheim DN, Bolsewicz K, et al. Examining
Australian public perceptions and behaviors towards a future COVID-19 vaccine. BMC
Infectious Diseases. 2021;21(1):1–9. pmid:33390160
26
Wilson K., Nguyen T., Henningsen K.H., Brehaut J.C., Hoe E. Acceptance of a pandemic
influenza vaccine: A systematic review of surveys of the general public. Infect. Drug
Resist. 2011;4:197–207. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S23174. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
World Bank Nigeria Overview. 2020. [(accessed on 28 June 2021)]. Available online:
https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/overview
World Bank . Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook. World Bank;
Washington, DC, USA: 2019. [Google Scholar]
World Bank Nigeria Economic Update: Resilience through Reforms. 2021. [(accessed on 28
June 2021)]. Available online:
https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/nigeria-economic-updateresilience-through-reforms
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/osg2020d1_en.pdf
Accessed:https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/articles/decisions-making-theory-definitionnature-and-theories/743.
27
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD OF STUDY
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the procedure used for the research such as:
Design of the study, Population of the study, Sample and Sampling technique, Research
instruments, Validity and reliability of instrument, Administration of the instrument, Method of
data collection and analysis.
Research Design
This study adopted the descriptive survey method in finding out the response and
opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo
local government area of Edo State).
Population of the Study
The target population for the study were the Market women and men in Oba market
of Oredo local government area of Edo State, on the response and opinions of the Nigerian
society towards the corona virus vaccination. Oredo is a Local Government Area of Edo State,
Nigeria. Its headquarter is in Benin City. Its capital city is Benin city, which also is the capital
city of Edo State. Benin city also remain the capital city of the Benin Empire. Oredo local
government area is domiciled in Edo state, South-south geopolitical zone of Nigeria. For the
28
purpose of this study, the population used stood at approximately 15,000, going by the number of
shops and the government tickets issued to traders, vehicle owners packed around the market
area.
Sample Size and Sampling Technique
The sample sizes for this study are made up of 30 males and 20 females of traders
and buyer from different works of life. The researcher randomly selected five groups of traders
and profession. These are;
1.
Petty food hawker (sellers)
2.
Food item (sellers)
3.
Jewellery shop owners (sellers)
4.
Government workers (buyers)
5.
Private firms workers (buyers)
29
Method of Data Collection
This study is based on the two possible sources of data which are the primary and
secondary source.
a. Primary Source of Date:The primary data for this study consist of raw data generated
from responses to questionnaires and interview by the respondents.
b. Secondary Source of Date:The secondary data includes information obtained through
the review of literature, that is: journals, monographs, textbooks and other periodicals.
Questionnaire method was used as instrument for collecting data in this study.
Validity and Reliability of data Instrument
The instrument was validated by experts in educational and health sector, who
scrutinized and made necessary corrections for a perfect result to be drawn out or achieved at the
end of the data collection.
The researcher adopted a test retest method to ensure the reliability of the research
instrument. This involves administering ten copies of the questionnaire to individuals
from various works of life that are not part of the sample of the study twice within two weeks,
and thereafter determine the coefficient of variation by using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation analysis.
Methods of Data Analysis
The researcher used simple table in presentation of data. This has become necessary and
convenient as such, the use of percentage rating was also used to determine statistically the data
30
obtained. The tables equally contained the number of respondents who equally took part in
providing answers to the question accordingly.
31
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
This chapter examines the research data obtained from the questionnaire. It deals with
the analysis and interpretation of data on the response and opinions of the Nigerian society
towards the corona virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo local government area of Edo State),
and gives a detailed analysis of data collected from the respondents to the questions raised in the
questionnaire.
A total of fifty (50) questionnaires were administered by the researcher, but was able
to collect forty eight (48).
A Table Showing the Number of Respondents
RESPONDENTS NUMBER ADMINSTERED
NUMBER RECEIVED
PERCENTAGE
MALE
30
29
60.4%
FEMALE
20
19
39.6%
TOTAL
50
48
32
Testing Of Hypothesis
Question 1: Does the financial status of individuals causes a poor participation in mostly the low
class citizens on the corona virus vaccination processes in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo
State?
People from rich homes respond better in terms of participation to the corona virus vaccination
in Oredo local government area of Edo State
In providing an answer to the research questions above item 1 and 4 of the
questionnaire were used. The analysis Is shown below:
OPTIONS
ITEM 1
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
36
75%
NO FREQUENCY
12
25%
TOTAL
48
OPTIONS
ITEM 4
PERCENTAGE
NO FREQUENCY
23
47.9%
YES FREQUENCY
25
52.1%
TOTAL
48
33
In the first table 36 respondents representing 75% agreed that people form rich
homes respond better in terms of participation to the corona virus vaccination than people from
poor homes, while 12 respondents representing 25% disagreed.
The second table shows that 23 respondents representing 47.9% disagreed that people
from financial buoyant home partakes better in the vaccination process, while 25 representing
52.1% agreed.
QUESTION 2: Does the location of the vaccination centre hamper individuals, mostly of the
low class citizens in the corona virus vaccination processes, in Oredo Local Government Area of
Edo State?
In providing an answer to the research question above, items 6 and 7 of the
questionnaire were used.
The analysis is shown below:
OPTIONS
ITEM 6
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
28
58.3%
NO FREQUENCY
28
41.7%
TOTAL
56
OPTIONS
ITEM 7
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
40
83.3%
NO FRQUENCY
8
16.7%
TOTAL
48
34
In the first table, 28 respondents representing 58.3% agreed that people from urban
location turned out better in the vaccination process, while 28 respondents representing 41.7%
disagreed.
The second table shows that 40 respondents representing 83.3% agreed that people
from urban location are more informed and equipped with information on covid-19 and
vaccination material than people from rural area, while 8 respondents representing 16.7%
disagreed.
QUESTION 3: Does the socio-economic status of the individuals have a great influence on the
participation of individuals in the covid-19 vaccination process?
In providing an answer to the research question above, items 15 and 16 of the
questionnaire were used.
The analysis is shown below:
OPTIONS
ITEM 15
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
42
87.5%
NO FREQUENCY
6
12.5%
TOTAL
OPTIONS
YES FREQUENCY
48
ITEM 16
PERCENTAGE
10
20.8%
35
NO FREQUENCY
TOTAL
38
79.2%
48
Items 15 and 16 as stated in the questionnaire were used in answering question three.
The item sought to find out if the socio-economic status of people have a great influence on the
participation of individuals in the covid-19 vaccination process.
In the first table, 42 respondents representing 87.5% considered the socio-economic
position and level of individuals as a very important determinant of their participation in the
covid-19 vaccination process,while 6 respondents representing 12.5% indicated that it is not
important.
In the second table, 38 respondents representing 79.2% indicated that low socioeconomic status with high rate of living cost will yield low participation, while 10 respondents
representing 20.8% disagreed.
QUESTION 4: Is there any significant difference in the covid-19 vaccination of individuals
from polygamous homes and monogamous homes?
In providing an answer to the research question above, items 17 and 18 of the
questionnaire were used.
The Analysis Is Shown Below:
OPTIONS
YES FREQUENCY
ITEM 17
28
PERCENTAGE
58.3%
36
NO FREQUENCY
20
TOTAL
41.7%
48
OPTIONS
ITEM 18
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
30
62.5%
NO FREQUENCY
18
37.5%
TOTAL
48
Items 17 and 18 stated in the questionnaire were used in answering question four. The item
sought to find out if there is any significant difference in the covid-19 vaccination process of
individuals from polygamous and monogamous homes.
In the first table 28 respondents representing 58.3% agreed that people from
polygamous home turned out poorly in vaccination than those form monogamous home due to
constant disagreement. While 20 respondents representing 41.7% disagreed.
The second table shows that 30 respondents representing 62.5% agreed that people
from broken homes did not partake well in the vaccination process, while 18 respondents
representing 37.5% disagreed.
QUESTION 5: Does the occupation of individuals affect the covid-19 vaccination process?
In providing an answer to the research question above, item 19 and 20 of the
questionnaire were used. The analysis is shown below:
OPTIONS
YES FREQUENCY
ITEM 19
26
PERCENTAGE
54.2%
37
NO FREQUENCY
TOTAL
OPTIONS
22
45.8%
48
ITEM 20
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
36
75.0 %
NO FREQUENCY
12
25.0%
TOTAL
48
In the first table, 26 respondents representing 54.2% agreed that the occupation of
individuals affect the covid-19 vaccination process, while 22 respondents representing 45.8%
disagreed.
The second table shows that 36 respondents representing 75.0% agreed that persons
from homes where they are predominantly farmers are likely to partake poorer in the covid-19
vaccination process than people from homes with white collar jobs, while 12 respondents
representing 25.0% disagreed.
QUESTION 6: Does provision of vaccination facilities or centers close to an individual
residential area affect the turnout of people in the covid-19 vaccination process?
In providing an answer to the research question above, items 23 and 24 of the
questionnaire were used. The analysis is shown below:
38
OPTIONS
ITEM 23
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
43
89.6%
NO FREQUENCY
5
10.4%
TOTAL
OPTIONS
48
ITEM 24
PERCENTAGE
YES FREQUENCY
31
64.4%
NO FREQUENCY
17
35.4%
TOTAL
48
In the first table, 43 respondents representing 89.6% agreed that vaccination
facilities or centers close to an individual residential area affects the turnout of people in the
covid-19 vaccination process while 5 respondents representing 10.4% of the total number
disagreed.
In the second table, 31 respondents representing 64.6% of the whole respondents
indicated that people who are provide with vaccination facilities or centers performed better in
the covid-19 vaccination process, while 17 respondents representing 35.4% disagreed.
39
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Summary
This research work was designed to find out the response and opinions of the Nigerian
society towards the corona virus vaccination. In this chapter the researcher briefly summarizes
and draws conclusion from the findings on the basis of which recommendation shall be made
that will ultimately help future researchers.
The home where the child comes from has a great influence on his/her general
development, psychological, emotional, social and economic states.The state of the home affects
the individual since the parents are the first socializing agent in an individual’s life. This is
because the family background and context of an individual affect his reaction to life situations
like the Covid-19 vaccination and his level of performance.
The sample used for this study are made up of 30 male and 20 female traders and
buyers from different works of life, in the research we tried to find out some factors which have
effects on the response and opinions of Nigerians towards the Corona virus vaccination, such as
the home background, socio-economic status, occupation, impact of polygamous and
monogamous homes, provision of information and health facilities and location of health centers.
During the cause of the study, it was found out that the above listed factors have a
great influence on the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus
40
vaccination, a case study of Oredo Local government area of Edo State. Dealing with the people
from Oba market.
Discussion of Findings
After carrying out analysis on the data collected the researcher arrived at the
following findings.
It was observed that the home background of an individual has a great influence on
the persons participation in the covid-19 vaccination process. In the first table, the respondents
respond positively and 75% of the respondents agreed that people from rich homes reacted better
in terms of participation in the covid-19 vaccination process than people from poor homes.
Individuals from rich homes are better informed, with information regarding the covid-19 virus
and its vaccination process which is necessary for healthy development both mentally and
physically. In the second table, 52.1% of the respondents agreed on the option that people from
financial buoyant homes turned out better in the covid-19 vaccination process.
Also,from the responses received from the respondents, it was observed that the
location of the health or vaccination centers contributes to the response of the individuals in the
covid-19 vaccination process. Majority of the respondents agree that people from the urban
location did better in their response to the covid-19 vaccination process than those from rural
locations because they are more informed about the virus and better equipped with the covid-19
vaccination centers and materials, which helps the people to vaccinate easily.
It was also observed that the socio-economic status of persons, has a great influence
on people in accepting or taking the covid-19 vaccine. From the result of finding carried out, in
41
the first table, majority responded positively and agreed that people’s opinion and response level
to covid-19 vaccination are determined by the economic position of the individual. In the second
table also majority responds positively by indicating that low socio-economic status of persons
and a high paternal and material deprivation of individuals, will definitely yields poor
performance in the covid-19 vaccination process. In other words parents who have high status in
the society send their families to the best hospitals with good facilities and well-qualified
medical practitioners and the health needs of their families are provided without delay.
The research question which stated that:Does the home front(polygamous or
monogamous)affects an individual in his or her opinion and response in the covid-19 vaccination
process? was tested. The responses revealed that the people from polygamous families perform
poorly in health issues than people from monogamous families. This is as a result of constant
discord in the family.
People from monogamous family perform excellently in health related matters
because they live in an atmosphere of harmony and peace. They work in unity and coordinate
their family health issues. But in polygamous homes there may be too much family issues let
alone to discuss health matters arising as a result of covid-19 pandemic.
The researcher also found out from his investigation that the occupation of
individuals affects the covid-19 vaccination process. It is seen that people whose occupation
involves health work understand the importance of covid-19 vaccination and give more health
aids and moral support to their families more than people whose occupation does not involve
health work. Hence, people from medical homes perform better and aim high in their health
issues, and they are
provided with every necessary health information that can aid the
42
participation in the covid-19 vaccination process. They also have the chance of gaining much
attention in hospitals and health centers, especially families of medical personnel than the
families of a common farmer who swims in poverty. Due to poverty, families of farmers are not
provided with medical or health materials and information which can aid their health matters
because all that farmers are connected with is their farms and how they can plant crops.
The provision of medical facilities or instruments in the home is another factor which the
researcher identified through his investigations that influence performance of people in the
covid-19 vaccination process. The result of the test carried out proves that 89.66 of the
respondent agreed that provision of medical instruments or facilities in the home has a great
influence on the performance of individuals on the covid-19 vaccination.
The provision of educational facilities such as thermometers, blood pressure monitors, first
aid box, medical journals, community health seminars and television at home will expose the
family to medical experiences and also motivate them to participate in the covid-19 vaccination
more.
Conclusion
The following conclusions were made based on the above finding. Some factors were
proved to give an insight to the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona
virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo local government area of Edo State).
.
1.
That the home background of the person has a great influence on the response and
opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
43
2.
That the location of health care centers and facilities affects the response and
opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
3.
That the general socio-economic status of citizens will always have a great influence
on the response and opinions of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
4.
That the polygamous or monogamous home can affect the response and opinions of
the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
5.
That the occupation of persons has a major influence on the response and opinions
of the Nigerian society towards the corona virus vaccination.
6.
That the availability and constant provision of health care facilities by all
governments in place also affects the response and opinions of the Nigerian society
towards vaccination whenever or wherever necessary.
Recommendation
Attention should be given to health care issues because a healthy people is a healthy
nation. To this end, it is therefore recommended that the government and the policy makers
should help in the following ways:
1.
Government should distribute corona virus vaccines and other health materials
evenly in such a way that no category of health care center will suffer.
2.
Rural health care centers should be equipped with adequate staff to encourage them
in competing with those in the urban areas.
44
3.
Government should ensure that modern and effective personal protective equipment
is also made available for the rural health workers to motivate them to work and
encourage people to participate in the corona virus vaccination.
4.
Governments should reduce the high cost of living so as to enable the average man
have the finance to good health care.
5.
There is also the need to keep enlightening the people on the importance of the
corona virus vaccination on their lives and that of their love ones.
6.
Government should put more effort in sensitizing people on the need to get the
corona virus vaccination making it a priority, in the face of the present economic
situation in the country.
7.
Health workers at all levels should be well appreciated, and paid good salaries
always.
Suggestion for Further Research
Due to the problem of time that limits the carrying out of this research, it is
suggested that interested researches should take up this same topic using different methods and
approach in carrying out the research work using another local government area, state and
country after a period of years.
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APPENDIX
INSTRUMENT
The purpose of this questionnaire is to seek the response and opinions of the Nigerian
society towards the corona virus vaccination (a case study of Oredo local government area of
Edo State).
Please, your answer will be treated confidentially. Tick Good (√)n in the box
against any of the answer you have chosen in the appropriate column.
PERSONAL DATA
Name of Respondent; ___________________________________________________________
Trade/Profession of Respondent; ___________________________________________________
Sex of Respondent: Male (
)
Female (
)
QUESTIONNAIRE
1) People from rich homes respond better to the corona virus vaccination in Oredo local
government area of Benin city Edo State. Yes (
51
) No (
).
2) People from poor homes respond better to the corona virus vaccination in Oredo local
government area of Benin city Edo State. Yes (
) No (
).
3) People with good parental care has better opinions towards the corona virus vaccination in
Oredo local government area of Benin city Edo State. Yes (
) No (
).
4) People from financially buoyant homes took the corona virus vaccination seriously in Oredo
local government area of Benin city Edo State). Yes (
) No (
).
5) Persons from educated parents took the corona virus vaccination seriously in than those from
illiterate homes. Yes (
) No (
).
6) People from Urban location reacted positively to the corona virus vaccination. Yes (
(
) No
).
7) Persons from Urban location are more equipped with information regarding the corona virus
vaccination than those in Rural areas. Yes (
) No (
).
8) Persons from the rural location have less knowledge of the corona virus vaccination than
students from urban areas. Yes (
) No (
).
9) Persons who are frequently transferred due to the nature of their jobs do not have a good
opinion about the corona virus vaccination. Yes (
) No (
).
10) Lack of sensitization and motivation makes people respond poorly to corona virus
vaccination. Yes (
) No (
).
52
11) Persons who lack sufficient level of sensitization and motivation exhibit a weak drive
towards corona virus vaccination goals. Yes (
) No (
).
12) The more persons are sensitized on the corona virus and motivated the better chances of
them being vaccinated. Yes (
) No (
).
13) Local Governments Areas with better organization, a good environment and qualified health
workers will sensitize and motivate their people more. Yes (
) No (
).
14) The socio-economic status of people has great influence on the corona virus vaccination.
Yes (
) No (
).
15) People from polygamous families respond poorly in corona virus vaccination then those
form monogamous families due to constant disagreement. Yes (
) No (
).
16) The occupation of persons affect their response and opinion in the corona virus vaccination.
Yes (
) No (
).
17) Persons from areas where people are poor farmers are likely to respond poorly than people
from enlightened environment. Yes (
) No (
).
18) Persons whose parents or relatives are involved in health work do respond corona virus
vaccination. Yes (
) No (
).
19) Health facilities in the locality affect people response to corona virus vaccination. Yes (
No (
).
53
)
20) People from the rural area with health workers respond positively and has better opinion of
the corona virus vaccination. Yes (
) No (
)
54